Heliocentrism - Knowledge

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expert opinion on the controversy, and the essay provided the "chief direct basis" for the ban. The essay focused on eighteen physical and mathematical arguments against heliocentrism. It borrowed primarily from the arguments of Tycho Brahe, and it notedly mentioned the problem that heliocentrism requires the stars to be much larger than the Sun. Ingoli wrote that the great distance to the stars in the heliocentric theory "clearly proves ... the fixed stars to be of such size, as they may surpass or equal the size of the orbit circle of the Earth itself." Ingoli included four theological arguments in the essay, but suggested to Galileo that he focus on the physical and mathematical arguments. Galileo did not write a response to Ingoli until 1624.

1396:(now known to be illusory), and used geometry to calculate that in order to both have those apparent sizes and be as far away as heliocentrism required, stars would have to be huge (much larger than the sun; the size of Earth's orbit or larger). Regarding this Tycho wrote, "Deduce these things geometrically if you like, and you will see how many absurdities (not to mention others) accompany this assumption by inference." He also cited the Copernican system's "opposition to the authority of Sacred Scripture in more than one place" as a reason why one might wish to reject it, and observed that his own geo-heliocentric alternative "offended neither the principles of physics nor Holy Scripture". 1763:. This placed heliocentrism on a firm theoretical foundation, although Newton's heliocentrism was of a somewhat modern kind. Already in the mid-1680s he recognized the "deviation of the Sun" from the center of gravity of the Solar System. For Newton it was not precisely the center of the Sun or any other body that could be considered at rest, but "the common centre of gravity of the Earth, the Sun and all the Planets is to be esteem'd the Centre of the World", and this center of gravity "either is at rest or moves uniformly forward in a right line". Newton adopted the "at rest" alternative in view of common consent that the center, wherever it was, was at rest. 1144: 1572:'s position on Scripture: not to take every passage literally when the scripture in question is in a Bible book of poetry and songs, not a book of instructions or history. The writers of the Scripture wrote from the perspective of the terrestrial world, and from that vantage point the Sun does rise and set. In fact, it is the Earth's rotation which gives the impression of the Sun in motion across the sky. In February 1615, prominent Dominicans including Thomaso Caccini and Niccolò Lorini brought Galileo's writings on heliocentrism to the attention of the Inquisition, because they appeared to violate Holy Scripture and the decrees of the 1279:"There is talk of a new astrologer who wants to prove that the earth moves and goes around instead of the sky, the sun, the moon, just as if somebody were moving in a carriage or ship might hold that he was sitting still and at rest while the earth and the trees walked and moved. But that is how things are nowadays: when a man wishes to be clever he must … invent something special, and the way he does it must needs be the best! The fool wants to turn the whole art of astronomy upside-down. However, as Holy Scripture tells us, so did Joshua bid the sun to stand still and not the earth." 667:, and other later authors, rejected his innovative view about the turning Earth. It has been argued that Aryabhatta's calculations were based on an underlying heliocentric model, in which the planets orbit the Sun, although this has been rebutted.The general consensus is that a synodic anomaly (depending on the position of the Sun) does not imply a physically heliocentric orbit (such corrections being also present in late Babylonian astronomical texts), and that Aryabhata's system was not explicitly heliocentric. He also made many astronomical calculations, such as the times of the 1174:. Copernicus discussed the philosophical implications of his proposed system, elaborated it in geometrical detail, used selected astronomical observations to derive the parameters of his model, and wrote astronomical tables which enabled one to compute the past and future positions of the stars and planets. In doing so, Copernicus moved heliocentrism from philosophical speculation to predictive geometrical astronomy. In reality, Copernicus' system did not predict the planets' positions any better than the Ptolemaic system. This theory resolved the issue of planetary 1653:. Urban VIII became hostile to Galileo and he was again summoned to Rome. Galileo's trial in 1633 involved making fine distinctions between "teaching" and "holding and defending as true". For advancing heliocentric theory Galileo was forced to recant Copernicanism and was put under house arrest for the last few years of his life. According to J. L. Heilbron, informed contemporaries of Galileo's "appreciated that the reference to heresy in connection with Galileo or Copernicus had no general or theological significance." 1785: 1499: 313:

Earth maintained the same hidden face towards the central fire, rendering both it and the "counter-earth" invisible from Earth. The Pythagorean concept of uniform circular motion remained unchallenged for approximately the next 2000 years, and it was to the Pythagoreans that Copernicus referred to show that the notion of a moving Earth was neither new nor revolutionary. Kepler gave an alternative explanation of the Pythagoreans' "central fire" as the Sun, "as most sects purposely hid their teachings".

763: 6567: 352: 5700:"on the basis of the presently accepted scientific view (in accordance with the theory of Relativity) that where two bodies in space are in motion relative to one another, it is impossible scientifically to ascertain which revolves around which, or which is stationary and the other in motion. Therefore, to say that there is, or can be, 'scientific proof' that the earth revolves around the sun is quite an unscientific and uncritical statement." 1473: 1351: 1490: 901: 7601: 2005: 1445:(1609), Kepler made a diagram of the movement of Mars in relation to Earth if Earth were at the center of its orbit, which shows that Mars' orbit would be completely imperfect and never follow along the same path. To solve the apparent derivation of Mars' orbit from a perfect circle, Kepler derived both a mathematical definition and, independently, a matching ellipse around the Sun to explain the motion of the red planet. 7625: 222: 46: 7577: 7613: 7589: 1953:, who argued against heliocentrism on the grounds it contradicted scripture. Nieto merely rejected the new system on those grounds without much passion, whereas Cohn went so far as to call Copernicus "a first-born of Satan", though he also acknowledged that he would have found it difficult to proffer one particular objection based on a passage from the Talmud. 1061:(1452–1519) wrote "Il sole non si move." ("The Sun does not move.") and he was a student of a student of Bessarion according to the Mathematics Genealogy Project. It has been suggested that the idea of the Tusi couple may have arrived in Europe leaving few manuscript traces, since it could have occurred without the translation of any Arabic text into Latin. 1129:). By 1470, the accuracy of observations by the Vienna school of astronomy, of which Peuerbach and Regiomontanus were members, was high enough to make the eventual development of heliocentrism inevitable, and indeed it is possible that Regiomontanus did arrive at an explicit theory of heliocentrism before his death in 1476, some 30 years before Copernicus. 466:, who thought it was the duty of Greeks to indict Aristarchus of Samos on the charge of impiety for putting in motion the Hearth of the Universe, this being the effect of his attempt to save the phenomena by supposing the heaven to remain at rest and the earth to revolve in an oblique circle, while it rotates, at the same time, about its own axis. 2227: – this effect can change the body's mechanical energy in heliocentric reference frame (although it will not changed in the planetary one). However, such selection of "geocentric" or "heliocentric" frames is merely a matter of computation. It does not have philosophical implications and does not constitute a distinct physical or 3457: 2404:

responsible for another famous quotation which has often been misattributed to him: "Who will venture to place the authority of Copernicus above that of the Holy Spirit?" It has long been established that this line cannot be found in any of Calvin's works. It has been suggested that the quotation was

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Seeing that the stars belonging to the Milky Way appeared to encircle the Earth, Herschel carefully counted stars of given apparent magnitudes, and after finding the numbers were the same in all directions, concluded Earth must be close to the center of the Milky Way. However, there were two flaws in

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Meanwhile, the Catholic Church remained opposed to heliocentrism as a literal description, but this did not by any means imply opposition to all astronomy; indeed, it needed observational data to maintain its calendar. In support of this effort it allowed the cathedrals themselves to be used as solar

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I might very rationally put it in dispute, whether there be any such centre in nature, or no; being that neither you nor any one else hath ever proved, whether the World be finite and figurate, or else infinite and interminate; yet nevertheless granting you, for the present, that it is finite, and of

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addressed an essay to Galileo disputing the Copernican system. Galileo later stated that he believed this essay to have been instrumental in the ban against Copernicanism that followed in February. According to Maurice Finocchiaro, Ingoli had probably been commissioned by the Inquisition to write an

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to abstain completely from teaching or defending this doctrine and opinion or from discussing it... to abandon completely... the opinion that the sun stands still at the center of the world and the earth moves, and henceforth not to hold, teach, or defend it in any way whatever, either orally or in

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that moved naturally. So Tycho said that the Copernican system "... expertly and completely circumvents all that is superfluous or discordant in the system of Ptolemy. On no point does it offend the principle of mathematics. Yet it ascribes to the Earth, that hulking, lazy body, unfit for motion, a

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Did Plato put the earth in motion, as he did the sun, the moon, and the five planets, which he called the instruments of time on account of their turnings, and was it necessary to conceive that the earth "which is globed about the axis stretched from pole to pole through the whole universe" was not

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You are aware that "universe" is the name given by most astronomers to the sphere, the centre of which is the centre of the earth, while its radius is equal to the straight line between the centre of the sun and the centre of the earth. This is the common account (τά γραφόμενα), as you have heard

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All Islamic astronomers from Thabit ibn Qurra in the ninth century to Ibn al-Shatir in the fourteenth, and all natural philosophers from al-Kindi to Averroes and later, are known to have accepted ... the Greek picture of the world as consisting of two spheres of which one, the celestial sphere ...

