Geology - Knowledge

3921: 3988: 2830: 4315: 3021: 2938: 3367: 3563: 3944: 1504: 3966: 7854: 3902: 2510: 592: 2546: 1722: 3175: 1285: 9053: 572: 9202: 7721: 4301: 1273: 528: 70: 10076: 9901: 8950: 8499: 8350: 7733: 7353: 2299: 8511: 580: 3068: 1113: 915: 3012:(all angles remain the same) orogenic wedge. Numerical models work in the same way as these analog models, though they are often more sophisticated and can include patterns of erosion and uplift in the mountain belt. This helps to show the relationship between erosion and the shape of a mountain range. These studies can also give useful information about pathways for metamorphism through pressure, temperature, space, and time. 805: 1996: 1189: 2279:, this can result in older rocks moving on top of younger ones. Movement along faults can result in folding, either because the faults are not planar or because rock layers are dragged along, forming drag folds as slip occurs along the fault. Deeper in the Earth, rocks behave plastically and fold instead of faulting. These folds can either be those where the material in the center of the fold buckles upwards, creating " 7745: 2154: 788: 8523: 2118: 1867: 2815: 3459: 3304: 2457: 2374: 3386:, geological principles and analyses are used in order to ascertain the mechanical principles of the material on which structures are built. This allows tunnels to be built without collapsing, bridges and skyscrapers to be built with sturdy foundations, and buildings to be built that will not settle in clay and mud. 7132: 3623:

made critical observations of the slow rate of geological change. He observed the composition of the land and formulated a theory where the Earth changes at a slow rate and that these changes cannot be observed during one person's lifetime. Aristotle developed one of the first evidence-based concepts

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The following five timelines show the geologic time scale to scale. The first shows the entire time from the formation of the Earth to the present, but this gives little space for the most recent eon. The second timeline shows an expanded view of the most recent eon. In a similar way, the most recent

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move across the surface of the Earth over geological time. They also provided a driving force for crustal deformation, and a new setting for the observations of structural geology. The power of the theory of plate tectonics lies in its ability to combine all of these observations into a single theory

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data and perform high temperature and pressure physical experiments to understand the temperatures and pressures at which different mineral phases appear, and how they change through igneous and metamorphic processes. This research can be extrapolated to the field to understand metamorphic processes

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The addition of new rock units, both depositionally and intrusively, often occurs during deformation. Faulting and other deformational processes result in the creation of topographic gradients, causing material on the rock unit that is increasing in elevation to be eroded by hillslopes and channels.

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is based on the appearance of fossils in sedimentary rocks. As organisms exist during the same period throughout the world, their presence or (sometimes) absence provides a relative age of the formations where they appear. Based on principles that William Smith laid out almost a hundred years before

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and the age of the sequences through which they cut. Faults are younger than the rocks they cut; accordingly, if a fault is found that penetrates some formations but not those on top of it, then the formations that were cut are older than the fault, and the ones that are not cut must be younger than

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Mineralogists have been able to use the pressure and temperature data from the seismic and modeling studies alongside knowledge of the elemental composition of the Earth to reproduce these conditions in experimental settings and measure changes within the crystal structure. These studies explain the

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Hodell, David A.; Benson, Richard H.; Kent, Dennis V.; Boersma, Anne; Rakic-El Bied, Kruna (1994). "Magnetostratigraphic, Biostratigraphic, and Stable Isotope Stratigraphy of an Upper Miocene Drill Core from the Salé Briqueterie (Northwestern Morocco): A High-Resolution Chronology for the Messinian

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the historic dichotomy between 'hard rock' and 'soft rock' geologists, i.e. scientists working mainly with endogenous and exogenous processes, respectively endogenous forces mainly defining the developments below Earth's crust and the exogenous forces mainly defining the developments on top of and

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in which the rock units formed. Geochronologists precisely date rocks within the stratigraphic section to provide better absolute bounds on the timing and rates of deposition. Magnetic stratigraphers look for signs of magnetic reversals in igneous rock units within the drill cores. Other scientists

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can be combined to produce a better view of the subsurface, and stratigraphers often use computer programs to do this in three dimensions. Stratigraphers can then use these data to reconstruct ancient processes occurring on the surface of the Earth, interpret past environments, and locate areas for

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Engineering geology is the application of geological principles to engineering practice for the purpose of assuring that the geological factors affecting the location, design, construction, operation, and maintenance of engineering works are properly addressed. Engineering geology is distinct from

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Although planetary geologists are interested in studying all aspects of other planets, a significant focus is to search for evidence of past or present life on other worlds. This has led to many missions whose primary or ancillary purpose is to examine planetary bodies for evidence of life. One of

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into a sedimentary rock. Sedimentary rocks are mainly divided into four categories: sandstone, shale, carbonate, and evaporite. This group of classifications focuses partly on the size of sedimentary particles (sandstone and shale), and partly on mineralogy and formation processes (carbonation and

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within the rocks, which gives information about strain within the crystalline structure of the rocks. They also plot and combine measurements of geological structures to better understand the orientations of faults and folds to reconstruct the history of rock deformation in the area. In addition,

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undisturbed sequence is younger than the one beneath it and older than the one above it. Logically a younger layer cannot slip beneath a layer previously deposited. This principle allows sedimentary layers to be viewed as a form of the vertical timeline, a partial or complete record of the time

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Observations on the Geology of the United States of America: With Some Remarks on the Effect Produced on the Nature and Fertility of Soils, by the Decomposition of the Different Classes of Rocks; and an Application to the Fertility of Every State in the Union, in Reference to the Accompanying

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have been metamorphosed to the point where their origin is indiscernible without laboratory analysis. In addition, these processes can occur in stages. In many places, the Grand Canyon in the southwestern United States being a very visible example, the lower rock units were metamorphosed and

2961: 2295:, respectively. If some of the units in the fold are facing downward, the structure is called an overturned anticline or syncline, and if all of the rock units are overturned or the correct up-direction is unknown, they are simply called by the most general terms, antiforms, and synforms. 6906:

Geologia Norvegica : det er, En kort undervisning om det vitt-begrebne jordskelff som her udi Norge skeedemesten ofuer alt Syndenfields den 24. aprilis udi nærværende aar 1657: sampt physiske, historiske oc theologiske fundament oc grundelige beretning om jordskellfs aarsager oc

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One Geology: This interactive geological map of the world is an international initiative of the geological surveys around the globe. This groundbreaking project was launched in 2007 and contributed to the 'International Year of Planet Earth', becoming one of their flagship projects.

2992:. A stereonet is a stereographic projection of a sphere onto a plane, in which planes are projected as lines and lines are projected as points. These can be used to find the locations of fold axes, relationships between faults, and relationships between other geological structures. 1855:) are found in a formation, then the inclusions must be older than the formation that contains them. For example, in sedimentary rocks, it is common for gravel from an older formation to be ripped up and included in a newer layer. A similar situation with igneous rocks occurs when 2522: 2168: 2344:

and through the ductile stretching and thinning. Normal faults drop rock units that are higher below those that are lower. This typically results in younger units ending up below older units. Stretching of units can result in their thinning. In fact, at one location within the

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Economic geology is a branch of geology that deals with aspects of economic minerals that humankind uses to fulfill various needs. Economic minerals are those extracted profitably for various practical uses. Economic geologists help locate and manage the Earth's

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Geologists use a number of fields, laboratory, and numerical modeling methods to decipher Earth history and to understand the processes that occur on and inside the Earth. In typical geological investigations, geologists use primary information related to

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states that the geological processes observed in operation that modify the Earth's crust at present have worked in much the same way over geological time. A fundamental principle of geology advanced by the 18th-century Scottish physician and geologist

3650:(Avicenna, 981–1037) proposed detailed explanations for the formation of mountains, the origin of earthquakes, and other topics central to modern geology, which provided an essential foundation for the later development of the science. In China, the 2444:

deformed, and then deformation ended and the upper, undeformed units were deposited. Although any amount of rock emplacement and rock deformation can occur, and they can occur any number of times, these concepts provide a guide to understanding the

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and other methods. This changed the understanding of geological time. Previously, geologists could only use fossils and stratigraphic correlation to date sections of rock relative to one another. With isotopic dates, it became possible to assign

1023:. All three types may melt again, and when this happens, new magma is formed, from which an igneous rock may once again solidify. Organic matter, such as coal, bitumen, oil, and natural gas, is linked mainly to organic-rich sedimentary rocks. 5904:

Poulsen, Chris J.; Flemings, Peter B.; Robinson, Ruth A. J.; Metzger, John M. (1998). "Three-dimensional stratigraphic evolution of the Miocene Baltimore Canyon region: Implications for eustatic interpretations and the systems tract model".

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layers found within a stratigraphic sequence can provide absolute age data for sedimentary rock units that do not contain radioactive isotopes and calibrate relative dating techniques. These methods can also be used to determine ages of

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the 24th of April in the present year 1657: together with physical, historical, and theological bases and a basic account of earthquakes' causes and meanings] (Christiania (now: Oslo), (Norway): Mickel Thomesøn, 1657). (in Danish)

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Geologists also use methods to determine the absolute age of rock samples and geological events. These dates are useful on their own and may also be used in conjunction with relative dating methods or to calibrate relative methods.

1969:, the principles of succession developed independently of evolutionary thought. The principle becomes quite complex, however, given the uncertainties of fossilization, localization of fossil types due to lateral changes in habitat ( 5940:

Toscano, M; Lundberg, Joyce (1999). "Submerged Late Pleistocene reefs on the tectonically-stable S.E. Florida margin: high-precision geochronology, stratigraphy, resolution of Substage 5a sea-level elevation, and orbital forcing".

3920: 2972:, in which the angles within the wedge remain the same as failures inside the material balance failures along the décollement. It is analogous to a bulldozer pushing a pile of dirt, where the bulldozer is the overriding plate. 3007:

tectonic plate boundaries. In the analog versions of these experiments, horizontal layers of sand are pulled along a lower surface into a back stop, which results in realistic-looking patterns of faulting and the growth of a

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Fernández, O.; Muñoz, J.A.; Arbués, P.; Falivene, O.; Marzo, M. (2004). "Three-dimensional reconstruction of geological surfaces: An example of growth strata and turbidite systems from the Ainsa basin (Pyrenees, Spain)".

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at 410 and 660 kilometers), and the outer core and inner core below that. More recently, seismologists have been able to create detailed images of wave speeds inside the earth in the same way a doctor images a body in a

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time. Other areas are much more geologically complex. In the southwestern United States, sedimentary, volcanic, and intrusive rocks have been metamorphosed, faulted, foliated, and folded. Even older rocks, such as the

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and warning systems that are used to prevent loss of property and life. Examples of important natural hazards that are pertinent to geology (as opposed those that are mainly or only pertinent to meteorology) are:

2473:(the study of rocks), stratigraphy (the study of sedimentary layers), and structural geology (the study of positions of rock units and their deformation). In many cases, geologists also study modern soils, 2394:

for the material to deposit. Deformational events are often also associated with volcanism and igneous activity. Volcanic ashes and lavas accumulate on the surface, and igneous intrusions enter from below.

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states that the deposition of sediments occurs as essentially horizontal beds. Observation of modern marine and non-marine sediments in a wide variety of environments supports this generalization (although

3416:, is used to locate groundwater, which can often provide a ready supply of uncontaminated water and is especially important in arid regions, and to monitor the spread of contaminants in groundwater wells. 5386:

Zheng, Y; Fu, Bin; Gong, Bing; Li, Long (2003). "Stable isotope geochemistry of ultrahigh pressure metamorphic rocks from the Dabie–Sulu orogen in China: implications for geodynamics and fluid regime".

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is the theory that Earth's features formed in single, catastrophic events and remained unchanged thereafter. Though Hutton believed in uniformitarianism, the idea was not widely accepted at the time.

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These sediments are deposited on the rock unit that is going down. Continual motion along the fault maintains the topographic gradient in spite of the movement of sediment and continues to create

2385:. This cross-section shows metamorphic rocks, overlain by younger sediments deposited after the metamorphic event. These rock units were later folded and faulted during the uplift of the mountain. 955:. Most research in geology is associated with the study of rocks, as they provide the primary record of the majority of the geological history of the Earth. There are three major types of rock: 7018: 6666:(I repeat here what I said in my first preface about the substitution of the word "cosmology" for that of "geology", although it is not a matter of the universe but only of the Earth: … ) 719:

broadly study the properties and processes of Earth and other terrestrial planets. Geologists use a wide variety of methods to understand the Earth's structure and evolution, including

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Each mineral has distinct physical properties, and there are many tests to determine each of them. Minerals are often identified through these tests. The specimens can be tested for:

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is an example of both original horizontality and the law of superposition. These strata make up much of the famous prominent rock formations in widely spaced protected areas such as

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allowed the Earth's age to be estimated at two billion years. The awareness of this vast amount of time opened the door to new theories about the processes that shaped the planet.

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Gutscher, M; Kukowski, Nina; Malavieille, Jacques; Lallemand, Serge (1998). "Material transfer in accretionary wedges from analysis of a systematic series of analog experiments".

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Sack, Richard O.; Walker, David; Carmichael, Ian S.E. (1987). "Experimental petrology of alkalic lavas: constraints on cotectics of multiple saturation in natural basic liquids".

2399:, long, planar igneous intrusions, enter along cracks, and therefore often form in large numbers in areas that are being actively deformed. This can result in the emplacement of 2353:

appears over a length of less than a meter. Rocks at the depth to be ductilely stretched are often also metamorphosed. These stretched rocks can also pinch into lenses, known as

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The majority of geological data comes from research on solid Earth materials. Meteorites and other extraterrestrial natural materials are also studied by geological methods.

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refers to Earth, "geology" is often used in conjunction with the names of other planetary bodies when describing their composition and internal processes: examples are "the

3817:. In 1807, Maclure commenced the self-imposed task of making a geological survey of the United States. Almost every state in the Union was traversed and mapped by him, the 2027:

to rock units, and these absolute dates could be applied to fossil sequences in which there was datable material, converting the old relative ages into new absolute ages.

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Morton, A.C. (1985). "A new approach to provenance studies: electron microprobe analysis of detrital garnets from Middle Jurassic sandstones of the northern North Sea".

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Colman, S.M.; Jones, G.A.; Forester, R.M.; Foster, D.S. (1990). "Holocene paleoclimatic evidence and sedimentation rates from a core in southwestern Lake Michigan".

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Condomines, M; Tanguy, J; Michaud, V (1995). "Magma dynamics at Mt Etna: Constraints from U-Th-Ra-Pb radioactive disequilibria and Sr isotopes in historical lavas".

3779:. In his paper, he explained his theory that the Earth must be much older than had previously been supposed to allow enough time for mountains to be eroded and for 2018:

At the beginning of the 20th century, advancement in geological science was facilitated by the ability to obtain accurate absolute dates to geological events using

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chemical changes associated with the major seismic discontinuities in the mantle and show the crystallographic structures expected in the inner core of the Earth.

1344:. These images have led to a much more detailed view of the interior of the Earth, and have replaced the simplified layered model with a much more dynamic model. 1702: 1689: 1661: 1494: 1480: 1468: 1452: 1431: 2906:. In the electron microprobe, individual locations are analyzed for their exact chemical compositions and variation in composition within individual crystals. 1391:

era is expanded in the third timeline, the most recent period is expanded in the fourth timeline, and the most recent epoch is expanded in the fifth timeline.

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emplacement. Thermochemical techniques can be used to determine temperature profiles within the crust, the uplift of mountain ranges, and paleo-topography.

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is that "the present is the key to the past." In Hutton's words: "the past history of our globe must be explained by what can be seen to be happening now."

1151:. This theory is supported by several types of observations, including seafloor spreading and the global distribution of mountain terrain and seismicity. 4591: 4508: 3965: 3783:

to form new rocks at the bottom of the sea, which in turn were raised up to become dry land. Hutton published a two-volume version of his ideas in 1795.

1280:'s layered structure. (1) inner core; (2) outer core; (3) lower mantle; (4) upper mantle; (5) lithosphere; (6) crust (uppermost part of the lithosphere) 6640: 6622: 6608: 3442:. Ice cores and sediment cores are used for paleoclimate reconstructions, which tell geologists about past and present temperature, precipitation, and 3943: 3054:

analyze rock samples from outcrop and drill cores for the fossils found in them. These fossils help scientists to date the core and to understand the

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can occur, thrust faults form, which causes the deeper rock to move on top of the shallower rock. Because deeper rock is often older, as noted by the

1771:. Geologists still use the following principles today as a means to provide information about geological history and the timing of geological events. 7015: 3765:. His work was the first narrative of modern geology, based on the unity of processes in time and explanation of the Earth's past from the present. 2182:

The geology of an area changes through time as rock units are deposited and inserted, and deformational processes alter their shapes and locations.

3042:. Stratigraphers also analyze data from geophysical surveys that show the locations of stratigraphic units in the subsurface. Geophysical data and 439: 1288:

Earth layered structure. Typical wave paths from earthquakes like these gave early seismologists insights into the layered structure of the Earth.

3336:, they study the formation of these basins, as well as their sedimentary and tectonic evolution and the present-day positions of the rock units. 3097:(sometimes known as astrogeology) and relies on known geological principles to study other bodies of the solar system. This is a major aspect of 6785: 6762: 6740: 8986: 9238: 1026:

To study all three types of rock, geologists evaluate the minerals of which they are composed and their other physical properties, such as

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in the 1960s and the refinement of estimates of the planet's age. Plate tectonics theory arose from two separate geological observations:

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and the conditions of crystallization of igneous rocks. This work can also help to explain processes that occur within the Earth, such as

2325:, or planar surface, that is related to mineral growth under stress. This can remove signs of the original textures of the rocks, such as 650:, the rocks of which they are composed, and the processes by which they change over time. Modern geology significantly overlaps all other 9937: 8310: 6843: 6821: 6727: 3089:

in the twentieth century, geologists have begun to look at other planetary bodies in the same ways that have been developed to study the

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of radioactive elements are measured in minerals that give the amount of time that has passed since a rock passed through its particular

6542: 4540: 3657:(1031–1095) formulated a hypothesis for the process of land formation: based on his observation of fossil animal shells in a geological 2890:, where the minerals can be identified through their different properties in plane-polarized and cross-polarized light, including their 2870:), petrologists identify rock samples in the laboratory. Two of the primary methods for identifying rocks in the laboratory are through 6928: 6910: 4971: 4911: 4358: 1802:, it can be determined that the igneous intrusion is younger than the sedimentary rock. Different types of intrusions include stocks, 6200:

Barnola, J.M.; Raynaud, D.; Korotkevich, Y.S.; Lorius, C. (1987). "Vostok ice core provides 160,000-year record of atmospheric CO2".

