669:
2141:"broadcast" and "precise" orbits. WGS 84 was defined in January 1987 using Doppler satellite surveying techniques. It was used as the reference frame for broadcast GPS Ephemerides (orbits) beginning January 23, 1987. At 0000 GMT January 2, 1994, WGS 84 was upgraded in accuracy using GPS measurements. The formal name then became WGS 84 (G730), since the upgrade date coincided with the start of GPS Week 730. It became the reference frame for broadcast orbits on June 28, 1994. At 0000 GMT September 30, 1996 (the start of GPS Week 873), WGS 84 was redefined again and was more closely aligned with
39:
979:
611:. Because the ellipsoid or geoid differs between datums, along with their origins and orientation in space, the relationship between coordinates referred to one datum and coordinates referred to another datum is undefined and can only be approximated. Using local datums, the disparity on the ground between a point having the same horizontal coordinates in two different datums could reach kilometers if the point is far from the origin of one or both datums. This phenomenon is called
20:
2110:." ... The geoidal height at Meades Ranch was assumed to be zero, as sufficient gravity data was not available, and this was needed to relate surface measurements to the datum. "Geodetic positions on the North American Datum of 1927 were derived from the (coordinates of and an azimuth at Meades Ranch) through a readjustment of the triangulation of the entire network in which Laplace azimuths were introduced, and the Bowie method was used." (
2370:) is used, the coordinates of a place on the surface generally will change from year to year. Most mapping, such as within a single country, does not span plates. To minimize coordinate changes for that case, a different reference frame can be used, one whose coordinates are fixed to that particular plate. Examples of these reference frames are "
2091:
to make the measurement. There are hundreds of locally developed reference datums around the world, usually referenced to some convenient local reference point. Contemporary datums, based on increasingly accurate measurements of the shape of Earth, are intended to cover larger areas. The most common reference Datums in use in
2090:
A geodetic reference datum is a known and constant surface which is used to describe the location of unknown points on Earth. Since reference datums can have different radii and different center points, a specific point on Earth can have substantially different coordinates depending on the datum used
583:
for latitude, or from the nearest coast for sea level. Astronomical and chronological methods have limited precision and accuracy, especially over long distances. Even GPS requires a predefined framework on which to base its measurements, so WGS 84 essentially functions as a datum, even though it is
2350:
move relative to one another in different directions at speeds on the order of 50 to 100 mm (2.0 to 3.9 in) per year. Therefore, locations on different plates are in motion relative to one another. For example, the longitudinal difference between a point on the equator in Uganda, on the
2062:
Datum conversion is the process of converting the coordinates of a point from one datum system to another. Because the survey networks upon which datums were traditionally based are irregular, and the error in early surveys is not evenly distributed, datum conversion cannot be performed using a
866:
A specific point can have substantially different coordinates, depending on the datum used to make the measurement. For example, coordinates in NAD83 can differ from NAD27 by up to several hundred feet. There are hundreds of local horizontal datums around the world, usually referenced to some
570:
it uses has supplanted most others in many applications. The WGS 84 is intended for global use, unlike most earlier datums. Before GPS, there was no precise way to measure the position of a location that was far from reference points used in the realization of local datums, such as from the
770:(horizontal) of 1927 (NAD27) and the Vertical Datum of 1929 (NAVD29), the first standard datums available for public use. This was followed by the release of national and regional datums over the next several decades. Improving measurements, including the use of early
2071:
is performed using NADCON (later improved as HARN), a raster grid covering North
America, with the value of each cell being the average adjustment distance for that area in latitude and longitude. Datum conversion may frequently be accompanied by a change of
2051:). For example, in Sydney there is a 200 metres (700 feet) difference between GPS coordinates configured in GDA (based on global standard WGS 84) and AGD (used for most local maps), which is an unacceptably large error for some applications, such as
2152:
The WGS 84 datum, within two meters of the NAD83 datum used in North
America, is the only world referencing system in place today. WGS 84 is the default standard datum for coordinates stored in recreational and commercial GPS units.
2156:
Users of GPS are cautioned that they must always check the datum of the maps they are using. To correctly enter, display, and to store map related map coordinates, the datum of the map must be entered into the GPS map datum field.
2122:). "This datum, designated as NAD 83 ...is based on the adjustment of 250,000 points including 600 satellite Doppler stations which constrain the system to a geocentric origin." NAD83 may be considered a local referencing system.
676:
The spherical nature of Earth was known by the ancient Greeks, who also developed the concepts of latitude and longitude, and the first astronomical methods for measuring them. These methods, preserved and further developed by
1610:
2031:. The datum shift between two particular datums can vary from one place to another within one country or region, and can be anything from zero to hundreds of meters (or several kilometers for some remote islands). The
2117:
The North
American Datum of 1983 (NAD 83) is "The horizontal control datum for the United States, Canada, Mexico, and Central America, based on a geocentric origin and the Geodetic Reference System 1980
1486:
2137:(NGA) (formerly the Defense Mapping Agency, then the National Imagery and Mapping Agency). WGS 84 is used by the DoD for all its mapping, charting, surveying, and navigation needs, including its
2912:"The transition to using the terrestrial geocentric coordinate system "Parametry Zemli 1990" (PZ-90.11) in operating the GLObal NAvigation Satellite System (GLONASS) has been implemented"
632:
covering the
British Isles than the global WGS 84 ellipsoid. However, as the benefits of a global system outweigh the greater accuracy, the global WGS 84 datum has become widely adopted.
607:
or reference points that have been precisely measured from the origin and physically monumented. Then the coordinates of other places are measured from the nearest control point through
2149:
94. It was then formally called WGS 84 (G873). WGS 84 (G873) was adopted as the reference frame for broadcast orbits on
January 29, 1997. Another update brought it to WGS 84 (G1674).
2106:
of 1927 (NAD 27) is "the horizontal control datum for the United States that was defined by a location and azimuth on the Clarke spheroid of 1866, with origin at (the survey station)
1010:
of the spheroid (orange) in the image is greater than that of Earth; as a result, the corresponding difference between the "geodetic" and "geocentric" latitudes is also exaggerated.
