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1261:, published calculations that fixed the age of the Earth at between 20 million and 400 million years. He assumed that the Earth had formed as a completely molten object, and estimated the amount of time it would take for the near-surface to cool to its present temperature. Many geologists contended that Thomson's estimates were inadequate to account for observed thicknesses of sedimentary rock, evolution of life, and the formation of the crystalline basement rocks beneath the sedimentary cover. The discovery of radioactivity in the early twentieth century provided an additional source of heat within the Earth, allowing for an increase in Thomson's calculated age, as well as a means of dating geological events.
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1024:. Once the term was established to denote the study of the Earth and its history, geology slowly became more generally recognized as a distinct science that could be taught as a field of study at educational institutions. In 1741 the best-known institution in the field of natural history, the National Museum of Natural History in France, created the first teaching position designated specifically for geology. This was an important step in further promoting knowledge of geology as a science and in recognizing the value of widely disseminating such knowledge.
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881:. With this enhanced desire for data came an increase in observations of the Earth's composition, which in turn led to the discovery of fossils. Although theories that resulted from the heightened interest in the Earth's composition were often manipulated to support the concept of the Deluge, a genuine outcome was a greater interest in the makeup of the Earth. Due to the strength of Christian beliefs during the 17th century, the theory of the origin of the Earth that was most widely accepted was
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1318:. This theory suggests that the shapes of continents and matching coastline geology between some continents indicates they were joined together in the past and formed a single landmass known as Pangaea; thereafter they separated and drifted like rafts over the ocean floor, currently reaching their present position. Additionally, the theory of continental drift offered a possible explanation as to the formation of mountains;
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1431:, began supplying satellite images that can be geologically analyzed. These images can be used to map major geological units, recognize and correlate rock types for vast regions and track the movements of Plate Tectonics. A few applications of this data include the ability to produce geologically detailed maps, locate sources of natural energy and predict possible natural disasters caused by plate shifts.
1329:, to cause the continents to move. However, it was not until after the Second World War that new evidence started to accumulate that supported continental drift. There followed a period of 20 years during which the theory of continental drift developed from being believed by a few to being the cornerstone of modern geology. Beginning in 1947 research provided new evidence about the ocean floor, and in 1960
1052:. The Neptunist thesis was the most popular during the late eighteenth century, especially for those who were chemically trained. However, another thesis slowly gained currency from the 1780s forward. Instead of water, some mid-eighteenth-century naturalists such as Buffon had suggested that strata had been formed through heat (or fire). The thesis was modified and expanded by the Scottish naturalist
1250:
vast areas of the countries. Geological mapping provides the location of useful rocks and minerals and such information could be used to benefit the country's mining and quarrying industries. With the government and industrial funding of geological research, more individuals undertook study of geology as technology and techniques improved, leading to the expansion of the field of the science.
903:. Steno was trained in the classical texts on science; however, by 1659 he seriously questioned accepted knowledge of the natural world. Importantly, he questioned the idea that fossils grew in the ground, as well as common explanations of rock formation. His investigations and his subsequent conclusions on these topics have led scholars to consider him one of the founders of modern
1060:: the formation of the Earth through the gradual solidification of a molten mass at a slow rate by the same processes that had occurred throughout history and continued in the present day. This led him to the conclusion that the Earth was immeasurably old and could not possibly be explained within the limits of the chronology inferred from the Bible. Plutonists believed that
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4,500 ± 100 million years, based on measurements of the relative abundance of uranium isotopes established by Alfred O. C. Nier. Theories that did not comply with the scientific evidence that established the age of the Earth could no longer be accepted. The established age of the Earth has been refined since then but has not significantly changed.
1091:, starting in the 1790s, found empirically that fossils were a highly effective means of distinguishing between otherwise similar formations of the landscape as he travelled the country working on the canal system and produced the first geological map of Britain. At about the same time, the French comparative anatomist
1005:
With the application of scientific methods to the investigation of the Earth's history, the study of geology could become a distinct field of science. To begin with, the terminology and definition of what constituted geological study had to be worked out. The term "geology" was first used technically
1249:
Economic motivations for the practical use of geological data motivated some governments to support geological research. During the 19th century several countries, including Canada, Australia, Great
Britain and the United States, initiated geological surveying that would produce geological maps of
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Period. The stratigraphic column was significant because it supplied a method to assign a relative age of these rocks by slotting them into different positions in their stratigraphical sequence. This created a global approach to dating the age of the Earth and allowed for further correlations to be
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came to a rough consensus that the age of the Earth was a few billion years and that radiometric dating was credible. Holmes published The Age of the Earth, an
Introduction to Geological Ideas in 1927 in which he presented a range of 1.6 to 3.0 billion years increasing the estimate in the 1940s to
1390:
and co-workers showed with a computer calculation how the continents along both sides of the
Atlantic would best fit to close the ocean, which became known as the famous "Bullard's Fit". By the late 1960s the weight of the evidence available saw continental drift as the generally accepted theory.
1027:
By the 1770s, chemistry was starting to play a pivotal role in the theoretical foundation of geology and two opposite theories with committed followers emerged. These contrasting theories offered differing explanations of how the rock layers of the Earth's surface had formed. One suggested that a
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which brought him widespread recognition because he presented a detailed system for identifying specific minerals based on external characteristics. The more efficiently productive land for mining could be identified and the semi-precious metals could be found, the more money could be made. This
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realized that the relative ages of fossils could be determined from a geological standpoint; in terms of what layer of rock the fossils are located and the distance these layers of rock are from the surface of the Earth. Through the synthesis of their findings, Brogniart and Cuvier realized that
1385:
necessary to make the mobility of the plates on the globe function. A symposium on continental drift that was held at the Royal
Society of London in 1965 must be regarded as the official start of the acceptance of plate tectonics by the scientific community. The abstracts from the symposium are
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methods rather than methods based on geological sedimentation or cooling of the Earth (many people still clung to Lord Kelvin's calculations of less than 100 million years). Holmes estimated the oldest
Archean rocks to be 1,600 million years old, but did not speculate about the Earth's age. His
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in 1755. From the works of these respected men, as well as others, it became acceptable by the mid eighteenth century to question the age of the Earth. This questioning represented a turning point in the study of the Earth. It was now possible to study the history of the Earth from a scientific
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which presented a variety of geological evidence from
England, France, Italy and Spain to prove Hutton's ideas of gradualism correct. He argued that most geological change had been very gradual in human history. Lyell provided evidence for Uniformitarianism, a geological doctrine holding that
605:
made critical observations of the slow rate of geological change. He observed the composition of the land and formulated a theory where the Earth changes at a slow rate and that these changes cannot be observed during one person's lifetime. Aristotle developed one of the first evidence-based
1418:
In recent years, geology has continued its tradition as the study of the character and origin of the Earth, its surface features and internal structure. What changed in the later 20th century is the perspective of geological study. Geology was now studied using a more integrative approach,
967:
Also during the eighteenth century, aspects of the history of the Earth – namely the divergences between the accepted religious concept and factual evidence – once again became a popular topic for discussion in society. In 1749, the French naturalist
1104:
different strata could be identified by fossil contents and thus each stratum could be assigned to a unique position in a sequence. After the publication of Cuvier and
Brongniart's book, "Description Geologiques des Environs de Paris" in 1811, which outlined the concept,
1177:
and Adam
Sedgwick interpreted "diluvial" deposits as the outcome of Noah's flood, but by the end of the decade they revised their opinions in favour of local inundations. Charles Lyell challenged catastrophism with the publication in 1830 of the first volume of his book
27:
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processes occur at the same rates in the present as they did in the past and account for all of the Earth's geological features. Lyell's works were popular and widely read, and the concept of
Uniformitarianism took a strong hold in geological society.