5621:"Magma–Carbonate Interaction Processes and Associated CO2 Release at Merapi Volcano, Indonesia: Insights from Experimental Petrology" 1863:

or lava flows, and are incorporated, later to cool in the matrix. As a result, xenoliths are older than the rock that contains them.

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In the laboratory, stratigraphers analyze samples of stratigraphic sections that can be returned from the field, such as those from

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Dahlen, F.A.; Suppe, J.; Davis, D. (1984). "Mechanics of Fold-and-Thrust Belts and Accretionary Wedges: Cohesive Coulomb Theory".

8386: 5136:. Geological Society of America Memoir. Vol. 203. Boulder, CO: Geological Society of America (published 2009). p. 169. 4714: 4673: 1473: 6618:(Driven by the connections between this subject and geology, I undertook a second voyage to develop them for Her Majesty ; … ) 1659: 1475: 6616:"Entrainé par les liaisons de cet objet avec la Géologie, j'entrepris dans un second voyage de les développer à SA MAJESTÉ; … " 6466: 1845: 6683: 1419: 7158: 6980: 6888: 6574: 6501: 6429: 6378: 6061: 6036: 5852: 5603: 5578: 5482: 5335: 5310: 5285: 5260: 5235: 5181: 5141: 5111: 5086: 4941: 4890: 4749: 4708: 4667: 4573: 2578:

Structural mapping: identifying the locations of major rock units and the faults and folds that led to their placement there.

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study the mineralogical composition of rocks in order to get insight into their history of formation. Geology determines the

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in a mountain hundreds of miles from the ocean, he inferred that the land was formed by the erosion of the mountains and by

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A diagram of an orogenic wedge. The wedge grows through faulting in the interior and along the main basal fault, called the

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All of these processes do not necessarily occur in a single environment and do not necessarily occur in a single order. The

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in the southwestern United States contain almost-undeformed stacks of sedimentary rocks that have remained in place since

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The geological time scale encompasses the history of the Earth. It is bracketed at the earliest by the dates of the first

9481: 9012: 3692: 1928: 1603: 213: 1421: 1378: – a division of geological time. At the later end of the scale, it is marked by the present day (in the 1409: 6165:

Welch, Alan H.; Lico, Michael S.; Hughes, Jennifer L. (1988). "Arsenic in Ground Water of the Western United States".

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consists of the extractions of mineral and ore resources from the Earth. Some resources of economic interests include

2849:, thin sections are used to study rocks. The method is based on the distinct refractive indexes of different minerals. 8979: 7304: 6491: 6003: 4002: 2670: 2090: 1656: 1654: 1490: 1439: 1162:

transfer caused by the slow movement of ductile mantle rock). Thus, oceanic parts of plates and the adjoining mantle

7049: 4416: 3210:, such as petroleum and coal, as well as mineral resources, which include metals such as iron, copper, and uranium. 2829: 1658: 9231: 8561: 7038: 6975:. Translation and commentary by S.M. Rowland and S. Korolev. The Geological Society of America, Special Paper 485. 6287: 3719: 2419: 1170:

of the convecting mantle. This coupling between rigid plates moving on the surface of the Earth and the convecting

3837:'s geological map of England by six years, although it was constructed using a different classification of rocks. 1684: 1655: 1489: 1416: 9930: 9022: 8527: 8411: 8056: 7783: 5765: 3696: 1461: 223: 5926: 5619:

Deegan, F. M.; Troll, V. R.; Freda, C.; Misiti, V.; Chadwick, J. P.; McLeod, C. L.; Davidson, J. P. (May 2010).

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Extension causes the rock units as a whole to become longer and thinner. This is primarily accomplished through

1428: 9032: 7885: 6874: 6109: 4997: 3822: 2554: 2534: 1956: 1776: 1476: 1427: 1417: 1413: 868:, the former being breakage of uneven surfaces, and the latter a breakage along closely spaced parallel planes. 764: 233: 10145: 4588: 4473: 2976:

Structural geologists use microscopic analysis of oriented thin sections of geological samples to observe the

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wrote in detail of the many minerals and metals, then in practical use – even correctly noting the origin of

3585:. Completed in 1815, it was the second national-scale geologic map, and by far the most accurate of its time. 1407: 1404: 551: 9266: 6637: 6619: 6605: 1491: 1443: 1436: 1418: 1414: 1399: 8972: 6130:

Seckler, David; Barker, Randolph; Amarasinghe, Upali (1999). "Water Scarcity in the Twenty-first Century".

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at high temperatures and pressures give insights into the internal composition and structure of the Earth.

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Color: Minerals are grouped by their color. Mostly diagnostic but impurities can change a mineral's color.

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Some of the most significant advances in 20th-century geology have been the development of the theory of

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study the locations of the subsurface of the Earth that can contain extractable hydrocarbons, especially

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On the controversy regarding whether Deluc or Saussure deserves priority in the use the term "geology":

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always move in the same direction – because the oceanic lithosphere is actually the rigid upper thermal

10079: 9923: 8154: 7559: 6691:"La science qui rassemble les faits, qui seuls peuvent servir de base à la Théorie de la Terre ou à la 5197: 4428: 3776: 2988:

The analysis of structures is often accomplished by plotting the orientations of various features onto

2538: 2346: 2063: 2055: 1887: 1678: 1460: 1449: 1406: 1401: 1397: 1396: 3737: 1472: 1448: 1442: 1441: 1438: 1437: 1410: 874:: Quality of light reflected from the surface of a mineral. Examples are metallic, pearly, waxy, dull. 9566: 9037: 8406: 8159: 7342: 5011:

Tucker, R.D.; Bradley, D.C.; Ver Straeten, C.A.; Harris, A.G.; Ebert, J.R.; McCutcheon, S.R. (1998).

4450: 4352: 3834: 3747: 3566: 2691: 1891: 1492: 1466: 1445: 1435: 238: 85: 7176:"John Perry's neglected critique of Kelvin's age for the Earth: A missed opportunity in geodynamics" 6803: 6781: 6759: 6737: 5512: 5040: 3821:

being crossed and recrossed some 50 times. The results of his unaided labours were submitted to the

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The development of plate tectonics has provided a physical basis for many observations of the solid

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was once a sea. Drawing from Greek and Indian scientific literature that were not destroyed by the

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to image the interior of the Earth. Early advances in this field showed the existence of a liquid

9337: 9271: 8838: 8503: 3810: 3771:(1726–1797) is often viewed as the first modern geologist. In 1785 he presented a paper entitled 3740:(1600–1669), who was a priest and scholar. Escholt first used the definition in his book titled, 3506: 2887: 2821: 2378: 2229: 2051: 1725: 1403: 6714: 6465:(Report). Manchester, UK: Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation. Publication 4039. 3872:. Estimates varied from a few hundred thousand to billions of years. By the early 20th century, 3736:, meaning "speech". But according to another source, the word "geology" comes from a Norwegian, 3366: 3166:

polar soil for water, chemical, and mineralogical constituents related to biological processes.

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Even higher pressures and temperatures during horizontal shortening can cause both folding and

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Lettres physiques et morales sur les montagnes et sur l'histoire de la terre et de l'homme. …

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Laughlin, Gregory; Lissauer, Jack (2015). "Exoplanetary Geophysics: An Emerging Discipline".

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Dahlen, F A (1990). "Critical Taper Model of Fold-and-Thrust Belts and Accretionary Wedges".

4908:

Natural Law and Divine Miracle: The Principle of Uniformity in Geology, Biology, and Theology

4532: 4488: 4320: 4236: 4048: 4043: 3845: 3662: 3447: 2704: 2403:, such as those that are observable across the Canadian shield, or rings of dikes around the 2256: 2245: 1832:

the fault. Finding the key bed in these situations may help determine whether the fault is a

1484:

Horizontal scale is Millions of years (above timelines) / Thousands of years (below timeline)

1224: 760: 6922: 6904: 6422:

The Age of Achievement: A.D. 750 to the End of the Fifteenth Century : The Achievements

5435: 5031: 4963: 4787:

Amelin, Y. (2002). "Lead Isotopic Ages of Chondrules and Calcium-Aluminum-Rich Inclusions".

3624:

connected to the geological realm regarding the rate at which the Earth physically changes.

3562: 496: 9825: 9709: 9426: 9381: 9149: 9106: 9017: 8554: 8089: 8041: 7813: 7187: 6880: 6302: 6252: 6209: 6174: 6139: 6093: 5950: 5914: 5878: 5817: 5774: 5737: 5702: 5667: 5535: 5462: 5431: 5396: 5360: 5027: 4850: 4796: 4107: 4068: 4016: 3688: 3400:

Geology and geological principles can be applied to various environmental problems such as

2622: 2287:". If the tops of the rock units within the folds remain pointing upwards, they are called 2276: 1942: 1748: 1144: 1044: 1003: 694: 659: 610: 218: 9992: 5104:

Principles and applications of geochemistry: a comprehensive textbook for geology students

4662:. Kiger, Martha, Russel, Jane (Online ed.). Reston: United States Geological Survey. 3024:

Different colors caused by the different minerals in tilted layers of sedimentary rock in

2185:

Rock units are first emplaced either by deposition onto the surface or intrusion into the

2121:

An originally horizontal sequence of sedimentary rocks (in shades of tan) are affected by

1973:

change in sedimentary strata), and that not all fossils formed globally at the same time.

8: 10098: 10033: 9858: 9734: 9719: 9696: 9692: 9471: 9396: 9296: 9281: 8765: 8700: 8424: 8232: 8189: 8023: 7966: 7808: 7800: 7776: 7699: 7663: 7633: 7380: 7332: 4374: 4346: 4329: 4095: 4038: 3818: 3677: 3639: 3557: 3345: 3321: 3102: 3004: 2911: 2875: 2734: 2665: 2391: 2382: 2322: 2272: 2237: 2035: 2019: 1790: 1503: 1361: 1163: 871: 851: 768: 740: 736: 647: 471: 403: 182: 109: 100: 9987: 9982: 7191: 6306: 6256: 6213: 6178: 6143: 6097: 5954: 5918: 5882: 5821: 5778: 5749: 5741: 5706: 5679: 5671: 5539: 5466: 5400: 5364: 4854: 4800: 3715: 1755:(cutting through A, B & C); E – even younger rock strata (overlying C & D); F – 1154:

There is an intimate coupling between the movement of the plates on the surface and the

10181: 9962: 9807: 9704: 9586: 9491: 9406: 9371: 9301: 9247: 9164: 8474: 8101: 7653: 7592: 7544: 7470: 7431: 7362: 7337: 7327: 7112: 6268: 6225: 6186: 6105: 6009: 5995: 5981: 5551: 5500: 5488: 5372: 5130:"On the origin of natural history: Steno's modern, but forgotten philosophy of science" 4820: 4738: 4696: 4655: 4500: 4368: 4270: 4258: 4142: 4090: 3884: 3873: 3858: 3553: 3401: 3187: 2996: 2955: 2879: 2871: 2846: 2645: 2582: 2445: 2249: 2102: 2038:, the point at which different radiometric isotopes stop diffusing into and out of the 2007: 1986: 1911: 1572: 1336: 1234: 1217: 1053: 865: 728: 461: 371: 320: 292: 105: 90: 7006:

Vernadsky, V. (1911) Pamyati M.V. Lomonosova. Zaprosy zhizni, 5: 257–262 (in Russian)

5962: 5714: 5408: 5049: 2137:

that will later crystallize into dikes and sills. Magma also advances upwards to form

10150: 10048: 10043: 10025: 9946: 9843: 9777: 9729: 9724: 9604: 9594: 9536: 9311: 9177: 9154: 9086: 8510: 8320: 8297: 8217: 8184: 7749: 7643: 7277:

The principles and objects of geology, with special reference to the geology of Egypt

7154: 7095:

Greene, J.C.; Burke, J.G. (1978). "The Science of Minerals in the Age of Jefferson".

6976: 6884: 6570: 6497: 6425: 6374: 6272: 6082:"Effects of Agriculture on Ground-Water Quality in Five Regions of the United States" 6057: 6032: 6013: 5999: 5848: 5640: 5599: 5574: 5555: 5492: 5478: 5443: 5331: 5306: 5281: 5256: 5231: 5177: 5137: 5107: 5082: 4937: 4886: 4862: 4812: 4745: 4704: 4663: 4569: 4504: 4492: 4377: – Chronological list of notable events in the history of the science of geology 4263: 4206: 4184: 4031: 3997: 3926: 3907: 3888: 3854: 3840: 3758: 3750:(1769–1839) drew some of the first geological maps and began the process of ordering 3711: 3672: 3525: 3383: 3333: 3316: 3098: 3094: 3086: 3080: 2747: 2526: 2363: 2206: 2189:. Deposition can occur when sediments settle onto the surface of the Earth and later 2172: 2146: 2083: 1903: 1899: 1297: 1250: 1238: 1213: 1155: 1086: 1057: 1027: 884: 838: 748: 663: 511: 501: 432: 384: 31: 10090: 9977: 8964: 6459: 4824: 3059:

perform stable-isotope studies on the rocks to gain information about past climate.

2373: 2163:

C. Reverse (or thrust) faults occur when rocks are undergoing horizontal shortening.

841:

with a definite homogeneous chemical composition and an ordered atomic arrangement.

10258: 10227: 10171: 10015: 10010: 9967: 9647: 9642: 9576: 9551: 9546: 9521: 9461: 9421: 9276: 9042: 8753: 8642: 8612: 8343: 8338: 8244: 8111: 8096: 7973: 7953: 7895: 7737: 7658: 7628: 7554: 7539: 7449: 7290: 7195: 7104: 6870: 6680: 6368: 6310: 6260: 6229: 6217: 6182: 6147: 6101: 5991: 5958: 5922: 5886: 5825: 5782: 5745: 5710: 5675: 5632: 5543: 5474: 5470: 5439: 5404: 5368: 5045: 4992: 4858: 4804: 4484: 4216: 4174: 4021: 3971: 3869: 3635: 3510: 3425: 3207: 3200: 2977: 2899: 2797: 2632: 2418:

lava flows. The sedimentary sequences of the mid-continental United States and the

2411: 2334: 2098: 2047: 1915: 1907: 1895: 1879: 1799: 1624: 1508: 1332: 1171: 1031: 1020: 1012: 877: 834: 698: 506: 486: 466: 418: 413: 243: 147: 142: 95: 51: 6517: 689:. By combining various petrological, crystallographic, and paleontological tools, 10155: 10038: 9972: 9886: 9782: 9682: 9657: 9629: 9614: 9516: 9466: 9456: 9451: 9327: 9139: 9129: 8953: 8828: 8783: 8677: 8672: 8662: 8547: 8469: 8239: 8222: 8179: 8169: 8061: 7678: 7480: 7454: 7401: 7136: 7067: 7053: 7042: 7022: 6970: 6956: 6932: 6914: 6847: 6825: 6789: 6766: 6744: 6731: 6687: 6644: 6626: 6612: 6564: 6546: 6351: 5129: 4915: 4906: 4771: 4633: 4595: 4438: 4275: 4253: 4211: 4117: 4063: 3979: 3880: 3857:. This theory states that slow geological processes have occurred throughout the 3814: 3612: 3409: 3139: 3051: 2922: 2725: 2721: 2609: 2461: 2039: 1982: 1828: 1768: 1764: 1716: 1305: 1209: 1201: 1132: 1117: 1107: 752: 702: 643: 476: 162: 6921:

Reprinted in English as: Escholt, Michel Pedersøn with Daniel Collins, trans.,

5221: 3827:

Observations on the Geology of the United States explanatory of a Geological Map

2995:

Among the most well-known experiments in structural geology are those involving

2509: 1638:(kiloannum: thousand years ago): First modern Homo sapiens appear in East Africa 1327:. These advances led to the development of a layered model of the Earth, with a 1185:. Long linear regions of geological features are explained as plate boundaries: 10217: 9787: 9764: 9749: 9619: 9599: 9511: 9436: 9431: 9386: 9352: 9342: 9286: 9206: 9134: 9096: 9076: 9071: 8353: 8272: 8262: 8126: 8121: 7880: 7870: 7769: 7725: 7673: 7607: 7569: 7564: 7516: 7396: 5636: 4335: 4306: 4167: 4053: 3957: 3892: 3850: 3803: 3631: 3590: 3570: 3349: 3224: 3159: 3009: 2969: 2942: 2907: 2573: 2486: 2396: 2268: 2222: 2218: 2138: 2106: 2043: 1962: 1815: 1811: 1752: 1733: 1559: 1549: 1379: 1246: 1167: 1140: 942: 934: 756: 532: 491: 408: 133: 9401: 5728:

Koons, P O (1995). "Modeling the Topographic Evolution of Collisional Belts".

2228:

After the initial sequence of rocks has been deposited, the rock units can be

1951:

elapsed from deposition of the lowest layer to deposition of the highest bed.

673:

on and beneath its surface and the processes that have shaped that structure.

10252: 10186: 9677: 9121: 9081: 8637: 8395: 8282: 8212: 8164: 8131: 8003: 7993: 7983: 7943: 7938: 7704: 7485: 7421: 7370: 6370:

The map that changed the world: William Smith and the birth of modern geology

5644: 4496: 4424: 4221: 4122: 4112: 4075: 3994: 3862: 3723: 3684: 3473: 3143: 2931: 2891: 2793: 2710: 2428: 2326: 2194: 2190: 2126: 2031: 2024: 1990: 1934: 1516: 1148: 1078: 710: 686: 678: 651: 310: 282: 6460:

The Contribution of Ibn Sina (Avicenna) to the development of Earth Sciences

5786: 4808: 2545: 627: 591: 10002: 9672: 9332: 9306: 9187: 9111: 9004: 8861: 8847: 8479: 8464: 8325: 8287: 8277: 8267: 8207: 7988: 7833: 7823: 7587: 7511: 7444: 7439: 7406: 6151: 5620: 5223: 4816: 4626: 4608: 4397: 4248: 4231: 4201: 4179: 4162: 4147: 4127: 4058: 3975: 3949: 3911: 3768: 3700: 3608: 3594: 3413: 3395: 3174: 3122: 3033: 2985:

and numerical experiments of rock deformation in large and small settings.