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mentions the "followers of Aristarchus" in passing, it is likely that there were other astronomers in the Classical period who also espoused heliocentrism, but whose work was lost. The only other astronomer from antiquity known by name who is known to have supported Aristarchus' heliocentric model

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revolved in uniform circular motion. This system postulated the existence of a counter-earth collinear with the Earth and central fire, with the same period of revolution around the central fire as the Earth. The Sun revolved around the central fire once a year, and the stars were stationary. The

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had the thought on different occasions that the Earth was spherical and revolving around a "mystical" central fire, and that this fire regulated the universe. In medieval Europe, however, Aristarchus' heliocentrism attracted little attention—possibly because of the loss of scientific works of the

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In February 1616, the Inquisition assembled a committee of theologians, known as qualifiers, who delivered their unanimous report condemning heliocentrism as "foolish and absurd in philosophy, and formally heretical since it explicitly contradicts in many places the sense of Holy Scripture." The

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The movements of the Moon, the planets, and the Sun around the static Earth in the Ptolemaic geocentric model (upper panel) in comparison to the orbits of the planets and the daily-rotating Earth around the Sun in the Copernican heliocentric model (lower panel). In both models, the Moon rotates

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was published in 1742 by Fathers le Seur and Jacquier of the Franciscan Minims, two Catholic mathematicians, with a preface stating that the author's work assumed heliocentrism and could not be explained without the theory. In 1758 the Catholic Church dropped the general prohibition of books

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lower than the Sun." However, after the advent of the telescope showed problems with some geocentric models (by demonstrating that Venus circles the Sun, for example), the Tychonic system and variations on that system became popular among geocentrists, and the Jesuit astronomer

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of the time (modern Newtonian physics was still a century away) offered no physical explanation for the motion of a massive body like Earth, whereas it could easily explain the motion of heavenly bodies by postulating that they were made of a different sort substance called

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In this depiction of the Tychonic system, the objects on blue orbits (the Moon and the Sun) revolve around the Earth. The objects on orange orbits (Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn) revolve around the Sun. Around all is a sphere of fixed stars, located just beyond

4816:, p. 159. Rosen disputes the earlier conclusion of another scholar that this was referring specifically to Copernicus' theory. According to Rosen, Calvin had very likely never heard of Copernicus and was referring instead to "the traditional geokinetic cosmology". 1392:

motion as quick as that of the aethereal torches, and a triple motion at that." Likewise, Tycho took issue with the vast distances to the stars that Aristarchus and Copernicus had assumed in order to explain the lack of any visible parallax. Tycho had measured the

1915:, Greek philosophy and science under the general name "Greek wisdom" were considered dangerous. They were put under ban then and later for some periods. The first Jewish scholar to describe the Copernican system, albeit without mentioning Copernicus by name, was 414:, and that the sphere of the fixed stars, situated about the same centre as the sun, is so great that the circle in which he supposes the earth to revolve bears such a proportion to the distance of the fixed stars as the centre of the sphere bears to its surface. 234:, says that any model for describing the motions of the planets is merely a mathematical device, and since there is no actual way to know which is true, the simplest model that gets the right numbers should be used. However, he rejected the idea of a 1616:, and the Pope banned all books and letters advocating the Copernican system, which they called "the false Pythagorean doctrine, altogether contrary to Holy Scripture." In 1618, the Holy Office recommended that a modified version of Copernicus' 4727:, Vol.16, No.1/Feb, P. 37, 1985. Philolaus had the Earth moving around a Central Fire which was not the Sun, so Copernicus's reference to Aristarchus's model as possibly geodynamic does not necessarily imply that he thought it was heliocentric. 1580:

was called upon to adjudicate, and wrote in April that treating heliocentrism as a real phenomenon would be "a very dangerous thing," irritating philosophers and theologians, and harming "the Holy Faith by rendering Holy Scripture as false."

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orbit. Furthermore, to the extent that a planet's mass cannot be neglected in comparison to the Sun's mass, the center of gravity of the Solar System is displaced slightly away from the center of the Sun. (The masses of the planets, mostly

1454:, in which all the planets have elliptical orbits. This provided significantly increased accuracy in predicting the position of the planets. Kepler's ideas were not immediately accepted, and Galileo for example ignored them. In 1621, 1205:(which still survives), stating: "Philolaus believed in the mobility of the earth, and some even say that Aristarchus of Samos was of that opinion." However, in the published version he restricts himself to noting that in works by 6070: 1317:

defending the system and arguing that it was useful for computation even if its hypotheses were not necessarily true. Possibly because of that preface, the work of Copernicus inspired very little debate on whether it might be

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Aristarchus of Samos, the ancient Copernicus; a history of Greek astronomy to Aristarchus, together with Aristarchus's Treatise on the sizes and distances of the sun and moon : a new Greek text with translation and

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The remaining references to Aristarchus' heliocentrism are extremely brief, and provide no more information beyond what can be gleaned from those already cited. Ones which mention Aristarchus explicitly by name occur in

1017:. Several Byzantine Greek manuscripts containing the Tusi couple are still extant in Italy. The Mathematics Genealogy Project suggests that there is a "genealogy" of Nasir al-Dīn al-Ṭūsī → Shams al‐Dīn al‐Bukhārī → 203:

in the 3rd century BC, these ideas were not successful in replacing the view of a static spherical Earth, and from the 2nd century AD the predominant model, which would be inherited by medieval astronomy, was the

2036:: magnitude is not a reliable index to the distance of stars, and some of the areas that he mistook for empty space were actually dark, obscuring nebulae that blocked his view toward the center of the Milky Way. 3933:

Ramasubramanian, K.; Srinivas, M. D.; Sriram, M. S. (1994). "Modification of the earlier Indian planetary theory by the Kerala astronomers (c. 1500 AD) and the implied heliocentric picture of planetary motion".

782:(1031), he expressed his faith in a geocentric and stationary Earth. He was aware that if the Earth rotated on its axis, it would be consistent with his astronomical observations, but considered it a problem of 2391:(printed 1578), allegedly after a (lost) self-portrait by Copernicus himself; the Murer portrait became the template for a number of later (17th century) woodcuts, copper engravings and paintings of Copernicus. 1375:, arguably the most accomplished astronomer of his time, advocated against Copernicus' heliocentric system and for an alternative to the Ptolemaic geocentric system: a geo-heliocentric system now known as the 1593:

Inquisition also determined that the Earth's motion "receives the same judgement in philosophy and ... in regard to theological truth it is at least erroneous in faith." Bellarmine personally ordered Galileo

793:, who considered the Ptolemaic model mathematical, and not physical. His system spread throughout most of Europe in the 13th century, with debates and refutations of his ideas continued to the 16th century. 1004:

was used by Copernicus in his reformulation of mathematical astronomy, there is a growing consensus that he became aware of this idea in some way. One possible route of transmission may have been through

1561:(satisfying an argument that had been made against Copernicus). As the Jesuit astronomers confirmed Galileo's observations, the Jesuits moved away from the Ptolemaic model and toward Tycho's teachings. 1308:

in 1543. Copernicus began to write it in 1506 and finished it in 1530, but did not publish it until the year of his death. Although he was in good standing with the Church and had dedicated the book to

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asked whether there was any reason to assert that the Sun (or any other point) was the center of the universe. In parallel to a mystical definition of God, Cusa wrote that "Thus the fabric of the world

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I will endeavour to show that all experiments that can be made upon the Earth are insufficient means to conclude for its mobility but are indifferently applicable to the Earth, movable or immovable...

