593:
5757:
5674:
2167:
Africa and South
America but spread to eventually cover most of the supercontinent, save for northernmost Africa-South America and eastern Australia. Giant lycopod and horsetail forests continued to evolve in tropical Laurasia together with a diversified assemblage of true insects. In Gondwana, in contrast, ice and, in Australia, volcanism decimated the Devonian flora to a low-diversity seed fern flora – the pteridophytes were increasingly replaced by the gymnosperms which were to dominate until the Mid-Cretaceous. Australia, however, was still located near the Equator during the Early Carboniferous, and during this period,
5719:
5689:
5644:
5772:
1331:
1136:
5802:
5787:
2262:
1349:
1340:
1145:
5629:
2253:
5659:
1550:
1559:
6284:
2062:
1991:
5704:
721:
378:
750:
741:
730:
2233:
2053:
6306:
2242:
2197:
830:. These terranes are, from Turkey to north-eastern India: the Taurides in southern Turkey; the Lesser Caucasus Terrane in Georgia; the Sanand, Alborz, and Lut terranes in Iran; the Mangysglak or Kopetdag Terrane in the Caspian Sea; the Afghan Terrane; the Karakorum Terrane in northern Pakistan; and the Lhasa and Qiangtang terranes in Tibet. The Permian–Triassic widening of the Neo-Tethys pushed all these terranes across the Equator and over to Eurasia.
2188:
898:
51:
1764:. Another change related to mid-Cretaceous plate tectonic rearrangement was the change of subduction direction of the oceanic lithosphere that went from having south-east motion to having a north-east motion about 90 million years ago. While subduction direction changed, it remained oblique (and not perpendicular) to the coast of South America, and the direction change affected several
433:
1891:) resulted in abrupt cooling but the Oligocene became a period of high rainfall with swamps in southeast Australia. During the Miocene, a warm and humid climate developed with pockets of rainforests in central Australia, but before the end of the period, colder and drier climate severely reduced this rainforest. A brief period of increased rainfall in the
2356:, two now extinct orders of gymnospermous plants, evolved in the Late Triassic and became important in the Jurassic and Cretaceous. It is possible that gymnosperm biodiversity surpassed later angiosperm biodiversity and that the evolution of angiosperms began during the Triassic but, if so, in Laurasia rather than in Gondwana. Two Gondwanan classes,
2407:. By the Mid-Cretaceous, angiosperms constituted half of the flora in northeastern Australia. There is, however, no obvious connection between this spectacular angiosperm radiation and any known extinction event nor with vertebrate/insect evolution. Insect orders associated with pollination, such as
1578:
divided West
Gondwana (South America and Africa), but there is considerable debate over the exact timing of this break-up. Rifting propagated from south to north along Triassic–Early Jurassic lineaments, but intra-continental rifts also began to develop within both continents in Jurassic–Cretaceous
874:
have been dated at 320–330 million years old, indicating that the subduction process initiated in the early
Carboniferous. This was relatively short-lived (lasting about 20 million years), and initial contact of the two landmasses occurred in the mid-Carboniferous, with broader collision during the
675:
developed along
Gondwana's western, southern, and eastern margins. Proto-Gondwanan Cambrian arc belts from this margin have been found in eastern Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand, and Antarctica. Though these belts formed a continuous arc chain, the direction of subduction was different between the
2384:
that had dominated during the
Palaeozoic were now marginalised, except for ferns. In contrast to Laurentia, very few insect fossils have been found in Gondwana, to a considerable extent because of widespread deserts and volcanism. While plants had a cosmopolitan distribution, dinosaurs evolved and
2166:
The closure of the Rheic Ocean and the formation of
Pangaea in the Carboniferous resulted in the rerouting of ocean currents that initiated an Ice House period. As Gondwana began to rotate clockwise, Australia shifted south to more temperate latitudes. An ice cap initially covered most of southern
684:
Many terranes were accreted to
Eurasia during Gondwana's existence, but the Cambrian or Precambrian origin of many of these terranes remains uncertain. For example, some Palaeozoic terranes and microcontinents that now make up Central Asia, often called the "Kazakh" and "Mongolian terranes", were
1895:
was followed by drier climate which favoured grassland. Since then, the fluctuation between wet interglacial periods and dry glacial periods has developed into the present arid regime. Australia has thus experienced various climate changes over a 15-million-year period with a gradual decrease in
2487:
2316:
dominated the wetlands of
Gondwana in the Early Permian. Insects co-evolved with glossopterids across Gondwana and diversified with more than 200 species in 21 orders by the Late Permian, many known from South Africa and Australia. Beetles and cockroaches remained minor elements in this fauna.
2094:, a slender, ground-covering plant, became the first known vascular plant to establish itself on land. This first colonisation occurred exclusively around the Equator on landmasses then limited to Laurasia and, in Gondwana, to Australia. In the late Silurian, two distinctive lineages,
1949:, a series of events severally restricted the Proto-ACC: change to shallow marine conditions along the North Scotia Ridge; closure of the Fuegan Seaway, the deep sea that existed in Tierra del Fuego; and uplift of the Patagonian Cordillera. This, together with the reactivated
1740:), the Andean orogeny changed significantly in character. Warmer and younger oceanic lithosphere is believed to have started to be subducted beneath South America around this time. Such kind of subduction is held responsible not only for the intense contractional
4547:
Li, Z. X.; Bogdanova, S. V.; Collins, A. S.; Davidson, A.; De Waele, B.; Ernst, R. E.; Fitzsimons, I. C. W.; Fuck, R. A.; Gladkochub, D. P.; Jacobs, J.; Karlstrom, K. E.; Lu, S.; Natapov, L. M.; Pease, V.; Pisarevsky, S. A.; Thrane, K.; Vernikovsky, V. (2008).
1567:
At c. 126 Ma (left) the
Falkland Plateau began to slide past southern Africa and the Paraná-Etendeka LIP had opened the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. At c. 83 Ma (right) the South Atlantic was fully opened and the Romanche Fracture Zone was forming near the
1976:. From the Oligocene to the late Miocene, the climate in Australia, dominated by warm and humid rainforests before this collision, began to alternate between open forest and rainforest before the continent became the arid or semiarid landscape it is today.
1880:
35–40° south of its current location and both continents were largely unglaciated. A rift between the two developed but remained an embayment until the Eocene-Oligocene boundary when the
Circumpolar Current developed and the glaciation of Antarctica began.
667:
The later Malagasy orogeny at about 550–515 Mya affected Madagascar, eastern East Africa and southern India. In it, Neoproterozoic India collided with the already combined Azania and Congo–Tanzania–Bangweulu Block, suturing along the Mozambique Belt.
2371:
had a dramatic impact on dinosaurs but left plants largely unaffected. The Jurassic was mostly one of hot-house conditions and, while vertebrates managed to diversify in this environment, plants have left little evidence of such development, apart from
825:
Gondwana's long, northern margin remained a mostly passive margin throughout the Palaeozoic. The Early Permian opening of the Neo-Tethys Ocean along this margin produced a long series of terranes, many of which were and still are being deformed in the
621:
550 Ma, India had reached its Gondwanan position, which initiated the Kuunga orogeny (also known as the Pinjarra orogeny). Meanwhile, on the other side of the newly forming Africa, Kalahari collided with Congo and Rio de la Plata which closed the
2348:, an extinct genus of fork-leaved seed ferns, dominated woodlands and forests of Gondwana during most of the Triassic. Conifers evolved and radiated during the period, with six of eight extant families already present before the end of it.
481:
between East (India, Madagascar, Antarctica, and Australia) and West Gondwana (Africa and South America). Three orogenies were recognised during the 1990s as a result of data sets compiled on behalf of oil and mining companies: the
842:, a series of terranes were rafted from the proto-Andean margin when the Iapteus Ocean opened, to be added back to Gondwana during the closure of that ocean. During the Paleozoic, some blocks which helped to form parts of the
633:
As the rest of Gondwana formed, a complex series of orogenic events assembled the eastern parts of Gondwana (eastern Africa, Arabian-Nubian Shield, Seychelles, Madagascar, India, Sri Lanka, East Antarctica, and Australia)
2819:"The Mesozoic West and Central Africa Rift System (WCARS) and the older Kandi Shear Zone (KSZ): Rifting and tectonics of North Africa and South America and fragmentation of Gondwana based on geophysical investigations"
1085:
Antarctica, the centre of the supercontinent, shared boundaries with all other Gondwana continents and the fragmentation of Gondwana propagated clockwise around it. The break-up was the result of the eruption of the
1357:
The first ocean floor formed between India and Antarctica c. 120 Ma (left). The Kerguelen LIP began to form the Ninety East ridge c. 80 Ma (centre). The Indian and Australian plates merged c. 40 Ma
2333:
During the Mid- to Late Triassic, hot-house conditions coincided with a peak in biodiversity – the end-Permian extinction was enormous and so was the radiation that followed. Two families of conifers,
1030:
coincides with the Alleghanian and Ouachita orogenies and are indicative of a large-scale change in the mode of deposition far away from the Pangaean orogenies. Ultimately, these changes contributed to the
700:, which today form large parts of France, was part of either Peri-Gondwana or core Gondwana; the Rheic Ocean closed in front of it and the Palaeo-Tethys Ocean opened behind it. Precambrian rocks from the
2011:
when referring to patterns of distribution of living organisms, typically when the organisms are restricted to two or more of the now-discontinuous regions that were once part of Gondwana, including the
2032:
During the Silurian, Gondwana extended from the Equator (Australia) to the South Pole (North Africa and South America) whilst Laurasia was located on the Equator opposite to Australia. A short-lived
1026:
The formation of Pangaea and its mountains had a tremendous impact on global climate and sea levels, which resulted in glaciations and continent-wide sedimentation. In North America, the base of the
778:
continental fragments that were assembled during the Mid-Palaeozoic and Cenozoic. This process can be divided into three phases of rifting along Gondwana's northern margin: first, in the Devonian,
538:
occurred. Laurentia was docked against the western shores of a united Gondwana for a brief period near the Precambrian/Cambrian boundary, forming the short-lived and still disputed supercontinent
870:
terrane accreted later against Cuyania. The collision of the Patagonian terrane with the southwestern Gondwanan occurred in the late Paleozoic. Subduction-related igneous rocks from beneath the
2496:
provides a good example of a taxon with a Gondwanan distribution, having originated in the supercontinent and existing in present-day Australia, New Zealand, New Caledonia, and South America's
5292:
Travouillon, K. J.; Legendre, S.; Archer, M.; Hand, S. J. (2009). "Palaeoecological analyses of Riversleigh's Oligo-Miocene sites: implications for Oligo-Miocene climate change in Australia".
5323:"Age constraints on the tectonic evolution and provenance of the Pie de Palo Complex, Cuyania composite terrane, and the Famatinian Orogeny in the Sierra de Pie de Palo, San Juan, Argentina"
2137:
of Victoria, Australia, occurs in two strata separated by 1,700 m (5,600 ft) or 30 Ma; the upper assemblage is more diverse and includes Baragwanathia, the first primitive
794:(north-western China) rifted, opening the Palaeo-Tethys behind them. These terranes accreted to Asia during Late Devonian and Permian. Second, in the Late Carboniferous to Early Permian,
5322:
4132:"Motion between the Indian, Capricorn and Somalian plates since 20 Ma: implications for the timing and magnitude of distributed lithospheric deformation in the equatorial Indian ocean"
454:
The assembly of Gondwana was a protracted process during the Neoproterozoic and Paleozoic, which remains incompletely understood because of the lack of paleo-magnetic data. Several
1589:
at Falkland latitudes, forcing Patagonia to move relative to the still static remainder of South America and Africa, and this westward movement lasted until the Early Cretaceous
3988:
Cawood, Peter A. (2005). "Terra Australis Orogen: Rodinia breakup and development of the Pacific and Iapetus margins of Gondwana during the Neoproterozoic and Paleozoic".
5526:
van Hinsbergen, Douwe J.J.; Torsvik, Trond H.; Schmid, Stefan M.; Maţenco, Liviu C.; Maffione, Marco; Vissers, Reinoud L.M.; Gürer, Derya; Spakman, Wim (September 2019).
2380:
and other groups of seed ferns. In terms of biomass, the Jurassic flora was dominated by conifer families and other gymnosperms that had evolved during the Triassic. The
2423:, radiated continuously from the Permian-Triassic, long before the arrival of the angiosperms. Well-preserved insect fossils have been found in the lake deposits of the
1023:
oceans in the Late Carboniferous, and docked with Asia during the Triassic and Jurassic. Western Pangaea began to rift while the eastern end was still being assembled.
1042:(CAMP) between South America, Africa, North America, and Europe. CAMP covered more than seven million square kilometres over a few million years, reached its peak at
630:
540–530 Ma, the closure of the Mozambique Ocean brought India next to Australia–East Antarctica, and both North and South China were in proximity to Australia.
291:
orogenies, the collision of South America with Africa, and the addition of Australia and Antarctica, respectively. Eventually, Gondwana became the largest piece of
2163:, the earliest land vertebrates, in Greenland and Russia. The only traces of this evolution in Gondwana are amphibian footprints and a single jaw from Australia.
