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826:(body lice) emphasize the attendant hazards of lice copulation. A single young female confined with six or more males will die in a few days, having laid very few eggs. Similarly, death of a virgin female was reported after admitting a male to her confinement. The female laid only one egg after mating, and her entire body was tinged with red—a condition attributed to rupture of the
437:". Between its claw and thumb, the louse grasps the hair of its host. With their short legs and large claws, lice are well adapted to clinging to the hair of their host. These adaptations leave them incapable of jumping, or even walking efficiently on flat surfaces. Lice can climb up strands of hair very quickly, allowing them to move quickly and reach another host.
405:. Eyes are present in all species within the Pediculidae family, but are reduced or absent in most other members of the Anoplura suborder. Like other members of the Anoplura, head louse mouthparts are highly adapted for piercing the skin and sucking blood. These mouth parts are retracted into the insect's head except during feeding.
884:
Lice have no wings or powerful legs for jumping, so they move using the claws on their legs to move from hair to hair. Normally, head lice infest a new host only by close contact between individuals, making social contacts among children and parent-child interactions more likely routes of infestation
769:
during head louse development is subtle. The only visible differences between different instars and the adult, other than size, is the relative length of the abdomen, which increases with each molt, as well as the existence of reproductive organs in the adults. Aside from reproduction, nymph behavior
830:
during the sexual act. Old females frequently die following, if not during, copulation. During its lifespan of 4 weeks a female louse lays 50-150 eggs. Eggs hatch within 6–9 days, each nymphal stage last for 4–5 days and accordingly the period from egg to adults lasts for 18–24 days. Adult lice live
644:
In many languages, the terms used for the hatched eggs, which were obvious for all to see, have subsequently become applied to the embryonated eggs that are difficult to detect. Thus, the term "nit" in
English is often used for both. However, in recent years, my colleagues and I have felt the need
794:
is similar), female is on top, with the male below. Dilation of the female's vagina has already occurred, and the male's dilator rests against his back (dorsal surface), out of the way. The male vesica, which contains the penis proper (not seen), is fully inserted into the vagina. Note the male's
773:
Nymph mortality in captivity is about 38%, especially within the first two days of life. In the wild, mortality may instead be highest in the third instar. Nymph hazards are numerous. Failure to completely hatch from the egg is invariably fatal. Death during molting can also occur, although it is
297:
are morphologically almost identical, but do not normally interbreed. From genetic studies, they are thought to have diverged as subspecies about 30,000–110,000 years ago, when many humans began to wear a significant amount of clothing. However, the degree of separation is contentious as they can
469:
In male lice, the front two legs are slightly larger than the other four. This specialized pair of legs are used for holding the female during copulation. Males are slightly smaller than females and are characterized by a pointed end of the abdomen and a well-developed genital apparatus visible
897:
About 6–12 million people, mainly children, are treated annually for head lice in the United States alone. In the UK, it is estimated that two thirds of children will experience at least one case of head lice before leaving primary school. High levels of louse infestations have also been
770:
is similar to the adult. Like adults, nymphs feed also only on human blood (hematophagia), and cannot survive long away from a host. Outside their hosts lice cannot survive more than 24 hrs. The time required for head lice to complete their nymph development to the imago lasts for 12–15 days.
845:
The number of children per family, the sharing of beds and closets, hair washing habits, local customs and social contacts, healthcare in a particular area (e.g. school), and socioeconomic status were found to be significant factors in head louse infestation. Girls are two to four times more
336:
340:
339:
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reportedly uncommon. During feeding, the nymph gut can rupture, dispersing the host's blood throughout the insect body. This results in death within a day or two. Whether the high mortality recorded under experimental conditions is representative of conditions in the wild is unclear.
501:
To attach an egg, the adult female secretes a glue from her reproductive organ. This glue quickly hardens into a "nit sheath" that covers the hair shaft and large parts of the egg except for the operculum, a cap through which the embryo breathes. The glue was previously thought to be
341:
556:
338:
933:
The sequencing of the genome of the body louse was first proposed in the mid-2000s and the annotated genome was published in 2010. An analysis of the body and head louse transcriptomes revealed these two organisms are extremely similar genetically.
498:), are attached near the base of a host hair shaft. Eggs are usually laid on the base of the hair, 3–5 mm off the scalp surface. In warm climates, and especially the tropics, eggs may be laid 6 inches (15 cm) or more down the hair shaft.
875:
Although any part of the scalp may be colonized, lice favor the nape of the neck and the area behind the ears, where the eggs are usually laid. Head lice are repelled by light and move towards shadows or dark-coloured objects in their vicinity.
645:
for some simple means of distinguishing between the two without laborious qualification. We have, therefore, come to reserve the term "nit" for the hatched and empty egg shell and refer to the developing embryonated egg as an "egg".
517:
Each egg is oval-shaped and about 0.8 mm in length. They are bright, transparent, and tan to coffee-colored so long as they contain an embryo, but appear white after hatching. Head lice hatch typically six to nine days after
529:
leaves behind its egg shell, still attached to the hair shaft. The empty egg shell remains in place until physically removed by abrasion or the host, or until it slowly disintegrates, which may take six or more months.
957:
Human lice are divided into three deeply divergent mitochondrial clades known as A, B, and C. Three subclades have been identified, D (a sister clade of A), E (a sister clade of C), and F (a sister clade of B).
1833:
2287:
Pittendrigh BR, Clark JM, Johnston JS, Lee SH, Romero-Severson J, Dasch GA (November 2006). "Sequencing of a new target genome: the
Pediculus humanus humanus (Phthiraptera: Pediculidae) genome project".
373:. Head lice are grey in general, but their precise color varies according to the environment in which they were raised. After feeding, consumed blood causes the louse body to take on a reddish color.
309:), also infests humans. It is morphologically different from the other two species and is much closer in appearance to the lice which infest other primates. Louse infestation of the body is known as
337:
2988:
949:
but extensively fragmented. For the head louse, and the body louse, they are on 20 minichromosomes, for the pubic louse 14 minichromosomes and the chimpanzee louse,18 minichromosomes.
