582:
grammaticalization has no independent status of its own, that all processes involved can be described separately from the theory of grammaticalization. Janda, for example, wrote that "given that even writers on grammaticalization themselves freely acknowledge the involvement of several distinct processes in the larger set of phenomena, it is hard to avoid the conclusion that the notion of grammaticalization, too, tends to represent an epiphenomenal telescoping. That is, it may involve certain typical "path(way)s", but the latter seem to be built out of separate stepping-stones which can often be seen in isolation and whose individual outlines are always distinctly recognizable".
1242:...(compared to OE) the -s is much more independent: it can be separated from its main word by an adverb such as else (somebody else's hat ), by a prepositional clause such as of England (the queen of England's power ), or even by a relative clause such as I saw yesterday (the man I saw yesterday's car)...the English genitive is in fact no longer a flexional form...historically attested facts show us in the most unequivocal way a development - not, indeed, from an originally self-existent word to a mere flexional ending, but the exactly opposite development of what was an inseparable part of a complicated flexional system to greater and greater emancipation and independence.
1415:(1991): Hopper defined the five 'principles' by which you can detect grammaticalization while it is taking place: "layering", the development of additional expressions for a function; "divergence" (also called "split" by other theorists), in which a form develops a grammatical sense in addition to its lexical sense; "specialization", reducing the scope of lexical meaning until only grammatical function remains; "persistence", traces of lexical meaning in a grammaticalized form; and "de-categorialization", the loss of a form's
1150:, "grammaticalization is a unidirectional process, that is, it leads from less grammatical to more grammatical forms and constructions". That is one of the strongest claims about grammaticalization, and is often cited as one of its basic principles. In addition, unidirectionality refers to a general developmental orientation which all (or the large majority) of the cases of grammaticalization have in common, and which can be paraphrased in abstract, general terms, independent of any specific case.
185:(1912). Meillet's definition was "the attribution of grammatical character to an erstwhile autonomous word". Meillet showed that what was at issue was not the origins of grammatical forms but their transformations. He was thus able to present a notion of the creation of grammatical forms as a legitimate study for linguistics. Later studies in the field have further developed and altered Meillet's ideas and have introduced many other examples of grammaticalization.
160:(1891). Humboldt, for instance, came up with the idea of evolutionary language. He suggested that in all languages grammatical structures evolved out of a language stage in which there were only words for concrete objects and ideas. In order to successfully communicate these ideas, grammatical structures slowly came into existence. Grammar slowly developed through four different stages, each in which the grammatical structure would be more developed. Though
332:. There is no salient trace of that original meaning in the present suffixes for the native speaker, but speakers instead treat the more newly-formed suffixes as bits of grammar that help them form new words. One could make the connection between the body or shape of a physical being and the abstract property of likeness or similarity, but only through metonymic reasoning, after one is explicitly made aware of this connection.
1435:' to describe grammaticalization when he wrote: "Grammatization may also be viewed as a subtype of metaphor (etymologically "carrying beyond"), our most general term for a meaning shift. Grammaticalization is a metaphorical shift toward the abstract, "metaphor" being defined as an originally conscious or voluntary shift in a word's meaning because of some perceived similarity.
1111:
seen as an arrangement of forms along imaginary lines, with at one end a 'fuller' or lexical form and at the other a more 'reduced' or grammatical form. What Hopper and
Traugott mean is that from a diachronic or historical point of view, changes of word forms is seen as a natural process, whereas synchronically, this process can be seen as inevitable instead of historical.
1467:, a summary is given of recent approaches to grammaticalization. "The term 'grammaticalization' is today used in various ways. In a fairly loose sense, 'grammaticalized' often simply refers to the fact that a form or construction has become fixed and obligatory. (...) In a stricter sense, however, (...) the notion of 'grammaticalization' is first and foremost a
1369:(1965): His "classical" definition is probably the one most often referred to: "Grammaticalization consists in the increase of the range of a morpheme advancing from a lexical to a grammatical or from a less grammatical to a more grammatical status, e.g. from a derivative formant to an inflectional one".
292:
wrote that "semantic reduction, or bleaching, occurs as a morpheme loses its intention: From describing a narrow set of ideas, it comes to describe an ever broader range of them, and eventually may lose its meaning altogether". He saw this as one of the two kinds of change that are always associated
1348:
Linguists have come up with different interpretation of the term 'grammaticalization', and there are many alternatives to the definition given in the introduction. The following will be a non-exhaustive list of authors who have written about the subject with their individual approaches to the nature
1110:
state that the cline of grammaticalization has both diachronic and synchronic implications. Diachronically (i.e. looking at changes over time), clines represent a natural path along which forms or words change over time. However, synchronically (i.e. looking at a single point in time), clines can be
581:
et al. (1994) have acknowledged that independently, they are not essential to grammaticalization. In addition, most are not limited to grammaticalization but can be applied in the wider context of language change. Critics of the theory of grammaticalization have used these difficulties to claim that
1363:" ("While the analogy can renew the detail of the forms, but often leaves untouched the overall plan of the grammatical system, the 'grammaticalization' of certain words creates new forms, introduces categories for which there was no linguistical expression, and transforms the whole of the system.")