2312:(57% of marine families and 83% of genera went extinct) and which came to dominate in the Late Permian and from whom true conifers evolved. Tall lycopods and
1231:) was pushed westward. The history of the Africa-Antarctica break-up can be studied in great detail in the fracture zones and magnetic anomalies flanking the
4942:
Powell, C.; Roots, S. R.; Veevers, J. J. (1988). "Pre-Breakup Continental Extension in East Gondwanaland and the Early Opening of the Eastern Indian Ocean".
4635:
2392:, or flowering plants, a group that probably evolved in western Gondwana (South America–Africa). From there the angiosperms diversified in two stages: the
2304:
colonised Gondwana and reached peak diversity in the Late Permian when coal-forming forests covered much of Gondwana. The period also saw the evolution of
1934:-old which indicates that the spreading between the Antarctic and South American plates began near the Eocene/Oligocene boundary. Deep sea environments in
2125:(19% of marine families and 50% of genera went extinct) and glaciation occurred in South America. Before Pangaea had formed, terrestrial plants, such as
992:. Pangaea was finally amalgamated in the Late Carboniferous-Early Permian, but the oblique forces continued until Pangaea began to rift in the Triassic.
4020:; Pinto, Luisa; Rodríguez, María Pía (2006). "3. Tectonostratigraphic evolution of the Andean Orogen in Chile". In Moreno, Teresa; Gibbons, Wes (eds.).
2465:
mammals with a Gondwanan distribution (South America, Africa, Madagascar, India, Zealandia and Antarctica) during the Late Cretaceous and Palaeogene.
2779:"Wir nennen es Gondwána-Land, nach der gemeinsamen alten Gondwána-Flora, … "(We name it Gondwána-Land, after the common ancient flora of Gondwána …)
1656:. At Brazilian latitudes spreading is more difficult to assess because of the lack of palaeo-magnetic data, but rifting occurred in Nigeria at the
949:
791:
1884:
Australia was warm and wet during the Palaeocene and dominated by rainforest. The opening of the Tasman Gateway at the Eocene-Oligocene boundary (
3146:
2044:, which resulted in 27% of marine invertebrate families and 57% of genera going extinct, occurred during this shift from Ice House to Hot House.
822:
terranes opened the Neo-Tethys Ocean; Lhasa collided with Asia during the Early Cretaceous, and West Burma and Woyla during the Late Cretaceous.
2321:
fossils from the Early Permian have only been found in Laurasia but they became common in Gondwana later during the Permian. The arrival of the
952:, on the other hand, remained largely unaffected by the collision along the southern shores of Laurentia. Some Peri-Gondwanan terranes, such as
4378:
Hoffmann-Rothe, Arne; Kukowski, Nina; Dresen, Georg; Echtler, Helmut; Oncken, Onno; Klotz, Jürgen; Scheuber, Ekkehard; Kellner, Antje (2006).
3411:
Abbate, Ernesto; Bruni, Piero; Sagri, Mario (2015). "Geology of Ethiopia: A Review and Geomorphological Perspectives". In Billi, Paolo (ed.).
2179:
reptilians evolved, all closely related to the Laurasian fauna, but spreading ice eventually drove these animals away from Gondwana entirely.
5592:
4296:"Fossil Nothofagaceous Leaves from the Eocene of Western Antarctica and their Bearing on the Origin, Dispersal and Systematics of Nothofagus"
424:
Some scientists prefer the term "Gondwanaland" for the supercontinent to make a clear distinction between the region and the supercontinent.
3353:
1364:
East Gondwana, comprising Antarctica, Madagascar, India, and Australia, began to separate from Africa. East Gondwana then began to break up
2536:
85 million years ago. The islands still retain plants that originated in Gondwana and spread to the Southern Hemisphere continents later.
2438:
Dinosaurs continued to prosper but, as the angiosperm diversified, conifers, bennettitaleans and pentoxylaleans disappeared from Gondwana
3891:
Anderson, J. M.; Anderson, H. M.; Archangelsky, S.; Bamford, M.; Chandra, S.; Dettmann, M.; Hill, R.; McLoughlin, S.; Rösler, O. (1999).
1953:, contributed to global warming. During the Miocene, the Drake Passage began to widen, and as water flow between South America and the
846:
of South America, include a piece transferred from Laurentia when the west edge of Gondwana scraped against southeast Laurentia in the
5142:
Seton, M.; Müller, R. D.; Zahirovic, S.; Gaina, C.; Torsvik, T.; Shephard, G.; Talsma, A.; Gurnis, M.; Maus, S.; Chandler, M. (2012).
2300:
The Gondwana ice sheet melted, and sea levels dropped during the Permian and Triassic global warming. During this period, the extinct
299:
Era, covering an area of some 100,000,000 km (39,000,000 sq mi), about one-fifth of the Earth's surface. It fused with
5039:"Syntectonic magnetization of the mid-Palaeozoic Sierra Grande Formation: further constraints on the tectonic evolution of Patagonia"
4901:"Cambrian arc evolution along the SE Gondwana active margin: a synthesis from Tasmania-New Zealand-Australia-Antarctica correlations"
2454:
2041:
1263:
323:(around 180 million years ago). The final stages of break-up, involving the separation of Antarctica from South America (forming the
3933:"Molecular dating of the 'Gondwanan'plant family Proteaceae is only partially congruent with the timing of the break-up of Gondwana"
1056:. The reformed Gondwanan continent was not precisely the same as that which had existed before Pangaea formed; for example, most of
4380:"Oblique Convergence along the Chilean Margin: Partitioning, Margin-Parallel Faulting and Force Interaction at the Plate Interface"
3176:
2577:, which proliferated during the Early Cretaceous (145–100 Mya) while Australia was still linked to Antarctica to form East Gondwana
2024:, lineage. The distributions in the Proteaceae is, nevertheless, the result of both Gondwanan rafting and later oceanic dispersal.
5516:
2724:
2145:
replaced the Baragwanathia Flora, introducing the first trees, and by the Late Devonian this first forest was accompanied by the
819:
2020:, known from all continents in the Southern Hemisphere, has a "Gondwanan distribution" and is often described as an archaic, or
2368:
1053:
4208:"A review of the evolution of the Mozambique Belt and implications for the amalgamation and dispersal of Rodinia and Gondwana"
5528:"Orogenic architecture of the Mediterranean region and kinematic reconstruction of its tectonic evolution since the Triassic"
5372:
Woodburne, M. O.; Rich, T. H.; Springer, M. S. (2003). "The evolution of tribospheny and the antiquity of mammalian clades".
4407:
3428:
2617:
2309:
1032:
1195:, it separated a series of smaller continental blocks from Gondwana's southern, Proto-Pacific margin (along what is now the
5410:
4592:
1639:
644:. First, the Arabian-Nubian Shield collided with eastern Africa (in the Kenya-Tanzania region) in the East African Orogeny
5205:
5038:
4039:
Collins, A. S.; Pisarevsky, S. A. (2005). "Amalgamating eastern Gondwana: The evolution of the Circum-Indian Orogens".
1068:
is underlain by rocks that were originally part of Gondwana, but this region stayed attached to North America when the
1039:
914:
5248:
4346:
6391:
6386:
6351:
5585:
4999:
4361:
4029:
2562:
2556:
2114:. Most of Gondwana was located far from the Equator during this period and remained a lifeless and barren landscape.
6411:
6356:
1220:
913:
formed the Pangaea supercontinent during the Carboniferous. Pangaea began to break up in the Mid-Jurassic when the
3981:
Proceedings of the XVth International Congress on Carboniferous and Permian Stratigraphy. Utrecht (Vol. 10, p. 16)
3346:"Gondwana Remnants in Alabama And Georgia: Uchee Is An 'Exotic' Peri-Gondwanan Arc Terrane, Not Part of Laurentia"
6431:
6341:
5096:"Evolution of the Southwest Indian Ridge from the Late Cretaceous (anomaly 34) to the Middle Eocene (anomaly 20)"
1228:
4884:
4190:
3979:
Blakey, R. C. (2003). "Carboniferous–Permian paleogeography of the assembly of Pangaea". In Wong, Th. E. (ed.).
6366:
6336:
4619:
1985:
2428:
1011:. North China docked with Mongolia and Siberia during the Carboniferous–Permian, followed by South China. The
6401:
6381:
6294:
2037:
1910:
6421:
6200:
5578:
5046:
17:
2778:
1625:
6160:
4512:
592:
5186:
338:(Ma)). Gondwana was not considered a supercontinent by the earliest definition, since the landmasses of
6361:
5021:
4861:"Revised plate motions relative to the hotspots from combined Atlantic and Indian Ocean hotspot tracks"
2033:
1834:
1643:
5018:
The Assembly of Southern South America in the Late Proterozoic and Paleozoic: Some Paleomagnetic Clues
3115:
2364:, saw a gradual decline during the Triassic while ferns, though never dominant, managed to diversify.
6396:
6376:
6105:
6095:
5848:
5249:"Refining Gondwana and Pangea Palaeogeography: Estimates of Phanerozoic non-dipole (octupole) fields"
1741:
35:
4679:"Extensive 200-million-year-old continental flood basalts of the Central Atlantic Magmatic Province"
4549:
4450:
4061:
2685:
1927:
and the deepening of the Tasman Gateway. The oldest oceanic crust in the Drake Passage, however, is
6416:
6371:
6314:
6080:
3767:, DEVONIAN: colonising Gondwana; The Second Extinction; Global colonisation of plants, pp. 151, 153
2528:
2122:
1196:
410:
2106:
that were to dominate the Gondwanan vegetation over a long period, whilst the latter evolved into
6406:
6137:
6132:
4080:"Laurentia-Gondwana collision: the origin of the Famatinian-Appalachian orogenic belt (a review)"
3450:
3345:
2720:
2522:
1286:
1251:
871:
827:
783:
779:
4971:
4387:
3065:
1069:
6426:
6075:
4976:"Anatomy and global context of the Andes: Main geologic features and the Andean orogenic cycle"
4445:
4056:
2680:
2160:
1430:
1232:
1091:
928:
oceans. The obliquity of this closure resulted in the docking of some northern terranes in the
839:
672:
5508:
2508:
of Australia, New Caledonia, and New Zealand have a number of species related to those of the
1777:
1575:
6346:
5960:
5868:
5678:
5673:
3225:
2574:
2134:
1707:
1485:
global ocean temperature dropped significantly. A dramatic shift from arc- to rift magmatism
1153:
The first ocean floor formed between Madagascar and Africa c. 150 Ma (left) and between
969:
604:
229:
159:
141:
133:
99:
4830:
Miashita, Y.; Yamamoto, T. (1996). "Gondwanaland: Its Formation, Evolution and Dispersion".
4677:
Marzoli, A.; Renne, P. R.; Piccirillo, E. M.; Ernesto, M.; Bellieni, G.; De Min, A. (1999).
4531:
4295:
2663:
Bradley, D.C. (2011). "Secular Trends in the Geologic Record and the Supercontinent Cycle".
2457:
killed off all dinosaurs except birds, but plant evolution in Gondwana was hardly affected.