1247:
Tovar-Corona, Jaime M.; Castillo-Morales, Atahualpa; Chen, Lu; Olds, Brett P.; Clark, John M.; Reynolds, Stuart E.; Pittendrigh, Barry R.; Feil, Edward J.; Urrutia, Araxi O. (2015).
282:
in spending their entire lifecycle on a host. Head lice cannot fly, and their short, stumpy legs render them incapable of jumping, or even walking efficiently on flat surfaces.
2435:"The mitochondrial genome of the chimpanzee louse, Pediculus schaeffi: insights into the process of mitochondrial genome fragmentation in the blood-sucking lice of great apes"
1863:
Mumcuoglu KY, Pollack RJ, Reed DL, Barker SC, Gordon S, Toloza AC, Picollo MI, Taylan-Ozkan A, Chosidow O, Habedank B, Ibarra J, Meinking TL, Vander
Stichele RH (March 2020).
819:
occurring during any period of the night or day. Mating attachment frequently lasts more than an hour. Young males can successfully pair with older females, and vice versa.
632:
is a common public health measure to prevent transmission of lice. Some authors have therefore restricted the definition of nit to describe only a hatched or nonviable egg:
1968:
Mumcuoglu KY, Miller J, Gofin R, et al. (September 1990). "Epidemiological studies on head lice infestation in Israel. I. Parasitological examination of children".
2652:
Liao, Chien-Wei; Cheng, Po-Ching; Chuang, Ting-Wu; Chiu, Kuan-Chih; Chiang, I-Chen; Kuo, Juo-Han; Tu, Yun-Hung; Fan, Yu-Min; Jiang, Hai-Tao; Fan, Chia-Kwung (2017).
1841:
562:
The female reproductive organ secretes a glue that quickly hardens into a "nit sheath" to cover the hair shaft and large parts of the egg, except for the operculum.
2981:
2146:
2701:
Amanzougaghene, Nadia; Fenollar, Florence; Davoust, Bernard; Djossou, Félix; Ashfaq, Muhammad; Bitam, Idir; Raoult, Didier; Mediannikov, Oleg (June 2019).
2974:
2585:
Gao, Feng; Amanzougaghene, Nadia; Mumcuoglu, Kosta Y.; Fenollar, Florence; Alfi, Shir; Yesilyurt, Gonca; Raoult, Didier; Mediannikov, Oleg (2016).
1785:
1490:
Burkhart CN, Burkhart CG (July 2005). "Head lice: scientific assessment of the nit sheath with clinical ramifications and therapeutic options".
1609:
Pollack RJ, Kiszewski AE, Spielman A (August 2000). "Overdiagnosis and consequent mismanagement of head louse infestations in North
America".
3369:
3229:
2171:
Mumcuoglu KY, Barker SC, Burgess IE, et al. (April 2007). "International guidelines for effective control of head louse infestations".
1759:
2783:
1690:
Mumcuoglu KY, Meinking TA, Burkhart CN, Burkhart CG (August 2006). "Head louse infestations: the 'no nit' policy and its consequences".
2765:
757:
three times before reaching the sexually mature adult stage. Thus, mobile head lice populations may contain eggs, nits, three nymphal
3330:
2587:"High Ancient Genetic Diversity of Human Lice, Pediculus humanus, from Israel Reveals New Insights into the Origin of Clade B Lice"
2230:"High Ancient Genetic Diversity of Human Lice, Pediculus humanus, from Israel Reveals New Insights into the Origin of Clade B Lice"
2121:
859:
All stages except eggs are blood-feeders and bite the skin four to five times daily to feed. They inject saliva which contains an
3450:
3356:
592:
568:
3465:
2333:"Genome sequences of the human body louse and its primary endosymbiont provide insights into the permanent parasitic lifestyle"
2495:
2390:
Olds BP, Coates BS, Steele LD, et al. (April 2012). "Comparison of the transcriptional profiles of head and body lice".
1585:
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713:
In
British and Irish slang the term "nit" is often used, across different age groups, to refer to the head lice themselves.
2816:
1404:
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Because nits are simply egg casings that can contain a developing embryo or be empty shells, not all nits are infective.
580:
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attachment with his specialized claws on the first leg pair to the specialized notch on the female's third leg pair.
677:
Others have retained the broad definition, while simultaneously attempting to clarify its relevance to infestation:
3374:
815:. Pairing can begin within the first 10 hours of adult life. After 24 hours, adult lice copulate frequently, with
628:
Of these three, only eggs containing viable embryos have the potential to infest or reinfest a host. However, a
470:
inside the abdomen. Females are characterized by two gonopods in the shape of a W at the end of their abdomens.
2301:
2966:
2518:
Knapp, Michael; Boutellis, Amina; Drali, Rezak; Rivera, Mario A.; Mumcuoglu, Kosta Y.; Raoult, Didier (2013).
846:
frequently infested than boys. Children between 4 and 14 years of age are the most frequently infested group.
3407:
2703:"Mitochondrial diversity and phylogeographic analysis of Pediculus humanus reveals a new Amazonian clade "F""
2892:
1436:
Williams LK, Reichert A, MacKenzie WR, Hightower AW, Blake PA (May 2001). "Lice, nits, and school policy".
1063:
354:
3278:
1048:
2520:"Evidence of Sympatry of Clade A and Clade B Head Lice in a Pre-Columbian Chilean Mummy from Camarones"
50:
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reported from all over the world, including
Australia, Denmark, France, Ireland, Israel, and Sweden.
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2809:
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Amanzougaghene N, Mumcuoglu KY, Fenollar F, Alfi S, Yesilyurt G, Raoult D, Mediannikov O (2016).