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notes that "unidirectionality in itself is a predictive assertion in that it selects the general type of possible development (it predicts the direction of any given incipient case)," and unidirectionality also rules out an entire range of development types that do not follow this principle, hereby
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Obligatorification occurs when the use of linguistic structures becomes increasingly more obligatory in the process of grammaticalization. Lehmann describes it as a reduction in transparadigmatic variability, by which he means that "the freedom of the language user with regard to the paradigm as a
274:
It is difficult to capture the term "grammaticalization" in one clear definition (see the 'various views on grammaticalization' section below). However, there are some processes that are often linked to grammaticalization. These are semantic bleaching, morphological reduction, phonetic erosion, and
1359:
Tandis que l'analogie peut renouveler le détail des formes, mais laisse le plus souvent intact le plan d'ensemble du système grammatical, la 'grammaticalisation' de certains mots crée des formes neuves, introduit des catégories qui n'avaient pas d'expression linguistique, transforme l'ensemble du
283:
Semantic bleaching, or desemanticization, has been seen from early on as a characteristic of grammaticalization. It can be described as the loss of semantic content. More specifically, with reference to grammaticalization, bleaching refers to the loss of all (or most) lexical content of an entity
265:
studies trying to come up with umbrella definitions and exhaustive lists, while others tend to focus more on its nature and significance, questioning the opportunities and boundaries of grammaticalization. An important and popular topic which is still debated is the question of unidirectionality.
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enable linguists to form general laws of grammaticalization and language change in general. It plays an important role in the reconstruction of older states of a language. Moreover, the documenting of changes can help to reveal the lines along which a language is likely to develop in the future.
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or content words, which carry specific lexical meaning, and grammatical items or function words, which serve mainly to express grammatical relationships between the different words in an utterance. Grammaticalization has been defined as "the change whereby lexical items and constructions come in
602:. These shifts generally follow similar patterns in different languages. Linguists do not agree on the precise definition of a cline or on its exact characteristics in given instances. It is believed that the stages on the cline do not always have a fixed position, but vary. However, Hopper and
503:
The phonetic erosion may bring a brand-new look to the phonological system of a language, by changing the inventory of phones and phonemes, making new arrangements in the phonotactic patterns of a syllable, etc. Special treatise on the phonological consequences of grammaticalization and
105:
certain linguistic contexts to serve grammatical functions, and, once grammaticalized, continue to develop new grammatical functions". Where grammaticalization takes place, nouns and verbs which carry certain lexical meaning develop over time into grammatical items such as
1453:. The study of grammaticalization therefore highlights the tension between relatively unconstrained lexical expression and more constrained morphosyntactic coding, and points to relative indeterminacy in language and to the basic non-discreteness of categories".
1425:(1991): In his article on "The Gradualness of Grammaticalization", he defined grammaticalization as "a historical process, a kind of change that has certain consequences for the morphosyntactic categories of a language and thus for the grammar of the language.
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of some languages. Some linguists, like Heine and Kuteva, stress the fact that even though obligatorification can be seen as an important process, it is not necessary for grammaticalization to take place, and it also occurs in other types of language change.
1949:. Correlation between Syllable & Meaning and between Phonology & Lexicalization, Grammaticalization,Subjectification: Towards a Theory on Morpho-Phonology from Facts of Northern Yu Chinese Dialects. Beijing Language and Culture University Press,2011
2057:; p. 387: " la « grammaticalisation » de certains mots crée des formes neuves, introduit des catégories qui n'avaient pas d'expression linguistique, transforme l'ensemble du système." (The article was republished in: Meillet, Antoine. 1921.
260:
The great number of studies on grammaticalization in the last decade (up to 2018) show grammaticalization remains a popular item and is regarded as an important field within linguistic studies in general. Among recent publications there is a wide range of
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synchronically from the point of view of grammaticalization. They saw grammaticalization as an important tool for describing the workings of languages and their universal aspects and it provided an exhaustive list of the pathways of grammaticalization.
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Although unidirectionality is a key element of grammaticalization, exceptions exist. Indeed, the possibility of counterexamples, coupled with their rarity, is given as evidence for the general operating principle of unidirectionality. According to
512:(2011), which provides evidence that a morphophonological change can later change into a purely phonological change, and evidence that there is a typological difference in the phonetic and phonological consequences of grammaticalization between
1972:
Haiman, John "From V /2 to
Subject Clitics: Evidence from Northern Italian" pp 135–158 Approaches to grammaticalization: Focus on theoretical and methodological issues edited by Elizabeth Closs Traugott, Bernd Heine. John Benjamins Publishing
226:(1982). This was the first work to emphasize the continuity of research from the earliest period to the present, and it provided a survey of the major work in the field. Lehmann also invented a set of 'parameters', a method along which
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In comparison to various instances of grammaticalization, there are relatively few counterexamples to the unidirectionality hypothesis, and they often seem to require special circumstances to occur. One is found in the development of
452:
However, phonetic erosion, a common process of language change that can take place with no connection to grammaticalization, is not a necessary property of grammaticalization. For example, the Latin construction of the type
128:
as in "let's you and me fight". Here, the phrase has lost its lexical meaning of "allow us" and has become an auxiliary introducing a suggestion, the pronoun 'us' reduced first to a suffix and then to an unanalyzed phoneme.
861:(literally, 'I have got to sing') acquired the sense of futurity (cf. I have to sing). Finally it became the true future tense in almost all Romance languages and the auxiliary became a full-fledged inflection (cf.
711:
such as an inflected past tense, in Modern
English usage. The use of "would" as the past tense of "will", though more common in Middle English, has become archaic, demonstrating the ongoing loss of lexical content.
569:
whole" is reduced. Examples of obligatoriness can be found in the category of number, which can be obligatory in some languages or in specific contexts, in the development of articles, and in the development of
1179:(1993), who treat some putative counterexamples as cases of lexicalization in which a grammatical form is incorporated into a lexical item but does not itself become a lexical item. An example is the phrase
489:
of a form in its grammaticalized morphemic role does not necessarily imply bleaching of its lexical source, and that the two can separate neatly in spite of maintaining identical phonological form: the noun
2035:
Lichtenberk, F. "On the
Gradualness of Grammaticalization." In Elizabeth Closs Traugott and Bernd Heine, eds. Approaches to Grammaticalization, Vol. 1. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1991. pp. 37–80.