216:. The remnants of Gondwana make up around two-thirds of today's continental area, including
6299:
6054:
5945:
5539:
5489:
5425:
5381:
5337:
5301:
5263:
5220:
5155:
5107:
5055:
5025:
4951:
4912:
4872:
4839:
4803:
4770:
4690:
4650:
4607:
4564:
4527:
4482:
4437:
4310:
4219:
4178:
4143:
4091:
4048:
3997:
3944:
3904:
3459:
3185:
3130:
3085:
3069:
2830:
2672:
1973:
1965:
1841:
1761:
1279:
1061:
1012:
795:
596:
483:
269:
163:
1266:. The India–Madagascar–Seychelles separations appear to coincide with the eruption of the
8:
6309:
6256:
6046:
6005:
5465:
5091:
4167:"Synchronous emplacement of Ferrar and Karoo dolerites and the early breakup of Gondwana"
1954:
1942:
during the Eocene and Oligocene indicate a "Proto-ACC" opened during this period. Later,
1799:
1330:
1200:
1135:
977:
937:
459:
350:
were separated from it. To differentiate it from the Indian region of the same name (see
347:
248:
241:
103:
5965:
5543:
5429:
5385:
5341:
5305:
5267:
5224:
5159:
5111:
5059:
5029:
4955:
4916:
4876:
4843:
4807:
4774:
4727:"The breakup history of Gondwana and its impact on pre-Cenozoic floristic provincialism"
4694:
4654:
4611:
4568:
4486:
4441:
4347:"Mesozoic-Cenozoic evolution of Australia's New Guinea margin in a west Pacific context"
4314:
4223:
4182:
4147:
4095:
4052:
4001:
3948:
3908:
3463:
3189:
3134:
3089:
2834:
2676:
2473:, two placental clades, are of Gondwanan origin and probably began to evolve separately
1348:
1339:
1223:(in Antarctica) were rotated 90° in opposite directions; and South America south of the
1144:
968:, were directly involved in the collision. The final collision resulted in the Variscan-
6164:
6010:
5990:
5123:
5071:
4930:
4460:
4425:
4326:
4275:
4235:
4107:
3960:
2698:
2551:
2432:
1939:
1016:
1008:
1000:
996:
925:
859:
535:
509:
284:
5513:
5393:
5349:
4851:
4815:
4782:
3916:
3230:"The country rocks of Devonian magmatism in the North Patagonian Massif and Chaitenia"
3221:
1802:, since which more than 1,400 km (870 mi) of crust has been absorbed by the
1616:
most likely forcing dextral movements between sub-plates on either side. South of the
1271:
920:
In the western end of Pangaea, the collision between Gondwana and Laurasia closed the
6231:
6085:
6050:
5461:
5397:
5276:
5143:
5127:
5119:
5095:
5075:
4995:
4963:
4934:
4860:
4791:
4758:
4726:
4706:
4470:
4403:
4379:
4357:
4330:
4255:
4239:
4207:
4194:
4166:
4156:
4131:
4127:
4111:
4079:
4025:
4017:
3956:
3932:
3892:
3424:
3073:
2848:
2843:
2818:
2716:
2702:
2581:
2545:
2533:
2424:
2373:
1861:
1826:
1745:
1461:
1408:
1391:
1387:
1294:
1239:
1027:
803:
701:
697:
389:
fossil groups used as biogeographic evidence for continental drift, and land bridging
292:
5167:
4678:
4576:
4279:
4070:
4009:
3964:
3142:
2694:
2261:
1960:
Since the Eocene, the northward movement of the Australian Plate has resulted in an
1579:
sedimentary basins, subdividing each continent into three sub-plates. Rifting began
1108:
between South America, Africa, and Antarctica are found in what is now the southern
6246:
6220:
5910:
5557:
5547:
5437:
5433:
5389:
5353:
5345:
5309:
5271:
5228:
5163:
5115:
5063:
4987:
4959:
4920:
4880:
4847:
4811:
4778:
4738:
4698:
4662:
4658:
4615:
4572:
4535:
4490:
4455:
4395:
4318:
4267:
4227:
4186:
4151:
4099:
4066:
4005:
3952:
3912:
3471:
3467:
3416:
3253:
3243:
3201:
3193:
3138:
3093:
2838:
2755:
2690:
2301:
2252:
2121:, bringing Gondwana and Laurasia close together. Global cooling contributed to the
2021:
1935:
1819:
1815:
1703:
1549:
1504:
1379:
1216:
1105:
961:
941:
933:
815:
709:
546:
498:
478:
398:
177:
115:
31:
4975:
4636:"Cenozoic climatic change and the development of the arid vegetation in Australia"
4513:"The tectonic history of Drake Passage and its possible impacts on global climate"
4511:
Lagabrielle, Y.; Goddéris, Y.; Donnadieu, Y.; Malavieille, J.; Suarez, M. (2009).
4231:
4103:
2607:
1558:
6236:
6206:
6147:
5970:
5520:
5313:
4702:
4383:
3197:
2568:
2513:
2447:
2156:
2013:
1811:
1753:
1730:
1621:
1524:
1437:
1395:
1383:
1212:
1204:
1004:
985:
929:
759:
623:
570:
558:
554:
467:
155:
6283:
5481:
4399:
3420:
3174:
Ramos, Victor A. (1 November 2008). "Patagonia: A paleozoic continent adrift?".
2003:
Proteaceae, is an example of a plant from a family with a Gondwanan distribution
886:
55:
Gondwana 420 million years ago (late Silurian). View centered on the South Pole.
6168:
5888:
5842:
5562:
4539:
4394:. Frontiers in Earth Sciences. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer. pp. 125–146.
3234:
2458:
2401:
2357:
2103:
2000:
1969:
1715:
1695:
1512:
1290:
965:
960:, were buffered from collisions by major promontories. Other terranes, such as
763:
704:
suggest that it, too, formed part of core Gondwana before its detachment as an
582:
494:
288:
213:
77:
4991:
4322:
4271:
6330:
6185:
5723:
5718:
5708:
5703:
5552:
5527:
5232:
5067:
4593:"Experimental Approach to the Paleocirculation of the Oceanic Surface Waters"
4256:"The phylogenetic affinities of the enigmatic mammalian clade Gondwanatheria"
4198:
4078:
Dalla Salda, L. H.; de Luchi, M. G. L.; Cingolani, C. A.; Varela, R. (1998).
3248:
3229:
2852:
2612:
2505:
2497:
2393:
2361:
2349:
2339:
2335:
2313:
2168:
2151:
2146:
2142:
2130:
2078:
1961:
1950:
1924:
1845:
1788:
1773:
1769:
1723:
1722:. This development is presumed to have been linked to the subduction of cold
1520:
1516:
1469:
1255:
945:
843:
811:
654:. Then Australia and East Antarctica were merged with the remaining Gondwana
527:
508:), the collision between East Gondwana and East Africa in two steps, and the
324:
304:
272:, the collision of India and Madagascar with East Africa, and culminating in
217:
151:
125:
95:
91:
4426:"The Somalia plate and the East African Rift System: present-day kinematics"
3114:
Pankhurst, R. J.; Rapela, C. W.; Fanning, C. M.; Márquez, M. (1 June 2006).
3097:
2129:, began to diversify rapidly resulting in the colonisation of Gondwana. The
1990:
1810:
orogen. During the Cenozoic, the orogen resulted in the construction of the
679:
6288:
6241:
5975:
5950:
5761:
5756:
5485:
5401:
5182:
4710:
3983:. Utrecht, the Netherlands: Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences.
3445:
2760:
2747:
2443:
2381:
2353:
2172:
2126:
2095:
2061:
2008:
1853:
1849:
1756:
reorganisation since the mid-Cretaceous might also have been linked to the
1657:
1617:
1508:
1426:
1412:
1375:
1267:
1224:
1175:
1172:
1087:
1020:
981:
863:
686:
550:
406:
394:
1840:
The break-up of Gondwana can be said to continue in eastern Africa at the
1369:
693:. Whether these blocks originated on the shores of Gondwana is not known.
6142:
6110:
6100:
4925:
4900:
4495:
2571:, a theory which describes the large-scale motions of Earth's lithosphere
2509:
2420:
2416:
2404:
2385:
diversified in a pattern that reflects the Jurassic break-up of Pangaea.
2377:
2099:
1726:
1633:
1500:
1117:
1109:
1099:
921:
787:
720:
659:
649:
639:
526:
The last stages of Gondwanan assembly overlapped with the opening of the
514:
488:
472:
445:
438:
377:
278:
261:
1681:
1402:
1386:
and its diffuse boundaries. During the opening of the Indian Ocean, the
749:
740:
729:
6180:
6090:
6070:
5920:
5648:
5643:
5357:
4550:"Assembly, configuration, and break-up history of Rodinia: a synthesis"
4510:
3680:
3668:
3258:
3206:
2492:
2470:
2450:
2397:
2389:
2344:
2305:
2290:
2232:
2218:
2138:
2111:
2052:
2017:
1944:
1929:
1904:
1765:
1671:
1638:
and the development of rifts systems on both continents, including the
1591:
1243:
1192:
1158:
1007:
blocks rifted from Gondwana during the middle Paleozoic and opened the
953:
876:
847:
578:
566:
409:". The name had been previously used in a geological context, first by
366:
333:
300:
296:
225:
137:
111:
30:
This article is about the supercontinent. For the region in India, see
5570:
2241:
2196:
1480:
1429:, the southern end of the Ninety East Ridge, are now separated by the
1247:
1035:
and left large deposits of hydrocarbons, coal, evaporite, and metals.
6251:
6115:
6065:
5985:
5980:
5925:
5858:
5601:
4165:
Encarnación, J.; Fleming, T. H.; Elliot, D. H.; Eales, H. V. (1996).
2478:
2466:
2322:
2284:
2213:
2187:
2107:
2090:
2072:
1803:
1719:
1664:
1611:
1601:
1584:
1496:
1490:
1445:
1420:
1314:
1302:
1298:
1208:
1182:
1047:
880:
807:
775:
612:
531:
503:
343:
328:
233:
4742:
1918:
1886:
1793:
1651:
1531:
1455:
972:, stretching from present-day Mexico to southern Europe. Meanwhile,
897:
6175:
6060:
5940:
5930:
5893:
5878:
5863:
5776:
5771:
5503:
5479:
4377:
3890:
3839:
3824:
3812:
3800:
3788:
3776:
3764:
3752:
3740:
3728:
3597:
2532:. New Caledonia and New Zealand became separated from Australia by
2486:
2318:
2278:
2118:
1892:
1873:
1699:
1596:. From there rifting propagated northward during the Late Jurassic
1465:
1275:
1259:
1168:
989:
910:
867:
799:
705:
690:
562:
539:
462:, caused the continental fragments of a much older supercontinent,
443:
post-collisional extension of the East African Orogeny in blue and
418:
402:
386:
320:
316:
312:
5525:
4759:"A synopsis of events related to the assembly of eastern Gondwana"
4077:
3931:
Barker, N. P.; Weston, P. H.; Rutschmann, F.; Sauquet, H. (2007).
3048:
1899:
The Tasman Gateway between Australia and Antarctica began to open
810:
and Early Jurassic. Third, in the Late Triassic to Late Jurassic,
50:
6195:
6190:
5955:
5935:
5915:
5883:
5873:
5806:
5801:
5791:
5786:
3827:, JURASSIC: volcanism, conifers and bennettitaleans, pp. 156, 158
3299:, Assembly of Western Pangaea: Carboniferous–Permian, pp. 453–454
2272:
2207:
2176:
1995:
1857:
1829:, cutting off a circulation of warm water and thereby making the
1749:
1065:
1057:
973:
957:
892:
855:
851:
617:, when most of western Gondwana had already been amalgamated. By
463:
455:
414:
382:
339:
308:
5144:"Global continental and ocean basin reconstructions since 200Ma"
862:
in northwest Argentina which may have continued the line of the
607:
was still separated from India, eastern Africa, and Kalahari by
6226:
5995:
5693:
5688:
5633:
5628:
3064:
2548:, the movement of the Earth's continents relative to each other
2462:
2408:
2141:
lycopod to evolve from the zosterophylls. During the Devonian,
1830:
1473:
1188:
574:
520:
519:), the successive collision between South American and African
362:
252:
237:
221:
129:
107:
87:
3116:"Gondwanide continental collision and the origin of Patagonia"
1957:
increased, the renewed ACC resulted in cooler global climate.
676:
Australian-Tasmanian and New Zealand-Antarctica arc segments.
393:
The continent of Gondwana was named by the Austrian scientist
6000:
5605:
5291:
4676:
4164:
3930:
3893:"Patterns of Gondwana plant colonisation and diversification"
3716:
3704:
3386:
3332:
3220:
3113:
1807:
1306:
1154:
887:
Gondwana as part of Pangaea: Late Paleozoic to Early Mesozoic
586:
198:
3671:, Timing of opening of the Drake Passage region, pp. 198–199
3311:, Assembly of Eastern Pangaea: Late Permian–Jurassic, p. 454
3023:, Peri-Gondwanan continental basement assemblages, pp. 15–16
1825:
Later, South America was connected to North America via the
995:
In the eastern end, collisions occurred slightly later. The
5663:
5658:
4885:
10.1130/0091-7613(1993)021<0275:RPMRTT>2.3.CO;2
4191:
10.1130/0091-7613(1996)024<0535:seofak>2.3.co;2
3731:, SILURIAN: terrestrial life appears in the tropics, p. 148
3074:"Paleozoic terranes of the central Argentina-Chilean Andes"
2585:, a scholarly journal including Gondwana among its emphases
1757:
1711:
1310:
204:
5504:
Graphical subjects dealing with Tectonics and Paleontology
4620:
10.1130/0016-7606(1972)83[2649:eattpo]2.0.co;2
4546:
3272:
2913:
2446:, whilst generalist browsers, such as several families of
2076:, the first known land plant, and (right) a Late Devonian
1374:
when India moved northwest from Australia-Antarctica. The
883:
accreted to Patagonia in what is now south-central Chile.
432:
183:
5141:
3544:
2516:. These include gymnosperms and the deciduous species of
2412:
2325:
resulted in the first plant-vertebrate-insect ecosystem.
2155:. The Late Devonian extinction probably also resulted in
2102:, had colonised the tropics. The former evolved into the
1744:
that different lithologies were subject to, but also the
680:
Peri-Gondwana development: Paleozoic rifts and accretions
180:
5089:
3398:
1752:
known to have occurred from the Late Cretaceous onward.
561:
of central Africa from Neoproterozoic India (India, the
413:
in 1872, from which the Gondwana sedimentary sequences (
4590:
4205:
3620:
3323:, Summary: significance of Pangaean events, pp. 454–455
2937:
758:
Journey of the Asian blocks from Gondwana to Laurasia,
5320:
5191:(in German). Vol. 1. Leipzig, Germany: G. Freytag
4591:
Luyendyk, B. P.; Forsyth, D.; Phillips, J. D. (1972).