2883: 2836: 2767: 2714: 2493:

to investigate the subsurface. Sub-specialities of geology may distinguish

2432: 2350: 2341: 2314: 2233: 2198: 2086:

elements is used to compute ages since rocks were removed from the mantle.

2071: 1947: 1937:

is inclined, the overall orientation of cross-bedded units is horizontal).

1837: 1833: 1782: 1756: 1737: 1628: 1512: 1367: 1312: 1197: 1136: 1090: 991: 979: 791: 732: 682: 272: 203: 137: 9052: 5456: 5228:

Introduction to applied geophysics : exploring the shallow subsurface

3681:

in 1546 and is seen as the founder of geology as a scientific discipline.

3472:

Geologists and geophysicists study natural hazards in order to enact safe

3446:

across the globe. These datasets are our primary source of information on

2600:

Surficial mapping: recording the locations of soils and surficial deposits

2569:

varies depending on the task at hand. Typical fieldwork could consist of:

2359:, after the French word for "sausage" because of their visual similarity. 1721: 10140: 9853: 9739: 9714: 9667: 9662: 9637: 9526: 9446: 9416: 8820: 8695: 8484: 8459: 8084: 7890: 7818: 7668: 7534: 7490: 7475: 7276: 7200: 7175: 7046: 7035: 6315: 4285: 4152: 3751: 3599: 3501: 3435: 3405: 3329: 2965: 2915: 2895: 2686: 2440: 2241: 2225:, push upwards into the overlying rock, and crystallize as they intrude. 2142: 1729: 1328: 1128: 1082: 964: 960: 951:

A rock is any naturally occurring solid mass or aggregate of minerals or

931: 927: 571: 481: 325: 30:

This article is about the Earth science. For the scientific journal, see

6782:

Letter to the Editor: "Notes on the History of Scientific Nomenclature"

6711:

History of Geology and Paleontology to the End of the Nineteenth Century

5903: 5890: 2259:, they shorten and become thicker. Because rock units, other than muds, 1284: 10176: 10121: 9881: 9868: 9376: 9144: 9101: 9091: 8912: 8793: 8449: 8444: 8174: 8141: 8116: 7998: 7918: 7828: 7648: 7623: 7602: 7579: 7506: 7411: 7116: 6264: 5692: 5547: 4343: – Tourism associated with geological attractions and destinations 4340: 4243: 4226: 4189: 4157: 4137: 4132: 3798: 3788: 3589:

The study of the physical material of the Earth dates back at least to

3530: 3487: 3039: 2927: 2802: 2566: 2490: 2400: 2367: 2176: 1586: 1555: 1375: 1324: 1316: 1301: 1293: 1272: 1254: 1193: 1060:

of geologic history, which is the most recent period of geologic time.

995: 975: 968: 952: 946: 919: 902: 674: 315: 277: 172: 9486: 9201: 7720: 7352: 7236: 5829: 4568:. Princeton University Press: Princeton University Press. p. 10. 4300: 3895:. Today the Earth is known to be approximately 4.5 billion years old. 2161:

B. Normal faults occur when rocks are undergoing horizontal extension.

794: 527: 69: 10237: 10222: 10207: 9817: 9797: 9792: 9772: 9754: 9744: 9556: 9501: 9363: 9216: 9063: 8871: 8833: 8788: 8778: 8718: 8539: 8454: 8106: 8051: 8036: 8008: 7978: 7905: 7838: 7694: 7549: 7416: 6695:, c'est la Géographie physique, ou la description de notre Globe; … " 6566:

Four centuries of the word geology: Ulisse Aldrovandi 1603 in Bologna

6221: 6199: 5013:"New U–Pb zircon ages and the duration and division of Devonian time" 4280: 4196: 4085: 4080: 3953: 3620: 3497: 3482: 3443: 3431: 3325: 3308: 3260: 3248: 3183: 3126: 3118: 3067: 2903: 2867: 2861: 2778: 2590: 2586: 2550: 2478: 2470: 2404: 2355: 2303: 2288: 2236:. Deformation typically occurs as a result of horizontal shortening, 2214: 2210: 2202: 1966: 1807: 1803: 1741: 1635: 1580: 1565: 1525: 1371: 1175: 1007: 891: 855: 798: 724: 720: 716: 690: 655: 633: 616: 579: 367: 287: 41: 9915: 7108: 6536:

Memorie della vita di Ulisse Aldrovandi, medico e filosofo bolognese

6081: 4355: – Alphabetical listing of Knowledge articles on Geology topics 3796:, which is the deposition of lava from volcanoes, as opposed to the 3134: 2757:

understand early life on Earth and how it functioned and metabolized

1011:

evaporation). Igneous and sedimentary rocks can then be turned into

27:

Scientific study of the composition, structure, and history of Earth

10212: 9876: 9802: 8922: 8866: 8798: 8733: 8619: 8607: 8579: 6553:… " ( … and likewise geology, or of things dug from the earth; … ) 5986: 5134:

The Revolution in Geology from the Renaissance to the Enlightenment

4919: 3930: 3780: 3654: 3651: 3647: 3582: 3520: 3515: 3439: 3288: 3264: 3244: 3228: 3110: 3106: 3072: 3043: 3000: 2423: 2307: 2292: 2280: 2264: 2252:, and transform boundaries, respectively, between tectonic plates. 2159:

A. Strike-slip faults occur when rock units slide past one another.

1875: 1856: 1611: 1607: 1597: 1228: 914: 861:

Hardness: The resistance of a mineral to scratching or indentation.

153: 6562: 3833:, together with the nation's first geological map. This antedates 2298: 2066:. These methods are used for a variety of applications. Dating of 1995: 1112: 1093:

from their original molten source to their final crystallization.

10202: 9609: 9561: 9506: 9182: 9172: 8917: 8905: 8843: 8773: 8748: 8708: 8687: 8434: 8076: 8046: 7862: 7843: 7526: 7266: 5806: 3933:, author of the first systematic treatise in scientific geology ( 3868:

Much of 19th-century geology revolved around the question of the

3658: 3574: 3540: 3535: 3252: 2960: 2740: 2654: 2628: 2618: 2594: 2558: 2482: 2318: 2284: 2130: 2129:

and large associated igneous bodies. The magma chamber feeds the

2122: 2000: 1871: 1795: 1751:(cutting off A & B) on which rock strata were deposited; D – 1745: 1617: 1596:– 90% of all land animals die; end of Paleozoic and beginning of 1341: 1049: 1016: 956: 923: 828: 177: 128: 8364: 7246: 6604:, vol. 1 (Paris, France: V. Duchesne, 1779), pp. 4, 5, and 7. 6344: 5867: 5596:

Metamorphic phase equilibria and pressure-temperature-time paths

5525: 4371: – Hierarchical outline list of articles related to geology 1188: 804: 9954: 9476: 9441: 8900: 8893: 8602: 8597: 8571: 8066: 7933: 7913: 6709:

Zittel, Karl Alfred von, with Maria M. Ogilvie-Gordon, trans.,

6660:, quoiqu'il ne s'agisse pas de l'Univers, mais seulement de la 6636:(I see that I wrote a treatise, and not a sketch of geology.) 6242: 6129: 5275: 5079:

Using geochemical data evaluation, presentation, interpretation

5010: 4764: 4026: 3292: 3284: 3280: 3276: 3272: 3240: 3219: 2784: 2771: 2436: 2415: 2076: 2003: 1970: 1851: 1576: 1320: 999: 898: 808: 787: 744: 167: 7261: 6424:. History of civilizations of Central Asia. pp. 211–214. 6075: 6073: 3634:

geologists, whose works included the earliest writings on the

2521: 2167: 2153: 1866: 1700: 1683: 1653: 1488: 1471: 1455: 1434: 1395: 9496: 8930: 8888: 8881: 8876: 8713: 8667: 8629: 8587: 8254: 8031: 8013: 7853: 7792: 7256: 7218: 5201: 4598:

in New Hampshire Geological Survey, Geologic maps. des.nh.gov

4417: 3732: 3616: 3578: 3492: 3458: 3375: 3303: 3232: 3114: 3090: 2814: 2805:: measurement of characteristics of glaciers and their motion 2474: 2134: 2117: 1860: 1277: 1182: 1121: 1074: 1069: 983: 858:

plate. The color of the streak can help identify the mineral.

815:. Quartz makes up more than 10% of the Earth's crust by mass. 812: 635: 7173: 1241:

system, are where plates slide horizontally past each other.

1042:

Geologists also study unlithified materials (referred to as

9531: 8808: 8743: 8738: 8728: 8723: 8592: 8305: 7923: 6496:. Vol. 3. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd. pp. 603–604. 6070: 5927:

10.1130/0016-7606(1998)110<1105:TDSEOT>2.3.CO;2

5847:. Tulsa, OK: American Association of Petroleum Geologists. 3934: 3666: 3374:

built as part of a hydrogeological humanitarian project in

3371: 3268: 3256: 3236: 3179: 3163: 2514: 2330: 2067: 1883: 1159: 987: 7282: 5421: 5300: 4640:. A.E.J. Engel, Harold L. James, and B.F. Leonard (eds.). 3412:

and the geological environment. Groundwater hydrology, or

2456: 1575:– vast multiplication of hard-bodied life; first abundant 6949:

Niels Stensen, 1638–1686: the scientist who was beatified

5278:

4841:

Patterson, C. (1956). "Age of Meteorites and the Earth".

2530: 1258:

of how the lithosphere moves over the convecting mantle.

7761: 7271: 6630:"Je vis que je faisais un Traité, et non une equisse de 6534:) of 1603, which is reproduced in: Fantuzzi, Giovanni, 6164: 6079: 5303:

Field techniques in glaciology and glacial geomorphology

4638:

Petrologic studies: a volume in honor of A.F. Buddington

2614:

Work to understand change across landscapes, including:

971:

illustrates the relationships among them (see diagram).

864:

Breakage pattern: A mineral can either show fracture or

7174:

England, Philip; Molnar, Peter; Richter, Frank (2007).

7094: 6723:, 2nd ed. (London, England: Macmillan and Co., 1905), 6679:, … (Neuchatel, (Switzerland): Samuel Fauche, 1779). 5457:

Shepherd, T.J.; Rankin, A.H.; Alderton, D.H.M. (1985).

4694: 4653: 2464:, commonly used by geologists for mapping and surveying 2097:

dating are used to date surfaces and/or erosion rates.

1849:

states that, with sedimentary rocks, if inclusions (or

1081:. The active flow of molten rock is closely studied in 7231: 7224: 6420:

Asimov, M.S.; Bosworth, Clifford Edmund, eds. (1992).

5618: 5568: 3849:, in 1830. This book, which influenced the thought of 2317:

of the rocks. This metamorphism causes changes in the

1794:

concerns crosscutting intrusions. In geology, when an

10120: 8994: 7241: 6819:

Letter to the Editor: "Deluc's 'Geological Letters'"

5250: 4349: – List of definitions of geological terminology 4332: – List of definitions of geological terminology 3792:

because they believed that some rocks were formed by

3754:(layers) by examining the fossils contained in them. 2244:) motion. These structural regimes broadly relate to 1568:(megaannum: million years ago): second snowball Earth 897:

Taste: Minerals can have a distinctive taste such as

7226:

Earth Science News, Maps, Dictionary, Articles, Jobs

6648:"Je répète ici, ce que j'avois dit dans ma première 6132:

International Journal of Water Resources Development

4365:) – International non-governmental organization 4296: 2581:

Stratigraphic mapping: pinpointing the locations of

2263:, this is accomplished in two primary ways: through 2112: 2105:

is used for geologically young materials containing

1147:

deforming, solid, upper mantle, which is called the

4936:(9th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: J. Wiley. p. 18. 4880: 3408:, and the understanding of the interaction between 2760:

find important compounds for use in pharmaceuticals

2370:at deeper depths where the rocks deform ductilely. 1732:and other geological structures. Explanations: A – 1223:Arcs of volcanoes and earthquakes are theorized as 7097:Transactions of the American Philosophical Society 6026: 5939: 5171: 5076: 4737: 4561: 3430:Geologists also obtain data through stratigraphy, 3121:. However, some planetary geophysicists study the 2537:software are often used in geological field work ( 2414:, for example, consist almost entirely of layered 6841:Letter to the Editor: "Deluc versus de Saussure" 6538:… (Bologna, (Italy): Lelio dalla Volpe, 1774). 6457: 6366: 5598:. Washington, DC: Mineralogical Soc. of America. 5325: 5253:Environmental biogeochemistry and geomicrobiology 5200:. United States Geological Survey. Archived from 4443: 1859:are found. These foreign bodies are picked up as 1127:In the 1960s, it was discovered that the Earth's 10250: 7065: 5975: 5762: 5385: 4701:This Dynamic Earth: The Story of Plate Tectonics 4660:This Dynamic Earth: The Story of Plate Tectonics 4009: 3332:. Because many of these reservoirs are found in 1498: 440:Lists of geological features of the Solar System 5593: 5461:. Vol. 50. Glasgow: Blackie. p. 352. 2866:In addition to identifying rocks in the field ( 2101:can also be used for the dating of landscapes. 2089:Other methods are used for more recent events. 1894:. From top to bottom: Rounded tan domes of the 1767:were developed when geology first emerged as a 890:Magnetism: Involves using a magnet to test for 880:: the weight of a specific volume of a mineral. 743:. In practical terms, geology is important for 7148: 6446:The Ancestry of science: The Discovery of Time 6419: 6080:Hamilton, Pixie A.; Helsel, Dennis R. (1995). 4957: 4955: 4953: 4695:Kious, Jacquelyne; Tilling, Robert I. (1996). 4654:Kious, Jacquelyne; Tilling, Robert I. (1996). 3675:(1494–1555) published his groundbreaking work 3307:Mud log in process, a common way to study the 1728:can be used to determine the relative ages of 1323:were not able to propagate) and a dense solid 10106: 9931: 9232: 8980: 8555: 8380: 7777: 7298: 6563:Vai, Gian Battista; Cavazza, William (2003). 6551:& anco la Giologia, ovvero de Fossilibus; 6051: 5730:Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 5660:Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 5101: 4840: 4647: 3843:(1797–1875) first published his famous book, 2157:An illustration of the three types of faults. 1245:Plate tectonics has provided a mechanism for 1192:Oceanic-continental convergence resulting in 697:as a whole. One aspect is to demonstrate the 552: 6804:Letter to the Editor: "The term 'geology' " 6736:Eastman, Charles Rochester (12 August 1904) 5459:A practical guide to fluid inclusion studies 5350: 4876: 4874: 4872: 3861:and are still occurring today. In contrast, 2283:", or where it buckles downwards, creating " 2255:When rock units are placed under horizontal 1693:Martian time periods (millions of years ago) 642: 'study of, discourse') is a branch of 7059: 7016:James Hutton: The Founder of Modern Geology 6760:Letter to the Editor: "Variæ Auctoritatis" 5842: 5657: 4950: 4735: 4562:Guéguen, Yves; Palciauskas, Victor (1994). 4474:"Radioactivity: A Tool to Explore the Past" 4389: 1311:Seismologists can use the arrival times of 763:problems, and providing insights into past 10113: 10099: 9938: 9924: 9239: 9225: 8987: 8973: 8562: 8548: 8387: 8373: 7784: 7770: 7305: 7291: 6869: 6758:Emmons, Samuel Franklin (21 October 1904) 6738:Letter to the Editor: "Variæ Auctoritatis" 5727: 5276:McDougall, Ian; Harrison, T. Mark (1999). 5001:(New York: HarperCollins, 2001) pp. 59–91. 4688: 4359:International Union of Geological Sciences 3914:, founder of geology as a scientific field 3718:in 1778 and introduced as a fixed term by 3132:Although the Greek-language-origin prefix 1946:states that a sedimentary rock layer in a 1077:is the original unlithified source of all 854:: Performed by scratching the sample on a 559: 545: 7199: 6968: 6314: 6285: 5985: 5802: 5800: 5798: 5796: 5573:. Boston: Jones and Bartlett Publishers. 5528:Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology 5255:. Ann Arbor, MI: Ann Arbor Science Publ. 5106:. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall. 5039: 4869: 3047:water, coal, and hydrocarbon extraction. 2362:Where rock units slide past one another, 2349:, the entire sedimentary sequence of the 1902:, cliff-forming, vertically jointed, red 1385: 751:exploration and exploitation, evaluating 9028:Principle of cross-cutting relationships 7153:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 6799:(517) : 727–730 ; see p. 728. 6755:(502) : 215–217 ; see p. 216. 6713:(London, England: Walter Scott, 1901), 6397:. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1956. p. 13 4782: 4780: 4765:International Commission on Stratigraphy 4489:10.1524/ract.1995.7071.special-issue.305 3853:, successfully promoted the doctrine of 3561: 3468:Natural hazard § Geological hazards 3457: 3365: 3302: 3173: 3066: 3019: 2959: 2936: 2692:Locating buried archaeological artifacts 2544: 2520: 2508: 2485:; investigate past and current life and 2455: 2451: 2372: 2297: 2166: 2152: 2116: 1994: 1865: 1824:principle of cross-cutting relationships 1720: 1642: 1502: 1283: 1271: 1187: 1111: 1096: 913: 803: 786: 590: 578: 570: 229:Principle of cross-cutting relationships 7262:Video-interviews with famous geologists 6489: 4836: 4834: 3619:. Additionally, in the 4th century BCE 3071:Surface of Mars as photographed by the 2366:develop in shallow regions, and become 2329:in sedimentary rocks, flow features of 1037: 685:(a branch of geology) determines their 14: 10251: 9246: 9038:Principle of inclusions and components 8569: 6444:Toulmin, S., and Goodfield, J. (1965) 6362: 6360: 6286:Jones, P.D.; Mann, M.E. (6 May 2004). 6054:Principles of geotechnical engineering 5907:Geological Society of America Bulletin 5793: 5127: 4885:. Stanford, CA: Stanford Univ. Press. 4786: 4471: 3722:in 1779. The word is derived from the 3630:(973–1048 CE) was one of the earliest 3339: 3190:: How We Got Gold in California. 1860 2597:of equal thickness of sedimentary rock 2125:activity. Deep below the surface is a 1846:principle of inclusions and components 1610:die; end of Mesozoic and beginning of 1511:, showing the relative lengths of the 1507:Geological time in a diagram called a 782: 239:Principle of inclusions and components 10094: 9945: 9919: 9220: 8968: 8543: 8368: 7765: 7286: 6935:(London, England: S. Thomson, 1663). 6448:, Hutchinson & Co., London, p. 64 5330:. New York: Oxford University Press. 5301:Hubbard, Bryn; Glasser, Neil (2005). 5280:. New York: Oxford University Press. 4961: 4931: 4777: 2949: 2902:, and interference properties with a 2261:do not significantly change in volume 1798:intrusion cuts across a formation of 1212:, high regions on the seafloor where 1015:by heat and pressure that change its 693:are able to chronicle the geological 10062:Geology of solar terrestrial planets 8522: 8316:Geology of solar terrestrial planets 6879:. HarperCollins Publishers. p. 4964:"Steno's Principles of Stratigraphy" 4831: 4565:Introduction to the Physics of Rocks 3298: 3093:. This new field of study is called 3062: 1920:Glen Canyon National Recreation Area 1791:principle of intrusive relationships 1672: 681:of rocks found at a given location; 445:Geology of solar terrestrial planets 9482:List of tectonic plate interactions 9013:Principle of original horizontality 7744: 6458:Al-Rawi, Munin M. (November 2002). 6357: 5750:10.1146/annurev.ea.23.050195.002111 5680:10.1146/annurev.ea.18.050190.000415 5424:Earth and Planetary Science Letters 5251:Krumbein, Wolfgang E., ed. (1978). 5020:Earth and Planetary Science Letters 4717:from the original on 10 August 2011 4676:from the original on 10 August 2011 3693:principle of original horizontality 3419: 3194: 2149:, which releases both lava and ash. 2145:volcano, which releases ash, and a 1929:principle of original horizontality 1135:and rigid uppermost portion of the 887:on the mineral to test for fizzing. 646:concerned with the Earth and other 214:Principle of original horizontality 24: 9051: 7025:American Museum of Natural History 6326:from the original on 11 April 2019 6187:10.1111/j.1745-6584.1988.tb00397.x 6106:10.1111/j.1745-6584.1995.tb00276.x 5996:10.1016/B978-0-444-53802-4.00186-X 5373:10.1111/j.1365-3091.1985.tb00470.x 5328:Introduction to optical mineralogy 5128:Hansen, Jens Morten (2009-01-01). 4410: 4395: 3786:Followers of Hutton were known as 3453: 3169: 3154:(of Mars), etc., are also in use. 2605:Surveying of topographic features 2302:A diagram of folds, indicating an 2193:into sedimentary rock, or when as 2030:For many geological applications, 1976: 1759:(cutting through A, B, C & E). 1710: 1351: 1335:below (separated within itself by 1261: 1101: 25: 10270: 10122:Types and processes of weathering 8394: 7247:European Federation of Geologists 7212: 6839:Emmons, S. F. (17 February 1905) 6817:Eastman, C. R. (20 January 1905) 6780:Eastman, C.R. (25 November 1904) 6493:Science and Civilisation in China 5305:. Chichester, England: J. Wiley. 4968:Dinosaurs and the History of Life 4003:1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens 3687:(1638–1686) is credited with the 3363:, particularly in North America. 3213: 2914:studies provide insight into the 2754:and to use these discoveries to: 2671:Electrical resistivity tomography 2141:. The diagram illustrates both a 2113:Geological development of an area 2091:Optically stimulated luminescence 1705: 1216:and volcanoes exist, are seen as 1089:aims to determine the history of 883:Effervescence: Involves dripping 833:Minerals are naturally occurring 595:Metamorphic rock, Nunavut, Canada 10075: 10074: 9900: 9899: 9200: 8949: 8948: 8521: 8509: 8498: 8497: 8349: 8348: 7852: 7743: 7732: 7731: 7719: 7351: 6802:Emmons, S.F. (23 December 1904) 4313: 4299: 4000:13 hours before his death at the 3986: 3964: 3942: 3919: 3900: 3891:. The theory revolutionized the 2828: 2813: 2777:For research into past life and 2504: 2050:studies. Common methods include 1665:Millions of years before present 1528:(gigaannum: billion years ago): 701:. Geology provides evidence for 526: 68: 9023:Principle of lateral continuity 8057:Human impact on the environment 7167: 7142: 7123: 7088: 7077:from the original on 2015-10-27 7073:. Philadelphia: Abraham Small. 7028: 7009: 7000: 6989:from the original on 2021-06-24 6962: 6959:. Gracewing Publishing. p. 127. 6940: 6897: 6863: 6700: 6669: 6594: 6583:from the original on 2016-04-20 6556: 6532:Testamento d'Ullisse Aldrovandi 6524: 6518:"Georgius Agricola (1494–1555)" 6510: 6483: 6472:from the original on 2012-10-03 6451: 6438: 6413: 6400: 6387: 6338: 6279: 6236: 6193: 6158: 6123: 6112:from the original on 2020-10-31 6045: 6020: 5969: 5933: 5897: 5861: 5836: 5766:Journal of Geophysical Research 5756: 5721: 5686: 5651: 5612: 5587: 5569:McBirney, Alexander R. (2007). 5562: 5519: 5450: 5415: 5379: 5344: 5319: 5294: 5269: 5244: 5215: 5190: 5165: 5150:from the original on 2017-01-20 5132:. In Rosenberg, Gary D. (ed.). 5120: 5095: 5070: 5004: 4985: 4974:from the original on 2008-05-09 4925: 4899: 4843:Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 4758: 4740:Origin of continents and oceans 4729: 4625:Hess, H.H. (November 1, 1962) " 4543:from the original on 9 May 2017 4514:from the original on 2019-12-12 3699:: three defining principles of 3697:principle of lateral continuity 3015: 2882:analysis, petrologists analyze 2517:field mapping camp in the 1950s 1604:Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction 1052:. This study is often known as 922:shows the relationship between 775:and plays an important role in 224:Principle of lateral continuity 9033:Principle of faunal succession 7886:Climate variability and change 7237:American Geosciences Institute 6876:The Map that Changed the World 6675:Saussure, Horace-Bénédict de, 5475:10.1180/minmag.1986.050.356.32 4998:The Map that Changed the World 4619: 4601: 4582: 4555: 4533:"Mineral Identification Tests" 4525: 4465: 3823:American Philosophical Society 3450:outside of instrumental data. 3283:, as well as elements such as 2555:Petrified Forest National Park 2535:geographic information systems 2441:oldest known rock in the world 2271:. In the shallow crust, where 1957:principle of faunal succession 1777:principle of uniformitarianism 1331:(including crust) on top, the 1220:, where two plates move apart. 575:Solidified lava flow in Hawaii 234:Principle of faunal succession 13: 1: 10233:Factors of polymer weathering 8311:Evolution of the Solar System 7272:Chronostratigraphy benchmarks 7252:Geological Society of America 7130:Maclure's 1809 Geological Map 6652:, sur la substitution de mot 6288:"Climate over past millennia" 6056:. England: Thomson Learning. 6031:. San Diego: Academic Press. 6029:Elements of petroleum geology 5963:10.1016/S0277-3791(98)00077-8 5845:Atlas of seismic stratigraphy 5715:10.1016/S0191-8141(97)00096-5 5695:Journal of Structural Geology 5409:10.1016/S0012-8252(02)00133-2 5050:10.1016/S0012-821X(98)00050-8 4697:"Understanding Plate Motions" 4642:Geological Society of America 4382: 4010:Fields or related disciplines 3730:, meaning "earth" and λόγος, 3597:(372–287 BCE) wrote the work 3146:". Specialized terms such as 3101:, and largely focuses on the 2968:. It builds its shape into a 2700:High-resolution stratigraphy 2627:River-channel change through 1827:pertains to the formation of 1499:Important milestones on Earth 8062:Evolutionary history of life 7257:Geological Society of London 6345:USGS Natural Hazards Gateway 5444:10.1016/0012-821X(95)00052-E 4881:Dalrymple, G. Brent (1994). 4863:10.1016/0016-7037(56)90036-9 4472:Gunten, Hans R. von (1995). 3462:Rockfall in the Grand Canyon 3389: 3370:A child drinks water from a 3243:, and many minerals such as 2855: 1627:, direct ancestor to modern 707:evolutionary history of life 7: 7376:Geological history of Earth 7312: 6969:Lomonosov, Mikhail (2012). 6027:Selley, Richard C. (1998). 5172:Compton, Robert R. (1985). 5077:Rollinson, Hugh R. (1996). 4770:September 20, 2005, at the 4403:Online Etymology Dictionary 4292: 3720:Horace-Bénédict de Saussure 2999:, which are zones in which 2644:Subsurface mapping through 1594:Permian-Triassic extinction 1358:Geological history of Earth 822: 344:Geological history of Earth 10: 10275: 7850: 7349: 7242:European Geosciences Union 7232:American Geophysical Union 6972:On the Strata of the Earth 6903:Escholt, Michel Pedersøn, 6638:From the footnote on p. 7: 6367:Winchester, Simon (2002). 