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are examples of geocentric coordinates, used in Earth-based observations, while the heliocentric latitude and longitude are used for orbital calculations. This leads to such terms as "heliocentric

1934:: a short one, "Magen David" (1612), and a full one, "Nehmad veNaim" (published only in 1743). He described objectively three systems: those of Ptolemy, Copernicus and Brahe, without taking sides. 2353:(1890), p. 76: "Copernicus started from the observed motions of the planets, on which astronomers were agreed, and worked them out on the new hypothesis of Heliocentrism"), modelled after German 1379:

in which the Sun and Moon orbit the Earth, Mercury and Venus orbit the Sun inside the Sun's orbit of the Earth, and Mars, Jupiter and Saturn orbit the Sun outside the Sun's orbit of the Earth.

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An actual controversy on the Copernican model within Judaism arises only in the early 18th century. Most authors in this period had accepted Copernican heliocentrism, with opposition from

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Other scholars have argued that Copernicus could well have developed these ideas independently of the late Islamic tradition. Copernicus explicitly references several astronomers of the "

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would continue Tycho's use of physics, stellar astronomy (now with a telescope), and religion to argue against heliocentrism and for Tycho's system well into the seventeenth century.

873:(1501), Somayaji further revised his planetary system, which was mathematically more accurate at predicting the heliocentric orbits of the interior planets than both the Tychonic and 4736:

A library catalogue of a 16th-century historian, Matthew of Miechow, bears that date and contains a reference to the manuscript, so it must have begun circulating before that date (

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Induction and Deduction: A Historical and Critical Sketch of Successive Philosophical Conceptions Respecting the Relations Between Inductive and Deductive Thought and Other Essays

454:. These mention one detail not stated explicitly in Archimedes' account—namely, that Aristarchus' theory had the Earth rotating on an axis. The first of these reference occurs in 6071:"How would astronomers in another solar system know by observing our Sun's wobble that our Sun has not just one big planet, but nine, each with a different mass? | Astronomy.com" 261:

Problems with Ptolemy's system were well recognized in medieval astronomy, and an increasing effort to criticize and improve it in the late medieval period eventually led to the

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preached a sermon in which he denounced those who "pervert the order of nature" by saying that "the sun does not move and that it is the earth that revolves and that it turns".

1923:, arguing that no scientific theory can be reliable, which he illustrates by the new-fangled theory of heliocentrism upsetting even the most fundamental views on the cosmos. 6096:

Shen, J. & Confrey, J. (2010). "Justifying alternative models in learning the solar system: A case study on K-8 science teachers’ understanding of frames of reference".

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In Book 1 section 7 he admits that a model in which the Earth revolves with respect to the stars would be simpler but doesn't go as far as considering a heliocentric system.

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While the influence of the criticism of Ptolemy by Averroes on Renaissance thought is clear and explicit, the claim of direct influence of the Maragha school, postulated by

1844:. After the matter had been reconsidered by the Congregation of the Index and the Holy Office, Anfossi's decision was overturned. Pius VII approved a decree in 1822 by the 5592: 230:

The Ptolemaic system was a sophisticated astronomical system that managed to calculate the positions for the planets to a fair degree of accuracy. Ptolemy himself, in his

914:(5th century CE) expressed the opinion that the planets Venus and Mercury did not go about the Earth but instead circled the Sun. Capella's model was discussed in the 624:(5th century AD) expressed the opinion that the planets Venus and Mercury did not go about the Earth but instead circled the Sun. Capella's model was discussed in the 1164:("On the revolution of heavenly spheres", first printed in 1543 in Nuremberg), presented a discussion of a heliocentric model of the universe in much the same way as 384:. From his estimates, he concluded that the Sun was six to seven times wider than the Earth, and thought that the larger object would have the most attractive force. 877:, but did not propose any specific models of the universe. Nilakantha's planetary system also incorporated the Earth's rotation on its axis. Most astronomers of the 410:, wherein it appears, as a consequence of the assumptions made, that the universe is many times greater than the "universe" just mentioned. His hypotheses are that 2088:

However, "scientific arguments were marshalled against such a possibility," and this view was rejected by almost all scientists until the early 20th century, with

2020:. Herschel was the first to propose a model of the universe based on observation and measurement. At that time, the dominant assumption in cosmology was that the 1114:, who described how a reciprocating linear motion of a celestial body could be produced by a combination of circular motions similar to those proposed by al-Tusi. 7017: 2239:

do not exist at all, and any practical reference frame is only an approximation to the actual space-time, which can have higher or lower precision. Some forms of

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would otherwise be observed over the course of a year. The stars are in fact so far away that stellar parallax only became detectable when sufficiently powerful

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Swerdlow, Noel M. (December 31, 1973). "The Derivation and First Draft of Copernicus's Planetary Theory: A Translation of the Commentariolus with Commentary".

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in 1891). In spite of dropping its active resistance to heliocentrism, the Catholic Church did not lift the prohibition of uncensored versions of Copernicus'

859:, developed a computational system for a geo-heliocentric planetary model, in which the planets orbit the Sun, which in turn orbits the Earth, similar to the 497:(Πρὸς Ἀρίσταρχον) as one of Cleanthes' works, and some scholars have suggested that this might have been where Cleanthes had accused Aristarchus of impiety. 412:

the fixed stars and the sun remain unmoved, that the earth revolves about the sun on the circumference of a circle, the sun lying in the middle of the orbit

7054:- The development of the Heliocentric model with the contributions of Nicolaus Copernicus, Giordano Bruno, Tycho Brahe, Galileo Galilei and Johannes Kepler 1649:

Some ecclesiastics also interpreted the book as characterizing the Pope as a simpleton, since his viewpoint in the dialogue was advocated by the character

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afterwards maintained that it did, the former stating this as only a hypothesis (ὑποτιθέμενος μόνον), the latter as a definite opinion (καὶ ἀποφαινόμενος)?

5111: 5552:") before the Creator in order to accomplish His will. I acknowledge that the answer to this objection seems difficult for me to find", as translated by 578:. Seleucus was a proponent of the heliocentric system of Aristarchus. Seleucus may have proved the heliocentric theory by determining the constants of a 1840:, refused to license a book by a Catholic canon, Giuseppe Settele, because it openly treated heliocentrism as a physical fact. Settele appealed to pope 1938:(1591–1655) in his "Elim" (1629) says that the arguments of Copernicus are so strong, that only an imbecile will not accept them. Delmedigo studied at 5191: 2960: 1732:

became increasingly influential in the coming decades. By 1686, the model was well enough established that the general public was reading about it in

7079: 2840: 5213: 2774:). Most modern scholars share Heath's opinion that it is Cleanthes in this passage who is being held as having accused Aristarchus of impiety (see 2100:'s measurements in 1924. After Shapley and Hubble showed that the Sun is not the center of the universe, cosmology moved on from heliocentrism to 6343: 5201: 5121: 1628: 744:

based on a belief held by some of his contemporaries that the apparent motion of the stars was due to the Earth's movement, and not that of the

5321:"The Pontifical Decrees Against the Doctrine of the Earth's Movement, and the Ultramontane Defence of Them", Rev. William Roberts, 1885, London 5272: 4078: 1751: 759:("Doubts Concerning Ptolemy", c. 1028), who found contradictions in Ptolemy's model, but al-Haytham remained committed to a geocentric model. 89:, which placed the Earth at the center. The notion that the Earth revolves around the Sun had been proposed as early as the 3rd century BC by 1742:

and translated into English and other languages in the coming years. It has been called "one of the first great popularizations of science."

6274:. Translated by Coyne, George V. (3rd English ed.). Notre Dame, IN: Vatican Observatory Publications / University of Notre Dame Press. 5702: 5035:: "I laid aside, and fell back on ellipses, believing that this was quite a different hypothesis, whereas the two ... are one in [ 2024:

was the entire universe, an assumption that has since been proven wrong with observations. Herschel concluded that it was in the shape of a

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Tycho appreciated the Copernican system, but objected to the idea of a moving Earth on the basis of physics, astronomy, and religion. The

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The arguments and evidence used resemble those used by Copernicus to support the Earth's motion. The criticism of Ptolemy as developed by

601:, which he supposedly theorized to be caused by the attraction to the Moon and by the revolution of the Earth around the Earth and Moon's 387:

His writings on the heliocentric system are lost, but some information about them is known from a brief description by his contemporary,

2448:. The work of Aristarchus in which he proposed his heliocentric system has not survived. We only know of it now from a brief passage in 1960:

wrote books that were given approbations by him even though one supported heliocentrism and the other geocentrism. One, a commentary on

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of the Earth, of the Earth–Moon system, of the Sun, of the Sun plus the major planets, or of the entire Solar System, can be selected.