4206:
Grantham, G. H.; Maboko, M.; Eglington, B. M. (2003).
4016:
3582:
3052:
2904:: "Azania" was a Greek name for the East African coast
2442:
115 Ma together with the specialised herbivorous
450:
collisional metamorphism of the Kuunga orogeny in red.
255:(large stable blocks of the Earth's crust), beginning
5371:
5321:
Vujovich, G. I.; van Staal, C. R.; Davis, W. (2004).
4468:
3863:
3842:, Cretaceous: of flowers and pollination, pp. 158–159
3415:. World Geomorphological Landscapes. pp. 33–64.
3374:
3072:; Kay, S.M.; Cortés, J.M.; Palma, M. (October 1986).
1262:: elements of this break-up nearly coincide with the
838:
During the Neoproterozoic to Palaeozoic phase of the
599:
showing final stages of assembly of Gondwana, 550 Mya
201:
195:
186:
5411:"Geologic evolution of the Himalayan-Tibetan orogen"
4469:
Jokat, W.; Boebel, T.; König, M.; Meyer, U. (2003).
4386:; Franz, Gerhard; Giese, Peter; Götze, Hans-Jürgen;
3578:
3576:
3574:
3572:
3570:
3443:
1285:
During the initial break-up in the Early Jurassic a
1171:
following the extensive and fast emplacement of the
1112:
where initial break-up occurred during the Jurassic
944:
orogenies, respectively. Southern terranes, such as
189:
4859:Müller, R. D.; Royer, J. Y.; Lawver, L. A. (1993).
4423:
4356:. Geological Society of America. pp. 265–290.
3632:
3593:
3591:
3448:(2007). "Planation surfaces in Northern Ethiopia".
2367:The brief period of icehouse conditions during the
1814:between the Tethyan Himalayas in the south and the
1187:. Before the Karoo plume initiated rifting between
589:and Arabia) was an island in the Mozambique Ocean.
212:) was a large landmass, sometimes referred to as a
192:
5482:"Interactive animation of the breakup of Gondwana"
5246:
4941:
3557:
3555:
3553:
3484:
3284:
1867:
1539:
1320:
1125:
466:, to amalgamate. One of those orogenic belts, the
5294:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology
4858:
4125:
4038:
4024:. Geological Society of London. pp. 21–114.
3835:
3833:
3567:
3508:
3496:
3389:, Early rifting and Gondwana breakup, pp. 537–538
3109:
3107:
2901:
2400:evolved in the Early Cretaceous, followed by the
6328:
4829:
4789:
4212:Geological Society, London, Special Publications
4084:Geological Society, London, Special Publications
3791:, CARBONIFEROUS: competing with ice, pp. 153–154
3588:
3437:
3410:
3287:, Data selection and reconstruction fits, p. 772
2975:, Marginal microcontinents and terranes, p. 1008
2916:, The birth of Gondwanaland (600–530 Ma), p. 201
2888:
2877:
2865:
2638:
2342:, dominated Gondwana in the Early Triassic, but
2027:
534:and western Gondwana. During this interval, the
4471:"Timing and geometry of early Gondwana breakup"
4424:Jestin, F.; Huchon, P.; Gaulier, J. M. (1994).
3803:, PERMIAN: the glossopterid empire, pp. 153–154
3550:
2788:
2786:
1669:. North of the Equator the rifting began after
4898:
4390:; Strecker, Manfred R.; Wigger, Peter (eds.).
4354:Evolution and Dynamics of the Australian Plate
3830:
3815:, TRIASSIC: the gymnosperm heyday, pp. 155–156
3104:
2960:
2007:The adjective "Gondwanan" is in common use in
1876:, Australia was still connected to Antarctica
1472:started to separate the continents during the
5586:
5480:Barend Köbben; Colin Reeves; Maarten de Wit.
5418:Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences
5206:"Gondwana from top to base in space and time"
4294:HaoMin, Li; ZheKun, Zhou (1 September 2007).
3866:, Gondwana and early mammal evolution, p. 375
3169:
3167:
2500:. Fossils have also been found in Antarctica.
2308:, one of the few plant orders to survive the
1015:blocks then rifted from Gondwana to form the
712:close to the Carboniferous–Permian boundary.
685:progressively amalgamated into the continent
311:. It began to separate from northern Pangea (
5462:"Animation of the dispersal of Gondwanaland"
5203:
5188:Das Antlitz der Erde (The Face of the Earth)
4475:Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth
4293:
4253:
3875:
3851:
3228:; Rapela, Carlos W.; Quezada, Paulo (2018).
3008:
2984:
2972:
2951:, Definition and Tectonic Framework, pp. 4–6
2783:
2650:
1913:(ACC) was established in the Late Oligocene
5408:
3608:
2745:
2656:
2512:of Valdivia, through the connection of the
319:, and started to fragment during the Early
5593:
5579:
4724:
4352:. In Hillis, R. R.; Müller, R. D. (eds.).
3532:
3520:
3404:
3164:
2996:
2792:
2070:Reconstructions of (left) a late Silurian
1909:. Palaeontological evidence indicates the
1628:resulted in further ocean-floor spreading
833:
774:South-east Asia was made of Gondwanan and
369:elements that persist to the present day.
361:Regions that were part of Gondwana shared
49:
5561:
5551:
5275:
5090:Royer, J. Y.; Patriat, P.; Bergh, H. W.;
4924:
4494:
4459:
4449:
4303:Science in China Series D: Earth Sciences
4155:
4060:
3257:
3247:
3214:
3205:
2842:
2759:
2684:
2483:when Africa and South America separated.
2328:
1270:, whose eruption site may survive as the
671:The 18,000 km-long (11,000 mi)
569:, and the Napier and Rayner Complexes in
264:
5247:Torsvik, T. H.; Van der Voo, R. (2002).
5204:Torsvik, T. H.; Cocks, L. R. M. (2013).
5036:
5015:
4344:
3692:
3177:Journal of South American Earth Sciences
3036:
3032:
2816:
2795:, Gondwana or Gondwanaland?, pp. 272–273
2748:"Gondwana and the Politics of Deep Past"
2485:
2221:pines from which modern conifers evolved
1989:
1167:Gondwana began to break up in the early
896:
591:
431:
399:region in central India of the same name
376:
5600:
2662:
2117:West Gondwana drifted north during the
1689:
14:
6329:
5509:Gondwana Reconstruction and Dispersion
4790:Meert, J. G.; Van der Voo, R. (1997).
4633:
4600:Geological Society of America Bulletin
3987:
3978:
3656:
3644:
3320:
3308:
3296:
3020:
2948:
2388:The Cretaceous saw the arrival of the
1460:. A shallow seaway developed over the
1038:The breakup of Pangaea began with the
477:and was originally interpreted as the
5574:
5374:Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution
5181:
4980:Geological Society of America Memoirs
4970:
4792:"The assembly of Gondwana 800-550 Ma"
4756:
3621:Luyendyk, Forsyth & Phillips 1972
3561:
3224:; Calderón, Mauricio; Fanning, Mark;
3173:
2938:Grantham, Maboko & Eglington 2003
2925:
2804:
2774:
2520:, as well as the New Zealand laurel,
2455:Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event
2161:evolving into the amphibian tetrapods
1264:Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event
806:were added to south-east Asia during
565:Block in far eastern Madagascar, the
327:) and Australia, occurred during the
27:Neoproterozoic to Cretaceous landmass
5459:
4899:Münker, C.; Crawford, A. J. (2000).
4392:The Andes: Active Subduction Orogeny
3583:Charrier, Pinto & Rodríguez 2006
3413:Landscapes and Landforms of Ethiopia
3068:; Jordan, T.E.; Allmendinger, R.W.;
3053:Vujovich, van Staal & Davis 2004
2727:from the original on 29 October 2020
1856:plates, resulting in rifting in the
1090:, one of the Earth's most extensive
901:Gondwana formed part of Pangaea for
4520:Earth and Planetary Science Letters
3864:Woodburne, Rich & Springer 2003
3523:, East Antarctica–Australia, p. 280
1576:opening of the South Atlantic Ocean
875:early Permian. In the Devonian, an
24:
4461:10.1111/j.1365-246X.1994.tb03286.x
3535:, West Antarctica–Tasmania, p. 280
2369:Triassic–Jurassic extinction event
2149:, including the first large trees
1450:with seafloor spreading occurring
1054:Triassic–Jurassic extinction event
1040:Central Atlantic magmatic province
25:
6443:
5453:
5409:Yin, A.; Harrison, T. M. (2000).
5256:Geophysical Journal International
5047:Journal of the Geological Society
4832:Journal of African Earth Sciences
4430:Geophysical Journal International
4136:Geophysical Journal International
3897:Journal of African Earth Sciences
3755:, The Silurian revolution, p. 151
3633:Jestin, Huchon & Gaulier 1994
3152:from the original on 19 July 2018
2823:Journal of African Earth Sciences
2721:Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary
2620:from the original on 3 March 2016
2557:Gondwana Rainforests of Australia
1791:began to collide with Asia circa
1436:Separation between Australia and
1250:, were broken off India, causing
1033:Permian–Triassic extinction event
6305:
6304:
6282:
5800:
5785:
5770:
5755:
5717:
5702:
5687:
5672:
5657:
5642:
5627:
5277:10.1046/j.1365-246X.2002.01799.x
4157:10.1111/j.1365-246X.2005.02598.x
3957:10.1111/j.1365-2699.2007.01749.x
3485:Powell, Roots & Veevers 1988
3356:from the original on 15 May 2019
3011:, South-central and eastern Asia
2987:, Southern Europe, pp. 1008–1009
2844:10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2022.104817
2270:Still extant Triassic conifers (
2260:
2251:
2240:
2231:
2195:
2186:
2060:
2051:
2016:. For example, the plant family
1833:colder, as well as allowing the
1557:
1548:
1425:. The Kerguelen Plateau and the
1347:
1338:
1329:
1143:
1134:
748:
739:
728:
719:
176:
6128:Possible future supercontinents
5168:10.1016/j.earscirev.2012.03.002
4577:10.1016/j.precamres.2007.04.021
4254:Gurovich, Y.; Beck, R. (2009).
4071:10.1016/j.earscirev.2005.02.004
4010:10.1016/j.earscirev.2004.09.001
3869:
3857:
3845:
3818:
3806:
3794:
3782:
3770:
3758:
3746:
3734:
3722:
3710:
3698:
3686:
3674:
3662:
3650:
3638:
3626:
3614:
3602:
3538:
3526:
3514:
3509:Müller, Royer & Lawver 1993
3502:
3497:DeMets, Gordon & Royer 2005
3490:
3478:
3392:
3380:
3368:
3338:
3326:
3314:
3302:
3290:
3278:
3266:
3143:10.1016/j.earscirev.2006.02.001
3058:
3042:
3026:
3014:
3002:
2990:
2978:
2966:
2954:
2942:
2931:
2919:
2907:
2894:
2882:
2871:
2859:
2817:Fairhead, J.D. (1 March 2023).
2810:
2695:10.1016/j.earscirev.2011.05.003
1979:
1868:Australia–Antarctica separation
1540:Opening of South Atlantic Ocean
1321:Opening of eastern Indian Ocean
1126:Opening of western Indian Ocean
5438:10.1146/annurev.earth.28.1.211
4663:10.1016/j.jaridenv.2006.01.009
4345:Hill, K. C.; Hall, R. (2003).
4260:Journal of Mammalian Evolution
3743:, The First Extinction, p. 151
3647:, Palaeogeography, pp. 538–539
3499:, Introduction; Fig. 1, p. 446
3472:10.1016/j.geomorph.2006.12.007
3285:Torsvik & Van der Voo 2002
2798:
2768:
2739:
2709:
2644:
2632:
2600:
2294:) that once dominated Gondwana
2088:By the end of the Ordovician,
1986:Evolutionary history of plants
354:), it is also commonly called
13:
1:
5394:10.1016/S1055-7903(03)00113-1
5350:10.1016/S1342-937X(05)71083-2
4852:10.1016/s0899-5362(97)86882-0
4816:10.1016/S0264-3707(96)00046-4
4783:10.1016/S0040-1951(02)00629-7
4232:10.1144/GSL.SP.2003.206.01.19
4104:10.1144/GSL.SP.1998.142.01.11
3917:10.1016/S0899-5362(98)00083-9
3547:, South Atlantic, pp. 217–218
2902:Collins & Pisarevsky 2005
2589:
2474:
2439:
2028:Post-Cambrian diversification
1972:plates and the uplift of the
1923:with the full opening of the
1914:
1911:Antarctic Circumpolar Current
1900:
1877:
1734:
1718:and the emplacement of large
1677:
1660:
1647:
1629:
1626:Paraná and Etendeka magmatics
1607:
1597:
1580:
1527:
1486:
1476:
1451:
1441:
1416:
1398:
1365:
1238:The Madagascar block and the
1178:
1113:
1095:
1088:Karoo-Ferrar igneous province
1043:
902:
766:(450, 350, 300, and 200 Mya).