426:
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159:
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401:, each with five segments, protrudes from the insect's head. Head lice also have one pair of
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The Louse; an account of the lice which infest man, their medical importance and control
1350:
The Louse; an account of the lice which infest man, their medical importance and control
1323:
1310:
The Louse; an account of the lice which infest man, their medical importance and control
1126:
The Louse; an account of the lice which infest man, their medical importance and control
19:
This article is about the animal. For the infestation known as pediculosis capitis, see
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1993:
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45:
2147:"Two thirds of British children will catch head lice during school years, study finds"
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1865:"International recommendations for an effective control of head louse infestations"
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In the United States the term "nit" refers to any egg regardless of its viability.
429:. As is typical in the Anoplura, these legs are short and terminate with a single
3209:
3143:
2719:
2611:
2544:
2254:
2011:
Mumcuoglu KY (May 2006). "Effective treatment of head louse with pediculicides".
808:
750:
526:
175:
2487:
Parasite
Diversity and Diversification: Evolutionary Ecology Meets Phylogenetics
2484:
Morand, Serge; Krasnov, Boris R.; Littlewood, D. Timothy J. (26 February 2015).
721:
703:
Head lice eggs (nits) are brown or white (empty shells) and attached to the hair
389:
353:, adult head lice are small (2.5–3 mm long), dorsoventrally flattened (see
2996:
2670:
2653:
2337:
Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
2075:
1503:
886:
746:
252:
2451:
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1946:
1232:
1211:
293:) in preferring to attach eggs to scalp hair rather than to clothing. The two
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The non-disease-carrying head louse differs from the related disease-carrying
3440:
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2654:"Prevalence of Pediculus capitis in schoolchildren in Battambang, Cambodia"
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1900:
1711:
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1511:
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301:
A much more distantly related species of hair-clinging louse, the pubic or
275:
2761:
Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention: Division of Parasitic Diseases
1989:
1595:
811:, the production of viable offspring by virgin females, does not occur in
3343:
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than shared combs, hats, brushes, towels, clothing, beds, or closets.
3317:
3149:
3077:
3064:
2997:
1324:"pediculosis – Definition from the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary"
1171:"Molecular evolution of Pediculus humanus and the origin of clothing"
938:
922:
918:
730:
487:
458:
122:
112:
82:
62:
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782:
754:
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102:
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2910:
2122:"NJ Head Lice | Philadelphia and South New Jersey Hair Lice"
1689:
1043:
758:
511:
507:
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through which the insect breathes. The last segment contains the
446:
366:
3309:
3010:
1760:"Head lice: How to spot nits in hair and what to do about them"
1129:
914:
816:
621:
606:
Empty shells are matte, collapsed and white in color. The term
503:
260:
240:
92:
72:
3019:
2955:
2766:
James Cook
University, Australia: Head Lice Information Sheet
2223:
2221:
993:
found in ancient Roman Judea and 4,000-year-old Chilean mummy
910:
864:
762:
434:
248:
244:
236:
2760:
1786:"Nit treatments are like diets. The truth is, nothing works"
506:-based, but more recent studies have shown it to be made of
3134:
2286:
1348:
Buxton, Patrick A. (1947). "The Anoplura or Sucking Lice".
907:
863:
and suck blood. The digested blood is excreted as dark red
454:
430:
362:
279:
268:
2789:
2302:
10.1603/0022-2585(2006)43[1103:SOANTG]2.0.CO;2
2218:
1862:
1568:
Burgess, I. F. (1995). "Human lice and their management".
3089:
2771:
University of Nebraska: Head Lice Resources You Can Trust
2517:
2051:
De Geer (Insecta: Phthiraptera (=Anoplura): Pediculidae)"
1608:
1312:(2nd ed.). London: Edward Arnold. pp. 136–141.
449:
are visible. The first six segments each have a pair of
2483:
2433:
Herd, Kate E.; Barker, Stephen C.; Shao, Renfu (2015).
1655:
Burgess, I. F. (2004). "Human lice and their control".
345:
Head louse crawling on hairbrush showing how tiny it is
271:
infest most orders of mammals and all orders of birds.
2331:
Kirkness EF, Haas BJ, Sun W, et al. (July 2013).
2170:
1834:"Back to school herbalism — natural ways to nuke nits"
1168:
980:
head and body: Central Africa, Ethiopia, United States
889:
is by far the most common route of lice transmission.
490:. Females lay about three or four eggs per day. Louse
2578:
1925:
Bacot, A. (1917). "Contributions to the bionomics of
1856:
1390:(2nd ed.). London: Edward Arnold. pp. 5–23.
1152:
Proceedings of the Royal Institution of Great Britain
807:
is necessary for the female to produce fertile eggs.
1967:
1352:(2nd ed.). London: Edward Arnold. pp. 1–4.
361:
segments are fused, but otherwise distinct from the
2651:
1150:Maunder, J. W. (1983). "The Appreciation of Lice".
482:
Head louse egg (nit) attached to hair shaft of host
2694:
2511:
1411:. Whitehouse Station, NJ USA: Merck & Co. 2008
2658:Journal of Microbiology, Immunology and Infection
2477:
598:A first-stage nymph hatching from an egg (detail)
3432:
2389:
1489:
1169:Kittler R, Kayser M, Stoneking M (August 2003).
834:
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1483:
1481:
1479:
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1425:
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2432:
2200:"DNA from Peruvian Mummy Lice Reveals History"
2004:
1563:
1561:
1559:
1492:Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology
1017:
997:
974:
550:Louse egg attached to a hair shaft of its host
3230:Template:Tick-borne diseases and infestations
2982:
2810:
2645:
2057:, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences
2041:Weems, H. V. Jr.; Fasulo, T. R. (June 2007).
1683:
369:, the latter being composed of seven visible
1645:
1602:
1518:
1472:
1422:
777:
3173:
2490:. Cambridge University Press. p. 208.
2240:(2016 Oct 14, 11(10):e01646595): e0164659.