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ones, or less grammatical into more grammatical, is the preferred direction of linguistic change and that a grammatical item is much less likely to move backwards rather than forwards on Hopper &
288:
described bleaching as "the partial effacement of a morpheme's semantic features, the stripping away of some of its precise content so it can be used in an abstracter, grammatical-hardware-like way".
445:'Going to' → 'gonna' (or even 'I am going to' → 'I'm gonna' → 'I'mma') and 'because' → 'coz' are examples of erosion in English. Some linguists trace erosion to the speaker's tendency to follow the
548:
without a 100% obligatory match between such a sound unit as syllable and such a meaning unit as morpheme or word, despite an assumed majority of monosyllabic reconstructed word stems/roots in the
398:
Phonetic erosion (also called phonological attrition or phonological reduction), is another process that is often linked to grammaticalization. It implies that a linguistic expression loses
2125:
Janda, Richard D. "Beyond 'pathways' and 'unidirectionality': on the discontinuity of language transmission and the counterability of grammaticalization". Language
Sciences 2001: 265-340.
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The idea of unidirectionality is an important one when trying to predict language change through grammaticalization (and for making the claim that grammaticalization can be predicted).
2009:"On some principles of grammaticalization". In Elizabeth Closs Traugott and Bernd Heine, eds. Approaches to Grammaticalization, Vol. I. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1991. pp. 17–36.
631:
This particular cline is called "the cline of grammaticality" or the "cycle of categorial downgrading", and it is a common one. In this cline every item to the right represents a more
2097:. "Les réactions en chaîne en morphologie diachronique." Actes du Colloque de la Société internationale de linguistique fonctionnelle 10.285-92. Québec: Presses de l'Université Laval.
1046:). Compound verbs are thus generally written with a kanji for each constituent verb, but some suffixes have become grammaticalized, and are written in hiragana, such as 'try out, see'
2025:
Lehmann, Christian. Thoughts on
Grammaticalization. Vol. 2. (revised edition). (Arbeitspapiere des Seminars für Sprachwissenschaft der Universität Erfurt, No. 9. Erfurt, 2002.
212:
1937:, Revere Perkins, & William Pagliuca. The Evolution of Grammar: Tense, Aspect and Modality in the Languages of the World. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993.
1422:
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and enters another is not sudden, but occurs by a gradual series of individual shifts. The overlapping stages of grammaticalization form a chain, generally called a
481:
in this usage is interpretable by today's native speakers only as a morpheme signaling 'adverb' and it has undergone no phonological erosion from the Latin source,
1293:'we are') because of a reanalysis based on the verb-pronoun order of the other persons of the verb. Another well-known example is the degrammaticalization of the
1405:
processes interact in the grammaticalization of morphemes and of whole constructions. A sign is grammaticalized to the extent that it is devoid of concrete
1460:
820:
which has partially undergone a similar path of grammaticalization, and note the simultaneous existence of the non-grammaticalized Modern
English verb
1171:, however, advocates often minimize the counterexamples or redefine them as not being part of the grammaticalization cline. He gives the example of
2074:
2022:
Lehmann, Christian. Thoughts on
Grammaticalization. A programmatic Sketch. Vol. I. Arbeiten des Kölner Universalien-Projekts, Nr. 48. Köln, 1982.
238:
496:
is alive and well today in both
Italian and Spanish with its meaning 'mind', yet native speakers do not recognize the noun 'mind' in the suffix
2102:"Degrammaticalization in North Saami: Development of adpositions, adverbs and a free lexical noun from inflectional and derivational suffixes"
1484:
Richard D. Janda cites over 70 works critical of the unidirectionality hypothesis in his article "Beyond 'pathways' and 'unidirectionality'".
1927:. 1998. "From modal auxiliary to lexical verb: The curious case of Pennsylvania German wotte". In Richard M. Hogg & Linda Bergen eds.,
2019:
Kurylowicz, Jerzy. "The evolution of grammatical categories". Esquisses linguistiques. Munich: Wilhelm Fink Verlag, 1965. pp. 38–54.
1449:. They defined grammaticalization as "a linguistic process, both through time and synchronically, of organization of categories and of
675:(PDE), this form is even shortened to 'll and no longer necessarily implies intention, but often is simply a mark of future tense (see
2091:
Traugott, Elizabeth Closs. "Legitimate counterexamples to unidirectionality". Paper presented at
Freiburg University, October 17, 2001
2038:
Matisoff, J., 1991. "Areal and universal dimensions of grammaticalization in Lahu". In: Traugott, E.C. and Heine, B., Editors, 1991.
936:, 'I will sing', 'you will sing', 's/he will sing'). In some verbs the process went further and produced irregular forms—cf. Spanish
2055:
1154:
211:, that the interest for grammaticalization in linguistic studies began to grow again. A greatly influential work in the domain was
1445:(1991): Together, they edited a two-volume collection of papers from a 1988 conference organized by Talmy Givón under the title
1310:'without' and further to a preposition and a free-standing adverb. Moreover, the morphologically analogous derivational suffix -
2062:
1373:
Since then, the study of grammaticalization has become broader, and linguists have extended the term into various directions.
196:
studies of language change, with less emphasis on historical approaches such as grammaticalization. It did however, mostly in
1738:
590:
In the process of grammaticalization, an uninflected lexical word (or content word) is transformed into a grammar word (or
1487:
The first monograph on degrammaticalization and its relation to grammaticalization was published in 2009 by Muriel Norde.
1943:, & Alice C. Harris. Historical syntax in cross-linguistic perspective. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995.
1591:
Haiman, John (1991). "From V/2 to Subject Clitics: Evidence from Northern Italian". In Traugott, Elizabeth Closs (ed.).
2101:
1199:
itself cannot be said to have degrammaticalized, a view that is challenged to some extent by parallel usages such as
750:
could become further grammaticalized to the point that it forms an inflexional affix indicating future tense, e.g. "
2138:
217:
2088:, eds. Approaches to grammaticalization. Typological studies in language, 19. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1991.