696:In the Early Palaeozoic, the
655:
645:
635:
627:
618:
608:
273:
256:
5906:Other prehistoric continents
5314:10.1016/j.palaeo.2009.02.025
5120:10.1016/0040-1951(88)90268-5
4964:10.1016/0040-1951(88)90269-7
4731:Australian Journal of Botany
4703:10.1126/science.284.5414.616
4643:Journal of Arid Environments
3511:, Model results, pp. 277–278
3198:10.1016/j.jsames.2008.06.002
2999:, Cimmerian terranes, p. 278
2889:Meert & Van der Voo 1997
2878:Miashita & Yamamoto 1996
2866:Meert & Van der Voo 1997
2746:Chakrabarti, Pratik (2019).
2639:Meert & Van der Voo 1997
1221:Ellsworth–Whitmore Mountains
458:, collectively known as the
427:
7:
4400:10.1007/978-3-540-48684-8_6
3779:, Amphibian prelude, p. 153
3421:10.1007/978-94-017-8026-1_2
2868:, Introduction, pp. 223–226
2616:. Lexico Publishing Group.
2539:
2461:is an extinct group of non-
2036:was followed by a Silurian
1783:
1768:-parallel faults including
1738: 90 million years ago
1640:Central African Rift System
1080:
1075:
577:continent (much of central
247:Gondwana was formed by the
10:
6448:
5022:American Geophysical Union
4540:10.1016/j.epsl.2008.12.037
3883:
3659:, Conclusions, pp. 557–558
3598:Hoffmann-Rothe et al. 2006
3444:Coltorti, M.; Dramis, F.;
3401:, Figg. 7 a–j, pp. 248–257
2961:Münker & Crawford 2000
2034:Late Ordovician glaciation
1983:
1835:Great American Interchange
1644:Central African Shear Zone
890:
798:opened Meso-Tethys Ocean;
768:View centred on 0°S,105°E.
29:
6274:
6032:
6028:
5827:
5823:
5744:
5740:
5616:
5612:
5519:20 September 2019 at the
4323:10.1007/s11430-007-0102-0
4272:10.1007/s10914-008-9097-3
3854:, Introduction, pp. 25–26
2900:Defined but not named in
2175:amphibians and the first
2133:Flora, found only in the
2042:End-Ordovician extinction
1382:are now separated by the
1278:are now separated by the
1274:. The Seychelles and the
1052:, and coincided with the
501:in southern Madagascar) (
351:
147:
121:
83:
73:
65:
60:
48:
36:Gondwana (disambiguation)
6392:Prehistory of Antarctica
6387:Geology of South America
6352:Paleozoic paleogeography
6315:Chronology of continents
5553:10.1016/j.gr.2019.07.009
5514:The Gondwana Map Project
5233:10.1016/j.gr.2013.06.012
5068:10.1144/gsjgs.155.1.0105
5037:Rapalini, A. E. (1998).
5016:Rapalini, A. E. (2001).
3876:HaoMin & ZheKun 2007
3852:Gurovich & Beck 2009
3249:10.5027/andgeoV45n3-3117
3009:Torsvik & Cocks 2013
2985:Torsvik & Cocks 2013
2973:Torsvik & Cocks 2013
2651:Torsvik & Cocks 2013
2594:
2529:Laurelia novae-zelandiae
2123:Late Devonian extinction
1822:mountains in the north.
1197:Transantarctic Mountains
603:The continent Australia/
401:, which is derived from
6412:Paleozoic South America
6357:Mesozoic paleogeography
5020:. Spring Meeting 2001.
4725:McLoughlin, S. (2001).
4532:2009E&PSL.279..197L
4130:; Royer, J. Y. (2005).
3937:Journal of Biogeography
3705:Travouillon et al. 2009
3681:Lagabrielle et al. 2009
3669:Lagabrielle et al. 2009
3609:Yin & Harrison 2000
3387:Encarnación et al. 1996
3377:, Introduction, pp. 1–2
3098:10.1029/TC005i006p00855
3049:Dalla Salda et al. 1998
2523:Corynocarpus laevigatus
1092:large igneous provinces
1070:Central Atlantic opened
915:Central Atlantic opened
872:North Patagonian Massif
834:Southwestern accretions
664:in the Kuunga Orogeny.
372:
6432:Mesozoic South America
6342:Former supercontinents
6076:Great Australian Bight
4796:Journal of Geodynamics
4634:Martin, H. A. (2006).
3055:, Conclusions, p. 1053
2501:
2431:in Australia, and the
2329:Modern diversification
2310:end-Permian extinction
2082:, the first large tree
2004:
1844:, which separates the
1706:were characterised by
1431:Southeast Indian Ridge
1242:, stretching from the
1233:Southwest Indian Ridge
1227:(often referred to as
1161:c. 70 Ma (right).
984:which resulted in the
906:
840:Terra Australis Orogen
673:Terra Australis Orogen
600:
451:
421:) are also described.
390:
34:. For other uses, see
6367:Geology of Antarctica
6337:Historical continents
5148:Earth-Science Reviews
4992:10.1130/2009.1204(02)
4757:Meert, J. G. (2003).
4041:Earth-Science Reviews
3990:Earth-Science Reviews
3683:, Conclusions, p. 210
3123:Earth-Science Reviews
2665:Earth-Science Reviews
2575:South Polar dinosaurs
2489:
2421:wasps, bees, and ants
2417:butterflies and moths
1993:
1714:, the development of
1708:extensional tectonics
1370:132.5 to 96
970:Appalachian Mountains
900:
595:
435:
381:Distribution of four
380:
283:with the overlapping
160:Indo-Australian Plate
6402:Paleozoic Antarctica
6382:Geology of Australia
6300:Continental fragment
6295:Regions of the world
5490:University of Twente
4926:10.1029/2000TC900002
4557:Precambrian Research
4496:10.1029/2002JB001802
3840:Anderson et al. 1999
3825:Anderson et al. 1999
3813:Anderson et al. 1999
3801:Anderson et al. 1999
3789:Anderson et al. 1999
3777:Anderson et al. 1999
3765:Anderson et al. 1999
3753:Anderson et al. 1999
3741:Anderson et al. 1999
3729:Anderson et al. 1999
3693:Hill & Hall 2003
2761:10.1093/pastj/gty016
2429:Koonwarra Lake fauna
1974:New Guinea Highlands
1842:Afar Triple Junction
1762:South Atlantic Ocean
1729:. During the mid to
1694:The first phases of
1690:Early Andean orogeny
1676:and continued until
1634:130 to 135
1606:or Early Cretaceous
1287:marine transgression
1280:Central Indian Ridge
1118:180 to 160
1100:200 to 170
660:570 to 530
650:750 to 620
640:750 to 530
515:660 to 530
489:650 to 800
484:East African Orogeny
473:800 to 650
446:570 to 530
439:620 to 550
279:600 to 530
270:East African Orogeny
262:800 to 650
164:South American Plate
61:Historical continent
6422:Mesozoic Antarctica
6257:Indian Subcontinent
6047:Submerged continent
5563:20.500.11850/390104
5544:2020GondR..81...79V
5466:University of Leeds
5430:2000AREPS..28..211Y
5386:2003MolPE..28..360W
5342:2004GondR...7.1041V
5306:2009PPP...276...24T
5268:2002GeoJI.151..771T
5225:2013GondR..24..999T
5160:2012ESRv..113..212S
5112:1988Tectp.155..235R
5060:1998JGSoc.155..105R
5030:2001AGUSM..GP32D03R
4956:1988Tectp.155..261P
4917:2000Tecto..19..415M
4877:1993Geo....21..275D
4844:1996JAfES..23D..19M
4808:1997JGeo...23..223M
4775:2003Tectp.362....1M
4695:1999Sci...284..616M
4655:2006JArEn..66..533M
4612:1972GSAB...83.2649L
4569:2008PreR..160..179L
4487:2003JGRB..108.2428J
4442:1994GeoJI.116..637J
4382:. In Oncken, Onno;
4315:2007ScChD..50.1525H
4224:2003GSLSP.206..401G
4183:1996Geo....24..535E
4148:2005GeoJI.161..445D
4096:1998GSLSP.142..219D
4053:2005ESRv...71..229C
4002:2005ESRv...69..249C
3949:2007JBiog..34.2012B
3909:1999JAfES..28..145A
3464:2007Geomo..89..287C
3352:. 4 February 2008.
3333:Marzoli et al. 1999
3190:2008JSAES..26..235R
3135:2006ESRv...76..235P
3090:1986Tecto...5..855R
2835:2023JAfES.19904817F
2677:2011ESRv..108...16B
1964:collision with the
1955:Antarctic Peninsula
1800:Indian subcontinent
1682:100 to 96
1646:which lasted until
1403:118 to 95
1201:Antarctic Peninsula
460:Pan-African orogeny
405:for "forest of the
242:Indian Subcontinent
45:
6038:
5833:
5750:
5622:
4018:Charrier, Reynaldo
3717:Barker et al. 2007
3039:, pp. 105–106
2752:Past & Present
2565:of Southern Africa
2552:Australasian realm
2502:
2433:Orapa diamond mine
2005:
1945:26 to 14
1940:North Scotia Ridge
1930:34 to 29
1905:40 to 30
1295:planation surfaces
1293:covering Triassic
1106:magnetic anomalies
1009:Proto-Tethys Ocean
907:
860:Famatinian orogeny
796:Cimmerian terranes
601:
536:Cambrian explosion
510:Brasiliano orogeny
452:
436:Eastern Gondwana.
391:
334:66 to 23
122:Smaller continents
43:
6362:Geology of Africa
6324:
6323:
6270:
6269:
6265:
6264:
6086:Kerguelen Plateau
6024:
6023:
6019:
6018:
5819:
5818:
5814:
5813:
5736:
5735:
5731:
5730:
5532:Gondwana Research
5330:Gondwana Research
5213:Gondwana Research
4689:(5414): 616–618.
4409:978-3-540-24329-8
4309:(10): 1525–1535.
3943:(12): 2012–2027.
3545:Seton et al. 2012
3430:978-94-017-8026-1
3399:Royer et al. 1988
3375:Jokat et al. 2003
3226:Pankhurst, Robert
2582:Gondwana Research
2546:Continental drift
2534:continental drift
2453:, prevailed. The
2425:Santana Formation
2143:giant club mosses
1862:East African Rift
1827:Isthmus of Panama
1464:during the Early
1462:South Tasman Rise
1409:Ninety East Ridge
1392:Kerguelen Plateau
1390:first formed the
1388:Kerguelen hotspot
1240:Mascarene Plateau
1104:, but the oldest
1028:Absaroka sequence
854:or Precordillera
702:Iberian Peninsula
698:Armorican terrane
336:million years ago
293:continental crust
169:
168:
16:(Redirected from
6439:
6397:Paleozoic Africa
6377:Geology of India
6308:
6307:
6289:World portal
6287:
6286:
6224:
6173:
6130:
6058:
6035:
6034:
6030:
6029:
5908:
5846:
5830:
5829:
5825:
5824:
5804:
5789:
5774:
5759:
5747:
5746:
5742:
5741:
5721:
5706:
5691:
5676:
5661:
5646:
5631:
5619:
5618:
5614:
5613:
5595:
5588:
5581:
5572:
5571:
5567:
5565:
5555:
5500:
5498:
5496:
5476:
5474:
5472:
5460:Houseman, Greg.
5448:
5446:
5444:
5415:
5405:
5368:
5366:
5364:
5336:(4): 1041–1056.
5327:
5317:
5288:
5286:
5284:
5279:
5253:
5243:
5241:
5239:
5210:
5200:
5198:
5196:
5178:
5176:
5174:
5138:
5136:
5134:
5106:(1–4): 235–260.
5086:
5084:
5082:
5043:
5033:
5012:
5010:
5008:
4967:
4950:(1–4): 261–283.
4938:
4928:
4895:
4893:
4891:
4855:
4826:
4824:
4822:
4802:(3–4): 223–235.
4786:
4753:
4751:
4749:
4721:
4719:
4717:
4673:
4671:
4669:
4640:
4630:
4628:
4626:
4597:
4587:
4585:
4583:
4554:
4543:
4517:
4507:
4505:
4503:
4498:
4465:
4463:
4453:
4420:
4418:
4416:
4388:Ramos, Víctor A.
4384:Chong, Guillermo
4374:
4372:
4370:
4351:
4341:
4339:
4337:
4300:
4290:
4288:
4286:
4250:
4248:
4246:
4202:
4161:
4159:
4122:
4120:
4118:
4074:
4064:
4047:(3–4): 229–270.