2068:
2040:
1556:
1399:
1397:
1382:Buxton, Patrick A. (1947). "The Anatomy of
1304:Buxton, Patrick A. (1947). "The crab louse
1120:Buxton, Patrick A. (1947). "The biology of
741:Head lice, like other insects of the order
574:The operculum allows the embryo to breathe.
298:produce fertile offspring in a laboratory.
243:that spend their entire lives on the human
2989:
2975:
2817:
2803:
1115:
1113:
1111:
1109:
1107:
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1103:
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733:), which is similar to that of head lice (
36:
2718:
2669:
2628:
2610:
2561:
2543:
2468:
2450:
2366:
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2263:
2253:
2124:. Lice Lifters New Jersey. Archived from
2010:
1890:
1880:
1547:
1377:
1375:
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1371:
1369:
1367:
1365:
1363:
1361:
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1139:
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913:may indicate that some diseases (such as
716:
667:...nits (dead eggs or empty egg cases)...
2197:
1920:
1918:
1916:
1914:
1912:
1910:
1611:The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal
1529:
1394:
1249:"Alternative Splice in Alternative Lice"
1203:
781:
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586:A first-stage nymph hatching from an egg
477:
412:
388:
380:
332:
203:
2074:
1654:
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1149:
952:
617:Remnants of already-hatched eggs (nits)
425:project from the fused segments of the
3433:
1530:Meinking, Terri Lynn (May–June 1999).
1381:
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1347:
1336:
1303:
1297:
1136:
1119:
1076:
614:Viable eggs that will eventually hatch
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3244:
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2198:Anderson, Andrea (February 8, 2008).
2036:
2034:
1924:
1907:
1669:10.1146/annurev.ento.49.061802.123253
906:Analysis of the DNA of lice found on
3385:a1b802af-3667-4d9b-89a2-b86a0d4e44c8
2426:
2191:
1970:International Journal of Dermatology
1869:International Journal of Dermatology
1692:International Journal of Dermatology
1210:Stoneking, Mark (29 December 2004).
1013:head only: Ethiopia, Nepal, Thailand
761:, and the adults (male and female) (
672:Kosta Y. Mumcuoglu and others (2006)
2164:
1961:
1240:
925:, instead of the other way around.
870:
697:L. Keoki Williams and others (2001)
656:The empty eggshell, termed a nit...
349:Like other insects of the suborder
328:
13:
2031:
1982:10.1111/j.1365-4362.1990.tb04845.x
1840:. 1 September 2018. Archived from
1572:. Vol. 36. pp. 271–342.
1570:Advances in Parasitology Volume 36
945:of human lice are not on a single
901:
610:may include any of the following:
464:
14:
3477:
2754:
2707:Infection, Genetics and Evolution
1212:"Erratum: Molecular Evolution of
486:Like most insects, head lice are
255:of this specific parasite, while
3004:-borne diseases and infestations
2856:
2404:10.1111/j.1365-2583.2012.01132.x
1704:10.1111/j.1365-4632.2006.02827.x
1623:10.1097/00006454-200008000-00003
1132:: Edward Arnold. pp. 24–72.
591:
579:
567:
555:
543:
473:
417:Head louse gripping a human hair
263:host a closely related species,
49:
2383:
2324:
2280:
2173:Journal of Drugs in Dermatology
2139:
2114:
2013:Journal of Drugs in Dermatology
1826:
1804:
1778:
1752:
1726:
1536:Current Problems in Dermatology
1253:Molecular Biology and Evolution
892:
879:
3451:Parasitic arthropods of humans
1927:Pediculus humanus (vestimenti)
1162:
535:SEM images of a head louse egg
247:and feed exclusively on human
1:
3466:Taxa named by Charles De Geer
3415:Psocodea Species File (new):
3405:Psocodea Species File (old):
2290:Journal of Medical Entomology
1812:"How to get rid of head lice"
1617:(8): 689–93, discussion 694.
1578:10.1016/S0065-308X(08)60493-5
1549:10.1016/S1040-0486(99)90005-4
1188:10.1016/S0960-9822(03)00507-4
1069:
835:Factors affecting infestation
831:for an additional 3–4 weeks.
2720:10.1016/j.meegid.2019.02.006
2612:10.1371/journal.pone.0164659
2545:10.1371/journal.pone.0076818
2255:10.1371/journal.pone.0164659
1064:Treatment of human head lice
1003:head and body: South America
970:found in ancient Roman Judea
849:
445:Seven segments of the louse
355:anatomical terms of location
251:. Humans are the only known
7:
2786:Featured Creatures Web site
1409:The Merck Veterinary Manual
1216:and the Origin of Clothing"
1049:List of parasites of humans
1027:
1018:Clade E (sister of clade C)
998:Clade F (sister of clade B)
975:Clade D (sister of clade A)
917:) may have passed from the
10:
3482:
2825:Human lice and pediculosis
2671:10.1016/j.jmii.2017.09.003
1504:10.1016/j.jaad.2005.01.134
1007:
984:
961:
854:
838:
686:Terri Lynn Meinking (1999)
525:After hatching, the louse
440:
18:
3446:Insects described in 1767
3284:Pediculus_humanus_capitis
3255:Pediculus humanus capitis
3253:
3228:For ticks and mites, see
3224:
3164:
3133:
3088:
3063:
3018:
3009:
2938:
2891:
2865:
2854:
2830:
2452:10.1186/s12864-015-1843-3
2100:10.1017/s0031182000004194
2049:Pediculus humanus capitis
2047:Linnaeus and Head Louse,
2045:Pediculus humanus humanus
2043:"Human Lice: Body Louse,
1947:10.1017/S0031182000006065
1233:10.1016/j.cub.2004.12.024
928:
792:Pediculus humanus capitis
788:Pediculus humanus humanus
778:Reproduction and lifespan
735:Pediculus humanus capitis
727:Pediculus humanus humanus
408:
291:Pediculus humanus humanus
239:. Head lice are wingless
225:Pediculus humanus capitis
209:Pediculus humanus capitis
190:
183:
169:Pediculus humanus capitis
165:
158:
46:Scientific classification
44:
35:
30:
16:Insect parasite of humans
3103:Cordylobia anthropophaga
2392:Insect Molecular Biology
967:head and body: worldwide
393:Female head louse, adult
3107:Cochliomyia hominivorax
2939:Other terms of interest
2790:Head Louse infestations
2358:10.1073/pnas.1003379107
1450:10.1542/peds.107.5.1011
624:) that will never hatch
376:
274:Lice differ from other
3124:mosquito-borne disease
2084:, Supplementary notes"
1023:head only: West Africa
796:
738:
717:Development and nymphs
711:
700:
689:
675:
664:
653:
640:
483:
418:
394:
386:
385:Male head louse, adult
346:
278:ectoparasites such as
215:
3204:Armillifer armillatus
3042:head lice infestation
2076:Nuttall, George H. F.