878: 485: 67: 3317:

From Deferent to Equant: A Volume of Studies in the History of Science in the Ancient and Medieval Near East in Honor of E. S. Kennedy

1709: 2147:, also eliminating any obvious "center" of the universe as a natural origin of coordinates. Even if the discussion is limited to the 1186:

effect, as an object that one is passing seems to move backwards against the horizon. This issue was also resolved in the geocentric

35: 971:, influenced Renaissance-era European astronomy, and thus was indirectly received by Renaissance-era European astronomy and thus by 7350: 1734: 632:(5th century CE) expressed the opinion that the planets Venus and Mercury did not go about the Earth but instead circled the Sun. 381: 5972: 7554: 5886:

Berendzen, Richard (1975). "Geocentric to heliocentric to galactocentric to acentric: the continuing assault to the egocentric".

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but it did not arrive at explicit heliocentrism. The observations of the Maragha school were further improved at the Timurid-era

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model for the heliocentric theory and developing methods to compute planetary positions using this model. He may have used early

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B.L. van der Waerden, "The Heliocentric System in Greek, Persian and Hindu Astronomy", in David A. King and George Saliba, ed.,

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represented as being held together and at rest, but as turning and revolving (στρεφομένην καὶ ἀνειλουμένην), as Aristarchus and

391:, and from scattered references by later writers. Archimedes' description of Aristarchus' theory is given in the former's book, 6134:

di Bono, Mario (1995). "Copernicus, Amico, Fracastoro and Ṭūsï's Device: Observations on the Use and Transmission of a Model".

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In the 12th century, non-heliocentric alternatives to the Ptolemaic system were developed by some Islamic astronomers, such as

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written by R. Eliezer Lipmann Neusatz encouraged acceptance of the heliocentric model and other modern scientific thinking.

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that have come down to us are corrupted, however, and the traditional interpretation of the passage has been challenged by

1436: 2582: 1903:. Experiments like those of Foucault were performed by V. Viviani in 1661 in Florence and by Bartolini in 1833 in Rimini. 7544: 7340: 5998: 3546: 1680: 1303: 1160: 5283: 5059: 5022: 2188: 7025: 6359: 6331: 5566: 4658: 4083: 3679: 1194:, retained as a physical reality the irregular back-and-forth motion of the planets, which Kepler characterized as a " 7096: 6849:(1998). "Configuring the Universe: Aporetic, Problem Solving, and Kinematic Modeling as Themes of Arabic Astronomy". 6741: 6527: 6339: 6279: 5450: 5361: 4911: 3078: 2866: 975:. Copernicus used such devices in the same planetary models as found in Arabic sources. The exact replacement of the 778:

Al-Biruni discussed the possibility of whether the Earth rotated about its own axis and orbited the Sun, but in his

7647: 7065: 6542: 3753: 2257: 1450: 1054: 31: 6703:, translated by Prickard, Arthur Octavius, Winchester and London: Warren & Son, Ltd. and Simpkin & Co. Ltd 7040: 2990: 2697: 1739: 6411:

Setting Aside All Authority: Giovanni Battista Riccioli and the Science against Copernicus in the Age of Galileo

5299: 3999:

Eastwood, Bruce S. (1982), "Kepler as Historian of Science: Precursors of Copernican Heliocentrism according to

3135:

Eastwood, Bruce S. (1982), "Kepler as Historian of Science: Precursors of Copernican Heliocentrism according to

1541:

Galileo was able to look at the night sky with the newly invented telescope. He published his observations that

4334: 3560: 1888: 1781:, where the Sun's image was projected from a hole in a window in the cathedral's lantern onto a meridian line. 1257: 1106:, which Copernicus cited. Another possible source for Copernicus' knowledge of this mathematical device is the 1010: 358:

3rd century BC calculations on the relative sizes of the Earth, Sun and Moon, from a 10th-century AD Greek copy

6199: 4147:

Guessoum, N. (June 2008), "Copernicus and Ibn Al-Shatir: does the Copernican revolution have Islamic roots?",

1875:. Bradley discovered the stellar aberration, proving the relative motion of the Earth. Bessel proved that the 1260:

delivered in Rome a series of lectures outlining Copernicus' theory. The lectures were heard with interest by

7477: 6126:

Baker, A. and Chapter, L. (2002), "Part 4: The Sciences". In M. M. Sharif, "A History of Muslim Philosophy",

5389:

Curtis Wilson, "The Newtonian achievement in astronomy", pp. 233–274 in R Taton & C Wilson (eds) (1989),

2312: 1836:. The affair was revived in 1820, when the Master of the Sacred Palace (the Catholic Church's chief censor), 1712:

in which planets do not move relative to their immediate atmosphere, but are constituted around space-matter

1620:

be allowed for use in calendric calculations, though the original publication remained forbidden until 1758.

1095:

It has been argued that Copernicus could have independently discovered the Tusi couple or took the idea from

335:(AD 395—423) later described this as the "Egyptian System," stating that "it did not escape the skill of the 4747: 4553: 1283:

This was reported in the context of a conversation at the dinner table and not a formal statement of faith.

5544:(V,8) in which our Teachers, the Rabbis, of blessed memory, explain that if the Earth is called in Hebrew " 1968:

written by R. Israel David Schlesinger resisted a heliocentric model and supported geocentrism. The other,

918:

by various anonymous 9th-century commentators and Copernicus mentions him as an influence on his own work.

907:, 15th century, asked whether there was any reason to assert that any point was the center of the universe. 17: 6566: 5946: 5540:(part 2, p. 52b): "Remark of the author: I fear that the incredulous may draw an objection from a text of 3542: 2897: 2787: 2243:

consider the frame at rest with respect to the distant masses in the universe to have special properties.

628:

by various anonymous 9th-century commentators and Copernicus mentions him as an influence on his own work.

6999: 6024: 5799: 4027:"The first Copernican was Copernicus: the difference between Pre-Copernican and Copernican heliocentrism" 3269: 3219:"The first Copernican was Copernicus: the difference between Pre-Copernican and Copernican heliocentrism" 3180:"The first Copernican was Copernicus: the difference between Pre-Copernican and Copernican heliocentrism" 2968: 2626:

Eastwood, B. S. (November 1, 1992), "Heraclides and Heliocentrism – Texts Diagrams and Interpretations",

2143:

The concept of an absolute velocity, including being "at rest" as a particular case, is ruled out by the

1808: 1662: 1092:, but he does not show awareness of the existence of any of the later astronomers of the Maragha school. 699: 5487: 4770: 2039:

The Herschel model remained relatively unchallenged for the next hundred years, with minor refinements.

1702:, included a heliocentric model, but Descartes abandoned it in the light of Galileo's treatment. In his 551:

reports that Seleucus the astronomer had affirmed the Earth's motion, but does not mention Aristarchus.

7567: 7051: 5347: 2111:

and acentric. As a result, soon after galactocentrism was formulated, it was abandoned in favor of the

2070: 1980: 1760: 1728:. The Galileo affair did little overall to slow the spread of heliocentrism across Europe, as Kepler's 1409: 1388: 709: 663:

and the periods of the planets were given with respect to the Sun. His immediate commentators, such as

6474:

Heilbron, John L. (2005). "Censorship of Astronomy in Italy after Galileo". In McMullin, Ernan (ed.).

2472: 1975:

Since the 20th century most Jews have not questioned the science of heliocentrism. Exceptions include

993:(d. c. 1375) of Damascus. Copernicus' lunar and Mercury models are also identical to Ibn al-Shatir's. 659:(499), influenced by Greek astronomy, propounded a planetary model in which the Earth was taken to be 7274: 4878: 2795: 2108: 1613: 1143: 483:

Only scattered fragments of Cleanthes' writings have survived in quotations by other writers, but in

450:. The earliest of the handful of other ancient references occur in two passages from the writings of 6025:"Geocentric to heliocentric to galactocentric to acentric: the continuing assault to the egocentric" 5800:"Geocentric to heliocentric to galactocentric to acentric: the continuing assault to the egocentric" 2928: 323:

explained the apparent daily motion of the celestial sphere. It used to be thought that he believed

6821:

Russo, Lucio; Medaglia, Silvio M. (1996). "Sulla presunta accusa di empietà ad Aristarco di Samo".