1209:
principles about the geological processes he saw, and even challenging some of Lyell's ideas. He speculated about the Earth expanding to explain uplift, then on the basis of the idea that ocean areas sank as land was uplifted, theorised that
864:
It was not until the 17th century that geology made great strides in its development. At this time, geology became its own entity in the world of natural science. It was discovered by the
Christian world that different translations of the
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became very popular amongst geologists; many hoped to apply this concept to all the rocks of the Earth. During this century various geologists further refined and completed the stratigraphic column. For instance, in 1833 while
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drive for economic gain propelled geology into the limelight and made it a popular subject to pursue. With an increased number of people studying it, came more detailed observations and more information about the Earth.
1419:
considering the Earth in a broader context encompassing the atmosphere, biosphere and hydrosphere. Satellites located in space that take wide scope photographs of the Earth provide such a perspective. In 1972, The
1028:
liquid inundation, perhaps like the biblical deluge, had created all geological strata. The theory extended chemical theories that had been developing since the seventeenth century and was promoted by Scotland's
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and their natural distribution vital. Scholars began to study the makeup of the Earth in a systematic manner, with detailed comparisons and descriptions not only of the land itself, but of the semi-precious
894:
During the 17th century, both religious and scientific speculation about the Earth's origin further propelled interest in the Earth and brought about more systematic identification techniques of the Earth's
1277:, among the pioneers in the use of radioactive decay as a means of measuring geological time, dated a sample from Ceylon at 1.6 billion years old using lead isotopes. In 1913 Holmes was on the staff of
1325:
Unfortunately, Wegener provided no convincing mechanism for this drift, and his ideas were not generally accepted during his lifetime. Arthur Holmes accepted Wegener's theory and provided a mechanism:
1056:
during the 1780s. He argued against the theory of Neptunism, proposing instead the theory of based on heat. Those who followed this thesis during the early nineteenth century referred to this view as
907:
and geology (Steno, who became a Catholic as an adult, was eventually made a bishop, and was beatified in 1988 by Pope John Paul II. Therefore, he is also called Blessed Nicolas Steno).
1087:
stimulated the rapid development of the stratigraphic column – "the sequence of rock formations arranged according to their order of formation in time." In England, the mining surveyor
1201:, who had just completed his BA degree and had accompanied Sedgwick on a two-week Welsh mapping expedition after taking his Spring course on geology. Fitzroy gave Darwin Lyell's
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1048:, had formed as a precipitate from an ocean that covered the entire Earth. Werner's system was influential and those who accepted his theory were known as Diluvianists or
1465:
1232:. Darwin's discovery of giant fossils helped to establish his reputation as a geologist, and his theorising about the causes of their extinction led to his theory of
899:. The Earth's strata can be defined as horizontal layers of rock having approximately the same composition throughout. An important pioneer in the science was
990:
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personality who dabbled in many fields of study in his age. In terms of geology, Shen Kuo is one of the first naturalists to have formulated a theory of
1295:
984:, but rather 75,000 years. Another individual who described the history of the Earth with reference to neither God nor the Bible was the philosopher
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891:. Whiston used Christian reasoning to "prove" that the Great Flood had occurred and that the flood had formed the rock strata of the Earth.
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contained different versions of the biblical text. The one entity that remained consistent through all of the interpretations was that the
1966:
England, P; Molnar, P (2007). "John Perry's neglected critique of Kelvin's age for the earth : A missed opportunity in geodynamics".
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Wegener, Alfred (1912). "Die Herausbildung der Grossformen der Erdrinde (Kontinente und Ozeane), auf geophysikalischer Grundlage".
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and so the major stumbling block to the theory was removed. Geophysical evidence suggested lateral motion of continents and that
1377:, who was a promoter of the sea floor spreading hypothesis and continental drift from the very beginning, added the concept of
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suggested the concept of paleomagnetism from his finding that the continents had moved relative to the Earth's magnetic poles.
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1040:. Of these names, Werner's views become internationally influential around 1800. He argued that the Earth's layers, including
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described fossil fish and shells found in deposits on mountains. Similar fossils were noted by Herodotus (about 490 BC).
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Blacket, P.M.S.; Bullard, E.; Runcorn, S.K., eds. (1965). "A Symposium on Continental Drift, held on 28 October 1965".
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980:. From experimentation with cooling globes, he found that the age of the Earth was not only 4,000 or 5,500 years as
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developed some primary geological concepts concerning the origin of the Earth. Additionally, in the 4th century BC
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1014:, though "geology" was not well received as a term until it was taken up in the very influential compendium, the
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742:" (the Book of Cure, Healing or Remedy from ignorance), in which Part 2, Section 5, contains his commentary on
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2334:. Revised and translated by Albert V. Carozzi and Marguerite Carozzi. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press.