5943:Quaternary Science Reviews 5326:Nesse, William D. (1991). 5226:; Jones, Craig H. (2006). 4418: 3811:geological map of the U.S. 3777:Royal Society of Edinburgh 3551: 3547: 3465: 3423: 3393: 3343: 3314: 3217: 3198: 3078: 3031: 2953: 2921:Petrologists can also use 2859: 2792:Collection of samples for 2539:digital geological mapping 2347:Maria Fold and Thrust Belt 2333:, and crystal patterns in 2277:principle of superposition 1980: 1943:principle of superposition 1906:, slope-forming, purplish 1888:Capitol Reef National Park 1714: 1679:Geological history of Mars 1676: 1646: 1355: 1265: 1231:, or moves, under another. 1200:illustrates one effect of 1105: 1067: 940: 826: 626: 623: 'earth' and 609: 196:Laws, principles, theories 75:Science of the solid Earth 39: 29: 10195: 10164: 10128: 10070: 10057: 10024: 10001: 9953: 9895: 9867: 9834: 9816: 9763: 9691: 9628: 9585: 9567:Thick-skinned deformation 9361: 9320: 9254: 9196: 9163: 9120: 9062: 9049: 9003: 8944: 8857: 8816: 8807: 8764: 8686: 8628: 8578: 8493: 8420: 8402: 8334: 8296: 8253: 8198: 8140: 8075: 8022: 7952: 7904: 7861: 7799: 7791: 7713: 7687: 7616: 7578: 7525: 7499: 7463: 7430: 7390:Composition and structure 7389: 7361: 7343:Index of geology articles 7320: 7066:Maclure, William (1817). 6245:Journal of Paleolimnology 5843:Bally, A.W., ed. (1987). 5230:. New York: W.W. Norton. 4932:Levin, Harold L. (2010). 4589:"Surficial Geologic Maps" 4537:Geoman's Mineral ID Tests 4353:Index of geology articles 3638:, hypothesizing that the 2918:evolution of rock units. 2703:Measuring and describing 2133:, and sends offshoots of 1892:Canyonlands National Park 1744:(cutting through A); C – 9572:Thin-skinned deformation 9348:Stereographic projection 9122:Geomorphologic processes 9005:Stratigraphic principles 8998:principles and processes 8321:Location in the Universe 8263:Antarctic/Southern Ocean 7962:List of sovereign states 7034:Gutenberg ebook links: ( 6490:Needham, Joseph (1986). 5637:10.1093/petrology/egq010 5594:Spear, Frank S. (1995). 4613:OCRE Geoscience Services 4453:. The Geological Society 3813:was produced in 1809 by 3354:Geotechnical engineering 3056:depositional environment 3026:Zhangye National Geopark 2886:of rock samples using a 2839:in cross polarized light 2661:Ground-penetrating radar 2321:of the rocks; creates a 2139:intrusive igneous bodies 1918:sandstone. Picture from 1649:Lunar geologic timescale 1156:convection of the mantle 1063: 1019:content, resulting in a 777:geotechnical engineering 658:. It is integrated with 204:Stratigraphic principles 40:Not to be confused with 9338:Orthographic projection 9321:Measurement conventions 9267:Lamé's stress ellipsoid 7149:Lyell, Charles (1991). 6721:The Founders of Geology 6373:. New York: Perennial. 5787:10.1029/JB089iB12p10087 5436:1995E&PSL.132...25C 5198:"USGS Topographic Maps" 5032:1998E&PSL.158..175T 4970:. Columbia University. 4962:Olsen, Paul E. (2001). 4809:10.1126/science.1073950 4744:. Courier Corporation. 4656:"Developing the Theory" 4627:History Of Ocean Basins 4483:. 70–71 (s1): 305–413. 4434:A Greek–English Lexicon 3829:, and published in the 3761:published his treatise 3738:Mikkel Pedersøn Escholt 3628:Abu al-Rayhan al-Biruni 3507:River channel migration 3311:when drilling oil wells 3150:(studies of the Moon), 3075:lander December 9, 1977 2888:petrographic microscope 2822:petrographic microscope 2730:Collecting samples to: 2681:Hydrocarbon exploration 2650:These methods include: 2095:cosmogenic radionuclide 1910:, layered, lighter-red 1726:Cross-cutting relations 1536:Accretion, or formation 1337:seismic discontinuities 909: 771:, and it is central to 9188:Mass wasting processes 9056: 6858:(529) : 274–275. 6814:(521) : 886–887. 6677:Voyages dans les Alpes 6600:Deluc, Jean André de, 6152:10.1080/07900629948916 6052:Das, Braja M. (2006). 5978:Treatise on Geophysics 5102:Faure, Gunter (1998). 4934:The earth through time 4103:Geological engineering 3831:Society's Transactions 3763:On the Strata of Earth 3646:, the Persian scholar 3586: 3463: 3379: 3361:geological engineering 3312: 3191: 3076: 3029: 2973: 2946: 2705:stratigraphic sections 2562: 2542: 2518: 2465: 2462:Brunton Pocket Transit 2386: 2310: 2179: 2164: 2150: 2064:uranium–thorium dating 2056:potassium–argon dating 2011: 1923: 1760: 1554:c. 2.3 Ga: Oxygenated 1543:Late Heavy Bombardment 1530:Solar system formation 1520: 1519:of the Earth's history 1386:Timescale of the Earth 1289: 1281: 1268:Structure of the Earth 1205: 1124: 938: 816: 801: 773:geological engineering 729:geophysical techniques 671:structure of the Earth 669:Geology describes the 596: 588: 585:Badlands National Park 583:Sedimentary layers in 576: 9849:Paleostress inversion 9542:Strike-slip tectonics 9412:Extensional tectonics 9392:Continental collision 9262:Deformation mechanism 9064:Petrologic principles 9055: 8430:Environmental science 8042:Biogeochemical cycles 7967:dependent territories 7639:Environmental geology 7151:Principles of geology 6295:Reviews of Geophysics 5389:Earth-Science Reviews 4425:Liddell, Henry George 4321:Earth sciences portal 4237:Pedology (soil study) 4049:Environmental science 4044:Environmental geology 3846:Principles of Geology 3825:in a memoir entitled 3565: 3461: 3448:global climate change 3404:, the restoration of 3369: 3306: 3177: 3070: 3023: 2963: 2940: 2548: 2524: 2512: 2459: 2452:Investigative methods 2376: 2301: 2246:convergent boundaries 2205:blanket the surface. 2170: 2156: 2120: 2082:Fractionation of the 1998: 1914:, and white, layered 1882:area of southeastern 1869: 1736:rock strata cut by a 1724: 1643:Timescale of the Moon 1506: 1287: 1275: 1225:convergent boundaries 1191: 1143:that move across the 1131:, which includes the 1115: 1097:Whole-Earth structure 1048:) that lie above the 1021:characteristic fabric 917: 807: 790: 767:. Geology is a major 594: 582: 574: 9427:Fold and thrust belt 9150:Marine transgression 9018:Law of superposition 8829:Evolutionary history 8090:Computer cartography 7814:Prebiotic atmosphere 7598:Planetary geophysics 7267:Geology OpenTextbook 7201:10.1130/GSAT01701A.1 6395:The Earth We Live On 6316:10.1029/2003RG000143 5980:. pp. 673–694. 5773:(B12): 10087–10101. 5625:Journal of Petrology 5174:Geology in the field 5160:above Earth's crust. 4883:The age of the earth 4736:Wegener, A. (1999). 4108:Geological modelling 4069:Isotope geochemistry 4017:Earth system science 3689:law of superposition 3322:Petroleum geologists 2735:biochemical pathways 2666:Aeromagnetic surveys 2593:) or the mapping of 2250:divergent boundaries 2238:horizontal extension 2042:. These are used in 2020:radioactive isotopes 1878:stratigraphy of the 1749:angular unconformity 1548:c. 3.5 Ga: Start of 1235:Transform boundaries 1218:divergent boundaries 1139:, is separated into 1045:superficial deposits 1038:Unlithified material 737:physical experiments 695:history of the Earth 660:Earth system science 648:astronomical objects 219:Law of superposition 10165:Physical weathering 10129:Chemical weathering 10034:Geology of the Moon 9859:Section restoration 9735:Rock microstructure 9397:Convergent boundary 9297:Strain partitioning 9282:Overburden pressure 9272:Mohr–Coulomb theory 8766:Natural environment 8425:Atmospheric science 8233:Geologic time scale 7954:Culture and society 7809:Atmosphere of Earth 7700:Petroleum geologist 7664:Forensic geophysics 7634:Engineering geology 7381:Timeline of geology 7333:Glossary of geology 7192:2007GSAT...17R...4E 6719:Geikie, Archibald, 6307:2004RvGeo..42.2002J 6257:1990JPall...4..269C 6214:1987Natur.329..408B 6179:1988GrWat..26..333W 6144:1999IJWRD..15...29S 6098:1995GrWat..33..217H 5955:1999QSRv...18..753T 5919:1998GSAB..110.1105P 5891:10.1306/02260403062 5883:2004BAAPG..88.1049F 5822:1994PalOc...9..835H 5779:1984JGR....8910087D 5742:1995AREPS..23..375K 5707:1998JSG....20..407G 5672:1990AREPS..18...55D 5540:1987CoMP...96....1S 5467:1986MinM...50..352P 5401:2003ESRv...62..105Z 5365:1985Sedim..32..553M 5222:Burger, H. Robert; 5176:. New York: Wiley. 5081:. Harlow: Longman. 4855:1956GeCoA..10..230P 4801:2002Sci...297.1678A 4795:(5587): 1678–1683. 4375:Timeline of geology 4347:Glossary of geology 4330:Glossary of geology 4096:Technical geography 4039:Engineering geology 3819:Allegheny Mountains 3773:Theory of the Earth 3678:De Natura Fossilium 3640:Indian subcontinent 3558:Timeline of geology 3346:Engineering geology 3340:Engineering geology 3103:terrestrial planets 3085:With the advent of 3050:In the laboratory, 2912:radioactive isotope 2876:electron microprobe 2646:geophysical methods 2637:Hillslope processes 2491:geophysical methods 2392:accommodation space 2383:Kittatinny Mountain 2319:mineral composition 2273:brittle deformation 2240:, or side-to-side ( 2052:uranium–lead dating 2036:closure temperature 1961:the publication of 1362:Geologic time scale 1164:convection currents 994:. This rock can be 901:(which tastes like 783:Geological material 769:academic discipline 741:numerical modelling 363:Branches of geology 302:Landform structures 183:Geologic time scale 9993:Geology of Neptune 9978:Geology of Jupiter 9963:Geology of Mercury 9836:Kinematic analysis 9492:Mountain formation 9407:Divergent boundary 9372:Accretionary wedge 9248:Structural geology 9207:Geology portal 9165:Sediment transport 9057: 8475:Physical geography 8228:Geological history 8102:Geodetic astronomy 7726:Geology portal 7654:Geologic modelling 7593:Geophysical survey 7545:Geodetic astronomy 7471:Structural geology 7432:Historical geology 7363:History of geology 7338:History of geology 7328:Outline of geology 7135:2014-08-14 at the 7052:2020-08-09 at the 7041:2020-09-14 at the 7021:2016-08-27 at the 6955:2017-01-20 at the 6946:Kermit H., (2003) 6931:2017-02-16 at the 6924:Geologia Norvegica 6913:2017-02-16 at the 6846:2017-02-16 at the 6824:2017-02-16 at the 6788:2017-02-07 at the 6777:(512) : 537. 6765:2017-02-07 at the 6743:2017-02-07 at the 6730:2017-02-16 at the 6686:2017-02-06 at the 6643:2018-11-22 at the 6625:2018-11-22 at the 6611:2018-11-22 at the 6545:2017-02-16 at the 6350:2010-09-23 at the 6265:10.1007/BF00239699 5548:10.1007/BF00375521 4914:2017-01-19 at the 4774:. stratigraphy.org 4636:", pp. 599–620 in 4632:2009-10-16 at the 4594:2016-02-16 at the 4451:"What is geology?" 4369:Outline of geology 4271:Structural geology 4259:Chronostratigraphy 4143:Historical geology 4091:Physical geography 3885:seafloor spreading 3874:radiometric dating 3742:Geologia Norvegica 3710:was first used by 3587: 3554:History of geology 3464: 3402:stream restoration 3380: 3334:sedimentary basins 3313: 3192: 3077: 3030: 3010:critically tapered 2974: 2956:Structural geology 2950:Structural geology 2947: 2880:optical mineralogy 2872:optical microscopy 2847:optical mineralogy 2748:chemical compounds 2583:sedimentary facies 2574:Geological mapping 2563: 2543: 2527:handheld computers 2519: 2489:pathways, and use 2466: 2446:geological history 2387: 2364:strike-slip faults 2311: 2207:Igneous intrusions 2180: 2165: 2151: 2103:Radiocarbon dating 2060:argon–argon dating 2012: 2008:radiometric dating 1987:radiometric dating 1924: 1912:Moenkopi Formation 1761: 1573:Cambrian explosion 1521: 1370:material at 4.567 1290: 1282: 1227:, where one plate 1214:hydrothermal vents 1206: 1125: 1054:Quaternary geology 939: 817: 802: 709:, and the Earth's 597: 589: 577: 533:Geology portal 453:By planet and body 321:Structural Geology 293:Structure of Earth 10246: 10245: 10151:Mineral hydration 10088: 10087: 10049:Geology of Charon 10044:Geology of Triton 9988:Geology of Uranus 9983:Geology of Saturn 9947:Planetary Geology 9913: 9912: 9844:3D fold evolution 9730:Pressure solution 9725:Oblique foliation 9605:Exfoliation joint 9595:Columnar jointing 9255:Underlying theory 9214: 9213: 9183:Glacial processes 9178:Aeolian processes 9173:Fluvial processes 9155:Marine regression 8962: 8961: 8940: 8939: 8613:chemical elements 8537: 8536: 8362: 8361: 8298:Planetary science 8218:Extremes on Earth 8185:Signal processing 7759: 7758: 7644:Planetary geology 7560:Planetary geodesy 7279:(1911) W. F. Hume 7160:978-0-226-49797-6 7139:. davidrumsey.com 6982:978-0-8137-2485-0 6890:978-0-06-093180-3 6871:Winchester, Simon 6576:978-88-7381-056-8 6503:978-0-521-31560-9 6431:978-92-3-102719-2 6410:. Book 1, Part 14 6380:978-0-06-093180-3 6208:(6138): 408–414. 6063:978-0-534-55144-5 6038:978-0-12-636370-8 5854:978-0-89181-033-9 5830:10.1029/94PA01838 5605:978-0-939950-34-8 5580:978-0-7637-3448-0 5571:Igneous petrology 5484:978-0-412-00601-2 5337:978-0-19-506024-9 5312:978-0-470-84426-7 5287:978-0-19-510920-7 5262:978-0-250-40218-2 5237:978-0-393-92637-8 5183:978-0-471-82902-7 5143:978-0-8137-1203-1 5113:978-0-02-336450-1 5088:978-0-582-06701-1 4943:978-0-470-38774-0 4905:Reijer Hooykaas, 4892:978-0-8047-2331-2 4751:978-0-486-61708-4 4710:978-0-16-048220-5 4669:978-0-16-048220-5 4575:978-0-691-03452-2 4481:Radiochimica Acta 4396:Harper, Douglas. 4264:Lithostratigraphy 4207:Planetary geology 4185:Micropaleontology 4032:Petroleum geology 3998:David A. Johnston 3927:Mikhail Lomonosov 3908:Georgius Agricola 3889:continental drift 3870:Earth's exact age 3855:uniformitarianism 3841:Sir Charles Lyell 3759:Mikhail Lomonosov 3714:in 1603, then by 3712:Ulisse Aldrovandi 3673:Georgius Agricola 3526:Soil liquefaction 3384:civil engineering 3317:Petroleum geology 3299:Petroleum geology 3208:natural resources 3162:, which analyzed 3099:planetary science 3095:planetary geology 3087:space exploration 3081:Planetary geology 3063:Planetary geology 3052:biostratigraphers 2335:crystalline rocks 2195:volcanic material 2173:San Andreas Fault 2147:composite volcano 2084:lanthanide series 2048:thermochronologic 2006:is often used in 1904:Wingate Sandstone 1900:Kayenta Formation 1694: 1673:Timescale of Mars 1666: 1585:c. 380 Ma: First 1485: 1298:computer modeling 1251:continental drift 1239:San Andreas Fault 1087:igneous petrology 1058:Quaternary period 1013:metamorphic rocks 885:hydrochloric acid 733:chemical analysis 664:planetary science 569: 568: 433:Planetary geology 385:Geological survey 16:(Redirected from 10266: 10228:Space weathering 10172:Frost weathering 10115: 10108: 10101: 10092: 10091: 10078: 10077: 10016:Geology of Pluto 10011:Geology of Ceres 9968:Geology of Venus 9940: 9933: 9926: 9917: 9916: 9903: 9902: 9648:Detachment fault 9643:Cataclastic rock 9577:Thrust tectonics 9547:Structural basin 9522:Pull-apart basin 9462:Horst and graben 9241: 9234: 9227: 9218: 9217: 9205: 9204: 8989: 8982: 8975: 8966: 8965: 8952: 8951: 8824: 8814: 8813: 8754:tropical cyclone 8704: 8564: 8557: 8550: 8541: 8540: 8525: 8524: 8513: 8501: 8500: 8389: 8382: 8375: 8366: 8365: 8352: 8351: 8245:History of Earth 7896:Paleoclimatology 7856: 7786: 7779: 7772: 7763: 7762: 7747: 7746: 7735: 7734: 7724: 7723: 7659:Forensic geology 7629:Economic geology 7555:Gravity of Earth 7450:Paleoclimatology 7355: 7307: 7300: 7293: 7284: 7283: 7206: 7205: 7203: 7171: 7165: 7164: 7146: 7140: 7127: 7121: 7120: 7092: 7086: 7085: 7083: 7082: 7063: 7057: 7032: 7026: 7013: 7007: 7004: 6998: 6997: 6995: 6994: 6966: 6960: 6944: 6938: 6901: 6895: 6894: 6867: 6861: 6704: 6698: 6673: 6667: 6598: 6592: 6591: 6589: 6588: 6560: 6554: 6528: 6522: 6521: 6514: 6508: 6507: 6487: 6481: 6480: 6478: 6477: 6471: 6464: 6455: 6449: 6442: 6436: 6435: 6417: 6411: 6404: 6398: 6391: 6385: 6384: 6364: 6355: 6342: 6336: 6335: 6333: 6331: 6325: 6318: 6292: 6283: 6277: 6276: 6240: 6234: 6233: 6222:10.1038/329408a0 6197: 6191: 6190: 6162: 6156: 6155: 6127: 6121: 6120: 6118: 6117: 6077: 6068: 6067: 6049: 6043: 6042: 6024: 6018: 6017: 5989: 5973: 5967: 5966: 5937: 5931: 5930: 5913:(9): 1105–1122. 