2547:
2515:
1833:
1725:
1232:
1991:
1632:
2895:
2328:
1399:
1072:
1342:
2975:
1933:
1046:
867:
convenient local reference point. Contemporary datums, based on increasingly accurate measurements of the shape of Earth, are intended to cover larger areas. The
1888:
1788:
1680:
1317:
1297:
1277:
1257:
1199:
1163:
1143:
1098:
549:
enables the expression of both horizontal and vertical position components in a unified form. The concept can be generalized for other celestial bodies as in
2650:
2621:
2217:
799:
603:
at which the ellipsoid/geoid is tied to a known (often monumented) location on or inside Earth (not necessarily at 0 latitude 0 longitude); and multiple
587:
A standard datum specification (whether horizontal, vertical, or 3D) consists of several parts: a model for Earth's shape and dimensions, such as a
1497:
688:
brought a recognition of errors in these measurements, and a demand for greater precision. This led to technological innovations such as the 1735
2947:
2706:
1748:
The Global
Positioning System (GPS) uses the World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS 84) to determine the location of a point near the surface of Earth.
624:
Because Earth is an imperfect ellipsoid, local datums can give a more accurate representation of some specific area of coverage than WGS 84 can.
398:
3063:
3219:
3180:
3207:
2275:
220:
2919:
3023:
2422:
2322:
2308:
2304:
2213:
2146:
388:
356:
3077:
2740:
3244:) or local Cartesian (ENU) coordinates. This provides accurate results for all inputs including points close to the center of Earth.
2318:
2249:
2243:
2234:
748:
366:
2269:
2265:
2259:
2255:
2134:
835:
on that ellipsoid can be used to measure the latitude and longitude of real-world locations. Regional horizontal datums, such as
2892:
3147:
2999:
346:
2829:
2238:
2142:
1410:
2972:
2130:
740:
2843:
Yang, H.; Lee, Y.; Choi, Y.; Kwon, J.; Lee, H.; Jeong, K. (2007). "The Korean Datum Change to a World
Geodetic System".
946:
was defined in 1950 over Europe and differs from WGS 84 by a few hundred meters depending on where in Europe you look.
668:
326:
2785:
2312:
2107:
717:
672:
The Great
Trigonometrical Survey of India, one of the first surveys comprehensive enough to establish a geodetic datum.
127:
2762:
2671:
3195:
3175:
2879:
2550:
426:
2412:
2047:
will be slightly different. Different datums use different interpolations for the precise shape and size of Earth (
2642:
819:
A horizontal datum is a model used to precisely measure positions on Earth; it is thus a crucial component of any
3045:
2807:
2613:
2432:
2973:
BeiDou
Navigation Satellite System Signal In Space Interface Control Document, Open Service Signal (Version 2.0)
2298:
803:
212:
1120:
3247:
1623:
625:
504:
228:
986:
has a different angle for latitude depending on whether the angle is measured from the normal line segment
973:
832:
756:
649:
576:
744:
2447:
2893:
Analysis of
Conversion Method and Map Merging from BJS54 XA80 Surveying and Mapping Results to CGCS2000
2360:
938:, whereas a more accurate definition is Earth Gravitational Model 2008 (EGM2008), using at least 2,159
2936:
2710:
2520:
2488:
3059:
795:
759:
of India (1802-1871) took much longer, but resulted in more accurate estimations of the shape of the
681:
and Indian astronomers, were sufficient for the global explorations of the 15th and 16th Centuries.
559:
191:
1811:
1703:
1210:
955:
3277:
844:
820:
701:
604:
158:
105:
3258:
724:
corroborated Newton, but also discovered variations in gravity that would eventually lead to the
721:
296:
256:
2321:(ITRF88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 96, 97, 2000, 2005, 2008, 2014), different realizations of the
2732:
735:
to accurately measure distance and location over great distances. Starting with the surveys of
696:, but also to a reconsideration of the underlying assumptions about the shape of Earth itself.
488:
276:
1962:
1363:
1057:
2457:
2173:
2126:
931:
791:
655:
567:
419:
336:
86:
2911:
3088:
2852:
2356:
2192:
2182:
2103:
2022:
1911:
1031:
967:
860:
787:
767:
732:
685:
659:
480:
236:
186:
112:
491:. Datums are crucial to any technology or technique based on spatial location, including
8:
2407:
2279:
2085:
2048:
1109:
939:
935:
828:
752:
663:
645:
589:
520:
484:
148:
96:
3248:
A collection of geodetic functions that solve a variety of problems in geodesy in Matlab
2856:
1322:
584:
different in some particulars from a traditional standard horizontal or vertical datum.
1873:
1773:
1665:
1302:
1282:
1262:
1242:
1184:
1148:
1128:
1083:
1076:
689:
641:
68:
38:
541:
is used to measure the elevation or depth relative to a standard origin, such as mean
3191:
3171:
3153:
3143:
3017:
2402:
2397:
1024:
904:
168:
153:
3135:
2387:
2196:
859:
of the Earth (making them useful for tracking satellite orbits and thus for use in
831:, a mathematical model of the shape of the earth, to the physical earth. Thus, the
705:
412:
163:
2992:
978:
3165:
2979:
2899:
2821:
2452:
2347:
2204:
1019:
763:. The first triangulation across the United States was not completed until 1899.
760:
736:
709:
551:
468:
464:
3139:
3240:
includes a utility CartConvert which converts between geodetic and geocentric (
2437:
2427:
2417:
2073:
1628:
The two main reference ellipsoids used worldwide are the GRS80 and the WGS 84.
888:
856:
824:
572:
537:
508:
376:
143:
3253:
3130:
Soffel, Michael; Langhans, Ralf (2012-06-20). "Terrestrial Reference System".
2111:
786:
in Australia. At this time global datums were also first developed for use in
3271:
3157:
2352:
2208:
2092:
1605:{\displaystyle {e'}^{2}={\frac {a^{2}}{b^{2}}}-1={\frac {f(2-f)}{(1-f)^{2}}}}
716:(wider at the poles). The subsequent French geodesic missions (1735-1739) to
693:
2777:
1007:
2682:
2588:
2056:
697:
101:
2871:
2754:
2027:
The difference in co-ordinates between datums is commonly referred to as
920:
894:
613:
512:
58:
3237:
2044:
2036:
2032:
916:
621:, as it may involve rotation and scaling, in addition to displacement.
496:
3037:
2937:"Use of international references for GNSS operations and applications"
2799:
3167:
The Earth's Rotation and Reference Frames for Geodesy and Geodynamics
2442:
2052:
1050:
991:
927:
908:
843:, usually create this binding with a series of physically monumented
771:
608:
563:
542:
532:
500:
137:
63:
19:
983:
713:
528:
472:
316:
133:
122:
774:, enabled more accurate datums in the later 20th century, such as
743:, by the end of the 18th century, survey control networks covered
2289:
2040:
1125:
The ellipsoid is completely parameterised by the semi-major axis
912:
580:
492:
196:
53:
30:
3214:
Global Positioning System Signals, Measurements, and Performance
2842:
2375:
2200:
2169:
2114:) NAD27 is a local referencing system covering North America.