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in which he attacked the popular Biblical accounts given by Whiston and other ecclesiastical theorists of the
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A portrait of Whiston with a diagram demonstrating his theories of cometary catastrophism best described in
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province. He formulated a hypothesis for the process of land formation: based on his observation of fossil
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From this increased interest in the nature of the Earth and its origin, came a heightened attention to
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Four centuries of geological travel : the search for knowledge on foot, bicycle, sledge and camel
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was adapted with the aim of reconciling geological science with religious traditions of the biblical
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883:
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645:, and attempted a primitive classification of the properties of minerals by their properties such as
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concepts connected to the geological realm regarding the rate at which the Earth physically changes.
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2218:"Studying Earth Sciences." British Geological Survey. 2006. Natural Environment Research Council.
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then widely used for practical ends. He was among the first to correctly identify the origin of
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from trees by the observation of insects trapped within some pieces. He also laid the basis of
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proposed that the oceanic crust forms as the seafloor spreads apart along mid-ocean ridges in
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in Europe during the mid to late 18th century made the possession of accurate knowledge about
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1197:, sought a suitable naturalist to examine the land and give geological advice. This fell to
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promotion of the theory over the next decades earned him the nickname of Father of Modern
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Wilson, J. Tuzo (1965). "A new class of faults and their bearing on continental drift".
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in a mountain hundreds of miles from the ocean, he inferred that the land was formed by
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drawn from similarities found in the makeup of the Earth's crust in various countries.
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85:
19:
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Rocchio, Laura. "The Landsat Program." National Aeronautics and Space Administration.
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The Age of Achievement: A.D. 750 to the End of the Fifteenth Century: The Achievements
750:, The advantages of mountains in the formation of clouds; Sources of water; Origin of
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The Language of Mineralogy: John Walker, Chemistry and the Edinburgh Medical School
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877:. To prove the Bible's authenticity, individuals felt the need to demonstrate with
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processes were the chief agent in rock formation, not water from a Great Flood.
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Engraving from William Smith's 1815 monograph on identifying strata by fossils
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1205:, and Darwin became an advocate of Lyell's ideas, inventively theorising on
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from a different direction, was assigning the upper parts of Sedgwick's
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The Role of Women in the History of Geology: Special Publication no 281
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2353:(Reprinted ed.). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
1951:
Charles Darwin's zoology notes & specimen lists from H.M.S. Beagle
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took the study of the Moon away from Lunar astronomers and gave it to
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By the early 20th Century radiogenic isotopes had been discovered and
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it contained, which had great commercial value. For example, in 1774
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is the scientific study of the origin, history, and structure of the
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is concerned with the development of the natural science of geology.
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The earth encompassed : a history of the environmental sciences
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De doodskunstenaar – de anatomische lessen van Frederik Ruysch
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By applying sound stratigraphic principles to the distribution of
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round sinking volcanic islands. This idea was confirmed when the
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637:, and further afield. He also quite naturally discussed types of
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2103:. Boulder, CO: Geological Society of America. pp. 599–620.
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Controversy in Victorian Geology: The Cambrian-Silurian Dispute
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and many others. Ibn Sina wrote an encyclopedic work entitled "
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produced a very extensive discussion of many more minerals and
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issued as Blacket, Bullard, Runcorn; 1965. In this symposium,
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1594:. History of civilizations of Central Asia. pp. 211–14.
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scientific evidence that the Great Flood had in fact occurred
866:
794:
746:'s Mineralogy and Meteorology, in six chapters: Formation of
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661:
575:
2114:
Wilson, J.T. (1963). "Hypothesis on the earth's behaviour".
2099:. In A. E. J. Engel; Harold L. James; B. F. Leonard (eds.).
1683:
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found in a preserved state underground near Yanzhou (modern
1816:
1466:
Timeline of the development of tectonophysics (before 1954)
1424:
1423:
Program, a series of satellite missions jointly managed by
1404:
1361:. This geophysical evidence also spurred the hypothesis of
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626:
2542:
2494:
Time matters : geology's legacy to scientific thought
1620:
1253:
In the 19th century, geological inquiry had estimated the
617:, who made the greatest progress in antiquity in his work
2537:
2101:
Petrologic studies: a volume in honor of A. F. Buddington
942:
711:
1113:
was mapping rocks that he had established were from the
2349:
Jardine, N.; Secord, J. A.; Spary, E. C., eds. (1996).
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in terms of millions of years. In 1862, the physicist
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Some of the first geological thoughts were about the
2303:
The Birth and Development of the Geological Sciences
1540:
Time Matters: Geology's Legacy to Scientific Thought
1369:
recorded in magnetic minerals. British geophysicist
1285:
in which he argued strongly in favour of the use of
724:, made significant contributions to geology and the
702:, whose works included the earliest writings on the
1889:"Charles Darwin as a prospective geological author"
1083:In the early 19th century, the mining industry and
991:
Universal Natural History and Theory of the Heavens
2375:How the Catholic Church built Western civilization
2372:
2348:
1730:
1694:
1296:British Association for the Advancement of Science
1294:. In 1921, attendees at the yearly meeting of the
1173:. In the early 1820s English geologists including
996:Allgemeine Naturgeschichte und Theorie des Himmels
937:. Moreover, the increasing economic importance of
2515:. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
2449:. London, England: Geological Society of London.
2202:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A
2055:Transactions of the Geological Society of Glasgow
1590:Asimov, M. S.; Bosworth, Clifford Edmund (eds.).
1525:"Evolution and Paleontology in the Ancient World"
925:is considered to be the father of modern geology.
3502:
2306:. Baltimore: The Williams & Wilkins Company.
732:) along with other natural philosophers such as
435:Lists of geological features of the Solar System
2254:. San Francisco: Freeman, Cooper & Company.
1121:was elsewhere suggesting a subdivision of the
1002:perspective without religious preconceptions.
957:Von den äusserlichen Kennzeichen der Fossilien
765:In medieval China, one of the most intriguing
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2558:
1965:
1229:The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs
547:
2393:
1665:
1522:
1006:in publications by two Genevan naturalists,
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955:
2220:http://www.bgs.ac.uk/vacancies/studying.htm
1078:Oxford University Museum of Natural History
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2510:
2444:
1893:British Journal for the History of Science
1882:
1880:
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1407:, it can be argued that almost overnight,
1322:built on the theory of continental drift.
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2249:
1996:
1984:
1827:
1798:
1741:
1739:
1653:
1226:, and in 1842 he published his theory on
808:. He also formulated a theory of gradual
2430:(1st Amer. ed.). New York: Norton.