2055:University of Florida
1265:10.1093/molbev/msv151
841:Head lice infestation
785:
724:
701:
690:
679:
665:
654:
650:Ian F. Burgess (1995)
642:
638:
620:Nonviable eggs (dead
481:
457:and (separately) the
416:
392:
384:
357:), and wingless. The
344:
207:
21:Head lice infestation
3198:Porocephalus crotali
3033:pediculosis corporis
2878:Pediculosis corporis
2204:GenomeWeb Daily News
1734:"Head lice and nits"
1405:"Lice (Pediculosis)"
990:head only: worldwide
953:Mitochondrial clades
887:Head-to-head contact
661:J. W. Maunder (1983)
319:pediculosis corporis
2603:2016PLoSO..1164659A
2536:2013PLoSO...876818B
2349:2010PNAS..10712168K
2246:2016PLoSO..1164659A
2151:instituteofmums.com
1844:on 23 December 2018
1766:. 13 September 2018
947:circular chromosome
943:mitochondrial genes
321:for body lice, and
315:pediculosis capitis
267:. Other species of
3184:Linguatula serrata
3099:Dermatobia hominis
2776:body and head lice
1814:. 25 December 2021
1657:Annu. Rev. Entomol
801:reproduce sexually
797:
739:
641:
484:
419:
395:
387:
347:
265:Pediculus schaeffi
216:
151:P. h. capitis
3428:
3427:
3393:Open Tree of Life
3247:Taxon identifiers
3238:
3237:
3220:
3219:
3160:
3159:
2964:
2963:
2497:978-1-316-23993-3
2082:Pediculus humanus
1931:Pediculus capitis
1882:10.1111/ijd.15096
1587:978-0-12-031736-3
1384:Pediculus humanus
1259:(10): 2749–2759.
1214:Pediculus humanus
1122:Pediculus humanus
939:bilateral animals
822:Experiments with
813:Pediculus humanus
342:
202:
201:
197:
193:Pediculus capitis
3473:
3421:
3420:
3411:
3410:
3401:
3400:
3388:
3387:
3378:
3377:
3365:
3364:
3352:
3351:
3339:
3338:
3326:
3325:
3313:
3312:
3300:
3299:
3287:
3286:
3274:
3273:
3272:
3242:
3241:
3171:
3170:
3016:
3015:
2991:
2984:
2977:
2968:
2967:
2860:
2819:
2812:
2805:
2796:
2795:
2748:
2747:
2745:
2743:
2722:
2698:
2692:
2691:
2673:
2649:
2643:
2642:
2632:
2614:
2597:(10): e0164659.
2582:
2576:
2575:
2565:
2547:
2515:
2509:
2508:
2506:
2504:
2481:
2475:
2474:
2472:
2454:
2430:
2424:
2423:
2387:
2381:
2380:
2370:
2360:
2343:(27): 12168–73.
2328:
2322:
2321:
2284:
2278:
2277:
2267:
2257:
2225:
2216:
2215:
2213:
2211:
2195:
2189:
2188:
2168:
2162:
2161:
2159:
2158:
2143:
2137:
2136:
2134:
2133:
2118:
2112:
2111:
2080:"The biology of
2072:
2066:
2065:
2063:
2062:
2038:
2029:
2028:
2008:
2002:
2001:
1965:
1959:
1958:
1922:
1905:
1904:
1894:
1884:
1860:
1854:
1853:
1851:
1849:
1830:
1824:
1823:
1821:
1819:
1808:
1802:
1801:
1799:
1797:
1782:
1776:
1775:
1773:
1771:
1756:
1750:
1749:
1747:
1745:
1730:
1724:
1723:
1687:
1681:
1680:
1652:
1643:
1642:
1606:
1600:
1599:
1565:
1554:
1553:
1551:
1527:
1516:
1515:
1487:
1470:
1469:
1433:
1420:
1419:
1417:
1416:
1401:
1392:
1391:
1379:
1354:
1353:
1345:
1334:
1333:
1331:
1330:
1320:
1314:
1313:
1301:
1295:
1294:
1284:
1244:
1238:
1237:
1235:
1207:
1201:
1200:
1190:
1166:
1160:
1159:
1147:
1134:
1133:
1128:(2nd ed.).
1117:
871:Position on host
828:alimentary canal
749:. Newly hatched
709:
698:
687:
673:
662:
651:
595:
583:
571:
559:
547:
510:similar to hair
343:
329:Adult morphology
325:for pubic lice.