2096:
951:
876:
868:
779:
678:
306:
266:
204:
942:. Other datums are defined for other areas or at other times;
2371:
2367:
2363:
per year. These tectonic movements likewise affect latitude.
2334:
2285:
2228:
2188:
2178:
2119:
2068:
2064:
872:
848:
840:
836:
783:
775:
725:
629:
595:
524:
476:
91:
2963:
Handbook of Satellite Orbits: From Kepler to GPS, Table 14.2
2485:
About the right/left-handed order of the coordinates, i.e.,
3241:
3225:
2392:
2294:
2222:
1631:
A more comprehensive list of geodetic systems can be found
1022:, and locations near the surface are described in terms of
947:
943:
852:
393:
286:
3262:
2138:
2063:
simple parametric function. For example, converting from
1638:
3204:, 1 ed. Norwood, MA 02062, USA: Artech House, Inc, 1996.
3222:– Large amount of technical information and discussion.
2043:
will be in different positions on different datums, so
1617:
1743:
3111:
2523:
2491:
2237:, the Japanese Datum, adjusted for changes caused by
1965:
1914:
1876:
1814:
1776:
1706:
1668:
1500:
1481:{\displaystyle e^{2}=1-{\frac {b^{2}}{a^{2}}}=f(2-f)}
1413:
1366:
1325:
1305:
1285:
1265:
1245:
1213:
1187:
1151:
1131:
1086:
1060:
1034:
3060:"Vertical Datum used in China – Hong Kong – onshore"
2679:
Intergovernmental Committee on Surveying and Mapping
800:
International Terrestrial Reference System and Frame
3216:. Lincoln, Massachusetts: Ganga-Jamuna Press, 2001.
3078:"Explanatory Notes on Geodetic Datums in Hong Kong"
708:(wider at the equator), while the early surveys of
3134:. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg.
2541:
2509:
1985:
1927:
1882:
1827:
1782:
1719:
1674:
1624:Earth ellipsoid § Historical Earth ellipsoids
1604:
1480:
1393:
1336:
1311:
1291:
1271:
1251:
1226:
1193:
1157:
1137:
1114:
1092:
1066:
1040:
879:datum used in Europe, is a common standard datum.
3269:
2672:"Geocentric Datum of Australia Technical Manual"
2355:, and a point on the equator in Ecuador, on the
628:, for example, is a better approximation to the
3188:Reference Coordinate Systems for Earth Dynamics
3186:Gaposchkin, E. M. and Kołaczek, Barbara (1981)
2129:of 1984. It is the reference frame used by the
1121:Reference ellipsoid § Ellipsoid parameters
471:for unambiguously representing the position of
3202:Understanding GPS: principles and applications
3129:
2195:, of which NAD83 was basically a readjustment
731:A contemporary development was the use of the
3164:Babcock, Alice K.; Wilkins, George A. (1988)
1279:it is possible to derive the semi-minor axis
420:
3181:List of geodetic parameters for many systems
2869:
2572:
1103:
2575:Introductory Geographic Information Systems
2262:, different datum currently used in Taiwan.
2112:http://www.ngs.noaa.gov/faq.shtml#WhatDatum
2423:International Terrestrial Reference System
2319:International Terrestrial Reference Frames
2079:
847:of known location. Global datums, such as
755:across Eastern Europe (1816-1855) and the
751:. More ambitious undertakings such as the
427:
413:
394:Spatial Reference System Identifier (SRID)
389:International Terrestrial Reference System
2778:"GDA94 : Frequently Asked Questions"
2589:"NOAA/NOS's VDatum: A tutorial on datums"
2573:Jensen, John R.; Jensen, Ryan R. (2013).
2288:, the current geodetic reference used by
2737:Michael McFadyen's Scuba Diving Web Site
1018:, Earth's surface is approximated by an
977:
871:datum, which is almost identical to the
684:However, the scientific advances of the
667:
535:or another related coordinate system. A
18:
2931:
2929:
2551:Spherical coordinate system#Conventions
2135:National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency
2016:
961:
958:have been used to locate places there.
827:. A horizontal datum binds a specified
3270:
3220:Peter H. Dana: Geodetic Datum Overview
3022:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
2733:"GPS - An Explanation of How it Works"
1639:Geodetic Reference System 1980 (GRS80)
954:and so no sea level, but at least two
16:Reference frame for measuring location
2707:"NGA: DoD World Geodetic System 1984"
2566:
2476:The plural is not "data" in this case
2366:If a global reference frame (such as
2331:, a vertical datum used in Hong Kong.
3116:. New York: Halsted. pp. 13–15.
2926:
2730:
2143:International Earth Rotation Service
1618:Parameters for some geodetic systems
875:datum used in North America and the
712:(1720) led him to believe Earth was
650:Earth's circumference § History
3254:NGS FAQ – What is a geodetic datum?
2581:
2282:, Chinese encrypted geodetic datum.
1852:WGS 84 derived geometric constants
1744:World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS 84)
814:
399:Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM)
361:European Terrestrial Ref. Sys. 1989
13:
3123:
2775:
2313:BeiDou Navigation Satellite System
2272:, old geodetic datum used in China
2239:2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami
271:Ordnance Survey Great Britain 1936
237:Discrete Global Grid and Geocoding
128:Horizontal position representation
14:
3289:
3231:
2800:"日本測地系2011（JGD2011）とは？ - 空間情報クラブ"
2681:. 2 December 2014. Archived from
2341:
2311:, the geodetic reference used by
2297:, the geodetic reference used by
2216:, the European Datum, related to
882:
3066:from the original on 2012-11-13.
3048:from the original on 2008-12-04.
2953:from the original on 2017-12-22.
2922:from the original on 2015-09-07.
2882:from the original on 2016-08-20.
2832:from the original on 2017-11-05.
2810:from the original on 2016-08-20.
2788:from the original on 2016-08-15.
2765:from the original on 2011-10-19.
2743:from the original on 2006-08-19.
2542:{\displaystyle (\phi ,\lambda )}
2510:{\displaystyle (\lambda ,\phi )}
2413:Geographic coordinate conversion
766:The U.S. survey resulted in the
187:Global Nav. Sat. Systems (GNSSs)
37:
3105:
3070:
3052:
3030:
3005:from the original on 2017-01-26
2985:
2966:
2957:
2904:
2886:
2863:
2836:
2814:
2792:
2769:
2747:
2653:from the original on 2017-02-02
2624:from the original on 2017-02-02
2433:Local tangent plane coordinates
2301:; currently defined as ITRF2005
2185:which is very similar to WGS 84
1115:Defining and derived parameters
741:Anglo-French Survey (1784–1790)
351:N. American Vertical Datum 1988
23:City of Chicago Datum Benchmark
3259:About the surface of the Earth
3112:Read HH, Watson Janet (1975).