2225:
1567:. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1956. p. 13
1381:to the model, completing the classes of
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1144:
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914:
850:
781:. This was based on his observations of
224:Principle of cross-cutting relationships
26:
2023:
1886:
1877:
1543:. John Wiley & Sons. 9 April 2010.
1365:, the record of the orientation of the
629:both from local mines such as those at
3503:
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2491:
2423:
2394:Wyse Jackson, Patrick N., ed. (2007).
2156:
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2008:
1839:
1736:
970:Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon
961:(On the External Features of Fossils),
698:(AD 973–1048) was one of the earliest
234:Principle of inclusions and components
3025:
2546:
2445:Burek, C.V.; Higgs, B., eds. (2007).
2367:
2327:
2308:
2296:
2026:Petermanns Geographische Mitteilungen
1937:
1925:
1851:
1810:
1786:
1757:
1745:
1718:
1706:
1677:
1671:
1641:
1629:
1614:
1484:
1165:In early nineteenth-century Britain,
804:, located hundreds of miles from the
609:However, it was his successor at the
2470:(in Dutch). Amsterdam: Bert Bakker.
2091:
1953:, Cambridge University Press, 2000.
1867:Princeton University Press, 301 pp.
1769:
1281:, when he published his famous book
933:and other components of the Earth's
440:Geology of solar terrestrial planets
31:Illustration from a 1767 account by
3004:
2048:"Radioactivity and Earth Movements"
1349:. This was seen as confirmation of
873:had formed the world's geology and
812:, after his observation of ancient
720:(Avicenna, AD 981–1037), a Persian
209:Principle of original horizontality
13:
2416:
2400:. London: The Geological Society.
2379:. Washington, D.C.: Regnery Publ.
823:), in the dry northern climate of
14:
3527:
3082:History and philosophy of science
2521:
1394:
1259:William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin
1020:, published beginning in 1751 by
3484:
3483:
3471:
3460:
3090:
3003:
2992:
2991:
2979:
2611:
2208:(1088). Royal Society of London.
1731:Jardine, Secord & Spary 1996
1695:Jardine, Secord & Spary 1996
1153:by William Smith, published 1815
521:
63:
2212:
2193:
2150:
2107:
2092:Hess, H. H. (1 November 1962).
2085:
2036:
2017:
2002:
1990:
1978:
1959:
1943:
1919:
1857:
1845:
1833:
1804:
1792:
1780:
1763:
1751:
1724:
1712:
1700:
1659:
1647:
1635:
1264:
1067:
910:
846:
758:; The diversity of the Earth's
219:Principle of lateral continuity
1608:
1583:
1570:
1557:
1531:
1516:
1490:
1478:
1190:, given charge of the coastal
1137:to the lower parts of his own
1076:Bust of William Smith, in the
690:
229:Principle of faunal succession
1:
2282:. Stanford University Press.
2250:Albritton, Claude C. (1980).
2063:Geological Society of Glasgow
2013:. London: Harper. p. 18.
1770:Eddy, Matthew Daniel (2008).
1471:
2309:Adams, Frank Dawson (1954).
2233:http://landsat.gsfc.nasa.gov
2032:: 185–195, 253–256, 305–309.
1523:Ben Waggoner (9 June 1996).
1273:had been developed. In 1911
641:and building materials like
581:
7:
3433:Neurology and neurosurgery
2636:Geological history of Earth
2572:
2351:Cultures of natural history
2222:, accessed 29 November 2006
1499:Chambers Science Factfinder
1434:
1306:Alfred Wegener, around 1925
1012:Horace-Bénédict de Saussure
339:Geological history of Earth
10:
3532:
2609:
2513:A Brief History of Geology
2511:O'Hara, Kieran D. (2018).
2242:
2235:, accessed 4 December 2006
2071:10.1144/transglas.18.3.559
1915:– via Darwin Online.
1095:assisted by his colleague
1034:Johan Gottschalk Wallerius
191:Laws, principles, theories
70:Science of the solid Earth
35:of a volcanic eruption of
17:
3456:
3403:
3370:
3322:
3269:
3231:
3155:
3099:
3088:
3059:
2973:
2947:
2876:
2838:
2785:
2759:
2723:
2690:
2650:Composition and structure
2649:
2621:
2603:Index of geology articles
2580:
2424:Bowler, Peter J. (2000).
2094:"History of Ocean Basins"
1905:10.1017/S0007087400027060
1333:published the concept of
1192:survey expedition of HMS
884:A New Theory of the Earth
858:A New Theory of the Earth
706:, hypothesizing that the
2492:Leddra, Michael (2010).
2464:Kooijmans, Luuc (2004).
1887:Herbert, Sandra (1991).
1451:Outline of Earth science
1243:On the Origin of Species
1101:École des Mines de Paris
839:of the mountains and by
199:Stratigraphic principles
18:Not to be confused with
3147:20th century in science
3142:19th century in science
2328:Gohau, Gabriel (1990).
2009:Holmes, Arthur (1913).
1446:History of paleontology
1441:History of geomagnetism
1314:proposed the theory of
1224:Cocos (Keeling) Islands
982:inferred from the Bible
696:Abu al-Rayhan al-Biruni
3067:Theories and sociology
1680:, pp. 4 & 96.
1429:U.S. Geological Survey
1367:Earth's magnetic field
1307:
1162:
1154:
1080:
995:
956:
952:Abraham Gottlob Werner
926:
887:published in 1696, by
861:
39:
3127:Scientific Revolution
2899:Environmental geology
2496:. Chichester: Wiley.
1949:Keynes, Richard ed..
1305:
1203:Principles of Geology
1180:Principles of Geology
1160:
1148:
1085:Industrial Revolution
1075:
918:
854:
30:
3380:Agricultural science
3132:Age of Enlightenment
2858:Planetary geophysics
2331:A history of geology
2280:The Age of the Earth
2011:The Age of the Earth
1987:, pp. 14–17, 38
1565:The Earth We Live On
1283:The Age of the Earth
988:, who published his
978:history of the Earth
621:. He described many
586:In the year 540 BC,
214:Law of superposition
3418:Veterinary medicine
3112:Classical Antiquity
2960:Petroleum geologist
2924:Forensic geophysics
2894:Engineering geology
2641:Timeline of geology
2593:Glossary of geology
2298:Adams, Frank Dawson
2276:Dalrymple, G. Brent
2171:1965Natur.207..343W
2128:1963Natur.198..849H
1461:Timeline of geology
1456:Humboldtian science
1337:. Soon after this,
1214:grew from fringing
1097:Alexandre Brogniart
974:Histoire Naturelle,
954:published the book
708:Indian subcontinent
679:by recognising the
595:origin of the Earth
358:Branches of geology
297:Landform structures
178:Geologic time scale
3511:History of geology
3053:History of science
2986:Geology portal
2914:Geologic modelling
2853:Geophysical survey
2805:Geodetic astronomy
2731:Structural geology
2692:Historical geology
2623:History of geology
2598:History of geology
2588:Outline of geology
2311:1990 Dover reprint
1863:Second J A (1986)
1830:, pp. 104–107
1502:. Chambers. 2006.