4035:
4022:Geology of Chile
4013:
3984:
3975:
3973:
3971:
3927:
3925:
3923:
3878:
3873:
3867:
3861:
3855:
3849:
3843:
3837:
3828:
3822:
3816:
3810:
3804:
3798:
3792:
3786:
3780:
3774:
3768:
3762:
3756:
3750:
3744:
3738:
3732:
3726:
3720:
3714:
3708:
3702:
3696:
3690:
3684:
3678:
3672:
3666:
3660:
3654:
3648:
3642:
3636:
3630:
3624:
3618:
3612:
3606:
3600:
3595:
3586:
3585:, pp. 45–46
3580:
3565:
3559:
3548:
3542:
3536:
3530:
3524:
3518:
3512:
3506:
3500:
3494:
3488:
3482:
3476:
3475:
3458:(3–4): 287–296.
3441:
3435:
3434:
3408:
3402:
3396:
3390:
3384:
3378:
3372:
3366:
3365:
3363:
3361:
3342:
3336:
3330:
3324:
3318:
3312:
3306:
3300:
3294:
3288:
3282:
3276:
3270:
3264:
3263:
3261:
3251:
3222:Hervé, Francisco
3218:
3212:
3211:
3209:
3171:
3162:
3161:
3159:
3157:
3151:
3129:(3–4): 235–257.
3120:
3111:
3102:
3101:
3062:
3056:
3046:
3040:
3030:
3024:
3018:
3012:
3006:
3000:
2994:
2988:
2982:
2976:
2970:
2964:
2958:
2952:
2946:
2940:
2935:
2929:
2923:
2917:
2911:
2905:
2898:
2892:
2886:
2880:
2875:
2869:
2863:
2857:
2856:
2846:
2814:
2808:
2807:, Fig. 10, p. 19
2802:
2796:
2790:
2781:
2772:
2766:
2765:
2763:
2754:(242): 119–153.
2743:
2737:
2736:
2734:
2732:
2713:
2707:
2706:
2688:
2660:
2654:
2648:
2642:
2636:
2630:
2629:
2627:
2625:
2604:
2563:Great Escarpment
2490:The plant genus
2482:
2476:
2441:
2374:Cheiroleidiacean
2264:
2255:
2244:
2235:
2199:
2190:
2064:
2055:
1948:
1936:Tierra del Fuego
1933:
1922:
1916:
1908:
1902:
1890:
1879:
1797:
1739:
1736:
1704:Early Cretaceous
1685:
1679:
1675:
1668:
1662:
1655:
1649:
1637:
1631:
1615:
1609:
1605:
1599:
1595:
1588:
1582:
1561:
1552:
1535:
1529:
1505:Campbell Plateau
1494:
1488:
1484:
1478:
1459:
1453:
1449:
1443:
1424:
1418:
1406:
1400:
1380:Australian Plate
1373:
1367:
1351:
1342:
1333:
1217:Falkland Islands
1186:
1180:
1147:
1138:
1121:
1115:
1103:
1097:
1051:
1045:
904:
828:Himalaya Orogeny
786:, together with
752:
743:
732:
723:
710:Variscan orogeny
663:
657:
653:
647:
643:
637:
629:
620:
616:
610:
547:Mozambique Ocean
518:
507:
499:Malagasy Orogeny
492:
476:
449:
442:
337:
282:
275:
267:
266:
258:
211:
210:
207:
206:
203:
200:
197:
194:
191:
188:
185:
182:
53:
46:
42:
32:Gondwana (India)
21:
6447:
6446:
6442:
6441:
6440:
6438:
6437:
6436:
6417:Mesozoic Africa
6372:Geology of Asia
6327:
6326:
6325:
6320:
6319:
6281:
6266:
6261:
6247:Eastern Siberia
6237:Central America
6225:
6218:
6212:
6207:Terra Australis
6174:
6158:
6152:
6148:Pangaea Proxima
6131:
6126:
6120:
6059:
6055:microcontinents
6044:
6020:
6015:
5961:East Antarctica
5909:
5904:
5898:
5847:
5843:supercontinents
5839:
5815:
5810:
5805:
5795:
5790:
5780:
5775:
5765:
5760:
5732:
5727:
5722:
5712:
5707:
5697:
5692:
5682:
5677:
5667:
5662:
5652:
5647:
5637:
5632:
5608:
5599:
5521:Wayback Machine
5494:
5492:
5470:
5468:
5456:
5451:
5442:
5440:
5413:
5362:
5360:
5325:
5282:
5280:
5251:
5237:
5235:
5219:(3): 999–1030.
5208:
5194:
5192:
5172:
5170:
5132:
5130:
5080:
5078:
5041:
5006:
5004:
5002:
4889:
4887:
4820:
4818:
4747:
4745:
4743:10.1071/BT00023
4715:
4713:
4667:
4665:
4638:
4624:
4622:
4595:
4581:
4579:
4552:
4515:
4501:
4499:
4451:10.1.1.876.4499
4414:
4412:
4410:
4368:
4366:
4364:
4349:
4335:
4333:
4298:
4284:
4282:
4244:
4242:
4116:
4114:
4062:10.1.1.558.5911
4032:
3969:
3967:
3921:
3919:
3886:
3881:
3874:
3870:
3862:
3858:
3850:
3846:
3838:
3831:
3823:
3819:
3811:
3807:
3799:
3795:
3787:
3783:
3775:
3771:
3763:
3759:
3751:
3747:
3739:
3735:
3727:
3723:
3715:
3711:
3703:
3699:
3691:
3687:
3679:
3675:
3667:
3663:
3655:
3651:
3643:
3639:
3631:
3627:
3619:
3615:
3607:
3603:
3596:
3589:
3581:
3568:
3560:
3551:
3543:
3539:
3533:McLoughlin 2001
3531:
3527:
3521:McLoughlin 2001
3519:
3515:
3507:
3503:
3495:
3491:
3483:
3479:
3442:
3438:
3431:
3409:
3405:
3397:
3393:
3385:
3381:
3373:
3369:
3359:
3357:
3344:
3343:
3339:
3331:
3327:
3319:
3315:
3307:
3303:
3295:
3291:
3283:
3279:
3271:
3267:
3219:
3215:
3172:
3165:
3155:
3153:
3149:
3118:
3112:
3105:
3063:
3059:
3047:
3043:
3031:
3027:
3019:
3015:
3007:
3003:
2997:McLoughlin 2001
2995:
2991:
2983:
2979:
2971:
2967:
2959:
2955:
2947:
2943:
2936:
2932:
2924:
2920:
2912:
2908:
2899:
2895:
2887:
2883:
2876:
2872:
2864:
2860:
2815:
2811:
2803:
2799:
2793:McLoughlin 2001
2791:
2784:
2777:, p. 768:
2773:
2769:
2744:
2740:
2730:
2728:
2715:
2714:
2710:
2686:10.1.1.715.6618
2661:
2657:
2649:
2645:
2637:
2633:
2623:
2621:
2606:
2605:
2601:
2597:
2592:
2569:Plate tectonics
2542:
2514:Antarctic flora
2477:
2427:in Brazil, the
2331:
2298:
2297:
2296:
2295:
2267:
2266:
2265:
2257:
2256:
2247:
2246:
2245:
2237:
2236:
2225:
2224:
2223:
2222:
2202:
2201:
2200:
2192:
2191:
2086:
2085:
2084:
2083:
2067:
2066:
2065:
2057:
2056:
2030:
2014:Antarctic flora
1988:
1982:
1943:
1928:
1917:
1903:
1896:precipitation.
1885:
1870:
1812:Tibetan Plateau
1792:
1786:
1766:subduction zone
1737:
1731:Late Cretaceous
1716:back-arc basins
1692:
1680:
1670:
1663:
1650:
1632:
1622:Rio Grande Rise
1610:
1600:
1590:
1583:
1572:
1571:
1570:
1569:
1564:
1563:
1562:
1554:
1553:
1542:
1530:
1525:West Antarctica
1489:
1479:
1454:
1444:
1438:East Antarctica
1419:
1401:
1396:Antarctic Plate
1384:Capricorn Plate
1368:
1362:
1361:
1360:
1359:
1354:
1353:
1352:
1344:
1343:
1335:
1334:
1323:
1289:swept over the
1272:Réunion hotspot
1258:to be separate
1213:Thurston Island
1205:Marie Byrd Land
1181:
1165:
1164:
1163:
1162:
1150:
1149:
1148:
1140:
1139:
1128:
1116:
1098:
1083:
1078:
1046:
986:Uralian orogeny
895:
889:
836:
772:
771:
770:
769:
767:
760:Late Ordovician
755:
754:
753:
745:
744:
735:
734:
733:
725:
724:
682:
658:
648:
638:
624:Adamastor Ocean
611:
571:East Antarctica
559:Bangweulu Block
513:
502:
497:(including the
487:
471:
468:Mozambique Belt
444:
437:
430:
411:H. B. Medlicott
375:
332:
277:
260:
179:
175:
162:
158:
156:Antarctic Plate
154:
148:Tectonic plates
140:
136:
132:
128:
114:
110:
106:
102:
98:
94:
90:
56:
39:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
6445:
6435:
6434:
6429:
6424:
6419:
6414:
6409:
6407:Paleozoic Asia
6404:
6399:
6394:
6389:
6384:
6379:
6374:
6369:
6364:
6359:
6354:
6349:
6344:
6339:
6322:
6321:
6318:
6317:
6312:
6302:
6297:
6292:
6276:
6275:
6272:
6271:
6268:
6267:
6263:
6262:
6260:
6259:
6254:
6249:
6244:
6242:Eastern Africa
6239:
6234:
6229:
6215:
6213:
6211:
6210:
6203:
6198:
6193:
6188:
6183:
6178:
6155:
6153:
6151:
6150:
6145:
6140:
6135:
6123:
6121:
6119:
6118:
6113:
6108:
6103:
6098:
6093:
6088:
6083:
6078:
6073:
6068:
6063:
6041:
6039:
6033:
6026:
6025:
6022:
6021:
6017:
6016:
6014:
6013:
6008:
6003:
5998:
5993:
5988:
5983:
5978:
5973:
5968:
5963:
5958:
5953:
5948:
5943:
5938:
5933:
5928:
5923:
5918:
5913:
5901:
5899:
5897:
5896:
5891:
5886:
5881:
5876:
5871:
5866:
5861:
5856:
5851:
5836:
5834:
5828:
5821:
5820:
5817:
5816:
5812:
5811:
5798:
5796:
5783:
5781:
5768:
5766:
5753:
5751:
5745:
5738:
5737:
5734:
5733:
5729:
5728:
5715:
5713:
5700:
5698:
5685:
5683:
5670:
5668:
5655:
5653:
5640:
5638:
5625:
5623:
5617:
5610:
5609:
5598:
5597:
5590:
5583:
5575:
5569:
5568:
5523:
5511:
5506:
5501:
5477:
5455:
5454:External links
5452:
5450:
5449:
5424:(1): 211–280.
5406:
5380:(2): 360–385.
5369:
5318:
5300:(1–4): 24–37.
5289:
5262:(3): 771–794.
5244:
5201:
5179:
5154:(3): 212–270.
5139:
5100:Tectonophysics
5092:Scotese, C. R.
5087:
5054:(1): 105–114.
5034:
5013:
5000:
4968:
4944:Tectonophysics
4939:
4911:(3): 415–432.
4896:
4871:(3): 275–278.
4856:
4827:
4787:
4763:Tectonophysics
4754:
4737:(3): 271–300.
4722:
4674:
4649:(3): 533–563.
4631:
4588:
4563:(1): 179–210.
4544:
4526:(3): 197–211.
4508:
4466:
4436:(3): 637–654.
4421:
4408:
4375:
4362:
4342:
4291:
4251:
4218:(1): 401–425.
4203:
4177:(6): 535–538.
4162:
4142:(2): 445–468.
4123:
4090:(1): 219–234.
4075:
4036:
4030:
4014:
3996:(3): 249–279.
3985:
3976:
3928:
3903:(1): 145–167.
3887:
3885:
3882:
3880:
3879:
3868:
3856:
3844:
3829:
3817:
3805:
3793:
3781:
3769:
3757:
3745:
3733:
3721:
3709:
3697:
3685:
3673:
3661:
3649:
3637:
3625:
3613:
3601:
3587:
3566:
3549:
3537:
3525:
3513:
3501:
3489:
3477:
3436:
3429:
3403:
3391:
3379:
3367:
3337:
3325:
3313:
3301:
3289:
3277:
3273:Li et al. 2008
3265:
3242:(3): 301–317.
3235:Andean Geology
3213:
3184:(3): 235–251.
3163:
3103:
3084:(6): 855–880.
3057:
3041:
3025:
3013:
3001:
2989:
2977:
2965:
2953:
2941:
2930:
2918:
2914:Li et al. 2008
2906:
2893:
2881:
2870:
2858:
2809:
2797:
2782:
2767:
2738:
2717:"Gondwanaland"
2708:
2671:(1–2): 16–33.