5643: 4088: 2236: 1935: 1868: 1704: 1233:. These authors had proposed a moving Earth, which did not, however, revolve around a central sun. 1138: 874: 571: 331:

to revolve around the Sun, which in turn (along with the other planets) revolves around the Earth.

262: 118: 6955:

Planetary astronomy from the Renaissance to the rise of astrophysics Part A: Tycho Brahe to Newton

2437: 2299: 296:(d. 390 BC), who taught that at the center of the universe was a "central fire", around which the 7269: 7088: 6882: 6712: 6689:, vol. 5, translated by Gent, A.G., Boston, MA: Little, Brown, and Company, pp. 234–292 2881: 2771: 2729: 2336: 2144: 2107:

Hubble's observations of redshift in light from distant galaxies indicated that the universe was

1684: 1458:

was placed on the Catholic Church's index of prohibited books despite Kepler being a Protestant.

274: 177: 6325: 5758: 5593:"Rabbi Reuven Landau and the Jewish Reaction to Copernican Thought in Nineteenth Century Europe" 5293: 5152:, pp. 68–69 Ingoli's essay was published in English translation for the first time in 2015. 5069: 5032: 4668: 2799: 2151:, the Sun is not at the geometric center of any planet's orbit, but rather approximately at one 1399:

The Jesuit astronomers in Rome were at first unreceptive to Tycho's system; the most prominent,

590:. A fragment of a work by Seleucus has survived in Arabic translation, which was referred to by 7416: 7289: 7224: 6720: 6682: 4883: 4688: 4682: 4369: 3349: 2923: 2779: 2519: 2513: 2120: 1916: 1892: 1794: 1265: 1050: 243: 5921: 5644:"The Sun's Path at Night: The Revolution in Rabbinic Perspectives on the Ptolemaic Revolution" 5394: 5309: 4470: 2860: 2486: 1568:", Galileo defended heliocentrism, and claimed it was not contrary to Holy Scripture. He took 1515:, despite remaining near the Sun in Earth's sky (first image). This proved that it orbits the 7657: 7452: 7381: 7119: 6727:, Harvard, MA and London: Harvard University Press and William Heinemann Ltd., pp. 1–223 6649:(1977). "Copernicus in the Hebraic Literature from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century". 5847:

van de Kamp, Peter (October 1965), "The Galactocentric Revolution, A Reminiscent Narrative",

4757: 4434: 4396: 2856: 2823: 2544: 2445: 2183:

In modern calculations, the terms "geocentric" and "heliocentric" are often used to refer to

1801:

In the mid-18th century the Church's opposition began to fade. An annotated copy of Newton's

1756: 1698: 1688: 1650: 1242: 832: 790: 189: 180:

was widely recognized in Greco-Roman astronomy from at least the 4th century BC, the Earth's

130: 6698: 5413: 3840:

Ramasubramanian, K. (1998). "Model of planetary motion in the works of Kerala astronomers".

3807:. The Rise of Early Modern Science: Islam, China, and the West. Cambridge University Press. 2810:, who insists that it should be interpreted as having Aristarchus rhetorically suggest that 446:

No references to Aristarchus' heliocentrism are known in any other writings from before the

7523: 7264: 7214: 7134: 7109: 6764: 6414: 6143: 6110: 6036: 5895: 5856: 5811: 4565: 4410: 4318: 4298: 4263: 4156: 3954: 3849: 3765: 3343: 3157: 3090: 3002: 2915: 2706: 2635: 2252: 2207:". In this heliocentric picture, any planet of the Solar System can be used as a source of 2116: 1383: 1102: 960: 923: 817: 797: 560: 532: 510: 440: 363: 355: 251: 200: 90: 6195: 2028:, but assumed that the Sun was in the center of the disk, making the model heliocentric. 678:, and the instantaneous motion of the Moon. Early followers of Aryabhata's model included 490: 431:

Aristarchus presumably took the stars to be very far away because he was aware that their

242:

the distances of the Moon, Sun, planets and stars could be determined by treating orbits'

8: 7629: 7294: 7199: 7149: 7124: 6439: 6224: 4985: 4420: 4374: 2240: 2220: 2016:

attempted to determine the shape of the universe by examining stars through his handmade

1987:

who argued that the question of heliocentrism vs. geocentrism is obsolete because of the

1825: 1553: 1400: 1326:

that the teaching of heliocentrism should be banned, but nothing came of it at the time.

1299: 1253: 1222: 1155: 1148: 1118: 1026: 953: 939: 848: 828: 805: 729: 660: 398: 320: 316: 181: 126: 94: 6768: 6418: 6147: 6040: 5899: 5860: 5815: 4989: 4569: 4529:

Light from the East: How the Science of Medieval Islam Helped to Shape the Western World

4267: 4160: 3853: 3769: 3006: 2919: 2710: 2639: 2085:. The shape of the Milky Way galaxy was expected to resemble such "islands universes." 7617: 7605: 7528: 7442: 6866: 6834: 6724: 6666: 6560: 6159: 6075: 5780: 4874:

McGrath vs Russell on Calvin vs Copernicus: a case of the pot calling the kettle black?

4647: 4599: 4581: 4279: 4212: 4204: 4129: 3904: 3781: 3735: 3018: 3014: 2668: 2651: 2232: 2184: 1920: 1657: 1569: 1528: 1393: 1065: 1046: 1018: 997: 783: 613:

There were occasional speculations about heliocentrism in Europe before Copernicus. In

247: 114: 107: 39: 6585: 6574: 3674: 1632:(1632), clearly advocated heliocentrism, despite his declaration in the preface that, 1626:

encouraged Galileo to publish the pros and cons of heliocentrism. Galileo's response,

7437: 7284: 7189: 7144: 6984: 6959: 6938: 6917: 6898: 6870: 6800: 6772: 6747: 6737: 6632: 6612: 6593: 6547: 6523: 6515: 6500: 6479: 6460: 6422: 6395: 6376: 6355: 6315: 6297: 6285: 6275: 6250: 6230: 6205: 6181: 6163: 6048: 6004: 5978: 5907: 5823: 5784: 5739: 5729: 5683: 5673: 5446: 5357: 5351: 4948: 4917: 4907: 4692: 4651: 4607: 4585: 4532: 4476: 4306: 4271: 4234: 4216: 4133: 4046: 3980: 3908: 3896: 3808: 3785: 3739: 3684: 3657: 3645: 3637: 3511: 3486: 3461: 3353: 3285: 3275: 3238: 3199: 3116: 3074: 3048: 3022: 2941: 2746: 2676: 2655: 2550: 2523: 2492: 2454: 2208: 2165: 1988: 1725: 1721: 1577: 1175: 1058: 1038: 1006: 915: 911: 722:

to show that the distance between the Sun and the Earth varies. In the 10th century,

703: 629: 625: 621: 393: 168:, was not central in the universe. Modern astronomy does not distinguish any center. 49: 6792:

The Forgotten Revolution: How Science Was Born in 300 BC and Why it Had to Be Reborn

4353: 3304:

Das heliozentrische System in der griechischen, persischen und indischen Astronomie.

2488:

The Forgotten Revolution: How Science Was Born in 300 BC and Why it Had to Be Reborn

2467: 1930:(1541–1613), who worked with Brahe and Kepler. Gans wrote two books on astronomy in 1693: 1448:

Between 1617 and 1621, Kepler developed a heliocentric model of the Solar System in

1423:(d. 1600) is the only known person to defend Copernicus' heliocentrism in his time. 462:

Only do not, my good fellow, enter an action against me for impiety in the style of

432: 7581: 7549: 7502: 7472: 7462: 7411: 7386: 6858: 6826: 6658: 6450: 6151: 6044: 5903: 5864: 5819: 5770: 4639: 4573: 4196: 4121: 4038: 3888: 3773: 3727: 3230: 3191: 3044: 3010: 2933: 2643: 2410: 2228: 2204: 2152: 2093: 2051:

to Herschel's star counts, which still implied a near-central location of the Sun.

2013: 1876: 1817: 1668: 1585: 1573: 1547: 1532: 1314: 1261: 1117:

The state of knowledge on planetary theory received by Copernicus is summarized in

1081: 1042: 1022: 934: 904: 645: 591: 540: 324: 205: 185: 157: 153: 86: 6175: 4344:

Viktor Blåsjö, "A Critique of the Arguments for Maragha Influence on Copernicus",

3977:

Ordering the Heavens: Roman Astronomy and Cosmology in the Carolingian Renaissance

3306:

Naturforschenden Gesellschaft in Zürich. Zürich:Kommissionsverlag Leeman AG, 1970.