1347:seafloor spreading
1308:
1287:radiometric dating
1271:radiometric dating
1163:
1155:
1149:Geological map of
1127:Roderick Murchison
1081:
927:
862:
652:Much later in the
613:, the philosopher
568:history of geology
528:Geology portal
448:By planet and body
316:Structural Geology
288:Structure of Earth
40:
20:Historical geology
3498:
3497:
3390:Materials science
3352:Political science
3117:Medieval European
3019:
3018:
2904:Planetary geology
2820:Planetary geodesy
2503:978-1-4051-9908-7
2477:978-90-351-2673-2
2437:978-0-393-32080-0
2407:978-1-86239-234-2
2360:978-0-521-55894-5
2341:978-0-8135-1666-0
2252:The Abyss of Time
1801:, pp. 95–96.
1697:, pp. 212–4.
1666:Wyse Jackson 2007
1601:978-92-3-102719-2
1580:. Book 1, Part 14
1359:continental crust
1351:mantle convection
1327:mantle convection
1316:continental drift
1238:natural selection
802:Taihang Mountains
728:(which he called
700:Muslim geologists
564:
563:
428:Planetary geology
380:Geological survey
3523:
3491:
3487:
3486:
3479:
3475:
3464:
3463:
3385:Computer science
3233:Natural sciences
3198:Medieval Islamic
3094:
3046:
3039:
3032:
3023:
3022:
3007:
3006:
2995:
2994:
2984:
2983:
2919:Forensic geology
2889:Economic geology
2815:Gravity of Earth
2710:Paleoclimatology
2615:
2567:
2560:
2553:
2544:
2543:
2516:
2507:
2488:
2486:
2484:
2460:
2441:
2411:
2390:
2378:
2369:Woods, Thomas E.
2364:
2345:
2324:
2307:
2293:
2271:
2255:
2236:
2229:
2223:
2216:
2210:
2209:
2197:
2191:
2190:
2179:10.1038/207343a0
2165:(4995): 343–47.
2154:
2148:
2147:
2136:10.1038/198849a0
2122:(4884): 849–65.
2111:
2105:
2104:
2098:
2089:
2083:
2082:
2052:
2040:
2034:
2033:
2021:
2015:
2014:
2006:
2000:
1994:
1988:
1982:
1976:
1975:
1963:
1957:
1947:
1941:
1935:
1929:
1923:
1917:
1916:
1884:
1875:
1861:
1855:
1849:
1843:
1837:
1831:
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1814:
1808:
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1587:
1581:
1574:
1568:
1561:
1555:
1554:
1535:
1529:
1528:
1520:
1514:
1513:
1494:
1488:
1482:
1413:Lunar geologists
1379:transform faults
1357:is younger than
1335:mid-ocean ridges
1279:Imperial College
1255:age of the Earth
1186:In 1831 Captain
1175:William Buckland
1008:Jean-André Deluc
998:
959:
831:in a geological
789:, deposition of
726:natural sciences
704:geology of India
556:
549:
542:
526:
525:
330:Geologic history
67:
42:
41:
33:William Hamilton
3531:
3530:
3526:
3525:
3524:
3522:
3521:
3520:
3501:
3500:
3499:
3494:
3482:
3470:
3452:
3399:
3366:
3324:Social sciences
3318:
3265:
3227:
3151:
3095:
3086:
3055:
3050:
3020:
3015:
2978:
2969:
2943:
2939:Mineral physics
2872:
2834:
2781:
2755:
2741:Plate tectonics
2719:
2715:Palaeogeography
2686:
2662:Crystallography
2645:
2617:
2616:
2607:
2576:
2571:
2524:
2519:
2504:
2482:
2480:
2478:
2457:
2438:
2419:
2417:Further reading
2414:
2408:
2387:
2361:
2342:
2321:
2290:
2268:
2256:
2245:
2240:
2239:
2230:
2226:
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2155:
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2112:
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2096:
2090:
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2050:
2041:
2037:
2022:
2018:
2007:
2003:
1995:
1991:
1983:
1979:
1964:
1960:
1948:
1944:
1936:
1932:
1924:
1920:
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1537:
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1532:
1521:
1517:
1510:
1496:
1495:
1491:
1483:
1479:
1474:
1437:
1397:
1339:Robert S. Dietz
1331:Bruce C. Heezen
1320:plate tectonics
1267:
1129:, mapping into
1125:Period; whilst
1070:
913:
889:William Whiston
849:
773:(1031–1095), a
754:; Formation of
693:
677:crystallography
658:Pliny the Elder
584:
560:
520:
513:
512:
511:
452:
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158:Plate tectonics
153:
118:
110:
72:
23:
12:
11:
5:
3529:
3519:
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3496:
3495:
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3468:
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3440:
3435:
3430:
3425:
3420:
3415:
3413:Human medicine
3409:
3407:
3401:
3400:
3398:
3397:
3392:
3387:
3382:
3376:
3374:
3368:
3367:
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3328:
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3296:
3291:
3286:
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3264:
3263:
3258:
3253:
3248:
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3237:
3235:
3229:
3228:
3226:
3225:
3220:
3215:
3210:
3205:
3200:
3195:
3190:
3185:
3180:
3175:
3170:
3165:
3159:
3157:
3153:
3152:
3150:
3149:
3144:
3139:
3134:
3129:
3124:
3119:
3114:
3109:
3103:
3101:
3097:
3096:
3089:
3087:
3085:
3084:
3079:
3074:
3072:Historiography
3069:
3063:
3061:
3057:
3056:
3049:
3048:
3041:
3034:
3026:
3017:
3016:
3014:
3013:
3001:
2989:
2974:
2971:
2970:
2968:
2967:
2962:
2957:
2951:
2949:
2945:
2944:
2942:
2941:
2936:
2934:Mining geology
2931:
2926:
2921:
2916:
2911:
2906:
2901:
2896:
2891:
2886:
2880:
2878:
2874:
2873:
2871:
2870:
2868:Tectonophysics
2865:
2860:
2855:
2850:
2844:
2842:
2836:
2835:
2833:
2832:
2830:Geopositioning
2827:
2825:Remote sensing
2822:
2817:
2812:
2807:
2802:
2797:
2791:
2789:
2783:
2782:
2780:
2779:
2777:Marine geology
2774:
2769:
2763:
2761:
2757:
2756:
2754:
2753:
2748:
2743:
2738:
2733:
2727:
2725:
2721:
2720:
2718:
2717:
2712:
2707:
2702:
2696:
2694:
2688:
2687:
2685:
2684:
2679:
2674:
2669:
2664:
2659:
2657:Cosmochemistry
2653:
2651:
2647:
2646:
2644:
2643:
2638:
2633:
2627:
2625:
2619:
2618:
2610:
2608:
2606:
2605:
2600:
2595:
2590:
2584:
2582:
2578:
2577:
2570:
2569:
2562:
2555:
2547:
2541:
2540:
2523:
2522:External links
2520:
2518:
2517:
2508:
2502:
2489:
2476:
2461:
2456:978-1862392274
2455:
2442:
2436:
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2418:
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2241:
2238:
2237:
2224:
2211:
2192:
2149:
2106:
2084:
2044:Holmes, Arthur
2035:
2016:
2001:
1997:Dalrymple 1994
1989:
1985:Dalrymple 1994
1977:
1958:
1942:
1930:
1918:
1899:(2): 159–192.