5901: 5895: 5894: 5877:(8): 1049–1068. 5865: 5859: 5858: 5840: 5834: 5833: 5810:Paleoceanography 5804: 5791: 5790: 5760: 5754: 5753: 5725: 5719: 5718: 5690: 5684: 5683: 5655: 5649: 5648: 5631:(5): 1027–1051. 5616: 5610: 5609: 5591: 5585: 5584: 5566: 5560: 5559: 5523: 5517: 5516: 5510: 5506: 5504: 5496: 5454: 5448: 5447: 5419: 5413: 5412: 5383: 5377: 5376: 5348: 5342: 5341: 5323: 5317: 5316: 5298: 5292: 5291: 5273: 5267: 5266: 5248: 5242: 5241: 5224:Sheehan, Anne F. 5219: 5213: 5212: 5210: 5209: 5194: 5188: 5187: 5169: 5163: 5162: 5156: 5155: 5124: 5118: 5117: 5099: 5093: 5092: 5074: 5068: 5067: 5065: 5064: 5058: 5052:. Archived from 5043: 5026:(3–4): 175–186. 5017: 5008: 5002: 4993:Simon Winchester 4991:As recounted in 4989: 4983: 4982: 4980: 4979: 4959: 4948: 4947: 4929: 4923: 4903: 4897: 4896: 4878: 4867: 4866: 4838: 4829: 4828: 4784: 4775: 4762: 4756: 4755: 4743: 4733: 4727: 4726: 4724: 4722: 4692: 4686: 4685: 4683: 4681: 4651: 4645: 4623: 4617: 4616: 4605: 4599: 4586: 4580: 4579: 4559: 4553: 4552: 4550: 4548: 4529: 4523: 4522: 4520: 4519: 4513: 4478: 4469: 4463: 4462: 4460: 4458: 4447: 4441: 4421: 4420: 4414: 4408: 4407: 4393: 4364: 4323: 4318: 4317: 4316: 4309: 4304: 4303: 4217:Regional geology 4175:Paleoclimatology 4022:Economic geology 3990: 3972:John Tuzo Wilson 3968: 3946: 3923: 3904: 3716:Jean-André Deluc 3644:Muslim conquests 3636:geology of India 3426:Paleoclimatology 3420:Paleoclimatology 3382:In the field of 3201:Economic geology 3195:Economic geology 3178:Man panning for 3003:are built along 2874:and by using an 2832: 2817: 2798:thermochronology 2770:: excavation of 2610:topographic maps 2435:in northwestern 2412:Hawaiian Islands 2099:Dendrochronology 1916:Cutler Formation 1908:Chinle Formation 1896:Navajo Sandstone 1880:Colorado Plateau 1800:sedimentary rock 1692: 1664: 1625:Australopithecus 1545:, the first life 1541:c. 4 Ga: End of 1509:geological clock 1483: 1210:Mid-ocean ridges 1174:is called plate 878:Specific gravity 755:, understanding 725:rock description 699:age of the Earth 639: 630: 620: 613: 561: 554: 547: 531: 530: 335:Geologic history 72: 47: 46: 21: 10274: 10273: 10269: 10268: 10267: 10265: 10264: 10263: 10249: 10248: 10247: 10242: 10191: 10182:Thermal fatigue 10160: 10124: 10119: 10089: 10084: 10066: 10053: 10020: 9997: 9973:Geology of Mars 9949: 9944: 9914: 9909: 9891: 9863: 9830: 9812: 9783:Detachment fold 9759: 9687: 9683:Transform fault 9658:Fault mechanics 9624: 9581: 9517:Plate tectonics 9467:Intra-arc basin 9357: 9328:Brunton compass 9316: 9250: 9245: 9215: 9210: 9199: 9192: 9159: 9140:Tectonic uplift 9130:Plate tectonics 9116: 9058: 9047: 8999: 8993: 8963: 8958: 8936: 8853: 8822: 8803: 8760: 8702: 8682: 8673:Gaia hypothesis 8663:Plate tectonics 8624: 8574: 8568: 8538: 8533: 8489: 8470:Paleogeoscience 8416: 8398: 8393: 8363: 8358: 8330: 8292: 8249: 8240:Geologic record 8194: 8180:Plate tectonics 8170:Mineral physics 8150:Earth structure 8136: 8071: 8018: 7948: 7900: 7857: 7848: 7795: 7790: 7760: 7755: 7718: 7709: 7683: 7679:Mineral physics 7612: 7574: 7521: 7495: 7481:Plate tectonics 7459: 7455:Palaeogeography 7426: 7402:Crystallography 7385: 7357: 7356: 7347: 7316: 7311: 7215: 7210: 7209: 7172: 7168: 7161: 7147: 7143: 7137:Wayback Machine 7128: 7124: 7109:10.2307/1006294 7093: 7089: 7080: 7078: 7064: 7060: 7054:Wayback Machine 7043:Wayback Machine 7033: 7029: 7023:Wayback Machine 7014: 7010: 7005: 7001: 6992: 6990: 6983: 6967: 6963: 6957:Wayback Machine 6945: 6941: 6933:Wayback Machine 6915:Wayback Machine 6902: 6898: 6891: 6868: 6864: 6848:Wayback Machine 6826:Wayback Machine 6790:Wayback Machine 6767:Wayback Machine 6745:Wayback Machine 6732:Wayback Machine 6705: 6701: 6688:Wayback Machine 6674: 6670: 6645:Wayback Machine 6627:Wayback Machine 6613:Wayback Machine 6599: 6595: 6586: 6584: 6577: 6561: 6557: 6547:Wayback Machine 6530:From his will ( 6529: 6525: 6516: 6515: 6511: 6504: 6488: 6484: 6475: 6473: 6469: 6462: 6456: 6452: 6443: 6439: 6432: 6418: 6414: 6405: 6401: 6392: 6388: 6381: 6365: 6358: 6352:Wayback Machine 6343: 6339: 6329: 6327: 6323: 6290: 6284: 6280: 6241: 6237: 6198: 6194: 6163: 6159: 6128: 6124: 6115: 6113: 6078: 6071: 6064: 6050: 6046: 6039: 6025: 6021: 6006: 5974: 5970: 5938: 5934: 5902: 5898: 5866: 5862: 5855: 5841: 5837: 5805: 5794: 5761: 5757: 5726: 5722: 5691: 5687: 5656: 5652: 5617: 5613: 5606: 5592: 5588: 5581: 5567: 5563: 5524: 5520: 5508: 5507: 5498: 5497: 5485: 5455: 5451: 5420: 5416: 5384: 5380: 5349: 5345: 5338: 5324: 5320: 5313: 5299: 5295: 5288: 5274: 5270: 5263: 5249: 5245: 5238: 5220: 5216: 5207: 5205: 5196: 5195: 5191: 5184: 5170: 5166: 5153: 5151: 5144: 5125: 5121: 5114: 5100: 5096: 5089: 5075: 5071: 5062: 5060: 5056: 5041:10.1.1.498.7372 5015: 5009: 5005: 4990: 4986: 4977: 4975: 4960: 4951: 4944: 4930: 4926: 4916:Wayback Machine 4904: 4900: 4893: 4879: 4870: 4839: 4832: 4785: 4778: 4772:Wayback Machine 4763: 4759: 4752: 4734: 4730: 4720: 4718: 4711: 4693: 4689: 4679: 4677: 4670: 4652: 4648: 4634:Wayback Machine 4624: 4620: 4607: 4606: 4602: 4596:Wayback Machine 4587: 4583: 4576: 4560: 4556: 4546: 4544: 4531: 4530: 4526: 4517: 4515: 4511: 4476: 4470: 4466: 4456: 4454: 4449: 4448: 4444: 4439:Perseus Project 4415: 4411: 4394: 4390: 4385: 4380: 4362: 4319: 4314: 4312: 4305: 4298: 4295: 4290: 4276:Systems geology 4254:Biostratigraphy 4212:Plate tectonics 4118:Geomicrobiology 4064:Biogeochemistry 4012: 4005: 4001: 3991: 3982: 3980:plate tectonics 3969: 3960: 3947: 3938: 3924: 3915: 3905: 3881:plate tectonics 3859:Earth's history 3815:William Maclure 3613:Pliny the Elder 3581:, and southern 3560: 3552:Main articles: 3550: 3545: 3470: 3456: 3454:Natural hazards 3428: 3422: 3410:natural habitat 3398: 3392: 3356: 3344:Main articles: 3342: 3319: 3301: 3222: 3216: 3203: 3197: 3188:Harper's Weekly 3172: 3170:Applied geology 3140:geology of Mars 3083: 3065: 3036: 3018: 2997:orogenic wedges 2958: 2952: 2923:fluid inclusion 2904:conoscopic lens 2864: 2858: 2853: 2852: 2851: 2850: 2842: 2841: 2840: 2833: 2825: 2824: 2818: 2726:geomicrobiology 2722:Biogeochemistry 2608:compilation of 2507: 2454: 2342:normal faulting 2162: 2160: 2158: 2115: 2040:crystal lattice 1993: 1983:Absolute dating 1981:Main articles: 1979: 1977:Absolute dating 1769:natural science 1765:relative dating 1719: 1717:Relative dating 1713: 1711:Relative dating 1708: 1703: 1701: 1695: 1690: 1688: 1681: 1675: 1669: 1667: 1662: 1660: 1651: 1645: 1616:c. 7 Ma: First 1579:; start of the 1501: 1496: 1495: 1493: 1481: 1479: 1469: 1467: 1453: 1451: 1432: 1430: 1388: 1364: 1356:Main articles: 1354: 1352:Geological time 1306:crystallography 1270: 1264: 1262:Earth structure 1253:, in which the 1202:plate tectonics 1141:tectonic plates 1118:tectonic plates 1110: 1108:Plate tectonics 1104: 1102:Plate tectonics 1099: 1072: 1066: 1040: 949: 941:Main articles: 912: 831: 825: 785: 757:natural hazards 753:water resources 703:plate tectonics 644:natural science 565: 525: 518: 517: 516: 457: 449: 435: 425: 424: 423: 398: 390: 389: 376: 358: 350: 349: 348: 339: 331: 330: 306: 298: 297: 268: 260: 258: 250: 249: 248: 209: 199: 197: 189: 188: 187: 163:Plate tectonics 158: 123: 115: 77: 45: 38: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 10272: 10262: 10261: 10244: 10243: 10241: 10240: 10235: 10230: 10225: 10220: 10215: 10210: 10205: 10199: 10197: 10196:Related topics 10193: 10192: 10190: 10189: 10184: 10179: 10174: 10168: 10166: 10162: 10161: 10159: 10158: 10153: 10148: 10143: 10138: 10132: 10130: 10126: 10125: 10118: 10117: 10110: 10103: 10095: 10086: 10085: 10083: 10082: 10071: 10068: 10067: 10065: 10064: 10058: 10055: 10054: 10052: 10051: 10046: 10041: 10036: 10030: 10028: 10022: 10021: 10019: 10018: 10013: 10007: 10005: 9999: 9998: 9996: 9995: 9990: 9985: 9980: 9975: 9970: 9965: 9959: 9957: 9951: 9950: 9943: 9942: 9935: 9928: 9920: 9911: 9910: 9908: 9907: 9896: 9893: 9892: 9890: 9889: 9884: 9879: 9873: 9871: 9865: 9864: 9862: 9861: 9856: 9851: 9846: 9840: 9838: 9832: 9831: 9829: 9828: 9822: 9820: 9814: 9813: 9811: 9810: 9805: 9800: 9795: 9790: 9785: 9780: 9775: 9769: 9767: 9761: 9760: 9758: 9757: 9752: 9750:Tectonic phase 9747: 9742: 9737: 9732: 9727: 9722: 9717: 9712: 9707: 9701: 9699: 9689: 9688: 9686: 9685: 9680: 9675: 9670: 9665: 9660: 9655: 9650: 9645: 9640: 9634: 9632: 9626: 9625: 9623: 9622: 9617: 9612: 9607: 9602: 9597: 9591: 9589: 9583: 9582: 9580: 9579: 9574: 9569: 9564: 9559: 9554: 9549: 9544: 9539: 9534: 9529: 9524: 9519: 9514: 9512:Passive margin 9509: 9504: 9499: 9494: 9489: 9484: 9479: 9474: 9469: 9464: 9459: 9454: 9449: 9444: 9439: 9437:Foreland basin 9434: 9432:Fold mountains 9429: 9424: 9419: 9414: 9409: 9404: 9399: 9394: 9389: 9387:Back-arc basin 9384: 9379: 9374: 9368: 9366: 9359: 9358: 9356: 9355: 9353:Strike and dip 9350: 9345: 9340: 9335: 9330: 9324: 9322: 9318: 9317: 9315: 9314: 9309: 9304: 9299: 9294: 9289: 9287:Rock mechanics 9284: 9279: 9274: 9269: 9264: 9258: 9256: 9252: 9251: 9244: 9243: 9236: 9229: 9221: 9212: 9211: 9197: 9194: 9193: 9191: 9190: 9185: 9180: 9175: 9169: 9167: 9161: 9160: 9158: 9157: 9152: 9147: 9142: 9137: 9135:Salt tectonics 9132: 9126: 9124: 9118: 9117: 9115: 9114: 9109: 9104: 9099: 9097:Soil formation 9094: 9089: 9084: 9079: 9074: 9068: 9066: 9060: 9059: 9050: 9048: 9046: 9045: 9040: 9035: 9030: 9025: 9020: 9015: 9009: 9007: 9001: 9000: 8992: 8991: 8984: 8977: 8969: 8960: 8959: 8957: 8956: 8945: 8942: 8941: 8938: 8937: 8935: 8934: 8927: 8926: 8925: 8920: 8910: 8909: 8908: 8903: 8898: 8897: 8896: 8886: 8885: 8884: 8869: 8864: 8858: 8855: 8854: 8852: 8851: 8841: 8836: 8831: 8826: 8817: 8811: 8805: 8804: 8802: 8801: 8796: 8791: 8786: 8781: 8776: 8770: 8768: 8762: 8761: 8759: 8758: 8757: 8756: 8751: 8741: 8736: 8731: 8726: 8721: 8716: 8711: 8706: 8698: 8692: 8690: 8684: 8683: 8681: 8680: 8675: 8670: 8665: 8660: 8655: 8650: 8640: 8634: 8632: 8626: 8625: 8623: 8622: 8617: 8616: 8615: 8610: 8600: 8595: 8590: 8584: 8582: 8576: 8575: 8567: 8566: 8559: 8552: 8544: 8535: 8534: 8532: 8531: 8519: 8507: 8494: 8491: 8490: 8488: 8487: 8482: 8477: 8472: 8467: 8462: 8457: 8452: 8447: 8442: 8437: 8432: 8427: 8421: 8418: 8417: 8415: 8414: 8409: 8403: 8400: 8399: 8392: 8391: 8384: 8377: 8369: 8360: 8359: 8357: 8356: 8346: 8341: 8335: 8332: 8331: 8329: 8328: 8323: 8318: 8313: 8308: 8302: 8300: 8294: 8293: 8291: 8290: 8285: 8280: 8275: 8273:Atlantic Ocean 8270: 8265: 8259: 8257: 8251: 8250: 8248: 8247: 8242: 8237: 8236: 8235: 8225: 8220: 8215: 8210: 8204: 8202: 8196: 8195: 8193: 8192: 8187: 8182: 8177: 8172: 8167: 8162: 8157: 8155:Fluid dynamics 8152: 8146: 8144: 8138: 8137: 8135: 8134: 8129: 8127:Geopositioning 8124: 8122:Remote Sensing 8119: 8114: 8109: 8104: 8099: 8094: 8093: 8092: 8081: 8079: 8073: 8072: 8070: 8069: 8064: 8059: 8054: 8049: 8044: 8039: 8034: 8028: 8026: 8020: 8019: 8017: 8016: 8011: 8006: 8001: 7996: 7991: 7986: 7981: 7976: 7971: 7970: 7969: 7958: 7956: 7950: 7949: 7947: 7946: 7941: 7936: 7931: 7926: 7921: 7916: 7910: 7908: 7902: 7901: 7899: 7898: 7893: 7888: 7883: 7881:Climate change 7878: 7876:Energy balance 7873: 7871:Climate system 7867: 7865: 7859: 7858: 7851: 7849: 7847: 7846: 7841: 7836: 7831: 7826: 7821: 7816: 7811: 7805: 7803: 7797: 7796: 7789: 7788: 7781: 7774: 7766: 7757: 7756: 7754: 7753: 7741: 7729: 7714: 7711: 7710: 7708: 7707: 7702: 7697: 7691: 7689: 7685: 7684: 7682: 7681: 7676: 7674:Mining geology 7671: 7666: 7661: 7656: 7651: 7646: 7641: 7636: 7631: 7626: 7620: 7618: 7614: 7613: 7611: 7610: 7608:Tectonophysics 7605: 7600: 7595: 7590: 7584: 7582: 7576: 7575: 7573: 7572: 7570:Geopositioning 7567: 7565:Remote sensing 7562: 7557: 7552: 7547: 7542: 7537: 7531: 7529: 7523: 7522: 7520: 7519: 7517:Marine geology 7514: 7509: 7503: 7501: 7497: 7496: 7494: 7493: 7488: 7483: 7478: 7473: 7467: 7465: 7461: 7460: 7458: 7457: 7452: 7447: 7442: 7436: 7434: 7428: 7427: 7425: 7424: 7419: 7414: 7409: 7404: 7399: 7397:Cosmochemistry 7393: 7391: 7387: 7386: 7384: 7383: 7378: 7373: 7367: 7365: 7359: 7358: 7350: 7348: 7346: 7345: 7340: 7335: 7330: 7324: 7322: 7318: 7317: 7310: 7309: 7302: 7295: 7287: 7281: 7280: 7274: 7269: 7264: 7259: 7254: 7249: 7244: 7239: 7234: 7229: 7222: 7214: 7213:External links 7211: 7208: 7207: 7166: 7159: 7141: 7122: 7099:. New Series. 7087: 7070:Geological Map 7058: 7027: 7008: 6999: 6981: 6961: 6939: 6937: 6936: 6896: 6889: 6862: 6860: 6859: 6854:, 2nd series, 6837: 6832:, 2nd series, 6815: 6810:, 2nd series, 6800: 6795:, 2nd series, 6778: 6773:, 2nd series, 6756: 6751:, 2nd series, 6734: 6717: 6699: 6681:From pp. i–ii: 6668: 6593: 6575: 6555: 6523: 6509: 6502: 6482: 6450: 6437: 6430: 6412: 6399: 6386: 6379: 6356: 6337: 6278: 6235: 6192: 6173:(3): 333–347. 6157: 6138:(1–2): 29–42. 6122: 6092:(2): 217–226. 6069: 6062: 6044: 6037: 6019: 6004: 5968: 5949:(6): 753–767. 5932: 5896: 5860: 5853: 5835: 5816:(6): 835–855. 5792: 5755: 5720: 5701:(4): 407–416. 5685: 5650: 5611: 5604: 5586: 5579: 5561: 5518: 5509:|journal= 5483: 5449: 5414: 5395:(1): 105–161. 5378: 5359:(4): 553–566. 5343: 5336: 5318: 5311: 5293: 5286: 5268: 5261: 5243: 5236: 5214: 5189: 5182: 5164: 5142: 5119: 5112: 5094: 5087: 5069: 5003: 4984: 4949: 4942: 4924: 4898: 4891: 4868: 4849:(4): 230–237. 