3113:

Ordering the Heavens: Roman Astronomy and Cosmology in the Carolingian Renaissance

2164:, amount to 0.14% of that of the Sun.) Therefore, a hypothetical astronomer on an 1872: 614: 7497: 7432: 7401: 7299: 7229: 6953: 6932: 6790: 6537: 6494: 6454: 6244: 6220: 5220: 4890: 3936: 3802: 3638:"Biṭrūjī: Nūr al‐Dīn Abū Isḥāq [Abū Jaʿfar] Ibrāhīm ibn Yūsuf al‐Biṭrūjī" 3302:

The concept of Indian heliocentrism has been advocated by B. L. van der Waerden,

2732:). The italics and parenthetical comments are as they appear in Heath's original. 2586: 2192: 2101: 2060: 2040: 1961: 1837: 1623: 1558: 1512: 1508: 1477: 1441: 1432: 1403:, commented that Tycho was "confusing all of astronomy, because he wants to have 1376: 1345: 1323: 1187: 1034: 1030: 860: 713: 575: 142: 134: 4231:

A History of Arabic Astronomy: Planetary Theories During the Golden Age of Islam

2579: 1769: 7360: 7239: 7174: 7154: 6368: 6171: 6155: 4978: 4577: 4414: 4187: 4112: 4026: 3718:

Ragep, F. Jamil (2001a), "Tusi and Copernicus: The Earth's Motion in Context",

3403: 3218: 3179: 2910:

Murdin, Paul (2000), Murdin, Paul (ed.), "Seleucus of Seleucia (c. 190 BC–?)",

2742: 2647: 2224: 2089: 2064: 1976: 1900: 1778: 1542: 1467: 1420: 1014: 985: 869: 749: 235: 196: 138: 7045: 6646: 5501:

Noah J. Efron. Jewish Thought and Scientific Discovery in Early Modern Europe.

4934:

Blair, Ann, "Tycho Brahe's critique of Copernicus and the Copernican system",

4606:, vol. 2, Berlin / Heidelberg / New York: Springer-Verlag, p. 1035, 4042: 3754:"Freeing Astronomy from Philosophy: An Aspect of Islamic Influence on Science" 3731: 3234: 3195: 2349:

is more recent, recorded from the late 19th century (e.g. in Constance Naden,

1863:

Three apparent proofs of the heliocentric hypothesis were provided in 1727 by

1784: 1256:

was circulated in manuscript completed some time before May 1, 1514. In 1533,

7641: 7482: 7447: 6878: 6751: 5743: 5726:

New heavens and a new earth : the Jewish reception of Copernican thought

5687: 5670:

New heavens and a new earth : the Jewish reception of Copernican thought

4365: 4275: 4110:

Roberts, V.; Kennedy, E. S. (1959). "The Planetary Theory of Ibn al-Shatir".

4050: 3900: 3289: 3242: 3203: 2294: 2212: 2074: 2025: 1864: 1821: 1813: 1608:

In March 1616, after the Inquisition's injunction against Galileo, the papal

1498: 1310: 1272: 1126: 1111: 990: 933:

discussed the possibility that the Earth rotated on its axis, while Cardinal

930: 672: 668: 340: 6289: 5004: 4921: 3860: 3588:, 24 (1971): 59–81; reprinted in David A. King and Mary Helen Kennedy, ed., 2491:. Translated by Levy, Silvio. Springer Berlin Heidelberg. pp. 293–296. 2341:

Prodromus biceps cono ellipticæ et a priori demonstratæ planetarum theorices

1991:. Schneerson's followers in Chabad continue to deny the heliocentric model. 7593: 7330: 7179: 5775: 3036: 2148: 2115:

model of the acentric expanding universe. Further assumptions, such as the

2097: 1746: 1717: 1218: 679: 583: 377: 289: 239: 165: 70: 7057: 5179: 4472:

Intellectual Curiosity and the Scientific Revolution: A Global Perspective

3879:

Dutta, Amartya Kumar (May 2006), "Āryabhata and axial rotation of earth",

1480:

opposed the Roman Catholic Church by his strong support for heliocentrism.

7169: 7114: 6862: 6846: 6786: 4626:

Kren, Claudia (1971), "The Rolling Device of Naṣir al-Dīn al-Ṭūsī in the

3764:(Science in Theistic Contexts: Cognitive Dimensions): 49–64 & 66–71, 3704: 3066: 2993:(1987), "The Heliocentric System in Greek, Persian and Hindu Astronomy", 2807: 2371: 2196: 2128: 2124: 2082: 2033: 1957: 1950: 1946: 1372: 1333: 1284: 1178:

by arguing that such motion was only perceived and apparent, rather than

1001: 968: 864: 804:-era Persia further developed "non-Ptolemaic" planetary models involving 771: 762: 687: 683: 655: 122: 6838: 1696:' first cosmological treatise, written between 1629 and 1633 and titled 1247: 748:. Islamic astronomers began to criticize the Ptolemaic model, including 246:

as contiguous realities, which gave the stars' distance as less than 20

7487: 7304: 7249: 7209: 7139: 6670: 6435: 6352:

Defending Copernicus and Galileo: Critical Reasoning in the two Affairs

5500: 4079:"Favourite quote of founder Joost R. Ritman: God is an infinite sphere" 3892: 2937: 2449: 2375: 2216: 2132: 2048: 2017: 1927: 1880: 1645:

a terminate Spherical Figure, and that thereupon it hath its centre...

1524: 1089: 1085: 1073: 972: 964: 836: 718: 602: 587: 447: 388: 161: 7001:

Pattupattu – Ten Tamil Idylls (Tamil Verses with Englilsh Translation)

4283: 4208: 2387:

The image shows a woodcut by Christoph Murer, from Nicolaus Reusner's

547:, and an anonymous scholiast to Aristotle. Another passage in Aëtius' 351: 195:

While a moving Earth was proposed at least from the 4th century BC in

160:, and other astronomers, it was realized that the Sun, while near the 7391: 7244: 7234: 7219: 7164: 7159: 7104: 6830: 3319:, Annals of the New York Academy of Science, 500 (1987), pp. 529–534. 2749:, and to each other, caused by the Earth's revolution around the Sun. 2329: 2021: 1472: 1461: 1230: 1226: 1201:

Copernicus cited Aristarchus in an early (unpublished) manuscript of

980: 919: 767: 745: 737: 733: 650: 633: 586:

methods that were available in his time, as he was a contemporary of

463: 436: 336: 332: 293: 146: 98: 6662: 6543:

The Sleepwalkers: A history of man's changing vision of the universe

5353:

The Edge of Objectivity: An Essay in the History of Scientific Ideas

1919:, in his book "Be'er ha-Golah" (1593). Maharal makes an argument of 1371:

was the center of the universe and all celestial bodies orbited it.

926:(815-877 CE) proposed a model reminiscent of that from Tycho Brahe. 7492: 7320: 7184: 6708: 6694: 6678: 6311: 5869: 4643: 4200: 4125: 3777: 2406: 2200: 2112: 1884: 1879:

of a star was greater than zero by measuring the parallax of 0.314

1841: 1713: 1671:) which included all previous condemnations of heliocentric books. 1489: 1350: 1214: 1191: 1183: 1170: 1077: 900: 824: 801: 724: 597:

Alternatively, his explanation may have involved the phenomenon of

579: 566: 451: 285: 214: 82: 5224: 3041:

Studies in Arabic versions of Greek texts and in mediaeval science

2004: 1603:

Bellarmine and the Inquisition's injunction against Galileo, 1616.

1339: 362:

The first person known to have proposed a heliocentric system was

7396: 7259: 7254: 7204: 7194: 5456: 2161: 2156: 2104:, which states that the Milky Way is the center of the universe. 2054: 2044: 1848:

to allow the printing of heliocentric books in Rome. Copernicus'

1774: 1667:(Index of Prohibited Books, published by order of Alexander VII, 1364: 1210: 1195: 1179: 1165: 1096: 952:

have its center everywhere and circumference nowhere," recalling

809: 675: 209: 102: 5445:, University of Notre Dame Press, Notre Dame, 2005, p. 307, IN. 4185:

Kennedy, E. S. (Autumn 1966), "Late Medieval Planetary Theory",

2695:

Rufus, W. Carl (1923), "The astronomical system of Copernicus",

2138: 380:, Aristarchus calculated the size of the Earth and measured the 258:

placed the stars at least two orders of magnitude more distant.