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lists proposed counterexamples in his article "What's wrong with grammaticalization?". In the same issue of
1251:
1128:
549:
722:
see you later"; auxiliary expressing futurity but not necessarily intention (similar in meaning to "I am
2050:
739:
be there this evening." This clitic form phonologically adapts to its surroundings and cannot receive
1955:, & Anette Rosenbach. "Introduction". In Olga Fischer, Anette Rosenbach & Dieter Stein, eds.
446:
679:). The PDE verb 'will' can thus be said to have less lexical meaning than its preceding form in OE.
577:
Although these 'parameters of grammaticalization' are often linked to the theory, linguists such as
390:('that' singular vs. 'those' plural), as in "the book that I know" versus "the things that I know".
1450:
353:
2122:
Joseph, Brian D. "Is there such a thing as 'grammaticalization?'" Language Sciences 2001: 163-186.
606:'s famous pattern for the cline of grammaticalization illustrates the various stages of the form:
545:
459:, meaning 'with a clear mind' is the source of modern Romance productive adverb formation, as in
157:
1219:
can be replaced by a possessive (my, your, her, Bill's, etc.), and by further extensions still:
172:
assumptions, they were positively inclined towards some of these earlier linguists' hypotheses.
1468:
557:
537:
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A well-known example of grammaticalization is that of the process in which the lexical cluster
20:
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Examples that are not confined to a specific lexical item are less common. One is the English
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elements that were characteristic of its initial category, but which are not relevant to the
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substance is likely to be reduced in some way and to become more dependent on surrounding
8:
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The final stage of grammaticalization has happened in many languages. For example, in
1734:
1479:
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1004:. Many Japanese words are formed by connecting two verbs, as in 'go and ask (listen)'
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253:
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The term "grammaticalization" in the modern sense was coined by the French linguist
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1921:. Language Change, Progress or Decay? Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001.
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has taken on a much broader meaning. These other senses of the term are discussed
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1416:
1353:
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383:
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161:
36:
1965:. "Historical syntax and synchronic morphology: an archaeologist's field trip",
1234:, was a suffix but, in Modern English, is a clitic. As Jespersen (1894) put it,
2094:
2006:
1918:
1412:
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849:) were dropped when they became phonetically too close to the imperfect forms (
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substance when it has undergone grammaticalization. Heine writes that "once a
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1946:
1940:
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532:, other morphological alternations) vs non-monosyllabic languages (including
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101:
100:
For an understanding of this process, a distinction needs to be made between
94:
56:
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becoming a verb outside of this lexical item. Since it is the entire phrase
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is especially common)—and even regular forms (in Italian, the change of the
707:
go to the market"; auxiliary expressing intention, lacking many features of
1952:
1456:
1274:
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Inflectional suffix: This has not occurred in English, but hypothetically,
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425:
411:
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2119:. "What's wrong with grammaticalization?" Language Sciences 2001: 113-161.
1729:
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Traugott cites a counterexample from function to content word proposed by
2085:
2061:. Paris: Champion, p. 130-148; last reprint: Geneva: Slatkine, 1982
1996:
1986:
1976:
1962:
1442:
1231:
1147:
1136:
786:"s/he wants to walk") to an auxiliary verb in phonetically reduced form (
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have described different kinds of phonetic erosion for applicable cases:
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234:
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72:
52:
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An illustrative example of this cline is in the orthography of Japanese
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rejected the separation of language into distinct "stages" in favour of
1934:
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1020:, and in Japanese orthography lexical items are generally written with
595:
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Loss of suprasegmental properties, such as stress, tone, or intonation.
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in a sharp contrast to the other languages in the world in typology.
449:, while others think that erosion is a sign of changes taking place.
357:
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Loss of phonetic autonomy and adaptation to adjacent phonetic units.
1967:
Papers from the Regional Meetings of the Chicago Linguistic Societv
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hypothesis), a difference mostly initiated by the German linguist
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667:('to want/to wish') to an auxiliary verb signifying intention in
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An example of this phenomenon can be seen in the change from the
93:. Some concepts are often grammaticalized, while others, such as
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76:
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1327:
1269:'would' (from 'wanted') into a full verb 'to wish, to desire'.
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with grammaticalization (the other being phonetic reduction).
188:
During the second half of the twentieth century, the field of
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while only its grammatical content is retained. For example,
48:
1714:
Bisang W, Malchukov A (2017). Bisang W, Malchukov A (eds.).
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Loss of phonetic segments, including loss of full syllables.
1385:, wrote that "Grammaticalization is a process leading from
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has affected the whole class of conjugation type I verbs).
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Clines of grammaticality – cycles of categorial downgrading
203:
It was not until the 1970s, with the growth of interest in
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40:
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that is the verb, Hopper and Traugott argue that the word
524:, with exceptions of either loanwords or derivations like
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could be measured both synchronically and diachronically.
1264:
1255:
1187:(a function word) in a verb (a content word) but without
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320:) ultimately come from an earlier Proto-Germanic etymon,
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meaning and takes part in obligatory grammatical rules".
1383:
New Reflections on Grammaticalization and Lexicalization
1131:
is the idea that grammaticalization, the development of
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Scientia: rivista internazionale di sintesi scientifica
200:, remain an instrument for explaining language change.
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limiting the amount of possible paths of development.
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Grammaticalization and Reanalysis in African Languages
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by which words representing objects and actions (i.e.
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Process of words becoming part of a language grammar
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Unity and diversity in grammaticalization scenarios
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1321:
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1305:
1277:with the origin of the first-person-plural pronoun
2048:. 1912. "L'évolution des formes grammaticales."
1816:Norde 2009, p. 207–209; Ylikoski 2016, p. 119–129.