195:
171:
54:
53:
40:
28:
27:
3481:
3480:
3476:
3475:
3474:
3472:
3471:
3470:
3431:
3430:
3429:
3424:
3416:
3414:
3406:
3404:
3396:
3391:
3383:
3381:
3373:
3368:
3360:
3355:
3347:
3342:
3334:
3329:
3321:
3316:
3308:
3303:
3295:
3290:
3282:
3277:
3268:
3267:
3262:
3249:
3239:
3234:
3216:
3210:porocephaliasis
3156:
3144:Tunga penetrans
3129:
3084:
3059:
3005:
2995:
2965:
2960:
2934:
2887:
2861:
2852:
2826:
2823:
2757:
2752:
2751:
2741:
2739:
2699:
2695:
2650:
2646:
2583:
2579:
2516:
2512:
2502:
2500:
2498:
2482:
2478:
2431:
2427:
2388:
2384:
2329:
2325:
2285:
2281:
2226:
2219:
2209:
2207:
2206:. GenomeWeb LLC
2196:
2192:
2169:
2165:
2156:
2154:
2145:
2144:
2140:
2131:
2129:
2120:
2119:
2115:
2073:
2069:
2060:
2058:
2039:
2032:
2009:
2005:
1966:
1962:
1923:
1908:
1861:
1857:
1847:
1845:
1832:
1831:
1827:
1817:
1815:
1810:
1809:
1805:
1795:
1793:
1784:
1783:
1779:
1769:
1767:
1758:
1757:
1753:
1743:
1741:
1732:
1731:
1727:
1688:
1684:
1653:
1646:
1607:
1603:
1588:
1566:
1557:
1528:
1519:
1488:
1473:
1434:
1423:
1414:
1412:
1403:
1402:
1395:
1380:
1357:
1346:
1337:
1328:
1326:
1322:
1321:
1317:
1302:
1298:
1245:
1241:
1220:Current Biology
1208:
1204:
1175:Current Biology
1167:
1163:
1148:
1137:
1118:
1077:
1072:
1030:
1020:
1010:
1000:
987:
977:
964:
955:
931:
904:
902:Archaeogenetics
895:
882:
873:
857:
852:
843:
837:
809:Parthenogenesis
780:
725:Development of
719:
710:
707:
699:
696:
688:
685:
674:
671:
663:
660:
652:
649:
604:
603:
602:
599:
596:
587:
584:
575:
572:
563:
560:
551:
548:
537:
536:
494:(also known as
476:
467:
465:Sex differences
443:
411:
379:
333:
331:
317:for head lice,
196:(De Geer, 1767)
179:
173:
167:
154:
140:
137:P. humanus
48:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3479:
3469:
3468:
3463:
3458:
3453:
3448:
3443:
3426:
3425:
3423:
3422:
3412:
3402:
3389:
3379:
3366:
3353:
3340:
3327:
3314:
3301:
3288:
3275:
3259:
3257:
3251:
3250:
3236:
3235:
3233:
3232:
3225:
3222:
3221:
3218:
3217:
3215:
3214:
3194:
3179:
3177:
3168:
3162:
3161:
3158:
3157:
3155:
3154:
3139:
3137:
3131:
3130:
3128:
3127:
3117:
3094:
3092:
3086:
3085:
3083:
3082:
3069:
3067:
3061:
3060:
3058:
3057:
3045:
3024:
3022:
3013:
3007:
3006:
2994:
2993:
2986:
2979:
2971:
2962:
2961:
2959:
2958:
2953:
2948:
2942:
2940:
2936:
2935:
2933:
2932:
2931:
2930:
2923:
2918:
2913:
2903:
2897:
2895:
2889:
2888:
2886:
2885:
2880:
2875:
2869:
2867:
2863:
2862:
2855:
2853:
2851:
2850:
2845:
2840:
2834:
2832:
2828:
2827:
2822:
2821:
2814:
2807:
2799:
2793:
2792:
2787:
2773:
2768:
2763:
2756:
2755:External links
2753:
2750:
2749:
2693:
2664:(4): 585–591.
2644:
2577:
2530:(10): e76818.
2510:
2496:
2476:
2425:
2382:
2323:
2296:(6): 1103–11.
2279:
2217:
2190:
2163:
2138:
2113:
2094:(2): 201–221.
2067:
2030:
2003:
1960:
1941:(2): 228–258.
1906:
1855:
1838:Irish Examiner
1825:
1803:
1792:. 21 June 2018
1777:
1751:
1725:
1682:
1644:
1601:
1586:
1555:
1532:"Infestations"
1517:
1471:
1421:
1393:
1355:
1335:
1315:
1306:Phthirus pubis
1296:
1239:
1202:
1181:(16): 1414–7.
1161:
1135:
1074:
1073:
1071:
1068:
1067:
1066:
1061:
1056:
1051:
1046:
1041:
1036:
1029:
1026:
1025:
1024:
1019:
1016:
1015:
1014:
1009:
1006:
1005:
1004:
999:
996:
995:
994:
991:
986:
983:
982:
981:
976:
973:
972:
971:
968:
963:
960:
954:
951:
930:
927:
903:
900:
894:
891:
881:
878:
872:
869:
856:
853:
851:
848:
839:Main article:
836:
833:
786:Copulation in
779:
776:
747:hemimetabolous
718:
715:
705:
694:
683:
669:
658:
647:
639:Louse hatching
626:
625:
618:
615:
601:
600:
597:
590:
588:
585:
578:
576:
573:
566:
564:
561:
554:
552:
549:
542:
539:
538:
534:
533:
532:
475:
472:
466:
463:
442:
439:
433:and opposing "
410:
407:
378:
375:
330:
327:
200:
199:
188:
187:
181:
180:
174:
163:
162:
160:Trinomial name
156:
155:
148:
146:
142:
141:
134:
132:
128:
127:
120:
116:
115:
110:
106:
105:
100:
96:
95:
90:
86:
85:
80:
76:
75:
70:
66:
65:
60:
56:
55:
42:
41:
33:
32:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3478:
3467:
3464:
3462:
3459:
3457:
3456:Ectoparasites
3454:
3452:
3449:
3447:
3444:
3442:
3439:
3438:
3436:
3419:
3413:
3409:
3403:
3399:
3394:
3390:
3386:
3380:
3376:
3371:
3367:
3363:
3358:
3354:
3350:
3345:
3341:
3337:
3332:
3328:
3324:
3319:
3315:
3311:
3306:
3302:
3298:
3293:
3289:
3285:
3280:
3276:
3271:
3265:
3261:
3260:
3258:
3256:
3252:
3248:
3243:
3231:
3227:
3226:
3223:
3212:
3211:
3206:
3205:
3200:
3199:
3195:
3192:
3191:
3190:linguatulosis
3186:
3185:
3181:
3180:
3178:
3176:
3172:
3169:
3167:
3163:
3152:
3151:
3146:
3145:
3141:
3140:
3138:
3136:
3132:
3125:
3121:
3118:
3115:
3114:
3109:
3108:
3104:
3100:
3096:
3095:
3093:
3091:
3087:
3080:
3079:
3074:
3071:
3070:
3068:
3066:
3062:
3055:
3054:
3049:
3046:
3043:
3039:
3035:
3034:
3029:
3026:
3025:
3023:
3021:
3017:
3014:
3012:
3008:
3003:
2999:
2992:
2987:
2985:
2980:
2978:
2973:
2972:
2969:
2957:
2954:
2952:
2951:Sucking louse
2949:
2947:
2944:
2943:
2941:
2937:
2929:
2928:
2924:
2922:
2919:
2917:
2914:
2912:
2909:
2908:
2907:
2904:
2902:
2899:
2898:
2896:
2894:
2890:
2884:
2881:
2879:
2876:
2874:
2871:
2870:
2868:
2864:
2859:
2849:
2846:
2844:
2841:
2839:
2836:
2835:
2833:
2829:
2820:
2815:
2813:
2808:
2806:
2801:
2800:
2797:
2791:
2788:
2785:
2781:
2777:
2774:
2772:
2769:
2767:
2764:
2762:
2759:
2758:
2738:
2734:
2730:
2726:
2721:
2716:
2712:
2708:
2704:
2697:
2689:
2685:
2681:
2677:
2672:
2667:
2663:
2659:
2655:
2648:
2640:
2636:
2631:
2626:
2622:
2618:
2613:
2608:
2604:
2600:
2596:
2592:
2588:
2581:
2573:
2569:
2564:
2559:
2555:
2551:
2546:
2541:
2537:
2533:
2529:
2525:
2521:
2514:
2499:
2493:
2489:
2488:
2480:
2471:
2466:
2462:
2458:
2453:
2448:
2444:
2440:
2436:
2429:
2421:
2417:
2413:
2409:
2405:
2401:
2398:(2): 257–68.
2397:
2393:
2386:
2378:
2374:
2369:
2364:
2359:
2354:
2350:
2346:
2342:
2338:
2334:
2327:
2319:
2315:
2311:
2307:
2303:
2299:
2295:
2291:
2283:
2275:
2271:
2266:
2261:
2256:
2251:
2247:
2243:
2239:
2235:
2231:
2224:
2222:
2205:
2201:
2194:
2186:
2182:
2179:(4): 409–14.
2178:
2174:
2167:
2152:
2148:
2142:
2128:on 2013-01-12
2127:
2123:
2117:
2109:
2105:
2101:
2097:
2093:
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2085:
2083:
2077:
2071:
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2052:
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2035:
2026:
2022:
2018:
2014:
2007:
1999:
1995:
1991:
1987:
1983:
1979:
1975:
1971:
1964:
1956:
1952:
1948:
1944:
1940:
1936:
1932:
1928:
1921:
1919:
1917:
1915:
1913:
1911:
1902:
1898:
1893:
1888:
1883:
1878:
1875:(3): 272–80.
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1829:
1813:
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1735:
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1571:
1564:
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1545:
1542:(3): 75–118.
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1522:
1513:
1509:
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890:
888:
877:
868:
866:
862:
861:anticoagulant
847:
842:
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824:P. h. humanus
820:
818:
814:
810:
806:
802:
793:
789:
784:
775:
771:
768:
767:Metamorphosis
764:
760:
756:
752:
748:
744:
736:
732:
728:
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714:
704:
693:
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637:
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631:
630:no nit policy
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619:
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612:
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582:
577:
570:
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493:
489:
480:
474:Eggs and nits
471:
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364:
360:
356:
352:
326:
324:
320:
316:
312:
308:
307:Pthirus pubis
304:
299:
296:
292:
288:
283:
281:
277:
272:
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266:
262:
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39:
34:
29:
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3208:
3202:
3196:
3188:
3182:
3175:Pentastomida
3148:
3142:
3111:
3097:
3076:
3051:
3037:
3031:
3002:ectoparasite
2925:
2906:Pediculicide
2837:
2740:. Retrieved
2710:
2706:
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2661:
2657:
2647:
2594:
2590:
2580:
2527:
2523:
2513:
2501:. Retrieved
2486:
2479:
2442:
2439:BMC Genomics
2438:
2428:
2395:
2391:
2385:
2340:
2336:
2326:
2293:
2289:
2282:
2237:
2233:
2208:. Retrieved
2203:
2193:
2176:
2172:
2166:
2155:. Retrieved
2153:. 2017-04-20
2150:
2141:
2130:. Retrieved
2126:the original
2116:
2091:
2088:Parasitology
2087:
2081:
2070:
2059:. Retrieved
2048:
2044:
2019:(5): 451–2.
2016:
2012:
2006:
1976:(7): 502–6.
1973:
1969:
1963:
1938:
1935:Parasitology
1934:
1930:
1926:
1872:
1868:
1858:
1846:. Retrieved
1842:the original
1837:
1828:
1816:. Retrieved
1806:
1794:. Retrieved
1790:The Guardian
1789:
1780:
1768:. Retrieved
1764:News Shopper
1763:
1754:
1742:. Retrieved
1740:. 2017-10-19
1737:
1728:
1698:(8): 891–6.
1695:
1691:
1685:
1660:
1656:
1614:
1610:
1604:
1569:
1539:
1535:
1495:
1491:
1441:
1437:
1413:. Retrieved
1408:
1387:
1383:
1349:
1327:. Retrieved
1318:
1309:
1305:
1299:
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1252:
1242:
1226:(24): 2309.