4830: 4776: 4757: 4750: 4728: 4709: 4687: 4668: 4646: 4618: 4600: 4581: 4574: 4554: 4524: 4464: 4442: 4409: 4387: 4386: 4384: 4381: 4379: 4378: 4372: 4366: 4356: 4350: 4344: 4338: 4336:Geoprofessions 4333: 4326: 4325: 4324: 4310: 4307:Geology portal 4294: 4291: 4289: 4288: 4283: 4278: 4273: 4268: 4267: 4266: 4261: 4256: 4246: 4241: 4240: 4239: 4229: 4224: 4219: 4214: 4209: 4204: 4199: 4194: 4193: 4192: 4187: 4177: 4172: 4171: 4170: 4168:Marine geology 4160: 4155: 4150: 4145: 4140: 4135: 4130: 4125: 4120: 4115: 4110: 4105: 4100: 4099: 4098: 4093: 4083: 4078: 4073: 4072: 4071: 4066: 4056: 4054:Geoarchaeology 4051: 4046: 4041: 4036: 4035: 4034: 4029: 4027:Mining geology 4019: 4013: 4011: 4008: 4007: 4006: 3992: 3985: 3983: 3978:and father of 3970: 3963: 3961: 3958:modern geology 3956:and father of 3948: 3941: 3939: 3925: 3918: 3916: 3906: 3899: 3893:Earth sciences 3851:Charles Darwin 3804:Abraham Werner 3607:). During the 3591:ancient Greece 3571:geological map 3549: 3546: 3544: 3543: 3538: 3533: 3528: 3523: 3518: 3513: 3504: 3495: 3490: 3485: 3479: 3474:building codes 3466:Main article: 3455: 3452: 3424:Main article: 3421: 3418: 3394:Main article: 3391: 3388: 3350:Soil mechanics 3341: 3338: 3315:Main article: 3300: 3297: 3225:Mining geology 3218:Main article: 3215: 3214:Mining geology 3212: 3199:Main article: 3196: 3193: 3171: 3168: 3160:Phoenix lander 3079:Main article: 3064: 3061: 3032:Main article: 3017: 3014: 2970:critical taper 2954:Main article: 2951: 2948: 2860:Main article: 2857: 2854: 2844: 2843: 2834: 2827: 2826: 2819: 2812: 2811: 2810: 2809: 2808: 2807: 2806: 2800: 2790: 2789: 2788: 2781: 2765: 2764: 2763: 2762: 2761: 2758: 2752: 2751: 2750: 2744: 2737: 2719: 2718: 2717: 2708: 2707:on the surface 2698: 2697: 2696: 2695: 2694: 2689: 2683: 2675: 2674: 2673: 2668: 2663: 2658: 2642: 2641: 2640: 2639: 2638: 2635: 2625: 2612: 2603: 2602: 2601: 2598: 2579: 2506: 2503: 2487:biogeochemical 2453: 2450: 2407:of a volcano. 2187:overlying rock 2114: 2111: 2107:organic carbon 2044:geochronologic 2032:isotope ratios 1978: 1975: 1963:Charles Darwin 1898:, layered red 1715:Main article: 1712: 1709: 1707: 1706:Dating methods 1704: 1699: 1691: 1682: 1677:Main article: 1674: 1671: 1663: 1652: 1647:Main article: 1644: 1641: 1640: 1639: 1632: 1623:3.9 Ma: First 1621: 1614: 1600: 1590: 1583: 1571:541 ± 0.3 Ma: 1569: 1562: 1560:snowball Earth 1552: 1550:photosynthesis 1546: 1539: 1532: 1500: 1497: 1487: 1470: 1454: 1433: 1394: 1393: 1387: 1384: 1380:Holocene epoch 1353: 1350: 1266:Main article: 1263: 1260: 1247:Alfred Wegener 1243: 1242: 1237:, such as the 1232: 1221: 1168:boundary layer 1158:(that is, the 1106:Main article: 1103: 1100: 1098: 1095: 1068:Main article: 1065: 1062: 1039: 1036: 943:Rock (geology) 911: 908: 907: 906: 895: 888: 881: 875: 869: 862: 859: 849: 827:Main article: 824: 821: 784: 781: 765:climate change 759:, remediating 652:Earth sciences 587:, South Dakota 567: 566: 564: 563: 556: 549: 541: 538: 537: 536: 535: 520: 519: 515: 514: 509: 504: 499: 494: 489: 484: 479: 474: 469: 464: 458: 456: 455: 448: 447: 442: 436: 431: 430: 427: 426: 422: 421: 416: 411: 406: 400: 399: 396: 395: 392: 391: 388: 387: 382: 375: 374: 365: 359: 356: 355: 352: 351: 347: 346: 340: 338: 337: 329: 328: 323: 318: 313: 307: 305: 304: 296: 295: 290: 285: 280: 275: 269: 267: 266: 259: 256: 255: 252: 251: 247: 246: 241: 236: 231: 226: 221: 216: 210: 208: 207: 198: 195: 194: 191: 190: 186: 185: 180: 175: 170: 165: 159: 157: 156: 151: 145: 140: 131: 125: 124: 122:Key components 121: 120: 117: 116: 114: 113: 103: 98: 93: 88: 82: 79: 78: 73: 65: 64: 56: 55: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 10271: 10260: 10257: 10256: 10254: 10239: 10236: 10234: 10231: 10229: 10226: 10224: 10221: 10219: 10216: 10214: 10211: 10209: 10206: 10204: 10201: 10200: 10198: 10194: 10188: 10187:Thermal shock 10185: 10183: 10180: 10178: 10175: 10173: 10170: 10169: 10167: 10163: 10157: 10154: 10152: 10149: 10147: 10144: 10142: 10139: 10137: 10134: 10133: 10131: 10127: 10123: 10116: 10111: 10109: 10104: 10102: 10097: 10096: 10093: 10081: 10073: 10072: 10069: 10063: 10060: 10059: 10056: 10050: 10047: 10045: 10042: 10040: 10039:Geology of Io 10037: 10035: 10032: 10031: 10029: 10027: 10023: 10017: 10014: 10012: 10009: 10008: 10006: 10004: 10003:Dwarf Planets 10000: 9994: 9991: 9989: 9986: 9984: 9981: 9979: 9976: 9974: 9971: 9969: 9966: 9964: 9961: 9960: 9958: 9956: 9952: 9948: 9941: 9936: 9934: 9929: 9927: 9922: 9921: 9918: 9906: 9898: 9897: 9894: 9888: 9885: 9883: 9880: 9878: 9875: 9874: 9872: 9870: 9866: 9860: 9857: 9855: 9852: 9850: 9847: 9845: 9842: 9841: 9839: 9837: 9833: 9827: 9824: 9823: 9821: 9819: 9815: 9809: 9806: 9804: 9801: 9799: 9796: 9794: 9791: 9789: 9786: 9784: 9781: 9779: 9776: 9774: 9771: 9770: 9768: 9766: 9762: 9756: 9753: 9751: 9748: 9746: 9743: 9741: 9738: 9736: 9733: 9731: 9728: 9726: 9723: 9721: 9718: 9716: 9713: 9711: 9708: 9706: 9703: 9702: 9700: 9698: 9694: 9690: 9684: 9681: 9679: 9678:Transfer zone 9676: 9674: 9671: 9669: 9666: 9664: 9661: 9659: 9656: 9654: 9651: 9649: 9646: 9644: 9641: 9639: 9636: 9635: 9633: 9631: 9627: 9621: 9618: 9616: 9613: 9611: 9608: 9606: 9603: 9601: 9598: 9596: 9593: 9592: 9590: 9588: 9584: 9578: 9575: 9573: 9570: 9568: 9565: 9563: 9560: 9558: 9555: 9553: 9550: 9548: 9545: 9543: 9540: 9538: 9535: 9533: 9530: 9528: 9525: 9523: 9520: 9518: 9515: 9513: 9510: 9508: 9505: 9503: 9500: 9498: 9495: 9493: 9490: 9488: 9485: 9483: 9480: 9478: 9475: 9473: 9470: 9468: 9465: 9463: 9460: 9458: 9455: 9453: 9450: 9448: 9445: 9443: 9440: 9438: 9435: 9433: 9430: 9428: 9425: 9423: 9420: 9418: 9415: 9413: 9410: 9408: 9405: 9403: 9400: 9398: 9395: 9393: 9390: 9388: 9385: 9383: 9380: 9378: 9375: 9373: 9370: 9369: 9367: 9365: 9360: 9354: 9351: 9349: 9346: 9344: 9341: 9339: 9336: 9334: 9331: 9329: 9326: 9325: 9323: 9319: 9313: 9310: 9308: 9305: 9303: 9300: 9298: 9295: 9293: 9290: 9288: 9285: 9283: 9280: 9278: 9277:Mohr's circle 9275: 9273: 9270: 9268: 9265: 9263: 9260: 9259: 9257: 9253: 9249: 9242: 9237: 9235: 9230: 9228: 9223: 9222: 9219: 9209: 9208: 9203: 9195: 9189: 9186: 9184: 9181: 9179: 9176: 9174: 9171: 9170: 9168: 9166: 9162: 9156: 9153: 9151: 9148: 9146: 9143: 9141: 9138: 9136: 9133: 9131: 9128: 9127: 9125: 9123: 9119: 9113: 9110: 9108: 9105: 9103: 9100: 9098: 9095: 9093: 9090: 9088: 9085: 9083: 9080: 9078: 9075: 9073: 9070: 9069: 9067: 9065: 9061: 9054: 9044: 9043:Walther's law 9041: 9039: 9036: 9034: 9031: 9029: 9026: 9024: 9021: 9019: 9016: 9014: 9011: 9010: 9008: 9006: 9002: 8997: 8990: 8985: 8983: 8978: 8976: 8971: 8970: 8967: 8955: 8947: 8946: 8943: 8933: 8932: 8928: 8924: 8921: 8919: 8916: 8915: 8914: 8911: 8907: 8904: 8902: 8899: 8895: 8892: 8891: 8890: 8887: 8883: 8880: 8879: 8878: 8875: 8874: 8873: 8870: 8868: 8865: 8863: 8860: 8859: 8856: 8849: 8845: 8842: 8840: 8837: 8835: 8832: 8830: 8827: 8825: 8823:(abiogenesis) 8819: 8818: 8815: 8812: 8810: 8806: 8800: 8797: 8795: 8792: 8790: 8787: 8785: 8782: 8780: 8777: 8775: 8772: 8771: 8769: 8767: 8763: 8755: 8752: 8750: 8747: 8746: 8745: 8742: 8740: 8737: 8735: 8732: 8730: 8727: 8725: 8722: 8720: 8717: 8715: 8712: 8710: 8707: 8705: 8699: 8697: 8694: 8693: 8691: 8689: 8685: 8679: 8676: 8674: 8671: 8669: 8666: 8664: 8661: 8659: 8656: 8654: 8651: 8648: 8644: 8641: 8639: 8638:Earth science 8636: 8635: 8633: 8631: 8627: 8621: 8618: 8614: 8611: 8609: 8606: 8605: 8604: 8601: 8599: 8596: 8594: 8591: 8589: 8586: 8585: 8583: 8581: 8577: 8573: 8565: 8560: 8558: 8553: 8551: 8546: 8545: 8542: 8530: 8529: 8520: 8518: 8517: 8512: 8508: 8506: 8505: 8496: 8495: 8492: 8486: 8483: 8481: 8478: 8476: 8473: 8471: 8468: 8466: 8463: 8461: 8458: 8456: 8453: 8451: 8448: 8446: 8443: 8441: 8438: 8436: 8433: 8431: 8428: 8426: 8423: 8422: 8419: 8413: 8410: 8408: 8405: 8404: 8401: 8397: 8396:Earth science 8390: 8385: 8383: 8378: 8376: 8371: 8370: 8367: 8355: 8347: 8345: 8342: 8340: 8337: 8336: 8333: 8327: 8324: 8322: 8319: 8317: 8314: 8312: 8309: 8307: 8304: 8303: 8301: 8299: 8295: 8289: 8286: 8284: 8283:Pacific Ocean 8281: 8279: 8276: 8274: 8271: 8269: 8266: 8264: 8261: 8260: 8258: 8256: 8252: 8246: 8243: 8241: 8238: 8234: 8231: 8230: 8229: 8226: 8224: 8221: 8219: 8216: 8214: 8213:Earth science 8211: 8209: 8206: 8205: 8203: 8201: 8197: 8191: 8188: 8186: 8183: 8181: 8178: 8176: 8173: 8171: 8168: 8166: 8165:Magnetosphere 8163: 8161: 8158: 8156: 8153: 8151: 8148: 8147: 8145: 8143: 8139: 8133: 8132:Virtual globe 8130: 8128: 8125: 8123: 8120: 8118: 8115: 8113: 8110: 8108: 8105: 8103: 8100: 8098: 8097:Earth's orbit 8095: 8091: 8088: 8087: 8086: 8083: 8082: 8080: 8078: 8074: 8068: 8065: 8063: 8060: 8058: 8055: 8053: 8050: 8048: 8045: 8043: 8040: 8038: 8035: 8033: 8030: 8029: 8027: 8025: 8021: 8015: 8012: 8010: 8007: 8005: 8004:World history 8002: 8000: 7997: 7995: 7994:World economy 7992: 7990: 7987: 7985: 7982: 7980: 7977: 7975: 7972: 7968: 7965: 7964: 7963: 7960: 7959: 7957: 7955: 7951: 7945: 7944:South America 7942: 7940: 7939:North America 7937: 7935: 7932: 7930: 7927: 7925: 7922: 7920: 7917: 7915: 7912: 7911: 7909: 7907: 7903: 7897: 7894: 7892: 7889: 7887: 7884: 7882: 7879: 7877: 7874: 7872: 7869: 7868: 7866: 7864: 7860: 7855: 7845: 7842: 7840: 7837: 7835: 7832: 7830: 7827: 7825: 7822: 7820: 7817: 7815: 7812: 7810: 7807: 7806: 7804: 7802: 7798: 7794: 7787: 7782: 7780: 7775: 7773: 7768: 7767: 7764: 7752: 7751: 7742: 7740: 7739: 7730: 7728: 7727: 7722: 7716: 7715: 7712: 7706: 7705:Volcanologist 7703: 7701: 7698: 7696: 7693: 7692: 7690: 7686: 7680: 7677: 7675: 7672: 7670: 7667: 7665: 7662: 7660: 7657: 7655: 7652: 7650: 7647: 7645: 7642: 7640: 7637: 7635: 7632: 7630: 7627: 7625: 7622: 7621: 7619: 7615: 7609: 7606: 7604: 7601: 7599: 7596: 7594: 7591: 7589: 7586: 7585: 7583: 7581: 7577: 7571: 7568: 7566: 7563: 7561: 7558: 7556: 7553: 7551: 7548: 7546: 7543: 7541: 7540:Earth's orbit 7538: 7536: 7533: 7532: 7530: 7528: 7524: 7518: 7515: 7513: 7510: 7508: 7505: 7504: 7502: 7498: 7492: 7489: 7487: 7486:Geomorphology 7484: 7482: 7479: 7477: 7474: 7472: 7469: 7468: 7466: 7464:Dynamic Earth 7462: 7456: 7453: 7451: 7448: 7446: 7443: 7441: 7438: 7437: 7435: 7433: 7429: 7423: 7422:Sedimentology 7420: 7418: 7415: 7413: 7410: 7408: 7405: 7403: 7400: 7398: 7395: 7394: 7392: 7388: 7382: 7379: 7377: 7374: 7372: 7371:Geochronology 7369: 7368: 7366: 7364: 7360: 7354: 7344: 7341: 7339: 7336: 7334: 7331: 7329: 7326: 7325: 7323: 7319: 7315: 7308: 7303: 7301: 7296: 7294: 7289: 7288: 7285: 7278: 7275: 7273: 7270: 7268: 7265: 7263: 7260: 7258: 7255: 7253: 7250: 7248: 7245: 7243: 7240: 7238: 7235: 7233: 7230: 7228: 7227: 7223: 7221: 7217: 7216: 7202: 7197: 7193: 7189: 7185: 7181: 7177: 7170: 7162: 7156: 7152: 7145: 7138: 7134: 7131: 7126: 7118: 7114: 7110: 7106: 7103:(4): 1–113 . 7102: 7098: 7091: 7076: 7072: 7071: 7062: 7055: 7051: 7048: 7044: 7040: 7037: 7031: 7024: 7020: 7017: 7012: 7003: 6988: 6984: 6978: 6974: 6973: 6965: 6958: 6954: 6951: 6950: 6943: 6934: 6930: 6927: 6925: 6920: 6919: 6916: 6912: 6909: 6908: 6900: 6892: 6886: 6882: 6878: 6877: 6872: 6866: 6857: 6853: 6849: 6845: 6842: 6838: 6835: 6831: 6827: 6823: 6820: 6816: 6813: 6809: 6805: 6801: 6798: 6794: 6791: 6787: 6783: 6779: 6776: 6772: 6768: 6764: 6761: 6757: 6754: 6750: 6746: 6742: 6739: 6735: 6733: 6729: 6726: 6722: 6718: 6716: 6712: 6708: 6707: 6703: 6696: 6692: 6689: 6685: 6682: 6678: 6672: 6665: 6661: 6657: 6653: 6649: 6646: 6642: 6639: 6635: 6631: 6628: 6624: 6621: 6617: 6614: 6610: 6607: 6603: 6597: 6582: 6578: 6572: 6568: 6567: 6559: 6552: 6548: 6544: 6541: 6537: 6533: 6527: 6519: 6513: 6505: 6499: 6495: 6494: 6486: 6468: 6461: 6454: 6447: 6441: 6433: 6427: 6423: 6416: 6409: 6403: 6396: 6393:Moore, Ruth. 6390: 6382: 6376: 6372: 6371: 6363: 6361: 6353: 6349: 6346: 6341: 6322: 6317: 6312: 6308: 6304: 6301:(2): RG2002. 6300: 6296: 6289: 6282: 6274: 6270: 6266: 6262: 6258: 6254: 6250: 6246: 6239: 6231: 6227: 6223: 6219: 6215: 6211: 6207: 6203: 6196: 6188: 6184: 6180: 6176: 6172: 6168: 6161: 6153: 6149: 6145: 6141: 6137: 6133: 6126: 6111: 6107: 6103: 6099: 6095: 6091: 6087: 6083: 6076: 6074: 6065: 6059: 6055: 6048: 6040: 6034: 6030: 6023: 6015: 6011: 6007: 6005:9780444538031 6001: 5997: 5993: 5988: 5983: 5979: 5972: 5964: 5960: 5956: 5952: 5948: 5944: 5936: 5928: 5924: 5920: 5916: 5912: 5908: 5900: 5892: 5888: 5884: 5880: 5876: 5872: 5871:AAPG Bulletin 5864: 5856: 5850: 5846: 5839: 5831: 5827: 5823: 5819: 5815: 5811: 5803: 5801: 5799: 5797: 5788: 5784: 5780: 5776: 5772: 5768: 5767: 5759: 5751: 5747: 5743: 5739: 5735: 5731: 5724: 5716: 5712: 5708: 5704: 5700: 5696: 5689: 5681: 5677: 5673: 5669: 5665: 5661: 5654: 5646: 5642: 5638: 5634: 5630: 5626: 5622: 5615: 5607: 5601: 5597: 5590: 5582: 5576: 5572: 5565: 5557: 5553: 5549: 5545: 5541: 5537: 5533: 5529: 5522: 5514: 5502: 5494: 5490: 5486: 5480: 5476: 5472: 5468: 5464: 5460: 5453: 5445: 5441: 5437: 5433: 5429: 5425: 5418: 5410: 5406: 5402: 5398: 5394: 5390: 5382: 5374: 5370: 5366: 5362: 5358: 5354: 5353:Sedimentology 5347: 5339: 5333: 5329: 5322: 5314: 5308: 5304: 5297: 5289: 5283: 5279: 5272: 5264: 5258: 5254: 5247: 5239: 5233: 5229: 5225: 5218: 5204:on 2009-04-12 5203: 5199: 5193: 5185: 5179: 5175: 5168: 5161: 5149: 5145: 5139: 5135: 5131: 5123: 5115: 5109: 5105: 5098: 5090: 5084: 5080: 5073: 5059:on 2016-12-26 5055: 5051: 5047: 5042: 5037: 5033: 5029: 5025: 5021: 5014: 5007: 5000: 4999: 4994: 4988: 4973: 4969: 4965: 4958: 4956: 4954: 4945: 4939: 4935: 4928: 4921: 4917: 4913: 4910: 4909: 4902: 4894: 4888: 4884: 4877: 4875: 4873: 4864: 4860: 4856: 4852: 4848: 4844: 4837: 4835: 4826: 4822: 4818: 4814: 4810: 4806: 4802: 4798: 4794: 4790: 4783: 4781: 4773: 4769: 4766: 4761: 4753: 4747: 4742: 4741: 4732: 4716: 4712: 4706: 4702: 4698: 4691: 4675: 4671: 4665: 4661: 4657: 4650: 4643: 4639: 4635: 4631: 4628: 4622: 4614: 4610: 4609:"OCRE GeoMap" 4604: 4597: 4593: 4590: 4585: 4577: 4571: 4567: 4566: 4558: 4542: 4538: 4534: 4528: 4510: 4506: 4502: 4498: 4494: 4490: 4486: 4482: 4475: 4468: 4452: 4446: 4440: 4436: 4435: 4430: 4429:Scott, Robert 4426: 4422: 4413: 4405: 4404: 4399: 4392: 4388: 4376: 4373: 4370: 4367: 4360: 4357: 4354: 4351: 4348: 4345: 4342: 4339: 4337: 4334: 4331: 4328: 4327: 4322: 4311: 4308: 4302: 4297: 4287: 4284: 4282: 4279: 4277: 4274: 4272: 4269: 4265: 4262: 4260: 4257: 4255: 4252: 4251: 4250: 4247: 4245: 4242: 4238: 4235: 4234: 4233: 4230: 4228: 4225: 4223: 4222:Sedimentology 4220: 4218: 4215: 4213: 4210: 4208: 4205: 4203: 4200: 4198: 4195: 4191: 4188: 4186: 4183: 4182: 4181: 4178: 4176: 4173: 4169: 4166: 4165: 4164: 4161: 4159: 4156: 4154: 4151: 4149: 4146: 4144: 4141: 4139: 4136: 4134: 4131: 4129: 4126: 4124: 4123:Geomorphology 4121: 4119: 4116: 4114: 4113:Geometallurgy 4111: 4109: 4106: 4104: 4101: 4097: 4094: 4092: 4089: 4088: 4087: 4084: 4082: 4079: 4077: 4076:Geochronology 4074: 4070: 4067: 4065: 4062: 4061: 4060: 4057: 4055: 4052: 4050: 4047: 4045: 4042: 4040: 4037: 4033: 4030: 4028: 4025: 4024: 4023: 4020: 4018: 4015: 4014: 4004: 3999: 3996: 3995:volcanologist 3989: 3984: 3981: 3977: 3973: 3967: 