1876:
1856:
1844:
1832:
1828:Albritton 1980
1815:
1803:
1799:Albritton 1980
1791:
1789:, p. 209.
1779:
1762:
1760:, p. 219.
1750:
1735:
1733:, p. 232.
1723:
1711:
1699:
1682:
1670:
1658:
1654:Kooijmans 2004
1646:
1644:, p. 114.
1634:
1632:, p. 118.
1619:
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1600:
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1556:
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1468:
1463:
1458:
1453:
1448:
1443:
1436:
1433:
1409:Gene Shoemaker
1396:
1395:Modern geology
1393:
1388:Edward Bullard
1363:paleomagnetism
1312:Alfred Wegener
1266:
1263:
1207:uniformitarian
1199:Charles Darwin
1188:Robert FitzRoy
1093:Georges Cuvier
1069:
1066:
1038:Abraham Werner
1036:and Germany's
972:published his
912:
909:
848:
845:
810:climate change
739:Kitab al-Shifa
734:Ikhwan AI-Safa
692:
689:
599:Ancient Greece
583:
580:
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117:Key components
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37:Mount Vesuvius
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3333:
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3297:
3295:
3292:
3290:
3289:Combinatorics
3287:
3285:
3282:
3280:
3277:
3276:
3274:
3272:
3268:
3262:
3259:
3257:
3256:Earth science
3254:
3252:
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3201:
3199:
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3186:
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3179:
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3135:
3133:
3130:
3128:
3125:
3123:
3120:
3118:
3115:
3113:
3110:
3108:
3107:Ancient world
3105:
3104:
3102:
3098:
3093:
3083:
3080:
3078:
3077:Pseudoscience
3075:
3073:
3070:
3068:
3065:
3064:
3062:
3058:
3054:
3047:
3042:
3040:
3035:
3033:
3028:
3027:
3024:
3012:
3011:
3002:
3000:
2999:
2990:
2988:
2987:
2982:
2976:
2975:
2972:
2966:
2965:Volcanologist
2963:
2961:
2958:
2956:
2953:
2952:
2950:
2946:
2940:
2937:
2935:
2932:
2930:
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2861:
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2846:
2845:
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2837:
2831:
2828:
2826:
2823:
2821:
2818:
2816:
2813:
2811:
2808:
2806:
2803:
2801:
2800:Earth's orbit
2798:
2796:
2793:
2792:
2790:
2788:
2784:
2778:
2775:
2773:
2770:
2768:
2765:
2764:
2762:
2758:
2752:
2749:
2747:
2746:Geomorphology
2744:
2742:
2739:
2737:
2734:
2732:
2729:
2728:
2726:
2724:Dynamic Earth
2722:
2716:
2713:
2711:
2708:
2706:
2703:
2701:
2698:
2697:
2695:
2693:
2689:
2683:
2682:Sedimentology
2680:
2678:
2675:
2673:
2670:
2668:
2665:
2663:
2660:
2658:
2655:
2654:
2652:
2648:
2642:
2639:
2637:
2634:
2632:
2631:Geochronology
2629:
2628:
2626:
2624:
2620:
2614:
2604:
2601:
2599:
2596:
2594:
2591:
2589:
2586:
2585:
2583:
2579:
2575:
2568:
2563:
2561:
2556:
2554:
2549:
2548:
2545:
2539:
2535:
2534:
2529:
2528:Early Geology
2526:
2525:
2514:
2509:
2505:
2499:
2495:
2490:
2479:
2473:
2469:
2468:
2462:
2458:
2452:
2448:
2443:
2439:
2433:
2429:
2428:
2422:
2421:
2409:
2403:
2399:
2398:
2392:
2388:
2386:0-89526-038-7
2382:
2377:
2376:
2370:
2366:
2362:
2356:
2352:
2347:
2343:
2337:
2333:
2332:
2326:
2322:
2316:
2312:
2305:
2304:
2299:
2295:
2291:
2289:0-8047-2331-1
2285:
2281:
2277:
2273:
2269:
2263:
2259:
2253:
2248:
2247:
2234:
2228:
2221:
2215:
2207:
2203:
2196:
2188:
2184:
2180:
2176:
2172:
2168:
2164:
2160:
2153:
2145:
2141:
2137:
2133:
2129:
2125:
2121:
2117:
2110:
2102:
2095:
2088:
2080:
2076:
2072:
2068:
2064:
2060:
2056:
2049:
2045:
2039:
2031:
2027:
2020:
2012:
2005:
1998:
1993:
1986:
1981:
1973:
1969:
1962:
1956:
1952:
1946:
1940:, p. 226
1939:
1934:
1928:, p. 145
1927:
1922:
1914:
1910:
1906:
1902:
1898:
1894:
1890:
1883:
1881:
1874:
1873:0-691-02441-3
1870:
1866:
1860:
1854:, p. 144
1853:
1848:
1842:, p. 216
1841:
1836:
1829:
1824:
1822:
1820:
1813:, p. 239
1812:
1807:
1800:
1795:
1788:
1783:
1775:
1774:
1766:
1759:
1754:
1747:
1742:
1740:
1732:
1727:
1721:, p. 92.