2724:
2699:
2664:
2635:
2606:
2536:
2524:
2504:
2492:
2479:
2470:
1828:{\displaystyle {\frac {1}{f}}}
1720:{\displaystyle {\frac {1}{f}}}
1590:
1577:
1572:
1560:
1475:
1463:
1388:
1376:
1227:{\displaystyle {\frac {1}{f}}}
646:Spherical Earth § History
505:geographic information systems
381:Internet link to a point 2010
311:Geodetic Reference System 1980
229:Quasi-Zenith Sat. Sys. (QZSS)
1:
2560:
926:An approximate definition of
923:, and human-made structures.
855:, are typically bound to the
809:
371:Chinese obfuscated datum 2002
3132:Space-Time Reference Systems
2845:AGU Spring Meeting Abstracts
2755:"Frequently Asked Questions"
2463:
2359:, increases by about 0.0014
2165:Examples of map datums are:
2133:(DoD) and is defined by the
1957:Second eccentricity squared
1492:Second eccentricity squared
974:Geographic coordinate system
911:of Earth features including
833:geographic coordinate system
802:(ITRF) used in the European
757:Great Trigonometrical Survey
321:Geographic point coord. 1983
7:
3226:US National Geodetic Survey
3183:from University of Colorado
3140:10.1007/978-3-642-30226-8_8
2448:Planetary coordinate system
2381:
2337:- South American Datum 1969
2160:
1906:First eccentricity squared
1752:WGS 84 defining parameters
1405:First eccentricity squared
903:is a reference surface for
461:terrestrial reference frame
281:Systema Koordinat 1942 goda
10:
3294:
2822:"座標変換ソフトウェア TKY2JGD｜国土地理院"
2246:, the older Japanese Datum
2225:, the older European Datum
2131:U.S. Department of Defense
2083:
2020:
1621:
1118:
1107:
971:
965:
892:
886:
794:(WGS 84) used in the U.S.
653:
639:
635:
341:World Geodetic System 1984
2374:" for North America and "
2329:Hong Kong Principal Datum
1806:Reciprocal of flattening
1698:Reciprocal of flattening
1205:Reciprocal of flattening
1104:Earth reference ellipsoid
796:global positioning system
560:global positioning system
453:geodetic reference system
331:North American Datum 1983
301:South American Datum 1969
2872:"大地座標系統與二度分帶座標解讀 - 上河文化"
2759:National Geodetic Survey
1986:{\displaystyle {e'}^{2}}
1394:{\displaystyle b=a(1-f)}
1319:and second eccentricity
1067:{\displaystyle \lambda }
821:spatial reference system
790:systems, especially the
702:conservation of momentum
579:for longitude, from the
457:geodetic reference frame
449:geodetic reference datum
192:Global Pos. System (GPS)
159:Spatial reference system
3114:Introduction to Geology
2172:, 72, 66 and 60 of the
2080:Discussion and examples
1002:from the center (angle
982:The same position on a
845:geodetic control points
547:three-dimensional datum
3212:P. Misra and P. Enge,
2577:. Pearson. p. 25.
2543:
2511:
2231:, the Australian Datum
2095:are NAD27, NAD83, and
1987:
1929:
1884:
1829:
1784:
1721:
1676:
1606:
1482:
1395:
1338:
1313:
1293:
1273:
1253:
1228:
1195:
1159:
1139:
1094:
1068:
1042:
1011:
998:) or the line segment
673:
558:Since the rise of the
489:geocentric coordinates
24:
3190:Taylor & Francis
2804:club.informatix.co.jp
2593:NOAA/NOS's VDatum 4.7
2544:
2512:
2458:World Geodetic System
2174:World Geodetic System
2127:World Geodetic System
2108:Meades Ranch (Kansas)
2055:or site location for
1988:
1930:
1928:{\displaystyle e^{2}}
1885:
1830:
1785:
1722:
1677:
1607:
1483:
1396:
1339:
1314:
1299:, first eccentricity
1294:
1274:
1254:
1229:
1196:
1160:
1140:
1119:Further information:
1095:
1069:
1043:
1041:{\displaystyle \phi }
981:
972:Further information:
893:Further information:
792:World Geodetic System
671:
656:History of navigation
577:Greenwich Observatory
519:is used to measure a
87:Geographical distance
22:
2782:Geoproject Solutions
2521:
2489:
2357:South American Plate
2193:North American Datum
2183:North American Datum
2104:North American Datum
2049:reference ellipsoids
2023:Datum transformation
2017:Datum transformation
1963:
1912:
1874:
1812:
1774:
1704:
1666:
1498:
1411:
1364:
1323:
1303:
1283:
1263:
1243:
1211:
1185:
1149:
1129:
1084:
1058:
1032:
1016:geodetic coordinates
968:Geodetic coordinates
962:Geodetic coordinates
861:satellite navigation
788:satellite navigation
768:North American Datum
733:trigonometric survey
700:postulated that the
686:Age of Enlightenment
660:History of longitude
619:datum transformation
617:or, more generally,
485:vertical coordinates
481:geodetic coordinates
261:Sea Level Datum 1929
113:Geodetic coordinates
2876:www.sunriver.com.tw
2857:2007AGUSM.G33B..03Y
2408:Figure of the Earth
2086:Reference ellipsoid
1853:
1753:
1645:
1145:and the flattening
1110:Reference ellipsoid
940:spherical harmonics
829:reference ellipsoid
753:Struve Geodetic Arc
664:History of latitude
590:reference ellipsoid
521:horizontal position
479:by means of either
291:European Datum 1950
249:Standards (history)
149:Reference ellipsoid
97:Figure of the Earth
3038:"General concepts"
2978:2016-07-08 at the
2916:www.glonass-iac.ru
2898:2016-09-18 at the
2870:台灣地圖夢想家-SunRiver.