2655:
2643:
2631:
2613:Dictionary.com
2598:
2596:
2593:
2591:
2588:
2587:
2586:
2578:
2572:
2566:
2559:
2554:
2549:
2541:
2538:
2506:laurel forests
2459:Gondwanatheria
2448:sauropodomorph
2444:ornithischians
2330:
2327:
2269:
2268:
2259:
2258:
2250:
2249:
2248:
2239:
2238:
2230:
2229:
2228:
2227:
2226:
2204:
2203:
2194:
2193:
2185:
2184:
2183:
2182:
2181:
2147:progymnosperms
2069:
2068:
2059:
2058:
2050:
2049:
2048:
2047:
2046:
2029:
2026:
1981:
1978:
1869:
1866:
1798:, forming the
1785:
1782:
1754:Plate tectonic
1696:Andean orogeny
1691:
1688:
1566:
1565:
1556:
1555:
1547:
1546:
1545:
1544:
1543:
1541:
1538:
1513:Lord Howe Rise
1356:
1355:
1346:
1345:
1337:
1336:
1328:
1327:
1326:
1325:
1324:
1322:
1319:
1291:Horn of Africa
1268:Deccan basalts
1152:
1151:
1142:
1141:
1133:
1132:
1131:
1130:
1129:
1127:
1124:
1082:
1079:
1077:
1074:
1017:Palaeo-Thethys
976:collided with
891:Main article:
888:
885:
850:. This is the
835:
832:
764:Early Jurassic
757:
756:
747:
746:
738:
737:
736:
727:
726:
718:
717:
716:
715:
714:
681:
678:
597:Reconstruction
583:Horn of Africa
549:separated the
495:Kuunga orogeny
429:
426:
374:
371:
214:supercontinent
167:
166:
149:
145:
144:
123:
119:
118:
85:
81:
80:
78:Supercontinent
75:
71:
70:
67:
63:
62:
58:
57:
54:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
6444:
6433:
6430:
6428:
6427:Mesozoic Asia
6425:
6423:
6420:
6418:
6415:
6413:
6410:
6408:
6405:
6403:
6400:
6398:
6395:
6393:
6390:
6388:
6385:
6383:
6380:
6378:
6375:
6373:
6370:
6368:
6365:
6363:
6360:
6358:
6355:
6353:
6350:
6348:
6345:
6343:
6340:
6338:
6335:
6334:
6332:
6316:
6313:
6311:
6303:
6301:
6298:
6296:
6293:
6291:
6290:
6285:
6278:
6277:
6273:
6258:
6255:
6253:
6250:
6248:
6245:
6243:
6240:
6238:
6235:
6233:
6230:
6228:
6223:
6222:
6221:Subcontinents
6217:
6216:
6214:
6209:
6208:
6204:
6202:
6199:
6197:
6194:
6192:
6189:
6187:
6186:Kumari Kandam
6184:
6182:
6179:
6177:
6172:
6170:
6166:
6162:
6157:
6156:
6154:
6149:
6146:
6144:
6141:
6139:
6136:
6134:
6129:
6125:
6124:
6122:
6117:
6114:
6112:
6109:
6107:
6104:
6102:
6099:
6097:
6094:
6092:
6089:
6087:
6084:
6082:
6079:
6077:
6074:
6072:
6069:
6067:
6064:
6062:
6057:
6056:
6052:
6048:
6043:
6042:
6040:
6037:
6036:
6031:
6027:
6012:
6009:
6007:
6004:
6002:
5999:
5997:
5994:
5992:
5989:
5987:
5984:
5982:
5979:
5977:
5974:
5972:
5969:
5967:
5964:
5962:
5959:
5957:
5954:
5952:
5949:
5947:
5944:
5942:
5939:
5937:
5934:
5932:
5929:
5927:
5924:
5922:
5919:
5917:
5914:
5912:
5907:
5903:
5902:
5900:
5895:
5892:
5890:
5887:
5885:
5882:
5880:
5877:
5875:
5872:
5870:
5867:
5865:
5862:
5860:
5857:
5855:
5852:
5850:
5845:
5844:
5838:
5837:
5835:
5832:
5831:
5826:
5822:
5809:
5808:
5803:
5797:
5794:
5793:
5788:
5782:
5779:
5778:
5773:
5767:
5764:
5763:
5758:
5752:
5749:
5748:
5743:
5739:
5726:
5725:
5724:South America
5720:
5714:
5711:
5710:
5709:North America
5705:
5699:
5696:
5695:
5690:
5684:
5681:
5680:
5675:
5669:
5666:
5665:
5660:
5654:
5651:
5650:
5645:
5639:
5636:
5635:
5630:
5624:
5621:
5620:
5615:
5611:
5607:
5603:
5596:
5591:
5589:
5584:
5582:
5577:
5576:
5573:
5564:
5559:
5554:
5549:
5545:
5541:
5537:
5533:
5529:
5524:
5522:
5518:
5515:
5512:
5510:
5507:
5505:
5502:
5491:
5487:
5483:
5478:
5467:
5463:
5458:
5457:
5439:
5435:
5431:
5427:
5423:
5419:
5412:
5407:
5403:
5399:
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5387:
5383:
5379:
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5250:
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5222:
5218:
5214:
5207:
5202:
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5189:
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5180:
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5165:
5161:
5157:
5153:
5149:
5145:
5140:
5129:
5125:
5121:
5117:
5113:
5109:
5105:
5101:
5097:
5093:
5088:
5077:
5073:
5069:
5065:
5061:
5057:
5053:
5049:
5048:
5040:
5035:
5031:
5027:
5023:
5019:
5014:
5003:
5001:9780813712048
4997:
4993:
4989:
4985:
4981:
4977:
4973:
4969:
4965:
4961:
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4953:
4949:
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4927:
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4914:
4910:
4906:
4902:
4897:
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4857:
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4776:
4772:
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4760:
4755:
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4712:
4708:
4704:
4700:
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4692:
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4684:
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4644:
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4609:
4605:
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4509:
4497:
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4472:
4467:
4462:
4457:
4452:
4447:
4443:
4439:
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4431:
4427:
4422:
4411:
4405:
4401:
4397:
4393:
4389:
4385:
4381:
4376:
4365:
4363:9780813723723
4359:
4355:
4348:
4343:
4332:
4328:
4324:
4320:
4316:
4312:
4308:
4304:
4297:
4292:
4281:
4277:
4273:
4269:
4265:
4261:
4257:
4252:
4241:
4237:
4233:
4229:
4225:
4221:
4217:
4213:
4209:
4204:
4200:
4196:
4192:
4188:
4184:
4180:
4176:
4172:
4168:
4163:
4158:
4153:
4149:
4145:
4141:
4137:
4133:
4129:
4128:Gordon, R. G.
4124:
4113:
4109:
4105:
4101:
4097:
4093:
4089:
4085:
4081:
4076:
4072:
4068:
4063:
4058:
4054:
4050:
4046:
4042:
4037:
4033:
4031:9781862392199
4027:
4023:
4019:
4015:
4011:
4007:
4003:
3999:
3995:
3991:
3986:
3982:
3977:
3966:
3962:
3958:
3954:
3950:
3946:
3942:
3938:
3934:
3929:
3918:
3914:
3910:
3906:
3902:
3898:
3894:
3889:
3888:
3877:
3872:
3865:
3860:
3853:
3848:
3841:
3836:
3834:
3826:
3821:
3814:
3809:
3802:
3797:
3790:
3785:
3778:
3773:
3766:
3761:
3754:
3749:
3742:
3737:
3730:
3725:
3718:
3713:
3706:
3701:
3694:
3689:
3682:
3677:
3670:
3665:
3658:
3653:
3646:
3641:
3634:
3629:
3622:
3617:
3610:
3605:
3599:
3594:
3592:
3584:
3579:
3577:
3575:
3573:
3571:
3563:
3558:
3556:
3554:
3546:
3541:
3534:
3529:
3522:
3517:
3510:
3505:
3498:
3493:
3486:
3481:
3473:
3469:
3465:
3461:
3457:
3453:
3452:
3451:Geomorphology
3447:
3440:
3432:
3426:
3422:
3418:
3414:
3407:
3400:
3395:
3388:
3383:
3376:
3371:
3355:
3351:
3347:
3341:
3334:
3329:
3322:
3317:
3310:
3305:
3298:
3293:
3286:
3281:
3274:
3269:
3260:
3255:
3250:
3245:
3241:
3237:
3236:
3231:
3227:
3223:
3217:
3208:
3203:
3199:
3195:
3191:
3187:
3183:
3179:
3178:
3170:
3168:
3148:
3144:
3140:
3136:
3132:
3128:
3124:
3117:
3110:
3108:
3099:
3095:
3091:
3087:
3083:
3079:
3075:
3071:
3067:
3061:
3054:
3050:
3045:
3038:
3037:Rapalini 1998
3034:
3033:Rapalini 2001
3029:
3022:
3017:
3010:
3005:
2998:
2993:
2986:
2981:
2974:
2969:
2962:
2957:
2950:
2945:
2939:
2934:
2927:
2922:
2915:
2910:
2903:
2897:
2891:, p. 229
2890:
2885:
2879:
2874:
2867:
2862:
2854:
2850:
2845:
2840:
2836:
2832:
2828:
2824:
2820:
2813:
2806:
2801:
2794:
2789:
2787:
2780:
2776:
2771:
2762:
2757:
2753:
2749:
2742:
2726:
2722:
2718:
2712:
2704:
2700:
2696:
2692:
2687:
2682:
2678:
2674:
2670:
2666:
2659:
2652:
2647:
2640:
2635:
2619:
2615:
2614:
2609:
2603:
2599:
2584:
2583:
2579:
2576:
2573:
2570:
2567:
2564:
2560:
2558:
2555:
2553:
2550:
2547:
2544:
2543:
2537:
2535:
2531:
2530:
2525:
2524:
2519:
2515:
2511:
2507:
2499:
2498:Southern Cone
2495:
2494:
2488:
2484:
2480:
2472:
2468:
2464:
2460:
2456:
2452:
2449:
2445:
2436:
2435:in Botswana.
2434:
2430:
2426:
2422:
2418:
2414:
2410:
2406:
2403:
2399:
2395:
2391:
2386:
2383:
2382:Pteridophytes
2379:
2376:conifers and
2375:
2370:
2365:
2363:
2359:
2355:
2351:
2350:Bennettitales
2347:
2346:
2341:
2340:Araucariaceae
2337:
2336:Podocarpaceae
2326:
2324:
2320:
2315:
2311:
2307:
2303:
2302:glossopterids
2293:
2292:
2287:
2286:
2281:
2280:
2275:
2274:
2263:
2254:
2243:
2234:
2220:
2216:
2215:
2210:
2209:
2198:
2189:
2180:
2178:
2174:
2170:
2164:
2162:
2158:
2157:osteolepiform
2154:
2153:
2152:Archaeopteris
2148:
2144:
2140:
2136:
2132:
2131:Baragwanathia
2128:
2127:pteridophytes
2124:
2120:
2115:
2113:
2109:
2105:
2101:
2097:
2096:zosterophylls
2093:
2092:
2081:
2080:
2079:Archaeopteris
2075:
2074:
2063:
2054:
2045:
2043:
2039:
2035:
2025:
2023:
2019:
2015:
2010:
2002:
1998:
1997:
1992:
1987:
1977:
1975:
1971:
1967:
1963:
1962:arc-continent
1958:
1956:
1952:
1951:Iceland plume
1946:
1941:
1937:
1931:
1926:
1925:Drake Passage
1920:
1912:
1906:
1897:
1894:
1888:
1882:
1875:
1872:In the Early
1865:
1863:
1859:
1855:
1851:
1847:
1843:
1838:
1836:
1832:
1828:
1823:
1821:
1817:
1813:
1809:
1805:
1801:
1795:
1790:
1789:Insular India
1781:
1779:
1778:Liquiñe-Ofqui
1775:
1771:
1767:
1763:
1759:
1755:
1751:
1747:
1743:
1732:
1728:
1725:
1721:
1717:
1713:
1709:
1705:
1701:
1697:
1687:
1683:
1673:
1666:
1659:
1653:
1645:
1641:
1635:
1627:
1623:
1619:
1613:
1603:
1593:
1586:
1577:
1560:
1551:
1537:
1533:
1526:
1522:
1521:New Caledonia
1518:
1517:Norfolk Ridge
1514:
1510:
1506:
1502:
1498:
1492:
1482:
1475:
1471:
1470:oceanic crust
1467:
1463:
1457:
1447:
1439:
1434:
1432:
1428:
1422:
1414:
1410:
1407:and then the
1404:
1397:
1393:
1389:
1385:
1381:
1377:
1371:
1350:
1341:
1332:
1318:
1316:
1312:
1308:
1304:
1300:
1296:
1292:
1288:
1283:
1281:
1277:
1273:
1269:
1265:
1261:
1257:
1256:Insular India
1253:
1249:
1245:
1241:
1236:
1234:
1230:
1226:
1222:
1218:
1214:
1210:
1206:
1202:
1198:
1194:
1190:
1184:
1177:
1176:flood basalts
1174:
1170:
1160:
1156:
1146:
1137:
1123:
1119:
1111:
1107:
1101:
1093:
1089:
1073:
1071:
1067:
1063:
1060:and southern
1059:
1055:
1049:
1041:
1036:
1034:
1029:
1024:
1022:
1018:
1014:
1010:
1006:
1002:
998:
993:
991:
987:
983:
979:
975:
971:
967:
963:
959:
955:
951:
947:
943:
939:
935:
931:
927:
926:Palaeo-Tethys
923:
918:
916:
912:
909:Gondwana and
899:
894:
884:
882:
878:
873:
869:
865:
861:
857:
853:
849:
845:
844:Southern Cone
841:
831:
829:
823:
821:
817:
813:
809:
805:
801:
797:
793:
789:
785:
781:
777:
765:
761:
751:
742:
731:
722:
713:
711:
707:
703:
699:
694:
692:
688:
677:
674:
669:
665:
661:
651:
641:
631:
625:
614:
606:
598:
594:
590:
588:
585:and parts of
584:
580:
576:
572:
568:
564:
560:
556:
552:
548:
543:
541:
537:
533:
529:
528:Iapetus Ocean
524:
522:
516:
511:
505:
500:
496:
490:
485:
480:
474:
469:
465:
461:
457:
447:
440:
434:
425:
422:
420:
416:
412:
408:
404:
400:
396:
388:
384:
379:
370:
368:
364:
359:
357:
353:
349:
345:
341:
335:
331:(from around
330:
326:
325:Drake Passage
322:
318:
315:) during the
314:
310:
306:
305:Carboniferous
302:
298:
294:
290:
286:
280:
271:
263:
254:
250:
245:
243:
239:
235:
231:
227:
223:
219:
218:South America
215:
209:
173:
165:
161:
157:
153:
152:African Plate
150:
146:
143:
139:
135:
131:
127:
126:South America
124:
120:
117:
113:
109:
105:
101:
97:
96:South America
93:
92:North America
89:
86:
84:Today part of
82:
79:
76:
72:
68:
64:
59:
52:
47:
41:
37:
33:
19:
6347:Biogeography
6280:
6219:
6205:
6169:hypothesised
6159:
6127:
6045:
5976:Kazakhstania
5951:Congo Craton
5905:
5853:
5841:Prehistoric
5840:
5799:
5784:
5769:
5762:Afro-Eurasia
5754:
5716:
5701:
5686:
5671:
5656:
5641:
5626:
5535:
5531:
5493:. Retrieved
5469:. Retrieved
5441:. Retrieved
5421:
5417:
5377:
5373:
5363:10 September
5361:. Retrieved
5333:
5329:
5297:
5293:
5283:16 September
5281:. Retrieved
5259:
5255:
5238:18 September
5236:. Retrieved
5216:
5212:
5193:. Retrieved
5187:
5171:. Retrieved
5151:
5147:
5131:. Retrieved
5103:
5099:
5081:10 September
5079:. Retrieved
5051:
5045:
5017:
5005:. Retrieved
4983:
4979:
4972:Ramos, V. A.