1720:
1715:
1709:, p. 88.
1708:
1703:
1696:
1691:
1689:
1687:
1679:
1674:
1667:
1662:
1655:
1650:
1643:
1638:
1631:
1626:
1624:
1617:, p. 96.
1616:
1611:
1603:
1597:
1593:
1586:
1579:
1573:
1566:
1563:Moore, Ruth.
1560:
1552:
1550:9781444323269
1546:
1542:
1541:
1534:
1526:
1519:
1511:
1509:9780550101488
1505:
1501:
1500:
1493:
1486:
1481:
1477:
1467:
1464:
1462:
1459:
1457:
1454:
1452:
1449:
1447:
1444:
1442:
1439:
1438:
1432:
1430:
1426:
1422:
1416:
1414:
1410:
1406:
1402:
1392:
1389:
1384:
1380:
1376:
1372:
1371:S. K. Runcorn
1368:
1364:
1360:
1356:
1355:oceanic crust
1352:
1348:
1344:
1343:Harry H. Hess
1340:
1336:
1332:
1328:
1323:
1321:
1317:
1313:
1304:
1300:
1297:
1293:
1292:Geochronology
1288:
1284:
1280:
1276:
1275:Arthur Holmes
1272:
1262:
1260:
1256:
1251:
1247:
1245:
1244:
1240:published in
1239:
1235:
1231:
1230:
1225:
1222:surveyed the
1221:
1217:
1213:
1208:
1204:
1200:
1196:
1195:
1189:
1184:
1181:
1176:
1172:
1168:
1167:catastrophism
1159:
1152:
1151:Great Britain
1147:
1143:
1140:
1136:
1132:
1128:
1124:
1120:
1119:Charles Lyell
1116:
1112:
1111:Adam Sedgwick
1107:
1102:
1098:
1094:
1090:
1089:William Smith
1086:
1079:
1074:
1065:
1063:
1059:
1055:
1051:
1047:
1043:
1039:
1035:
1031:
1025:
1023:
1022:Denis Diderot
1019:
1018:
1013:
1009:
1003:
1000:
997:
992:
987:
986:Immanuel Kant
983:
979:
975:
971:
965:
962:
958:
953:
949:
944:
940:
936:
932:
924:
921:
917:
908:
906:
902:
901:Nicolas Steno
898:
892:
890:
886:
885:
880:
876:
872:
868:
860:
859:
853:
844:
842:
838:
834:
830:
826:
822:
818:
815:
811:
807:
806:Pacific Ocean
803:
800:found in the
799:
796:
792:
788:
784:
780:
779:geomorphology
776:
772:
768:
763:
761:
757:
753:
749:
745:
741:
740:
735:
731:
727:
723:
719:
715:
713:
709:
705:
701:
697:
688:
686:
682:
678:
674:
671:
667:
663:
659:
655:
650:
648:
644:
640:
636:
632:
628:
624:
620:
616:
612:
607:
604:
600:
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591:
589:
579:
577:
573:
569:
557:
552:
550:
545:
543:
538:
537:
535:
534:
529:
524:
519:
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517:
516:
508:
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485:
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436:
433:
432:
429:
424:
423:
415:
412:
410:
407:
405:
402:
400:
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389:
388:
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368:
364:
361:
359:
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355:
349:
348:
340:
337:
336:
331:
328:
327:
322:
319:
317:
314:
312:
309:
307:
306:Geomorphology
304:
303:
298:
295:
294:
289:
286:
284:
281:
279:
278:Sedimentology
276:
274:
271:
269:
266:
265:
260:
257:
256:
249:
248:
240:
239:Walther's law
237:
235:
232:
230:
227:
225:
222:
220:
217:
215:
212:
210:
207:
206:
201:
200:
196:
195:
188:
187:
179:
176:
174:
171:
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166:
164:
161:
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155:
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144:
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139:
136:
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130:
127:
125:
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114:
113:
106:
102:
99:
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94:
92:
89:
87:
84:
82:
79:
78:
76:
75:
71:
66:
62:
61:
58:
57:
53:
52:
48:
44:
43:
38:
34:
29:
25:
21:
16:
3428:Neuroscience
3332:Anthropology
3314:Trigonometry
3008:
2996:
2977:
2877:Applications
2848:Geomagnetism
2772:Hydrogeology
2705:Paleontology
2700:Stratigraphy
2667:Geochemistry
2622:
2597:
2532:
2512:
2493:
2481:. Retrieved
2466:
2446:
2426:
2396:
2374:
2350:
2330:
2310:
2302:
2279:
2258:1986 reprint
2257:
2251:
2227:
2214:
2205:
2201:
2195:
2162:
2158:
2152:
2119:
2115:
2109:
2100:
2087:
2058:
2054:
2038:
2029:
2025:
2019:
2010:
2004:
1999:, p. 74
1992:
1980:
1971:
1967:
1961:
1950:
1945:
1933:
1921:
1896:
1892:
1864:
1859:
1847:
1835:
1806:
1794:
1782:
1772:
1765:
1753:
1748:, p. 8.
1726:
1714:
1702:
1673:
1661:
1649:
1637:
1610:
1591:
1585:
1577:
1572:
1564:
1559:
1539:
1533:
1518:
1498:
1492:
1480:
1417:
1398:
1324:
1309:
1282:
1268:
1265:20th century
1252:
1248:
1241:
1227:
1219:
1212:coral atolls
1202:
1193:
1185:
1179:
1164:
1134:
1106:stratigraphy
1082:
1068:19th century
1054:James Hutton
1026:
1017:Encyclopédie
1015:
1004:
989:
973:
966:
960:
928:
923:James Hutton
911:18th century
905:stratigraphy
893:
882:
863:
856:
847:17th century
787:soil erosion
764:
737:
729:
716:
694:
651:
618:
615:Theophrastus
608:
592:
585:
567:
565:
447:
392:Applications
374:
329:
296:
268:Geochemistry
258:
197:
100:
69:
54:
24:
15:
3395:Engineering
3337:Archaeology
3304:Probability
3271:Mathematics
3137:Romanticism
3122:Renaissance
2948:Occupations
2929:Meteoritics
2795:Cartography
2751:Volcanology
2736:Geodynamics
2533:In Our Time
2065:: 559–606.