828:ed himself to continue along the steep path.") or
780:("to want/to wish") has gone from a content word (
2079:Cahiers de linguistique de l'Université du Québec
1957:Pathways of Change: Grammaticalization in English
1595:. John Benjamins Publishing Company. p. 154.
1334:– has degrammaticalized into an independent noun
2130:
2112:From Language Sciences Volume 23, March (2001):
2059:Linguistique historique et linguistique générale
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1713:
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1505:"WALS Online - Chapter Coding of Evidentiality"
1283:(a function word) from the inflectional suffix
1122:
1087:
1071:
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843:In Latin the original future tense forms (e.g.
2077:. "Contraintes sur le changement syntaxique",
2016:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003.
2003:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002.
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1081:
1065:
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382:'that' as in "that book" came to be used as a
124:, for example in "let us eat", is reduced to
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881:
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386:marker, and lost the grammatical category of
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1114:The studying and documentation of recurrent
1036:), while grammatical items are written with
906:
898:
890:
594:). The process by which the word leaves its
410:, it tends to undergo erosion; that is, the
180:
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647:It is very common for full verbs to become
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454:
1593:Approaches to Grammaticalization Volume II
1463:(2000): In the introduction of their book
1326:'stained with oil') – itself based on the
995:
352:meaning (bleaching), it is likely to lose
335:
148:The concept was developed in the works of
63:, rather than deriving them from existing
2042:, Benjamins, Amsterdam, pp. 383–454.
1728:
1686:Givon 1971, Reighard 1978, Wittmann 1983.
1471:process with certain typical mechanisms."
1097:
508:in the Chinese languages can be found in
2071:. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994.
2040:Approaches to Grammaticalization vol. II
2012:Hopper, Paul J. and Elizabeth Traugott.
1993:. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007.
1983:. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993.
477:'clearly'. In both of those languages, -
132:In other areas of linguistics, the term
1981:Cognitive Forces and Grammaticalization
516:(featuring an obligatory match between
2131:
1590:
1162:Counterexamples (degrammaticalization)
801:), and finally to a fused inflection (
536:or bisyllabic Austronesian languages,
89:, which expresses intention or simply
47:) become grammatical markers (such as
563:
485:. This example also illustrates that
278:
1377:Christian Lehmann (1982): Writer of
651:and eventually inflexional endings.
182:L'évolution des formes grammaticales
81:'to want', 'to wish' has become the
2001:World lexicon of grammaticalization
1897:Fischer & Rosenbach 2000, p. 8.
1183:which incorporates the preposition
393:
296:For example, both English suffixes
13:
2030:A Dictionary of Grammaticalization
1723:. Berlin: Language Science Press.
1536:Harris & Campbell 1995, p. 18.
1349:of the term 'grammaticalization'.
643:Examples developing a future tense
14:
2155:
1527:Hopper & Traugott 2003, p. 1.
1215:, by the fact that in all cases
1078:, as in 'try eating (it) and see'
1888:Traugott & Heine 1991, p. 1.
1563:Hopper and Traugott 2003, p. 31.
1554:Hopper and Traugott 2003, p. 19.
1431:(1991): Matisoff used the term '
1143:'s cline of grammaticalization.
71:constructions. For example, the
1900:
1891:
1882:
1873:
1864:
1855:
1846:
1837:
1828:
1819:
1810:
1801:
1792:
1783:
1774:
1765:
1756:
1747:
1704:Hopper and Traugott 2003, p. 6.
1698:
1689:
1680:
1677:Hopper and Traugott 2003, p. 7.
1671:
1668:Hopper and Traugott 2003, p. 6.
1662:
1653:
1650:Heine & Kuteva 2007, p. 34.
1644:
1635:
1632:Heine & Kuteva 2007, p. 34.
1626:
1617:
1608:
1605:Heine & Kuteva 2007, p. 40.
1599:
1447:Approaches to Grammaticaliztion
1223:'he improved his performance'.
795:"s/he will walk") to a clitic (
639:form than the one to its left.
2106:Finnisch-Ugrische Mitteilungen
2084:Traugott, Elizabeth Closs and
1789:qtd. in Campbell 2001, p. 127.
1753:Heine & Kuteva 2002, p. 4.
1584:
1575:
1566:
1557:
1548:
1539:
1530:
1521:
1497:
1379:Thoughts on Grammaticalization
344:expression has changed from a
252:(1984). This work focussed on
224:Thoughts on Grammaticalization
1:
1491:
1260:of the preterite subjunctive
743:unlike the uncontracted form.
269:
2054:, vol. 12, p. 384-400.
1129:unidirectionality hypothesis
1123:Unidirectionality hypothesis
192:was strongly concerned with
7:
2032:. Bochum: Brockmeyer, 1994.
1931:1995. Amsterdam: Benjamins.
1344:Views on grammaticalization
1250:(1998): the development in
1088:
1072:
1056:
1014:
962:, 'I'll have'; the loss of
776:
762:" or "I'll need your help."
233:Another important work was
10:
2160:
1912:
966:followed by epenthesis of
855:). Instead, a phrase like
143:
1300:('without') case suffix -
1082:
1066:
1050:
1042:
1032:
1026:
1008:
447:principle of least effort
406:is conventionalized as a
152:(1816), Schlegel (1818),
1870:Lichtenberk 1991, p. 38.
1393:formatives. A number of
1879:Matifsoff 1991, p. 384.
1834:Kurylowicz 1975, p. 52.
1807:Norde 2009, p. 204–207.
1695:Aitchison 2001, p. 114.
1320:'stained with coffee',
1265:
1256:
996:Japanese compound verbs
840:= I want that I walk).
688:
663:
546:Indo-European languages
441:Phonetic simplification
373:morphological reduction
336:Morphological reduction
77:
55:). Thus it creates new
2139:Historical linguistics
1991:The Genesis of Grammar
1929:Historical Linguistics
1780:Campbell 2000, p. 125.