2647:ArcGIS for Desktop
2618:ArcGIS for Desktop
2539:
2507:
2252:, the Korean Datum
1983:
1925:
1880:
1851:
1825:
1780:
1751:
1717:
1672:
1643:
1602:
1478:
1391:
1337:{\displaystyle e'}
1334:
1309:
1289:
1269:
1249:
1224:
1191:
1155:
1135:
1090:
1077:ellipsoidal height
1064:
1038:
1012:
905:vertical positions
778:in North America,
749:the United Kingdom
704:should make Earth
690:Marine chronometer
674:
642:History of geodesy
169:Vertical positions
25:
3149:978-3-642-30225-1
2403:Engineering datum
2398:ECI (coordinates)
2315:; based on ITRF97
2014:
2013:
1883:{\displaystyle b}
1849:
1848:
1823:
1783:{\displaystyle a}
1741:
1740:
1715:
1675:{\displaystyle a}
1644:GRS80 parameters
1615:
1614:
1600:
1543:
1455:
1344:of the ellipsoid
1312:{\displaystyle e}
1292:{\displaystyle b}
1272:{\displaystyle f}
1252:{\displaystyle a}
1237:
1236:
1222:
1194:{\displaystyle a}
1158:{\displaystyle f}
1138:{\displaystyle a}
1093:{\displaystyle h}
1025:geodetic latitude
437:
436:
385:
384:
164:Spatial relations
154:Satellite geodesy
109:
3285:
3161:
3118:
3117:
3109:
3103:
3102:
3100:
3099:
3093:
3087:. Archived from
3082:
3074:
3068:
3067:
3056:
3050:
3049:
3042:itrf.ensg.ign.fr
3034:
3028:
3027:
3021:
3013:
3011:
3010:
3004:
2997:
2989:
2983:
2970:
2964:
2961:
2955:
2954:
2952:
2941:
2933:
2924:
2923:
2908:
2902:
2890:
2884:
2883:
2867:
2861:
2860:
2840:
2834:
2833:
2818:
2812:
2811:
2796:
2790:
2789:
2773:
2767:
2766:
2751:
2745:
2744:
2728:
2722:
2721:
2719:
2718:
2709:. Archived from
2703:
2697:
2696:
2694:
2693:
2687:
2676:
2668:
2662:
2661:
2659:
2658:
2639:
2633:
2632:
2630:
2629:
2610:
2604:
2603:
2601:
2600:
2585:
2579:
2578:
2570:
2554:
2548:
2546:
2545:
2540:
2516:
2514:
2513:
2508:
2483:
2477:
2474:
2388:Axes conventions
2010:
2008:
2005:
2002:
1999:
1992:
1990:
1989:
1984:
1982:
1981:
1976:
1975:
1952:
1950:
1947:
1944:
1941:
1934:
1932:
1931:
1926:
1924:
1923:
1901:
1899:
1896:
1889:
1887:
1886:
1881:
1868:Semi-minor axis
1854:
1850:
1845:
1844:
1841:
1834:
1832:
1831:
1826:
1824:
1816:
1801:
1799:
1796:
1789:
1787:
1786:
1781:
1768:Semi-major axis
1754:
1750:
1737:
1736:
1733:
1726:
1724:
1723:
1718:
1716:
1708:
1693:
1691:
1688:
1681:
1679:
1678:
1673:
1660:Semi-major axis
1646:
1642:
1611:
1609:
1608:
1603:
1601:
1599:
1598:
1597:
1575:
1555:
1544:
1542:
1541:
1532:
1531:
1522:
1517:
1516:
1511:
1510:
1487:
1485:
1484:
1479:
1456:
1454:
1453:
1444:
1443:
1434:
1423:
1422:
1400:
1398:
1397:
1392:
1358:Semi-minor axis
1347:
1346:
1343:
1341:
1340:
1335:
1333:
1318:
1316:
1315:
1310:
1298:
1296:
1295:
1290:
1278:
1276:
1275:
1270:
1258:
1256:
1255:
1250:
1233:
1231:
1230:
1225:
1223:
1215:
1200:
1198:
1197:
1192:
1179:Semi-major axis
1168:
1167:
1164:
1162:
1161:
1156:
1144:
1142:
1141:
1136:
1099:
1097:
1096:
1091:
1073:
1071:
1070:
1065:
1047:
1045:
1044:
1039:
815:Horizontal datum
552:planetary datums
517:horizontal datum
429:
422:
415:
253:
252:
232:
224:
216:
208:
200:
140:
99:
41:
27:
26:
3293:
3292:
3288:
3287:
3286:
3284:
3283:
3282:
3278:Geodetic datums
3268:
3267:
3263:kartoweb.itc.nl
3234:
3150:
3126:
3124:Further reading
3121:
3110:
3106:
3097:
3095:
3091:
3085:geodetic.gov.hk
3080:
3076:
3075:
3071:
3058:
3057:
3053:
3036:
3035:
3031:
3015:
3014:
3008:
3006:
3002:
2995:
2993:"Archived copy"
2991:
2990:
2986:
2980:Wayback Machine
2971:
2967:
2962:
2958:
2950:
2939:
2935:
2934:
2927:
2910:
2909:
2905:
2900:Wayback Machine
2891:
2887:
2868:
2864:
2841:
2837:
2820:
2819:
2815:
2798:
2797:
2793:
2774:
2770:
2753:
2752:
2748:
2729:
2725:
2716:
2714:
2705:
2704:
2700:
2691:
2689:
2685:
2674:
2670:
2669:
2665:
2656:
2654:
2641:
2640:
2636:
2627:
2625:
2612:
2611:
2607:
2598:
2596:
2587:
2586:
2582:
2571:
2567:
2563:
2558:
2557:
2522:
2519:
2518:
2490:
2487:
2486:
2484:
2480:
2475:
2471:
2466:
2453:Reference frame
2384:
2348:tectonic plates
2344:
2205:Ordnance Survey
2163:
2088:
2082:
2025:
2019:
2006:
2003:
2000:
1997:
1995:
1977:
1968:
1967:
1966:
1964:
1961:
1960:
1948:
1945:
1942:
1939:
1937:
1919:
1915:
1913:
1910:
1909:
1897:
1894:
1892:
1875:
1872:
1871:
1842:
1839:
1837:
1815:
1813:
1810:
1809:
1797:
1794:
1792:
1775:
1772:
1771:
1746:
1734:
1731:
1729:
1707:
1705:
1702:
1701:
1689:
1686:
1684:
1667:
1664:
1663:
1641:
1626:
1620:
1593:
1589:
1576:
1556:
1554:
1537:
1533:
1527:
1523:
1521:
1512:
1503:
1502:
1501:
1499:
1496:
1495:
1449:
1445:
1439:
1435:
1433:
1418:
1414:
1412:
1409:
1408:
1365:
1362:
1361:
1326:
1324:
1321:
1320:
1304:
1301:
1300:
1284:
1281:
1280:
1264:
1261:
1260:
1244:
1241:
1240:
1214:
1212:
1209:
1208:
1186:
1183:
1182:
1150:
1147:
1146:
1130:
1127:
1126:
1123:
1117:
1112:
1106:
1085:
1082:
1081:
1059:
1056:
1055:
1033:
1030:
1029:
976:
970:
964:
897:
891:
885:
817:
812:
798:(GPS), and the
782:in Europe, and
761:Earth ellipsoid
739:(1718) and the
737:Jacques Cassini
710:Jacques Cassini
666:
652:
640:Main articles:
638:
527:'s surface, in
469:reference frame
465:datum reference
445:geodetic system
433:
404:
403:
250:
242:
241:
230:
222:
214:
206:
198:
182:
174:
173:
132:
82:
74:
73:
49:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3291:
3281:
3280:
3266:
3265:
3256:
3251:
3245:
3233:
3232:External links
3230:
3229:
3228:
3223:
3217:
3210:
3205:
3198:
3184:
3178:
3162:
3148:
3125:
3122:
3120:
3119:
3104:
3069:
3051:
3029:
2984:
2965:
2956:
2925:
2903:
2885:
2862:
2835:
2813:
2806:. 2015-08-20.