4947:
4943:
4908:
4904:
4888:. Retrieved
4868:
4864:
4835:
4831:
4819:. Retrieved
4799:
4795:
4766:
4762:
4746:. Retrieved
4734:
4730:
4714:. Retrieved
4686:
4682:
4666:. Retrieved
4646:
4642:
4623:. Retrieved
4603:
4599:
4582:30 September
4580:. Retrieved
4560:
4556:
4523:
4519:
4500:. Retrieved
4481:(B9): 2428.
4478:
4474:
4433:
4429:
4413:. Retrieved
4391:
4367:. Retrieved
4353:
4336:10 September
4334:. Retrieved
4306:
4302:
4283:. Retrieved
4266:(1): 25–49.
4263:
4259:
4243:. Retrieved
4215:
4211:
4174:
4170:
4139:
4135:
4126:DeMets, C.;
4117:10 September
4115:. Retrieved
4087:
4083:
4044:
4040:
4021:
3993:
3989:
3980:
3968:. Retrieved
3940:
3936:
3920:. Retrieved
3900:
3896:
3871:
3859:
3847:
3820:
3808:
3796:
3784:
3772:
3760:
3748:
3736:
3724:
3712:
3700:
3688:
3676:
3664:
3652:
3640:
3628:
3616:
3604:
3540:
3528:
3516:
3504:
3492:
3480:
3455:
3449:
3446:Ollier, C.D.
3439:
3412:
3406:
3394:
3382:
3370:
3358:. Retrieved
3350:ScienceDaily
3349:
3340:
3328:
3316:
3304:
3292:
3280:
3268:
3239:
3233:
3216:
3181:
3175:
3154:. Retrieved
3126:
3122:
3081:
3077:
3070:Mpodozis, C.
3060:
3051:, Abstract;
3044:
3028:
3016:
3004:
2992:
2980:
2968:
2956:
2944:
2933:
2921:
2909:
2896:
2884:
2873:
2861:
2826:
2822:
2812:
2800:
2770:
2751:
2741:
2729:. Retrieved
2711:
2668:
2664:
2658:
2646:
2634:
2622:. Retrieved
2611:
2602:
2580:
2527:
2521:
2517:
2503:
2491:
2437:
2387:
2366:
2362:sphenophytes
2354:Pentoxylales
2343:
2332:
2299:
2289:
2283:
2277:
2271:
2212:
2206:
2169:temnospondyl
2165:
2150:
2116:
2100:rhyniophytes
2089:
2087:
2077:
2071:
2040:period. The
2031:
2009:biogeography
2006:
1994:
1980:Biogeography
1959:
1898:
1883:
1871:
1839:
1824:
1787:
1693:
1658:Benue Trough
1618:Walvis Ridge
1573:
1509:Chatham Rise
1499:, including
1435:
1427:Broken Ridge
1413:Indian Plate
1376:Indian Plate
1363:
1284:
1237:
1225:Gastre Fault
1173:Karoo-Ferrar
1166:
1084:
1037:
1025:
994:
982:Kazakhstania
919:
908:
866:southwards.
864:Appalachians
837:
824:
808:Late Permian
773:
695:
689:in the late
687:Kazakhstania
683:
670:
666:
632:
602:
544:
525:
453:
423:
397:, after the
395:Eduard Suess
392:
360:
356:Gondwanaland
355:
246:
171:
170:
40:
18:Gondwanaland
6143:Novopangaea
6011:South China
5991:North China
5443:26 November
5358:11336/93714
5195:3 September
5007:15 December
4890:1 September
4821:3 September
4769:(1): 1–40.
4748:3 September
4668:26 November
4625:1 September
4606:(9): 2649.
4285:11 February
4245:3 September
3970:3 September
3922:25 November
3657:Martin 2006
3645:Martin 2006
3321:Blakey 2003
3309:Blakey 2003
3297:Blakey 2003
3259:11336/81577
3207:11336/92748
3066:Ramos, V.A.
3021:Cawood 2005
2949:Cawood 2005
2510:laurissilva
2390:angiosperms
2378:Caytoniales
2219:voltzialean
2205:Fossilised
2173:lepospondyl
2112:gymnosperms
2001:grevilleoid
1742:deformation
1727:lithosphere
1501:New Zealand
1110:Weddell Sea
1001:South China
997:North China
938:Alleghanian
905:150 Ma
784:South China
352:§ Name
303:during the
251:of several
6331:Categories
6279:See also:
6181:Hyperborea
6171:continents
6106:Seychelles
6091:Madagascar
6071:Doggerland
5966:Euramerica
5921:Asiamerica
5649:Antarctica
5602:Continents
5538:: 79–229.
5495:16 October
5471:21 October
5173:23 October
4838:(2): XIX.
4415:27 January
4369:27 January
3719:, Abstract
3707:, Abstract
3695:, Abstract
3635:, Abstract
3623:, Abstract
3611:, Abstract
3564:, Abstract
3562:Ramos 2009
3487:, Abstract
3360:22 October
3335:, Abstract
3275:, Abstract
2963:, Abstract
2928:, Abstract
2926:Meert 2003
2829:: 104817.
2805:Meert 2003
2775:Suess 1885
2731:18 January
2653:, Abstract
2641:, Abstract
2624:18 January
2608:"Gondwana"
2590:References
2518:Nothofagus
2493:Nothofagus
2471:Afrotheria
2451:Saurischia
2402:hammamelid
2398:magnoliids
2358:lycophytes
2345:Dicroidium
2323:therapsids
2314:horsetails
2306:Voltziales
2291:Podocarpus
2139:herbaceous
2108:horsetails
2018:Proteaceae
1984:See also:
1966:Philippine
1720:batholiths
1495:separated
1315:evaporites
1260:landmasses
1252:Madagascar
1244:Seychelles
1193:Antarctica
1159:Madagascar
1021:Neo-Tethys
877:island arc
848:Ordovician
816:West Burma
776:Cathaysian
579:Madagascar
567:Seychelles
367:zoological
301:Euramerica
297:Palaeozoic
285:Brasiliano
240:, and the
226:Antarctica
138:Antarctica
112:Antarctica
6252:Greenland
6116:Zealandia
6081:Jan Mayen
6066:Cathaysia
5986:Laurentia
5981:Laramidia
5971:Kalaharia
5926:Atlantica
5859:Kenorland
5679:Australia
5183:Suess, E.
5128:128563461
5076:140198760
4986:: 31–65.
4935:129154382
4905:Tectonics
4716:1 October
4502:1 October
4446:CiteSeerX
4331:130395392
4240:128411554
4199:0091-7613
4112:140562320
4057:CiteSeerX
3156:18 August
3078:Tectonics
2853:1464-343X
2703:140601854
2681:CiteSeerX
2467:Xenarthra
2285:Araucaria
2214:Utrechtia
2091:Cooksonia
2073:Cooksonia
2038:Hot House
1804:Himalayan
1497:Zealandia
1303:limestone
1299:sandstone
1229:Patagonia
1209:Zealandia
1013:Cimmerian
1005:Indochina
881:Chaitenia
804:Qiangtang
532:Laurentia
470:, formed
456:orogenies
428:Formation
344:Laurentia
329:Paleogene
268:with the
249:accretion
234:Zealandia
230:Australia
142:Zealandia
134:Australia
100:Australia
6310:Category
6176:Atlantis
6161:Mythical
6096:Mauritia
6061:Beringia
5946:Cimmeria
5941:Chilenia
5931:Avalonia
5911:Amazonia
5894:Vaalbara
5879:Pannotia
5864:Laurasia
5854:Gondwana
5849:Columbia
5777:Americas
5517:Archived
5402:12878472
5185:(1885).
5094:(1988).
4974:(2009).
4711:10213679
4280:42799370
3965:86156197
3354:Archived
3147:Archived
2725:Archived
2618:Archived
2540:See also
2394:monocots
2319:Tetrapod
2279:Wollemia
2135:Yea Beds
2119:Devonian
2104:lycopods
1970:Caroline
1938:and the
1893:Pliocene
1874:Cenozoic
1784:Cenozoic
1700:Jurassic
1642:and the
1568:Equator.
1466:Cenozoic
1378:and the
1358:(right).
1276:Maldives
1169:Jurassic
1081:Mesozoic
1076:Break-up
990:Laurasia
962:Carolina
942:Variscan
934:Ouachita
930:Marathon
911:Laurasia
868:Chilenia
800:Sibumasu
706:orocline
691:Silurian
563:Antongil
555:Tanzania
540:Pannotia
530:between
419:Triassic
403:Sanskrit
387:Triassic
321:Jurassic
317:Triassic
313:Laurasia
307:to form
172:Gondwana
44:Gondwana
6196:Meropis
6191:Lemuria
6006:Siberia
5956:Cuyania
5936:Baltica
5916:Arctica
5884:Rodinia
5874:Pangaea
5807:Oceania
5792:Eurasia
5540:Bibcode
5426:Bibcode
5382:Bibcode
5338:Bibcode
5302:Bibcode
5264:Bibcode
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5156:Bibcode
5133:31 July
5108:Bibcode
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4179:Bibcode
4171:Geology
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3884:Sources
3460:Bibcode
3186:Bibcode
3131:Bibcode
3086:Bibcode
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2273:Agathis
2208:Walchia
2177:amniote
2159:fishes
1996:Banksia
1858:Red Sea
1846:Arabian
1808:Tibetan
1774:Domeyko
1770:Atacama
1760:of the
1758:opening
1750:erosion
1724:oceanic
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1698:in the
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852:Cuyania
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573:). The
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6227:Alaska
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6051:lands
6001:Sahul
5606:Earth
5414:(PDF)
5326:(PDF)
5252:(PDF)
5209:(PDF)
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5072:S2CID
5042:(PDF)
4931:S2CID
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4596:(PDF)
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4276:S2CID
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5497:2017
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5398:PMID
5365:2017
5285:2017
5240:2013
5197:2017
5175:2016
5135:2016
5083:2017
5009:2015
4996:ISBN
4892:2017
4823:2017
4750:2017
4718:2017
4707:PMID
4670:2017
4627:2017
4584:2017
4504:2017
4417:2018
4404:ISBN
4371:2018
4358:ISBN
4338:2017
4287:2018
4247:2017
4195:ISSN
4119:2017
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3425:ISBN
3362:2011
3158:2019
2849:ISSN
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