1581:Matisoff 1991, p. 384.
1358:
1336:
1322:
1316:
1314:'stained with' (e.g.,
1306:
1289:
1279:
1244:
1098:Historical linguistics
1040:(as in the connecting
988:
976:
958:
945:
932:
924:
916:
907:
899:
891:
882:
874:
866:
857:
851:
845:
836:
830:
803:
797:
791:
782:
760:I will need your help.
735:'ll, e.g. "My friends'
558:Sino-Tibetan languages
538:Afro-Asiatic languages
514:monosyllabic languages
492:
473:
464:
455:
181:
21:historical linguistics
1798:Traugott 2001, p. 12.
1730:10.5281/zenodo.823224
1641:Lehmann 2002, p. 124.
1423:František Lichtenberk
1236:
209:linguistic universals
198:Indo-European studies
2069:Degrammaticalization
1843:Lehmann 1982, p. vi.
1771:Lessau 1994, p. 886.
1762:Lessau 1994, p. 885.
1623:Lessau 1994, p. 263.
1304:to the postposition
1213:to up the medication
1209:to up the deductions
362:grammatical function
275:obligatorification.
115:sentence connectives
1969:, 1971, 7, 394-415.
1545:Lehmann 1995, p. 3.
1252:Pennsylvania German
834:in Serbo-Croatian (
807:"s/he will walk").
772:Old Church Slavonic
758:" in the place of "
673:Present-Day English
550:Proto-Indo-European
367:decategorialization
113:, inflections, and
97:, are not so much.
2081:, 1978, 8, 407-36.
2028:Lessau, Donald A.
2014:Grammaticalization
1999:and Tania Kuteva.
1989:and Tania Kuteva.
1614:Heine 1993, p.106.
1572:Heine 1993, p. 89.
1465:Pathways of Change
1439:Elizabeth Traugott
1106:(2003) Hopper and
1104:Grammaticalization
695:Grammatical word:
564:Obligatorification
487:semantic bleaching
408:grammatical marker
364:. This is called
279:Semantic bleaching
205:discourse analysis
134:grammaticalization
35:) is a process of
25:grammaticalization
2100:Ylikoski, Jussi.
1740:978-3-946234-99-9
1480:Language Sciences
1429:James A. Matisoff
1254:of the auxiliary
1221:he upped his game
1205:to up the payment
949:, 'I'll do') and
692:(to want/to wish)
571:personal pronouns
378:For example, the
254:African languages
213:Christian Lehmann
2151:
2046:Meillet, Antoine
1907:
1904:
1898:
1895:
1889:
1886:
1880:
1877:
1871:
1868:
1862:
1859:
1853:
1850:
1844:
1841:
1835:
1832:
1826:
1823:
1817:
1814:
1808:
1805:
1799:
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1790:
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1763:
1760:
1754:
1751:
1745:
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1705:
1702:
1696:
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1684:
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1666:
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1639:
1633:
1630:
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1597:
1596:
1588:
1582:
1579:
1573:
1570:
1564:
1561:
1555:
1552:
1546:
1543:
1537:
1534:
1528:
1525:
1519:
1518:
1516:
1515:
1501:
1461:Anette Rosenbach
1367:Jerzy Kurylowicz
1362:
1339:
1325:
1319:
1309:
1292:
1282:
1268:
1259:
1146:In the words of
1093:
1091:
1085:
1084:
1077:
1075:
1069:
1068:
1061:
1059:
1053:
1052:
1045:
1044:
1035:
1034:
1029:
1028:
1019:
1017:
1011:
1010:
991:
961:
948:
935:
927:
919:
910:
908:il/elle chantera
902:
894:
885:
877:
869:
860:
854:
848:
839:
833:
806:
800:
794:
785:
779:
691:
666:
615:grammatical word
495:
476:
467:
458:
394:Phonetic erosion
247:
221:
184:
80:
33:grammaticization
2159:
2158:
2154:
2153:
2152:
2150:
2149:
2148:
2129:
2128:
2095:Wittmann, Henri
2067:Norde, Muriel.
2007:Hopper, Paul J.
1979:. Auxiliaries:
1919:Aitchison, Jean
1915:
1910:
1905:
1901:
1896:
1892:
1887:
1883:
1878:
1874:
1869:
1865:
1860:
1856:
1851:
1847:
1842:
1838:
1833:
1829:
1824:
1820:
1815:
1811:
1806:
1802:
1797:
1793:
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1784:
1779:
1775:
1770:
1766:
1761:
1757:
1752:
1748:
1741:
1720:
1712:
1708:
1703:
1699:
1694:
1690:
1685:
1681:
1676:
1672:
1667:
1663:
1659:Janda , p. 270.
1658:
1654:
1649:
1645:
1640:
1636:
1631:
1627:
1622:
1618:
1613:
1609:
1604:
1600:
1589:
1585:
1580:
1576:
1571:
1567:
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1549:
1544:
1540:
1535:
1531:
1526:
1522:
1513:
1511:
1503:
1502:
1498:
1494:
1417:morphosyntactic
1354:Antoine Meillet
1346:
1230:-'s, which, in
1181:to up the ante,
1164:
1125:
1100:
1079:
1063:
1047:
1005:
998:
726:see you later")
645:
588:
566:
542:tri-consonantal
396:
384:relative clause
338:
281:
272:
241:
215:
177:Antoine Meillet
162:neo-grammarians
146:
85:auxiliary verb
37:language change
27:(also known as
17:
12:
11:
5:
2157:
2147:
2146:
2141:
2127:
2126:
2123:
2120:
2117:Campbell, Lyle
2110:
2109:
2098:
2092:
2089:
2082:
2075:Reighard, John
2072:
2065:
2043:
2036:
2033:
2026:
2023:
2020:
2017:
2010:
2004:
1994:
1984:
1974:
1970:
1960:
1950:
1947:Chen, Wei-Heng
1944:
1941:Campbell, Lyle
1938:
1932:
1925:Burridge, Kate
1922:
1914:
1911:
1909:
1908:
1899:
1890:
1881:
1872:
1863:
1854:
1845:
1836:
1827:
1825:Ylikoski 2016.