1840:Bowler 2000
1578:Meteorology
1576:Aristotle.
1487:, p. 7
1383:fault types
1375:Tuzo Wilson
1216:coral reefs
1171:Great Flood
1032:, Sweden's
1030:John Walker
783:sedimentary
767:naturalists
752:earthquakes
710:was once a
691:Middle Ages
399:Engineering
321:Volcanology
259:Composition
143:Metamorphic
138:Sedimentary
3516:Geologists
3505:Categories
3372:Technology
3357:Psychology
3309:Statistics
3156:By culture
3060:Background
2909:Geobiology
2884:Biogeology
2863:Seismology
2840:Geophysics
2767:Glaciology
2672:Mineralogy
2483:10 January
2320:048626372X
2267:087477389X
1938:Adams 1938
1926:Gohau 1990
1852:Gohau 1990
1811:Adams 1938
1787:Adams 1938
1776:. Ashgate.
1758:Gohau 1990
1746:Gohau 1990
1719:Gohau 1990
1707:Gohau 1990
1678:Woods 2005
1642:Gohau 1990
1630:Gohau 1990
1615:Adams 1938
1485:Gohau 1990
1472:References
1050:Neptunists
841:deposition
730:Attabieyat
681:octahedral
670:fossilized
643:limestones
588:Xenophanes
311:Glaciology
273:Mineralogy
168:Weathering
3466:Timelines
3443:Pathology
3438:Nutrition
3362:Sociology
3342:Economics
3251:Chemistry
3241:Astronomy
3178:Byzantine
3173:Brazilian
3168:Argentine
2955:Geologist
2810:Geomatics
2677:Petrology
2581:Overviews
2079:122872384
1968:GSA Today
1913:143748414
1246:in 1859.
1234:evolution
1058:Plutonism
875:geography
843:of silt.
814:petrified
748:mountains
744:Aristotle
683:habit of
619:On Stones
603:Aristotle
582:Antiquity
409:Forensics
363:Geologist
283:Petrology
3489:Category
3448:Pharmacy
3405:Medicine
3294:Geometry
3284:Calculus
3203:Japanese
2371:(2005).
2300:(1938).
2278:(1994).
2046:(1931).
1435:See also
1427:and the
1310:In 1912
1139:Silurian
1135:Cambrian
1123:Tertiary
1117:Period,
1115:Cambrian
1062:volcanic
931:minerals
920:Scotsman
785:uplift,
775:polymath
771:Shen Kuo
756:minerals
722:polymath
718:Ibn Sina
656:period,
647:hardness
623:minerals
414:Military
352:Research
149:Sediment
124:Minerals
105:Timeline
96:Glossary
91:Category
47:a series
45:Part of
3423:Anatomy
3347:History
3279:Algebra
3261:Physics
3246:Biology
3223:Spanish
3218:Russian
3213:Mexican
3188:Chinese
3163:African
3010:Geology
2998:Geology
2787:Geodesy
2574:Geology
2536:at the
2243:Sources
2187:4294401
2167:Bibcode
2144:4209203
2124:Bibcode
1421:Landsat
1403:on the
1401:craters
1099:at the
1046:granite
837:erosion
833:stratum
825:Shaanxi
817:bamboos
798:fossils
760:terrain
685:diamond
631:Laurium
572:Geology
457:Mercury
375:Methods
173:Erosion
133:Igneous
101:History
86:Outline
56:Geology
3477:Portal
3208:Korean
3193:Indian
3183:French
3100:By era
2500:
2474:
2453:
2434:
2404:
2383:
2357:
2338:
2317:
2286:
2264:
2185:
2159:Nature
2142:
2116:Nature
2077:
1911:
1871:
1598:
1547:
1506:
1220:Beagle
1194:Beagle
1042:basalt
948:metals
939:mining
897:strata
871:Deluge
829:shells
821:Yan'an
795:marine
793:, and
662:metals
639:marble
635:Athens
611:Lyceum
507:Charon
497:Triton
404:Mining
252:Topics
163:Strata
3299:Logic
2760:Water
2183:S2CID
2140:S2CID
2097:(PDF)
2075:S2CID
2061:(3).
2051:(PDF)
1955:p. ix
1909:S2CID
1131:Wales
935:crust
867:Bible
673:resin
668:as a
666:amber
654:Roman
633:near
576:Earth
502:Pluto
492:Titan
482:Ceres
477:Vesta
462:Venus
367:List)
81:Index
2498:ISBN
2485:2012
2472:ISBN
2451:ISBN
2432:ISBN
2402:ISBN
2381:ISBN
2355:ISBN
2336:ISBN
2315:ISBN
2284:ISBN
2262:ISBN
1974:(1).
1869:ISBN
1596:ISBN
1545:ISBN
1504:ISBN
1425:NASA
1405:Moon
1341:and
1044:and
1010:and
943:ores
791:silt
769:was
627:ores
625:and
566:The
472:Mars
467:Moon
129:Rock
2538:BBC
2530:on
2206:258
2175:doi
2163:207
2132:doi
2120:198
2067:doi
1901:doi
1236:by
712:sea
3507::
2313:.
2260:.
2204:.
2181:.
2173:.
2161:.
2138:.
2130:.
2118:.
2073:.
2059:18
2057:.
2053:.
2030:63
2028:.
1972:17
1970:.
1907:.
1897:24
1895:.
1891:.
1879:^
1818:^
1738:^
1685:^
1622:^
1415:.
762:.
714:.
687:.
649:.
597:.
578:.
487:Io
49:on
3045:e
3038:t
3031:v
2566:e
2559:t
2552:v
2506:.
2487:.
2459:.
2440:.
2410:.
2389:.
2363:.
2344:.
2323:.
2292:.
2270:.
2189:.
2177::
2169::
2146:.
2134::
2126::
2081:.
2069::
1903::
1668:.
1656:.
1604:.
1553:.
1527:.
1512:.
999:)
993:(
555:e
548:t
541:v
365:(
145:)
131:(
107:)
103:(
22:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
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