2791:
2776:Craven, Alex.
2768:
2746:
2723:
2698:
2663:
2634:
2605:
2580:
2564:
2562:
2559:
2556:
2555:
2538:
2535:
2532:
2529:
2526:
2506:
2503:
2500:
2497:
2494:
2478:
2468:
2467:
2465:
2462:
2461:
2460:
2455:
2450:
2445:
2440:
2438:Ordnance Datum
2435:
2430:
2428:Kilometre zero
2425:
2420:
2418:Grid reference
2415:
2410:
2405:
2400:
2395:
2390:
2383:
2380:
2378:" for Europe.
2343:
2342:Plate movement
2340:
2339:
2338:
2332:
2326:
2316:
2302:
2292:
2283:
2273:
2263:
2253:
2247:
2241:
2232:
2226:
2220:
2211:
2198:
2186:
2176:
2162:
2159:
2125:WGS 84 is the
2081:
2078:
2074:map projection
2021:Main article:
2018:
2015:
2012:
2011:
1993:
1980:
1974:
1971:
1958:
1954:
1953:
1935:
1922:
1918:
1907:
1903:
1902:
1890:
1879:
1869:
1865:
1864:
1861:
1858:
1847:
1846:
1835:
1822:
1819:
1807:
1803:
1802:
1790:
1779:
1769:
1765:
1764:
1761:
1758:
1745:
1742:
1739:
1738:
1727:
1714:
1711:
1699:
1695:
1694:
1682:
1671:
1661:
1657:
1656:
1653:
1650:
1640:
1637:
1622:Main article:
1619:
1616:
1613:
1612:
1596:
1592:
1588:
1585:
1582:
1579:
1574:
1571:
1568:
1565:
1562:
1559:
1553:
1550:
1547:
1540:
1536:
1530:
1526:
1520:
1515:
1509:
1506:
1493:
1489:
1488:
1477:
1474:
1471:
1468:
1465:
1462:
1459:
1452:
1448:
1442:
1438:
1432:
1429:
1426:
1421:
1417:
1406:
1402:
1401:
1390:
1387:
1384:
1381:
1378:
1375:
1372:
1369:
1359:
1355:
1354:
1351:
1332:
1329:
1308:
1288:
1268:
1248:
1235:
1234:
1221:
1218:
1206:
1202:
1201:
1190:
1180:
1176:
1175:
1172:
1154:
1134:
1116:
1113:
1108:Main article:
1105:
1102:
1089:
1063:
1037:
966:Main article:
963:
960:
956:martian datums
907:, such as the
901:vertical datum
889:Vertical datum
887:Main article:
884:
883:Vertical datum
881:
857:center of mass
825:map projection
816:
813:
811:
808:
637:
634:
605:control points
573:Prime Meridian
538:vertical datum
509:remote sensing
463:) is a global
441:geodetic datum
435:
434:
432:
431:
424:
417:
409:
406:
405:
402:
401:
396:
391:
383:
382:
379:
373:
372:
369:
363:
362:
359:
353:
352:
349:
343:
342:
339:
333:
332:
329:
323:
322:
319:
313:
312:
309:
303:
302:
299:
293:
292:
289:
283:
282:
279:
273:
272:
269:
263:
262:
259:
251:
248:
247:
244:
243:
240:
239:
234:
226:
218:
210:
202:
194:
189:
183:
180:
179:
176:
175:
172:
171:
166:
161:
156:
151:
146:
144:Map projection
141:
130:
125:
120:
118:Geodetic datum
115:
110:
94:
89:
83:
80:
79:
76:
75:
72:
71:
66:
61:
56:
50:
47:
46:
43:
42:
34:
33:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3290:
3279:
3276:
3275:
3273:
3264:
3260:
3257:
3255:
3252:
3249:
3246:
3243:
3239:
3238:GeographicLib
3236:
3235:
3227:
3224:
3221:
3218:
3215:
3211:
3209:
3206:
3203:
3199:
3197:
3196:9789027712608
3193:
3189:
3185:
3182:
3179:
3177:
3176:9789027726582
3173:
3169:
3168:
3163:
3159:
3155:
3151:
3145:
3141:
3137:
3133:
3128:
3127:
3115:
3108:
3094:on 2016-11-09
3090:
3086:
3079:
3073:
3065:
3061:
3055:
3047:
3043:
3039:
3033:
3025:
3019:
3001:
2994:
2988:
2981:
2977:
2974:
2969:
2960:
2949:
2945:
2938:
2932:
2930:
2921:
2917:
2913:
2907:
2901:
2897:
2894:
2889:
2881:
2877:
2873:
2866:
2858:
2854:
2850:
2846:
2839:
2831:
2827:
2826:www.gsi.go.jp
2823:
2817:
2809:
2805:
2801:
2795:
2787:
2783:
2779:
2772:
2764:
2760:
2756:
2750:
2742:
2738:
2734:
2727:
2713:on 2017-07-04
2712:
2708:
2702:
2688:on 2018-03-20
2684:
2680:
2673:
2667:
2652:
2648:
2644:
2643:"Datums—Help"
2638:
2623:
2619:
2615:
2609:
2594:
2590:
2584:
2576:
2569:
2565:
2552:
2533:
2530:
2527:
2501:
2498:
2495:
2482:
2473:
2469:
2459:
2456:
2454:
2451:
2449:
2446:
2444:
2441:
2439:
2436:
2434:
2431:
2429:
2426:
2424:
2421:
2419:
2416:
2414:
2411:
2409:
2406:
2404:
2401:
2399:
2396:
2394:
2391:
2389:
2386:
2385:
2379:
2377:
2373:
2369:
2364:
2362:
2358:
2354:
2353:African Plate
2349:
2336:
2333:
2330:
2327:
2324:
2320:
2317:
2314:
2310:
2306:
2303:
2300:
2296:
2293:
2291:
2287:
2284:
2281:
2277:
2274:
2271:
2267:
2264:
2261:
2257:
2254:
2251:
2248:
2245:
2242:
2240:
2236:
2233:
2230:
2227:
2224:
2221:
2219:
2215:
2212:
2210:
2209:Great Britain
2206:
2202:
2199:
2197:
2194:
2190:
2187:
2184:
2180:
2177:
2175:
2171:
2168:
2167:
2166:
2158:
2154:
2150:
2148:
2145:(IERS) frame
2144:
2140:
2136:
2132:
2128:
2123:
2121:
2115:
2113:
2109:
2105:
2100:
2098:
2094:
2093:North America
2087:
2077:
2075:
2070:
2066:
2060:
2058:
2054:
2050:
2046:
2042:
2038:
2034:
2030:
2024:
1994:
1978:
1972:
1969:
1959:
1956:
1955:
1936:
1920:
1916:
1908:
1905:
1904:
1891:
1877:
1870:
1867:
1866:
1862:
1859:
1856:
1855:
1836:
1820:
1817:
1808:
1805:
1804:
1791:
1777:
1770:
1767:
1766:
1762:
1759:
1756:
1755:
1749:
1728:
1712:
1709:
1700:
1697:
1696:
1683:
1669:
1662:
1659:
1658:
1654:
1651:
1648:
1647:
1636:
1634:
1629:
1625:
1594:
1586:
1583:
1580:
1569:
1566:
1563:
1557:
1551:
1548:
1545:
1538:
1534:
1528:
1524:
1518:
1513:
1507:
1504:
1494:
1491:
1490:
1472:
1469:
1466:
1460:
1457:
1450:
1446:
1440:
1436:
1430:
1427:
1424:
1419:
1415:
1407:
1404:
1403:
1385:
1382:
1379:
1373:
1370:
1367:
1360:
1357:
1356:
1352:
1349:
1348:
1345:
1330:
1327:
1306:
1286:
1266:
1246:
1219:
1216:
1207:
1204:
1203:
1188:
1181:
1178:
1177:
1173:
1170:
1169:
1166:
1152:
1132:
1122:
1111:
1101:
1087:
1079:
1078:
1061:
1053:
1052:
1035:
1027:
1026:
1021:
1017:
1009:
1005:
1001:
997:
993:
989:
985:
980:
975:
969:
959:
957:
953:
949:
945:
941:
937:
933:
930:is the datum
929:
924:
922:
918:
914:
910:
906:
902:
896:
890:
880:
878:
874:
870:
864:
862:
858:
854:
850:
846:
842:
838:
834:
830:
826:
822:
807:
805:
801:
797:
793:
789:
785:
781:
777:
773:
769:
764:
762:
758:
754:
750:
746:
742:
738:
734:
729:
727:
723:
719:
715:
711:
707:
703:
699:
695:
694:John Harrison
691:
687:
682:
680:
670:
665:
661:
657:
651:
647:
643:
633:
631:
627:
622:
620:
616:
615:
610:
606:
602:
598:
597:
592:
591:
585:
582:
578:
574:
569:
565:
561:
556:
554:
553:
548:
544:
540:
539:
534:
530:
526:
523:, across the
522:
518:
514:
510:
506:
502:
498:
494:
490:
486:
483:(and related
482:
478:
474:
470:
466:
462:
458:
454:
450:
446:
442:
430:
425:
423:
418:
416:
411:
410:
408:
407:
400:
397:
395:
392:
390:
387:
386:
380:
378:
375:
374:
370:
368:
365:
364:
360:
358:
355:
354:
350:
348:
345:
344:
340:
338:
335:
334:
330:
328:
325:
324:
320:
318:
315:
314:
310:
308:
305:
304:
300:
298:
295:
294:
290:
288:
285:
284:
280:
278:
275:
274:
270:
268:
265:
264:
260:
258:
255:
254:
246:
245:
238:
235:
233:
227:
225:
219:
217:
211:
209:
205:BeiDou (BDS)
203:
201:
195:
193:
190:
188:
185:
184:
178:
177:
170:
167:
165:
162:
160:
157:
155:
152:
150:
147:
145:
142:
139:
135:
131:
129:
126:
124:
121:
119:
116:
114:
111:
107:
106:circumference
103:
98:
95:
93:
90:
88:
85:
84:
78:
77:
70:
67:
65:
62:
60:
57:
55:
52:
51:
45:
44:
40:
36:
35:
32:
29:
28:
21:
3213:
3201:
3187:
3166:
3131:
3113:
3107:
3096:. Retrieved
3089:the original
3084:
3072:
3054:
3041:
3032:
3007:. Retrieved
2987:
2968:
2959:
2943:
2915:
2906:
2888:
2875:
2865:
2848:
2844:
2838:
2825:
2816:
2803:
2794:
2781:
2771:
2758:
2749:
2736:
2726:
2715:. Retrieved
2711:the original
2701:
2690:. Retrieved
2683:the original
2678:
2666:
2655:. Retrieved
2646:
2637:
2626:. Retrieved
2617:
2614:"Geoid—Help"
2608:
2597:. Retrieved
2595:. 2014-03-14
2592:
2583:
2574:
2568:
2481:
2472:
2365:
2346:The Earth's
2345:
2191:, the older
2164:
2155:
2151:
2124:
2116:
2101:
2089:
2061:
2057:scuba diving
2028:
2026:
1900:.3142 m
1747:
1630:
1627:
1238:
1124:
1075:
1049:
1023:
1015:
1013:
1003:
999:
995:
987:
925:
900:
898:
865:
818:
765:
730:
698:Isaac Newton
683:
675:
623:
618:
612:
600:
594:
588:
586:
557:
550:
546:
536:
516:
460:
456:
452:
448:
444:
440:
438:
181:Technologies
136: /
117:
48:Fundamentals
2982:section 3.2
2851:: G33B–03.
2029:datum shift
921:water level
895:Chart datum
614:datum shift
562:(GPS), the
513:cartography
59:Geodynamics
3098:2016-08-19
3009:2016-08-19
2944:unoosa.org
2731:McFadyen.