1818:
1809:
1800:
1791:
1782:
1773:
1764:
1755:
1746:
1739:
1706:
1697:
1688:
1679:
1670:
1661:
1652:
1643:
1634:
1625:
1616:
1607:
1598:
1583:
1574:
1565:
1556:
1547:
1538:
1529:
1520:
1495:
1493:
1490:
1489:
1488:
1485:
1472:
1454:
1436:
1426:
1420:
1410:
1371:
1370:
1364:
1345:
1342:
1330:case marker *-
1240:Modern English
1193:to up the ante
1163:
1160:
1135:elements into
1124:
1121:
1099:
1096:
1002:compound verbs
997:
994:
768:Serbo-Croatian
764:
763:
744:
733:Modern English
729:
728:
727:
718:will, e.g. "I
716:Modern English
703:will, e.g. "I
701:Modern English
697:Middle English
693:
683:Content word:
677:shall and will
669:Middle English
644:
641:
629:
628:
587:
584:
565:
562:
526:reduplicatives
506:lexicalization
443:
442:
439:
436:
433:
395:
392:
337:
334:
324:, which meant
286:James Matisoff
280:
277:
271:
268:
228:grammaticality
170:uniformitarian
145:
142:
83:Modern English
57:function words
29:grammatization
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2156:
2145:
2142:
2140:
2137:
2136:
2134:
2124:
2121:
2118:
2115:
2114:
2113:
2107:
2103:
2099:
2096:
2093:
2090:
2087:
2083:
2080:
2076:
2073:
2070:
2066:
2063:
2060:
2056:
2053:
2052:
2047:
2044:
2041:
2037:
2034:
2031:
2027:
2024:
2021:
2018:
2015:
2011:
2008:
2005:
2002:
1998:
1995:
1992:
1988:
1985:
1982:
1978:
1975:
1971:
1968:
1964:
1961:
1958:
1954:
1953:Fischer, Olga
1951:
1948:
1945:
1942:
1939:
1936:
1933:
1930:
1926:
1923:
1920:
1917:
1916:
1903:
1894:
1885:
1876:
1867:
1858:
1849:
1840:
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1822:
1813:
1804:
1795:
1786:
1777:
1768:
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1736:
1731:
1726:
1719:
1718:
1710:
1701:
1692:
1683:
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1611:
1602:
1594:
1587:
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1542:
1533:
1524:
1510:
1506:
1500:
1496:
1486:
1483:
1481:
1476:
1475:Lyle Campbell
1473:
1470:
1466:
1462:
1458:
1455:
1452:
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1444:
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1333:
1329:
1324:
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1313:
1308:
1303:
1299:
1296:
1291:
1286:
1281:
1276:
1270:
1267:
1263:
1258:
1253:
1249:
1248:Kate Burridge
1243:
1241:
1235:
1233:
1229:
1224:
1222:
1218:
1214:
1210:
1206:
1202:
1201:to up the bid
1198:
1194:
1190:
1186:
1182:
1178:
1174:
1170:
1169:Lyle Campbell
1159:
1156:
1151:
1149:
1144:
1142:
1138:
1134:
1130:
1120:
1117:
1112:
1109:
1105:
1095:
1090:
1074:
1058:
1039:
1023:
1016:
1003:
993:
990:
985:
981:
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979:
973:
969:
965:
960:
954:
953:
947:
941:
940:
934:
930:
926:
922:
918:
914:
909:
905:
901:
897:
893:
889:
884:
880:
876:
872:
868:
864:
859:
858:cantare habeo
853:
847:
841:
838:
837:Hoċu da hodim
832:
827:
823:
819:
818:
813:
808:
805:
799:
793:
789:
784:
778:
773:
769:
761:
757:
755:
749:
745:
742:
738:
734:
730:
725:
721:
717:
714:
713:
710:
709:English verbs
706:
702:
698:
694:
690:
686:
682:
681:
680:
678:
674:
670:
665:
661:
657:
652:
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640:
638:
634:
627:
624:
620:
616:
612:
609:
608:
607:
605:
601:
597:
593:
592:function word
583:
580:
575:
572:
561:
559:
555:
551:
547:
543:
539:
535:
531:
527:
523:
519:
515:
511:
510:Wei-Heng Chen
507:
501:
499:
494:
488:
484:
480:
475:
471:
466:
462:
457:
450:
448:
440:
437:
434:
431:
430:
429:
427:
423:
419:
417:
413:
409:
405:
401:
391:
389:
385:
381:
380:demonstrative
376:
374:
370:
368:
363:
359:
355:
354:morphological
351:
347:
343:
333:
331:
327:
323:
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159:
155:
151:
141:
139:
135:
130:
127:
123:
118:
116:
112:
108:
103:
102:lexical items
98:
96:
95:evidentiality
92:
88:
84:
79:
74:
70:
66:
62:
61:content words
58:
54:
50:
46:
42:
38:
34:
30:
26:
22:
2111:
2108:40, 113–173.
2105:
2078:
2068:
2058:
2049:
2039:
2029:
2013:
2000:
1997:Heine, Bernd
1990:
1987:Heine, Bernd
1980:
1977:Heine, Bernd
1966:
1963:Givon, Talmy
1956:
1928:
1902:
1893:
1884:
1875:
1866:
1857:
1852:Hopper 1991.