3962: 3959: 3955: 3951: 3945: 3940: 3936: 3932: 3928: 3922: 3917: 3913: 3909: 3903: 3898: 3897: 3896: 3894: 3890: 3886: 3882: 3877: 3875: 3871: 3866: 3864: 3863:catastrophism 3860: 3856: 3852: 3848: 3847: 3842: 3838: 3836: 3835:William Smith 3832: 3828: 3824: 3820: 3816: 3812: 3807: 3805: 3801: 3800: 3795: 3791: 3790: 3784: 3782: 3778: 3774: 3770: 3766: 3764: 3760: 3755: 3753: 3749: 3748:William Smith 3745: 3743: 3739: 3735: 3734: 3729: 3725: 3721: 3717: 3713: 3709: 3704: 3702: 3698: 3694: 3690: 3686: 3685:Nicolas Steno 3682: 3680: 3679: 3674: 3670: 3668: 3664: 3660: 3656: 3653: 3649: 3645: 3641: 3637: 3633: 3629: 3625: 3622: 3618: 3614: 3610: 3606: 3602: 3601: 3596: 3592: 3584: 3580: 3576: 3572: 3568: 3567:William Smith 3564: 3559: 3555: 3542: 3539: 3537: 3534: 3532: 3529: 3527: 3524: 3522: 3519: 3517: 3514: 3512: 3508: 3505: 3503: 3499: 3496: 3494: 3491: 3489: 3486: 3484: 3481: 3480: 3478: 3475: 3469: 3460: 3451: 3449: 3445: 3441: 3437: 3433: 3427: 3417: 3415: 3411: 3407: 3403: 3397: 3387: 3385: 3377: 3373: 3368: 3364: 3362: 3355: 3351: 3347: 3337: 3335: 3331: 3327: 3323: 3318: 3310: 3305: 3296: 3294: 3290: 3286: 3282: 3278: 3274: 3270: 3266: 3262: 3258: 3254: 3250: 3246: 3242: 3238: 3234: 3230: 3226: 3221: 3211: 3209: 3202: 3189: 3185: 3181: 3176: 3167: 3165: 3161: 3158:these is the 3155: 3153: 3149: 3145: 3144:Lunar geology 3141: 3137: 3136: 3130: 3128: 3124: 3123:giant planets 3120: 3116: 3112: 3108: 3104: 3100: 3096: 3092: 3088: 3082: 3074: 3069: 3060: 3057: 3053: 3048: 3045: 3041: 3035: 3027: 3022: 3013: 3011: 3006: 3002: 2998: 2993: 2991: 2986: 2984: 2981:they perform 2979: 2971: 2967: 2962: 2957: 2944: 2939: 2935: 2933: 2932:magma chamber 2929: 2924: 2919: 2917: 2913: 2909: 2905: 2901: 2897: 2893: 2892:birefringence 2889: 2885: 2884:thin sections 2881: 2877: 2873: 2869: 2863: 2848: 2838: 2831: 2823: 2816: 2804: 2801: 2799: 2795: 2794:geochronology 2791: 2787:and education 2786: 2782: 2780: 2776: 2775: 2773: 2769: 2766: 2759: 2756: 2755: 2753: 2749: 2746:identify new 2745: 2742: 2739:identify new 2738: 2736: 2732: 2731: 2729: 2728: 2727: 2723: 2720: 2716: 2712: 2711:Well drilling 2709: 2706: 2702: 2701: 2699: 2693: 2690: 2688: 2684: 2682: 2679: 2678: 2677:They aid in: 2676: 2672: 2669: 2667: 2664: 2662: 2659: 2656: 2652: 2651: 2649: 2648: 2647: 2643: 2636: 2634: 2630: 2626: 2624: 2620: 2616: 2615: 2613: 2611: 2607: 2606: 2604: 2599: 2596: 2592: 2588: 2584: 2580: 2577: 2576: 2575: 2572: 2571: 2570: 2568: 2560: 2556: 2552: 2547: 2540: 2536: 2532: 2528: 2523: 2516: 2511: 2505:Field methods 2502: 2500: 2496: 2492: 2488: 2484: 2480: 2476: 2472: 2463: 2458: 2449: 2447: 2442: 2438: 2434: 2430: 2429:Acasta gneiss 2425: 2421: 2417: 2413: 2408: 2406: 2402: 2398: 2393: 2384: 2380: 2379:cross section 2375: 2371: 2369: 2365: 2360: 2358: 2357: 2352: 2348: 2343: 2338: 2336: 2332: 2328: 2324: 2320: 2316: 2309: 2305: 2300: 2296: 2294: 2290: 2286: 2282: 2278: 2274: 2270: 2266: 2262: 2258: 2253: 2251: 2247: 2243: 2239: 2235: 2234:metamorphosed 2231: 2226: 2224: 2220: 2216: 2212: 2208: 2204: 2200: 2196: 2192: 2188: 2183: 2178: 2174: 2169: 2155: 2148: 2144: 2140: 2136: 2132: 2128: 2127:magma chamber 2124: 2119: 2110: 2108: 2104: 2100: 2096: 2092: 2087: 2085: 2080: 2078: 2073: 2069: 2065: 2061: 2057: 2053: 2049: 2045: 2041: 2037: 2033: 2028: 2026: 2025:absolute ages 2021: 2016: 2009: 2005: 2002: 1997: 1992: 1991:geochronology 1988: 1984: 1974: 1972: 1968: 1965:'s theory of 1964: 1959: 1958: 1952: 1949: 1945: 1944: 1938: 1936: 1935:cross-bedding 1931: 1930: 1921: 1917: 1913: 1909: 1905: 1901: 1897: 1893: 1889: 1885: 1881: 1877: 1873: 1868: 1864: 1862: 1858: 1854: 1853: 1848: 1847: 1841: 1839: 1835: 1830: 1826: 1825: 1819: 1817: 1813: 1809: 1805: 1801: 1797: 1793: 1792: 1786: 1784: 1779: 1778: 1772: 1770: 1766: 1758: 1754: 1753:volcanic dyke 1750: 1747: 1743: 1739: 1735: 1731: 1727: 1723: 1718: 1698: 1680: 1670: 1650: 1637: 1633: 1630: 1626: 1622: 1619: 1615: 1613: 1609: 1605: 1601: 1599: 1595: 1591: 1588: 1584: 1582: 1578: 1574: 1570: 1567: 1563: 1561: 1557: 1553: 1551: 1547: 1544: 1540: 1537: 1533: 1531: 1527: 1523: 1522: 1518: 1514: 1510: 1505: 1486: 1392: 1383: 1381: 1377: 1373: 1369: 1363: 1359: 1349: 1345: 1343: 1338: 1334: 1330: 1326: 1322: 1318: 1314: 1313:seismic waves 1309: 1307: 1303: 1299: 1295: 1286: 1279: 1274: 1269: 1259: 1256: 1252: 1249:'s theory of 1248: 1240: 1236: 1233: 1230: 1226: 1222: 1219: 1215: 1211: 1208: 1207: 1203: 1199: 1198:volcanic arcs 1195: 1190: 1186: 1184: 1179: 1177: 1173: 1169: 1165: 1161: 1157: 1152: 1150: 1149:asthenosphere 1146: 1142: 1138: 1134: 1130: 1123: 1119: 1114: 1109: 1094: 1092: 1091:igneous rocks 1088: 1084: 1080: 1079:igneous rocks 1076: 1071: 1061: 1059: 1055: 1051: 1047: 1046: 1035: 1033: 1029: 1024: 1022: 1018: 1014: 1009: 1005: 1001: 997: 993: 989: 985: 981: 977: 972: 970: 966: 962: 958: 954: 948: 944: 936: 933: 929: 925: 921: 916: 904: 900: 896: 893: 889: 886: 882: 879: 876: 873: 870: 867: 863: 860: 857: 853: 850: 847: 846: 845: 842: 840: 836: 830: 820: 814: 810: 806: 800: 796: 793: 789: 780: 778: 774: 770: 766: 762: 761:environmental 758: 754: 750: 746: 742: 738: 734: 730: 726: 722: 718: 714: 712: 711:past climates 708: 704: 700: 696: 692: 688: 687:absolute ages 684: 680: 679:relative ages 676: 672: 667: 665: 661: 657: 653: 649: 645: 641: 638: 637: 629: 625: 622: 619: 612: 608: 605: 604:Ancient Greek 601: 593: 586: 581: 573: 562: 557: 555: 550: 548: 543: 542: 540: 539: 534: 529: 524: 523: 522: 521: 513: 510: 508: 505: 503: 500: 498: 495: 493: 490: 488: 485: 483: 480: 478: 475: 473: 470: 468: 465: 463: 460: 459: 454: 451: 450: 446: 443: 441: 438: 437: 434: 429: 428: 420: 417: 415: 412: 410: 407: 405: 402: 401: 394: 393: 386: 383: 381: 378: 377: 373: 369: 366: 364: 361: 360: 354: 353: 345: 342: 341: 336: 333: 332: 327: 324: 322: 319: 317: 314: 312: 311:Geomorphology 309: 308: 303: 300: 299: 294: 291: 289: 286: 284: 283:Sedimentology 281: 279: 276: 274: 271: 270: 265: 262: 261: 254: 253: 245: 244:Walther's law 242: 240: 237: 235: 232: 230: 227: 225: 222: 220: 217: 215: 212: 211: 206: 205: 201: 200: 193: 192: 184: 181: 179: 176: 174: 171: 169: 166: 164: 161: 160: 155: 152: 149: 146: 144: 141: 139: 135: 132: 130: 127: 126: 119: 118: 111: 107: 104: 102: 99: 97: 94: 92: 89: 87: 84: 83: 81: 80: 76: 71: 67: 66: 63: 62: 58: 57: 53: 49: 48: 43: 36: 34: 19: 9673:Thrust fault 9362:Large-scale 9333:Inclinometer 9307:Stress field 9198: 9112:Metamorphism 8995: 8929: 8862:Biodiversity 8848:astrobiology 8657: 8570:Elements of 8526: 8514: 8502: 8480:Soil science 8465:Oceanography 8439: 8326:Solar System 8288:Oceanography 8278:Indian Ocean 8268:Arctic Ocean 8208:Age of Earth 8199: 8160:Geomagnetism 7834:Thermosphere 7824:Stratosphere 7748: 7736: 7717: 7617:Applications 7588:Geomagnetism 7512:Hydrogeology 7445:Paleontology 7440:Stratigraphy 7407:Geochemistry 7313: 7225: 7183: 7179: 7169: 7150: 7144: 7125: 7100: 7096: 7090: 7079:. Retrieved 7068: 7061: 7030: 7011: 7002: 6991:. Retrieved 6971: 6964: 6948: 6942: 6923: 6905: 6899: 6875: 6865: 6855: 6851: 6836:(525): 111. 6833: 6829: 6811: 6807: 6796: 6792: 6774: 6770: 6752: 6748: 6720: 6710: 6702: 6694: 6690: 6676: 6671: 6663: 6659: 6655: 6651: 6647: 6633: 6629: 6615: 6601: 6596: 6585:. Retrieved 6565: 6558: 6550: 6535: 6531: 6526: 6512: 6492: 6485: 6474:. Retrieved 6453: 6445: 6440: 6421: 6415: 6407: 6402: 6394: 6389: 6369: 6340: 6328:. Retrieved 6298: 6294: 6281: 6248: 6244: 6238: 6205: 6201: 6195: 6170: 6167:Ground Water 6166: 6160: 6135: 6131: 6125: 6114:. Retrieved 6089: 6086:Ground Water 6085: 6053: 6047: 6028: 6022: 5977: 5971: 5946: 5942: 5935: 5910: 5906: 5899: 5874: 5870: 5863: 5844: 5838: 5813: 5809: 5770: 5764: 5758: 5733: 5729: 5723: 5698: 5694: 5688: 5663: 5659: 5653: 5628: 5624: 5614: 5595: 5589: 5570: 5564: 5531: 5527: 5521: 5458: 5452: 5430:(1): 25–41. 5427: 5423: 5417: 5392: 5388: 5381: 5356: 5352: 5346: 5327: 5321: 5302: 5296: 5277: 5271: 5252: 5246: 5227: 5217: 5206:. Retrieved 5202:the original 5192: 5173: 5167: 5158: 5152:. Retrieved 5133: 5122: 5103: 5097: 5078: 5072: 5061:. Retrieved 5054:the original 5023: 5019: 5006: 4996: 4987: 4976:. Retrieved 4967: 4933: 4927: 4907: 4901: 4882: 4846: 4842: 4792: 4788: 4760: 4739: 4731: 4719:. Retrieved 4700: 4690: 4678:. Retrieved 4659: 4649: 4637: 4621: 4612: 4603: 4584: 4564: 4557: 4545:. Retrieved 4536: 4527: 4516:. Retrieved 4480: 4467: 4455:. Retrieved 4445: 4432: 4412: 4401: 4391: 4249:Stratigraphy 4232:Soil science 4202:Petrophysics 4180:Paleontology 4163:Oceanography 4148:Hydrogeology 4128:Geomythology 4059:Geochemistry 3976:geophysicist 3950:James Hutton 3912:mineralogist 3878: 3867: 3844: 3839: 3830: 3826: 3808: 3797: 3793: 3787: 3785: 3772: 3769:James Hutton 3767: 3762: 3756: 3746: 3741: 3731: 3727: 3707: 3705: 3701:stratigraphy 3683: 3676: 3671: 3626: 3604: 3598: 3595:Theophrastus 3588: 3502:debris flows 3471: 3436:core samples 3429: 3414:hydrogeology 3399: 3396:Hydrogeology 3381: 3357: 3320: 3223: 3204: 3156: 3151: 3147: 3133: 3131: 3084: 3049: 3037: 3034:Stratigraphy 3016:Stratigraphy 2994: 2987: 2975: 2920: 2865: 2837:thin section 2768:Paleontology 2743:of organisms 2617:Patterns of 2564: 2498: 2494: 2467: 2448:of an area. 2433:Slave craton 2420:Grand Canyon 2409: 2388: 2361: 2354: 2351:Grand Canyon 2339: 2315:metamorphism 2312: 2254: 2227: 2199:volcanic ash 2184: 2181: 2088: 2081: 2072:volcanic ash 2029: 2017: 2013: 1955: 1953: 1948:tectonically 1941: 1939: 1927: 1925: 1850: 1844: 1842: 1838:thrust fault 1834:normal fault 1822: 1820: 1789: 1787: 1783:James Hutton 1775: 1773: 1763:Methods for 1762: 1757:normal fault 1740:; B – large 1738:thrust fault 1696: 1668: 1629:Homo sapiens 1589:land animals 1482: 1389: 1368:Solar System 1365: 1346: 1310: 1292:Advances in 1291: 1244: 1180: 1153: 1137:upper mantle 1126: 1073: 1056:, after the 1043: 1041: 1025: 992:igneous rock 990:), it is an 980:crystallizes 974:When a rock 973: 950: 843: 832: 818: 715: 683:geochemistry 668: 654:, including 634: 631: 624: 617: 614: 607: 599: 598: 452: 397:Applications 379: 334: 301: 273:Geochemistry 263: 202: 74: 60: 59: 32: 10141:Carbonation 9854:Paleostress 9740:Slickenside 9715:Crenulation 9668:Fault trace 9663:Fault scarp 9653:Disturbance 9638:Cataclasite 9527:Rift valley 9447:Half-graben 9417:Fault block 9402:Décollement 9087:Exfoliation 8913:Prokaryotes 8701:Atmosphere 8696:Meteorology 8485:Volcanology 8460:Meteorology 8085:Cartography 8024:Environment 7891:Climatology 7819:Troposphere 7688:Occupations 7669:Meteoritics 7535:Cartography 7491:Volcanology 7476:Geodynamics 6907:betydninger 6656:à celui de 6569:. Minerva. 6540:From p. 81: 6408:Meteorology 6406:Aristotle. 5736:: 375–408. 5534:(1): 1–23. 4286:Volcanology 4153:Meteorology 3974:, Canadian 3952:, Scottish 3752:rock strata 3600:Peri Lithon 3488:Earthquakes 3406:brownfields 3330:natural gas 3040:drill cores 2966:décollement 2934:evolution. 2916:geochemical 2896:pleochroism 2687:groundwater 2587:lithofacies 2565:Geological 2460:A standard 2401:dike swarms 2377:Geological 2368:shear zones 2257:compression 2242:strike-slip 2143:cinder cone 1730:rock strata 1329:lithosphere 1321:shear waves 1145:plastically 1129:lithosphere 1083:volcanology 1004:redeposited 982:from melt ( 965:metamorphic 961:sedimentary 953:mineraloids 932:metamorphic 928:sedimentary 749:hydrocarbon 404:Engineering 326:Volcanology 264:Composition 148:Metamorphic 143:Sedimentary 10177:Haloclasty 10146:Hydrolysis 10136:Biological 9882:Pure shear 9869:Shear zone 9826:Competence 9710:Compaction 9587:Fracturing 9382:Autochthon 9377:Allochthon 9145:Subsidence 9107:Compaction 9102:Diagenesis 9092:Weathering 8794:Wilderness 8647:geological 8450:Glaciology 8445:Geophysics 8190:Tomography 8175:Seismology 8142:Geophysics 8117:Navigation 8009:Time zones 7974:In culture 7919:Antarctica 7906:Continents 7829:Mesosphere 7801:Atmosphere 7649:Geobiology 7624:Biogeology 7603:Seismology 7580:Geophysics 7507:Glaciology 7412:Mineralogy 7081:2015-11-14 6993:2021-06-19 6654:Cosmologie 6620:From p. 5: 6606:From p. 4: 6587:2015-11-14 6476:2008-07-22 6354:. usgs.gov 6251:(3): 269. 6116:2020-08-29 5987:1501.05685 5208:2009-04-11 5154:2016-08-24 5063:2018-01-29 4978:2009-03-14 4918:, Leiden: 4518:2019-06-29 4383:References 4341:Geotourism 4244:Speleology 4227:Seismology 4190:Palynology 4158:Mineralogy 4138:Glaciology 4133:Geophysics 3929:, Russian 3809:The first 3799:Neptunists 3789:Plutonists 3695:, and the 3663:deposition 3531:Subsidence 3498:Landslides 3483:Avalanches 3261:phosphates 3148:selenology 3127:exoplanets 3119:meteorites 3005:convergent 2990:stereonets 2928:subduction 2803:Glaciology 2733:determine 2623:deposition 2567:field work 2513:A typical 2495:endogenous 2479:landscapes 2289:anticlines 2215:laccoliths 2211:batholiths 2203:lava flows 2177:California 1808:batholiths 1804:laccoliths 1587:vertebrate 1556:atmosphere 1538:, of Earth 1376:Hadean eon 1325:inner core 1317:outer core 1302:mineralogy 1294:seismology 1255:continents 1194:subduction 1116:The major 976:solidifies 969:rock cycle 947:Rock cycle 920:rock cycle 903:table salt 717:Geologists 691:geologists 675:Geologists 602:(from 316:Glaciology 278:Mineralogy 173:Weathering 10238:Taphonomy 10223:Saprolite 10208:Etchplain 10156:Oxidation 9818:Boudinage 9798:Monocline 9793:Homocline 9773:Anticline 9755:Tectonite 9745:Stylolite 9720:Fissility 9697:lineation 9693:Foliation 9557:Syneclise 9502:Obduction 9472:Inversion 9364:tectonics 9077:Extrusive 9072:Intrusive 8872:Eukaryota 8839:Hierarchy 8834:Biosphere 8799:Wildfires 8789:Radiation 8779:Ecosystem 8719:Moonlight 8653:Structure 8608:particles 8455:Hydrology 8107:Geomatics 8052:Ecosystem 8037:Biosphere 7999:Etymology 7979:Earth Day 7929:Australia 7839:Exosphere 7695:Geologist 7550:Geomatics 7417:Petrology 7321:Overviews 7180:GSA Today 6330:28 August 6273:129496709 6014:118743781 5666:: 55–99. 5645:1460-2415 5556:129193823 5511:ignored ( 5501:cite book 5493:129592238 5126:Compare: 5036:CiteSeerX 4505:100441969 4497:2193-3405 4398:"geology" 4281:Tectonics 4197:Petrology 4086:Geography 4081:Geodetics 3954:geologist 3910:, German 3802:, led by 3794:vulcanism 3781:sediments 3757:In 1763, 3706:The word 3621:Aristotle 3605:On Stones 3541:Volcanoes 3521:Sinkholes 3516:Rockfalls 3444:sea level 3440:ice cores 3432:boreholes 3390:Hydrology 3326:petroleum 3309:lithology 3249:Magnesite 3229:gemstones 3184:Mokelumne 3111:asteroids 3107:icy moons 3044:well logs 3001:mountains 2868:lithology 2862:Petrology 2856:Petrology 2779:evolution 2774:material 2629:migration 2591:biofacies 2551:petrified 2501:geology. 2499:exogenous 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