2717:2007-03-01
2692:2017-02-20
2657:2017-01-23
2628:2017-01-23
2599:2024-08-11
2561:References
2361:arcseconds
2084:See also:
2045:True North
2037:South Pole
2033:North Pole
1757:Parameter
1649:Parameter
1350:Parameter
1171:Parameter
917:bathymetry
909:elevations
810:Dimensions
772:satellites
654:See also:
566:and datum
497:navigation
3208:GPS Notes
3170:Springer
3158:0941-7834
2534:λ
2528:ϕ
2502:ϕ
2496:λ
2464:Footnotes
2443:Milestone
2053:surveying
1860:Notation
1857:Constant
1800:.0 m
1760:Notation
1652:Notation
1584:−
1567:−
1546:−
1470:−
1431:−
1383:−
1062:λ
1051:longitude
1036:ϕ
1020:ellipsoid
1008:flatness"
992:ellipsoid
936:ellipsoid
928:sea level
863:systems.
609:surveying
564:ellipsoid
545:(MSL). A
543:sea level
533:longitude
501:surveying
473:locations
138:Longitude
64:Geomatics
3272:Category
3200:Kaplan,
3064:Archived
3046:Archived
3018:cite web
3000:Archived
2976:Archived
2948:Archived
2920:Archived
2896:Archived
2880:Archived
2830:Archived
2808:Archived
2786:Archived
2763:Archived
2741:Archived
2651:Archived
2622:Archived
2382:See also
2309:CGS-2000
2305:CGCS2000
2286:PZ-90.11
2161:Examples
1973:′
1508:′
1331:′
1006:). The "
984:spheroid
806:system.
529:latitude
317:ISO 6709
215:(Europe)
213:Galileo
199:(Russia)
197:GLONASS
134:Latitude
123:Geodesic
81:Concepts
2853:Bibcode
2299:Galileo
2290:GLONASS
2250:KGD2002
2244:Tokyo97
2235:JGD2011
2203:of the
2041:Equator
1838:298.257
1730:298.257
1692: m
1174:Symbol
1074:), and
994:(angle
990:of the
950:has no
913:terrain
804:Galileo
728:model.
718:Lapland
714:prolate
636:History
581:Equator
575:at the
493:geodesy
447:(also:
377:Geo URI
347:NAVD 88
257:NGVD 29
231:(Japan)
223:(India)
207:(China)
69:History
54:Geodesy
31:Geodesy
3194:
3174:
3156:
3146:
2549:, see
2376:ETRS89
2276:GCJ-02
2214:ETRS89
2201:OSGB36
2181:, the
2170:WGS 84
2097:WGS 84
1863:Value
1763:Value
1655:Value
1353:Value
952:oceans
932:WGS 84
877:ETRS89
869:WGS 84
780:ETRS89
745:France
706:oblate
679:Muslim
662:, and
648:, and
626:OSGB36
601:origin
568:WGS 84
511:, and
367:GCJ-02
357:ETRS89
337:WGS 84
327:NAD 83
307:GRS 80
267:OSGB36
221:NAVIC
102:radius
3092:(PDF)
3081:(PDF)
3003:(PDF)
2996:(PDF)
2951:(PDF)
2940:(PDF)
2686:(PDF)
2675:(PDF)
2372:NAD83
2368:WGS84
2335:SAD69
2307:, or
2280:BD-09
2270:XAS80
2266:BJS54
2260:TWD97
2256:TWD67
2229:GDA94
2189:NAD27
2179:NAD83
2120:GRS80
2069:NAD83
2065:NAD27
1996:6.739
1938:6.694
1239:From
934:, an
873:NAD83
849:WGS84
841:NAD83
837:NAD27
784:GDA94
776:NAD83
726:geoid
630:geoid
599:; an
596:geoid
593:or a
525:Earth
515:. A
487:) or
477:Earth
459:, or
455:, or
297:SAD69
277:SK-42
92:Geoid
3242:ECEF
3192:ISBN
3172:ISBN
3154:ISSN
3144:ISBN
3024:link
2849:2007
2393:ECEF
2323:ITRS
2295:GTRF
2278:and
2268:and
2258:and
2223:ED50
2218:ITRS
2147:ITRF
2102:The
2039:and
1633:here
1259:and
948:Mars
944:ED50
853:ITRF
851:and
839:and
747:and
722:Peru
720:and
531:and
287:ED50
104:and
3261:on
3136:doi
2517:or
2207:of
2139:GPS
2067:to
2001:742
1998:496
1943:990
1940:379
1898:752
1895:356
1843:563
1840:223
1798:137
1795:378
1735:101
1732:222
1690:137
1687:378
1100:).
1048:),
1014:In
823:or
692:by
475:on
467:or
443:or
3274::
3152:.
3142:.
3083:.
3062:.
3044:.
3040:.
3020:}}
3016:{{
2998:.
2946:.
2942:.
2928:^
2918:.
2914:.
2878:.
2874:.
2847:.
2828:.
2824:.
2802:.
2784:.
2780:.
2761:.
2757:.
2739:.
2735:.
2677:.
2649:.
2645:.
2620:.
2616:.
2591:.
2099:.
2076:.
2059:.
2035:,
2009:10
2004:28
1951:10
1946:14
1635:.
1165:.
1000:OP
988:CP
919:,
915:,
899:A
658:,
644:,
555:.
507:,
503:,
499:,
495:,
451:,
439:A
3250:.
3160:.
3138::
3101:.
3026:)
3012:.
2859:.
2855::
2720:.
2695:.
2660:.
2631:.
2602:.
2553:.
2537:)
2531:,
2525:(
2505:)
2499:,
2493:(
2325:.
2118:(
2007:×
1979:2
1970:e
1949:×
1921:2
1917:e
1893:6
1878:b
1821:f
1818:1
1793:6
1778:a
1713:f
1710:1
1685:6
1670:a
1595:2
1591:)
1587:f
1581:1
1578:(
1573:)
1570:f
1564:2
1561:(
1558:f
1552:=
1549:1
1539:2
1535:b
1529:2
1525:a
1519:=
1514:2
1505:e
1476:)
1473:f
1467:2
1464:(
1461:f
1458:=
1451:2
1447:a
1441:2
1437:b
1428:1
1425:=
1420:2
1416:e
1389:)
1386:f
1380:1
1377:(
1374:a
1371:=
1368:b
1328:e
1307:e
1287:b
1267:f
1247:a
1220:f
1217:1
1189:a
1153:f
1133:a
1088:h
1080:(
1054:(
1028:(
1004:β
996:α
428:e
421:t
414:v
108:)
100:(
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