1223:
1219:
1213:
1205:
1178:
1174:
1164:
1155:
1151:
1125:
1121:
956:
936:
932:
905:
896:
893:Distribution
883:
880:Transmission
874:
858:
844:
823:
821:
812:
798:
791:
787:
772:
743:Phthiraptera
740:
734:
726:
712:
702:
691:
680:
676:
666:
655:
643:
627:
607:
605:
524:
516:
500:
495:
485:
468:
444:
420:
397:One pair of
396:
348:
306:
300:
290:
284:
276:hematophagic
273:
264:
233:ectoparasite
224:
223:
219:
217:
208:
192:
191:
168:
166:
150:
149:
145:Subspecies:
135:
123:
25:
3344:iNaturalist
3053:phthiriasis
2883:Phthiriasis
2873:Pediculosis
2866:Infestation
2503:30 December
1848:23 December
1796:23 December
1770:23 December
1744:23 December
1059:Pediculosis
520:oviposition
323:phthiriasis
311:pediculosis
257:chimpanzees
213:Des Helmore
113:Pediculidae
31:Head louse
3461:Subspecies
3435:Categories
3048:Crab louse
3038:Head louse
3028:Body louse
2998:Arthropods
2927:Delphinium
2921:Phenothrin
2916:Permethrin
2901:Nitpicking
2848:Body louse
2843:Crab louse
2838:Head louse
2742:26 January
2210:August 31,
2157:2017-09-28
2132:2012-11-22
2061:2008-02-21
1663:: 457–81.
1438:Pediatrics
1415:2008-10-08
1329:2008-04-23
1070:References
1054:Nitpicking
1039:Crab louse
1034:Body louse
805:copulation
799:Head lice
708:NHS (2018)
303:crab louse
295:subspecies
287:body louse
220:head louse
83:Arthropoda
3166:Crustacea
3150:tungiasis
3078:cimicosis
3065:Hemiptera
2893:Treatment
2680:1684-1182
2621:1932-6203
2554:1932-6203
2461:1471-2164
2108:251061971
1273:0737-4038
941:, the 37
923:Old World
919:New World
850:Behaviour
731:body lice
488:oviparous
459:genitalia
451:spiracles
131:Species:
124:Pediculus
69:Kingdom:
63:Eukaryota
3264:Wikidata
3120:Mosquito
2737:73476298
2729:30769089
2688:29150362
2639:27741281
2591:PLOS ONE
2572:24204678
2524:PLOS ONE
2412:22404397
2377:20566863
2318:25046936
2310:17162941
2274:27741281
2234:PLOS ONE
2185:17668538
2078:(1919).
2025:16703782
1998:39798857
1955:86846228
1901:32767380
1818:5 August
1720:38910169
1712:16911370
1677:14651472
1631:10959734
1512:15965432
1466:26076461
1458:11331679
1291:26169943
1197:12932325
1028:See also
908:Peruvian
706:—
695:—
684:—
670:—
659:—
648:—
508:proteins
399:antennae
371:segments
359:thoracic
351:Anoplura
230:obligate
228:) is an
185:Synonyms
109:Family:
103:Psocodea
79:Phylum:
73:Animalia
59:Domain:
3408:1234992
3398:1034010
3336:4987992
3310:3574591
3113:myiasis
3073:Bed bug
3011:Insecta
2946:Cooties
2911:Lindane
2831:Species
2778:on the
2713:: 1–8.
2630:5065229
2599:Bibcode
2563:3813697
2532:Bibcode
2470:4557858
2368:2901460
2345:Bibcode
2265:5065229
2242:Bibcode
1990:2228380
1892:7984059
1639:2557006
1596:7484466
1282:4576711
1158:: 1–31.
1044:Lindane
1008:Clade C
985:Clade B
962:Clade A
921:to the
911:mummies
855:Feeding
759:instars
512:keratin
447:abdomen
441:Abdomen
367:abdomen
261:bonobos
241:insects
176:De Geer
119:Genus:
99:Order:
93:Insecta
89:Class:
3418:879262
3382:NZOR:
3375:121226
3362:186076
3349:413842
3323:PEDIHA
3270:Q27358
2735:
2727:
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2570:
2560:
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1738:nhs.uk
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1279:
1271:
1195:
1130:London
929:Genome
915:typhus
817:mating
803:, and
751:nymphs
745:, are
622:embryo
504:chitin
427:thorax
409:Thorax
237:humans
178:, 1767
3297:5K9BF
3020:Louse
2956:Louse
2733:S2CID
2445:(1).
2416:S2CID
2314:S2CID
2104:S2CID
1994:S2CID
1951:S2CID
1716:S2CID
1635:S2CID
1462:S2CID
865:frass
763:imago
755:moult
753:will
527:nymph
435:thumb
280:fleas
253:hosts
249:blood
245:scalp
3441:Lice
3370:NCBI
3357:ITIS
3331:GBIF
3318:EPPO
3135:Flea
3036:) /
3000:and
2784:IFAS
2744:2022
2725:PMID
2684:PMID
2676:ISSN
2635:PMID
2617:ISSN
2568:PMID
2550:ISSN
2505:2017
2492:ISBN
2457:ISSN
2408:PMID
2373:PMID
2306:PMID
2270:PMID
2212:2014
2181:PMID
2021:PMID
1986:PMID
1929:and
1897:PMID
1850:2018
1820:2021
1798:2018
1772:2018
1746:2018
1708:PMID
1673:PMID
1627:PMID
1592:PMID
1582:ISBN
1508:PMID
1454:PMID
1287:PMID
1269:ISSN
1193:PMID
496:nits
492:eggs
455:anus
431:claw
423:legs
421:Six
403:eyes
377:Head
365:and
363:head
269:lice
259:and
218:The
3305:EoL
3292:CoL
3279:AFD
3090:Fly
2715:doi
2666:doi
2625:PMC
2607:doi
2558:PMC
2540:doi
2465:PMC
2447:doi
2400:doi
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Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