1848:
1839:
1830:
1821:
1812:
1803:
1794:
1785:
1776:
1767:
1758:
1749:
1716:
1709:
1700:
1691:
1682:
1673:
1664:
1655:
1646:
1637:
1628:
1619:
1610:
1601:
1592:
1586:
1577:
1568:
1559:
1550:
1541:
1532:
1523:
1512:. Retrieved
1508:
1499:
1478:
1464:
1457:Olga Fischer
1446:
1403:phonological
1382:
1378:
1372:
1347:
1331:
1311:
1301:
1284:
1275:Irish Gaelic
1271:
1245:
1237:
1225:
1220:
1216:
1212:
1208:
1204:
1200:
1196:
1192:
1188:
1184:
1180:
1165:
1152:
1145:
1126:
1113:
1103:
1101:
1062:, from 'see'
999:
983:
975:
974:in the stem
971:
967:
963:
950:
942:(instead of
937:
928:
920:
903:
900:tu chanteras
895:
892:je chanterai
878:
870:
842:
825:
821:
815:
810:Compare the
809:
787:
765:
759:
753:
751:
747:
736:
723:
719:
704:
653:
646:
630:
623:inflectional
611:content word
589:
576:
567:
540:featuring a
502:
497:
482:
478:
451:
444:
426:Tania Kuteva
420:
412:phonological
397:
377:
372:
365:
339:
329:
325:
321:
317:
313:
309:
305:
301:
297:
295:
282:
273:
259:
249:
232:
223:
202:
187:
174:
147:
133:
131:
125:
121:
119:
111:case markers
99:
86:
69:inflectional
53:prepositions
32:
28:
24:
18:
2086:Bernd Heine
1935:Bybee, Joan
1906:Norde 2009.
1861:Lessau 1994
1443:Bernd Heine
1419:properties.
1413:Paul Hopper
1391:grammatical
1295:North Saami
1232:Old English
1148:Bernd Heine
1137:grammatical
783:hoće hoditi
685:Old English
656:Old English
649:auxiliaries
633:grammatical
554:W. Humboldt
544:word root,
530:diminutives
465:chiaramente
456:clarā mente
422:Bernd Heine
418:material".
350:grammatical
318:yellow-like
290:John Haiman
263:descriptive
242: [
216: [
190:linguistics
156:(1825) and
107:auxiliaries
73:Old English
2133:Categories
1514:2018-06-15
1492:References
1469:diachronic
1089:tabetemiru
824:(e.g. "He
756:your help.
596:word class
556:, putting
534:disyllabic
474:claramente
342:linguistic
270:Mechanisms
194:synchronic
1509:wals.info
1399:syntactic
1356:(1912): "
1340:'stain'.
1317:gáffenaga
798:hoditi će
792:će hoditi
671:(ME). In
635:and less
358:syntactic
158:Gabelentz
1433:metaphor
1395:semantic
1360:système.
1323:oljonaga
1298:abessive
1228:genitive
1177:Traugott
1141:Traugott
1108:Traugott
1038:hiragana
1015:ittekiku
925:canterai
875:cantarás
852:cantabam
731:Clitic:
604:Traugott
522:morpheme
518:syllable
416:phonetic
400:phonetic
166:Brugmann
154:Humboldt
91:futurity
2144:Grammar
1959:, 2000.
1913:Sources
1407:lexical
1387:lexemes
1287:(as in
1133:lexical
989:canterò
978:cantare
933:canterà
917:canterò
913:Italian
883:cantará
867:cantaré
863:Spanish
846:cantabo
822:to will
637:lexical
470:Spanish
461:Italian
346:lexical
340:Once a
314:catlike
312:(as in
308:), and
306:angrily
300:(as in
179:in his
144:History
49:affixes
1737:
1459:&
1451:coding
1441:&
1328:essive
1290:táimid
1173:Hopper
1155:Lessau
1116:clines
1024:(here
959:teneré
952:tendré
946:haceré
888:French
831:hoteti
817:wollen
812:German
804:hodiće
788:on/ona
777:xъtěti
770:, the
752:I need
741:stress
689:willan
664:willan
619:clitic
498:-mente
468:, and
404:lexeme
388:number
330:corpse
302:bodily
122:let us
78:willan
1973:1991.
1721:(pdf)
1266:welle
1262:modal
1257:wotte
1083:食べてみる
1057:-miru
1022:kanji
1009:行って聞く
957:*
955:(not
944:*
814:verb
774:verb
724:gonna
658:(OE)
626:affix
600:cline
579:Bybee
493:mente
483:mente
479:mente
348:to a
322:*līką
310:-like
246:]
235:Heine
220:]
164:like
138:below
126:let's
75:verb
65:bound
59:from
45:verbs
41:nouns
1735:ISBN
1401:and
1381:and
1337:naga
1312:naga
1307:haga
1302:haga
1285:-mid
1280:muid
1175:and
1127:The
1073:miru
1030:and
939:haré
826:will
748:will
720:will
705:will
699:and
660:verb
520:and
424:and
356:and
326:body
304:and
237:and
207:and
150:Bopp
87:will
43:and
1725:doi
1389:to
1238:In
1217:the
1102:In
1051:〜みる
986:in
982:to
754:ill
528:or
371:or
328:or
316:or
298:-ly
248:'s
239:Reh
222:'s
51:or
31:or
19:In
2135::
2104:.
2064:.]
1733:.
1507:.
1397:,
1332:na
1211:,
1207:,
1203:,
1197:up
1189:up
1185:up
1094:.
1086:,
1070:,
1067:見る
1054:,
1033:聞く
1027:行く
1012:,
911:,
886:,
737:ll
621:→
617:→
613:→
500:.
375:.
244:de
218:de
140:.
117:.
109:,
67:,
23:,
1743:.
1727::
1517:.
1482:,
1092:)
1080:(
1076:)
1064:(
1060:)
1048:(
1043:て
1018:)
1006:(
984:e
972:a
968:d
964:e
929:,
921:,
904:,
896:,
879:,
871:,
369:,
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