238:

as absurd as he believed it would create huge winds. Within his

97:(c. 470 – 385 BC). In the 5th century BC the Greek Philosophers 7507: 7457: 7406: 7279: 7129: 5618:"HebrewBooks.org Sefer Detail: מי מנוחות – נויזץ, אליעזר ליפמן" 5376:"Kepler's Laws of Planetary Motion: 1609–1666", J. L. Russell, 4450: 3606: 2305: 2078: 1984: 1931: 1912: 1557:(1613), respectively. Around this time, he also announced that 1319: 1206: 976: 397:. The entire description comprises just three sentences, which 309: 45: 6629:

From Eudoxus to Einstein – A History of Mathematical Astronomy

5617: 4684:

Moving heaven and earth : Copernicus and the solar system

3428:

Alessandro Bausani (1973). "Cosmology and Religion in Islam".

3366: 3328:

Noel Swerdlow, "Review: A Lost Monument of Indian Astronomy,"

1755:, which provided an explanation for Kepler's laws in terms of 1322:

during the next 60 years. There was an early suggestion among

5468: 3932: 3866: 2758:

Although it could obviously be reasonably inferred therefrom.

2310: 2297: 1939: 1520: 1368: 1168:

in the 2nd century had presented his geocentric model in his

664: 618: 574:

astronomer who flourished a century after Aristarchus in the

328: 297: 221: 74: 7047:

The Heliocentric Model and Kepler's Laws of Planetary Motion

5419: 5131: 5099: 2171: 2081:

were actually distant "island universes" consisting of many

1856:

were then subsequently omitted from the next edition of the

199:, and a fully developed heliocentric model was developed by 6897:(6th ed.). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. 2007. 6518:

The Crest of the Peacock: Non-European Roots of Mathematics

5234: 5232: 3804:

The Rise of Early Modern Science: Islam, China and the West

3603:

History of Mankind, Vol 3: The Great medieval Civilisations

3274:. Princeton: Princeton University Press. pp. 111–112. 2741:

That is, an apparent movement of the stars relative to the

2345: 1896: 1404: 598: 305: 7588: 6713:"Concerning the Face Which Appears in the Orb of the Moon" 6590:

The Astronomical Revolution: Copernicus – Kepler – Borelli

5155: 5075: 4723:

Gingerich, O. "Did Copernicus Owe a Debt to Aristarchus?"

4435:"Nasir al-Dīn al-Ṭūsī – the Mathematics Genealogy Project" 4397:"Nasir al-Dīn al-Ṭūsī – the Mathematics Genealogy Project" 3965:, 854, 857, New York: Columbia Univ. Pr, 1977, pp. 332–333 3168:, 854, 857, New York: Columbia Univ. Pr, 1977, pp. 332–333 3101:, 854, 857, New York: Columbia Univ. Pr, 1977, pp. 332–333 1290: 7041:

The Heliocentric Pantheon: An Interview with Walter Murch

5763:

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London

5037: 1516: 301: 78: 6883:"Whose Science is Arabic Science in Renaissance Europe?" 6456:

The Sun in the Church: Cathedrals as Solar Observatories

5229: 4906:. New York: American Institute of Physics. p. 181. 1287:, however, opposed the doctrine over a period of years. 5849:

Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific

5567:"יפח לקץ – חלק א – שלזינגר, ישראל דוד (page 13 of 134)" 4957: 4705: 3249: 1363:, the most widely accepted system had been proposed by 4508: 4370:"Islamic Science and the Making of Renaissance Europe" 3524: 1313:, the published form contained an unsigned preface by 1252:

The first information about the heliocentric views of

963:, in particular the mathematical devices known as the 7565: 7018:"Does Heliocentrism Mean That the Sun is Stationary?" 5167: 5087: 5049: 5047: 4807: 3914: 3619: 3617: 3615: 3454:

Religion, Learning and Science in the 'Abbasid Period

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from its proper place at the center of the universe (

2675:, Berlin/Heidelberg/New York: Springer, p. 695, 2291:

The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary (6th ed., 2007)

2131:, eventually lead to the current model of cosmology, 1248:

Circulation of Commentariolus (published before 1515)

339:," though there is no other evidence it was known in 6715:, in Cherniss, Harold; Helmbold, William C. (eds.), 4863:. Reprint, Edinburgh: Scottish Academic Press, 1977. 4833:, volume 21, no. 3, July, pp. 431–441. Reprinted in 2873: 2871: 2869: 2168:

would observe a small "wobble" in the Sun's motion.

1302:

published the definitive statement of his system in

93:, who had been influenced by a concept presented by 4496: 2518:. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press. pp. 1999: 1236: 1190:; the latter, however, while eliminating the major 500:The second of the references by Plutarch is in his 52:'s illustration of the Copernican system, from the 30:"Heliocentric" redirects here. For the albums, see 6683:"On the Face Appearing within the Orb of the Moon" 5518: 5044: 4977: 3821: 3612: 3601:G. Wiet, V. Elisseeff, P. Wolff, J. Naudu (1975). 3427: 2211:because it moves relatively to the Sun. A smaller 1462:Galileo Galilei and 1616 ban against Copernicanism 6734:Relativity: An introduction to the special theory 6194: 5703:""Igrot Kodesh" v. 7, p. 134, letter number 1996" 5408:(text quotations from 1729 translation of Newton 4256:Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 4166: 4005:Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 3483:An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines 3141:Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 1820:in 1774 (nationalized in 1878, but re-founded by 959:Some historians maintain that the thought of the 827:and by the Maragha school explicitly address the 171: 7639: 6825:(in Italian). New Series, Vol. 53 (2): 113–121. 5728:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 362. 5672:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 262. 4462: 2961:"Index of Ancient Greek Philosophers-Scientists" 1431:Using measurements made at Tycho's observatory, 125:mathematician, astronomer, and Catholic cleric, 6303:Le Opere di Galileo Galilei, Edizione Nazionale 4332:Encyclopaedia of Islamic science and scientists 3839: 3751: 2008:William Herschel's model of the Milky Way, 1785 1629:Dialogue concerning the two chief world systems 1340:Tycho Brahe's geo-heliocentric system (c. 1587) 406:from astronomers. But Aristarchus brought out 145:presented supporting observations made using a 6623:. Original edition by Desclee (New York, 1966) 6579:From the Closed World to the Infinite Universe 6478:. University of Notre Dame Press, Notre Dame. 6332:Institute and Museum of the History of Science 6308:The Works of Galileo Galilei, National Edition 6003:, Cambridge University Press, pp. 67–71, 5439:Censorship of Astronomy in Italy after Galileo 5356:. Princeton University Press. pp. 92–93. 4904:The eye of heaven: Ptolemy, Copernicus, Kepler 4299:"Ibn al‐Shāṭir: ʿAlāʾ al‐Dīn ʿAlī ibn Ibrāhīm" 4109: 3552: 2802:; for example). The manuscripts of Plutarch's 2077:speculated that fuzzy patches of light called 2055:Replacement with galactocentrism and acentrism 7073: 6820: 6700:The Face Which appears on the Orb of the Moon 6330:A searchable online copy is available on the 6272:Galileo, for Copernicanism and for the church 6246:The History and Practice of Ancient Astronomy 5881: 5879: 5329: 5327: 5267: 5265: 5225:arXiv:1402.6168 Original text of the decision 4419:. London: Constable and Company Ltd. p. 4067:, 2.12, p. 103, cited in Koyré (1957), p. 17. 3842:Bulletin of the Astronomical Society of India 2827: 1000:in 1957, remains an open question. Since the 770:'s astronomical works explains the different 716:and the geocentric model, which were used by 254:'s heliocentric scheme had centuries earlier 85:. Historically, heliocentrism was opposed to 6226:A History of Astronomy from Thales to Kepler 5922:"The Shape of the Milky Way from Starcounts" 5249: 5247: 4303:The Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers 3959:Martianus Capella and the Seven Liberal Arts 3796: 3794: 3642:The Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers 3584:E. S. Kennedy, "Al-Bīrūnī's Masudic Canon", 3162:Martianus Capella and the Seven Liberal Arts 3095:Martianus Capella and the Seven Liberal Arts 2721: 2719: 1665:Alexandri VII Pontificis Maximi jussu editus 884: 7087: 6997: 6951: 6736:. Singapore Teaneck, NJ: World Scientific. 6459:. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. 6349: 5846: 5590: 5404: 5402: 5278:Dialogo sopra i Due Massi Sistemi del Mondo 5273:The Systeme of the World: in Four Dialogues 5253: 5161: 4969: 4783: 4604:A History of Ancient Mathematical Astronomy 4475:. Cambridge University Press. p. 263. 4447:Claudia Kren, "The Rolling Device," p. 497. 3867:Ramasubramanian, Srinivas & Sriram 1994 3341: 2814:was being impious for wanting to shift the 2673:A history of ancient mathematical astronomy 2610: 2293:. The term is a learned formation based on 1752:Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica 1209:he had found an account of the theories of 1132: 881:seem to have accepted his planetary model. 7080: 7066: 6952:Taton, René; Wilson, Curtis, eds. (1989), 6677: 6098:International Journal of Science Education 5876: 5506:, Vol. 58, No. 4 (Oct., 1997), pp. 719–732 5378:British Journal for the History of Science 5324: 5262: 4598: 4551: 4514: 4025:Carman, Christián C. (December 23, 2017). 3510:. Cambridge University Press. p. 60. 3508:The Cambridge Concise History of Astronomy 3217:Carman, Christián C. (December 23, 2017). 3178:Carman, Christián C. (December 23, 2017). 2995:Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 2912:Encyclopedia of Astronomy and Astrophysics 2775: 2667: 2549:. Cambridge University Press. p. 76. 1057:→ Nicolaus (Mikołaj Kopernik) Copernicus. 879:Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics 486:Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers 6958:, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 6916:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 6631:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 6392:Copernicus and the Aristotelian tradition 6367: 6208:, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press 6022: 5990: 5885: 5868: 5797: 5774: 5759:"XII. On the construction of the heavens" 5346: 5337:, p. 66, Princeton University Press, 2007 5244: 4901: 4741: 4711: 4076: 3791: 3752:Ragep, F. Jamil; Al-Qushji, Ali (2001b), 2927: 2716: 2374:, the heliocentric view was expounded in 1956:In the 19th century, two students of the 922:(420 CE) described a heliocentric model. 808:. Notable astronomers of this school are 693: 636:(420 CE) described a heliocentric model. 188:was never universally accepted until the 113:It was not until the 16th century that a 36:Heliocentric (The Ocean Collective album) 6978: 6911: 6707: 6693: 6606: 6592:. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. 6536: 6492: 6473: 6449: 6180:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 5996: 5842: 5840: 5756: 5474: 5462: 5425: 5399: 5305: 5289: 5238: 5137: 5105: 5081: 5065: 5028: 5002: 4664: 4305:. New York: Springer. pp. 569–570. 4301:. In Thomas Hockey; et al. (eds.). 4253: 4247: 4146: 3998: 3974: 3672: 3644:. New York: Springer. pp. 133–134. 3640:. In Thomas Hockey; et al. (eds.). 3605:, p. 649. George Allen & Unwin Ltd, 3447: 3445: 3443: 3255: 3134: 3110: 2839:Diogenes Laërtius (1972, Bk 7, ch 5, p. 2791: 2625: 2223:) may gain heliocentric velocity due to 2003: 1926:Copernicus is mentioned in the books of 1895:measured the parallaxes of other stars, 1783: 1735:Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds 1471: 1349: 1217:had provided him with an account of the 1142: 899: 774:with respect to the position of the Sun. 761: 570:was Seleucus of Seleucia (b. 190 BC), a 350: 255: 220: 44: 6930: 6611:(3rd ed.). St. Augustine's Press. 6522:(2nd ed.). London: Penguin Books. 6269: 6242: 6133: 5964: 5641: 5276:(1661) Thomas Salusbury translation of 4963: 4861:Religion and the rise of modern science 4753: 4502: 4184: 3267: 2852: 1906: 1773:; i.e., they were turned into "reverse 554: 408:a book consisting of certain hypotheses 382:sizes and distances of the Sun and Moon 346: 14: 7640: 6877: 6626: 6513: 6408: 6296: 6219: 6068: 6000:Cosmology: The Science of the Universe 5970: 5494: 5197: 5185: 5173: 5149: 5117: 4526: 4520: 4364: 4228: 4077:van Limpt, Cokky (February 17, 2003). 4024: 4020: 4018: 3920: 3827: 3745: 3717: 3668: 3666: 3623: 3590:Studies in the Islamic Exact Sciences, 3505: 3456:. Cambridge University Press. p. 3372: 3216: 3177: 2989: 2909: 2893: 2783: 2441: 2433: 1846:Sacred Congregation of the Inquisition 284:The first non-geocentric model of the 268: 7061: 6934:Galileo's Inquisition Trial Revisited 6895:The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary 6845: 6823:Quaderni Urbinati di Cultura Classica 6797:Springer Science & Business Media 6785: 6758: 6731: 6645: 6584: 6434: 6389: 6170: 5837: 5757:Herschel, William (January 1, 1785). 5723: 5667: 5553: 5524: 5515:Sefer Elim, Amsterdam, 1629, стр. 304 5093: 5053: 4975: 4882:, volume 127, no. 6, June, pp. 8–10. 4834: 4813: 4737: 4680: 4554:"Copernicus and Nasir al-Din al-Tusi" 4456: 4172: 4031:Archive for History of Exact Sciences 3963:The Marriage of Philology and Mercury 3878: 3711: 3683:. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. 3635: 3558: 3530: 3451: 3440: 3384: 3223:Archive for History of Exact Sciences 3184:Archive for History of Exact Sciences 3166:The Marriage of Philology and Mercury 3099:The Marriage of Philology and Mercury 3035: 2877: 2819: 2767: 2725: 2694: 2542: 2511: 2484: 2405:originally sourced from the works of 2343:, 1679, p. 28). The abstract noun in 1790:A Philosopher Lecturing on the Orrery 1566:Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina 1559:Venus exhibits a full range of phases 891:History of science in the Renaissance 6581:. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Pr. 6334:, Florence, and a brief overview of 6136:Journal for the History of Astronomy 5939: 5003:David P., Stern (October 10, 2016). 4947:Gingerich, O. & Voelkel, J. R., 4771:"Religious Objections to Copernicus" 4725:Journal for the History of Astronomy 4625: 4558:Journal for the History of Astronomy 4468: 4409: 4346:Journal for the History of Astronomy 4296: 3800: 3480: 2628:Journal for the History of Astronomy 2187:. In such systems the origin in the 1797:, in which a lamp represents the Sun 1329:Some years after the publication of 265:developed in Renaissance astronomy. 6249:, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 5977:, HarperCollins, pp. 150–159, 5188:, pp. 66–76, 164–175, 187–195. 4827:Calvin’s attitude toward Copernicus 4015: 3979:, Leiden: Brill, pp. 244–259, 3663: 3547:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 3171: 3115:, Leiden: Brill, pp. 244–259, 2335:, in use from about the same time ( 2139:Special relativity and the "center" 2069:Already in the early 19th century, 1681:Science in the Age of Enlightenment 1640:and his straightforward statement, 1161:De revolutionibus orbium coelestium 24: 6445:. London: Oxford University Press. 6413:, University of Notre Dame Press, 6310:] (in Italian). Vol. 19. 4084:Bibliotheca Philosophica Hermetica 3680:Dictionary of Scientific Biography 3675:"Al-Bitruji Al-Ishbili, Abu Ishaq" 3391:concentrically envelops the other. 3128: 3104: 3084: 3015:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1987.tb37224.x 2804:On the Face in the Orb of the Moon 2515:Early Greek Astronomy to Aristotle 1806:advocating heliocentrism from the 1426: 895: 472:On the Face in the Orb of the Moon 456:On the Face in the Orb of the Moon 38:. For the heliocentric orbit, see 25: 7669: 7010: 6937:. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang. 5258:. University of California Press. 4798: 2546:Man and nature in the Renaissance 2324:is first recorded in English (as 1994: 1942:and was acquainted with Galileo. 1511:observed with his telescope that 1415: 842: 608: 7623: 7611: 7599: 7587: 7575: 7004:. Tamil University (1985 print). 6565: 6229:, New York: Dover Publications, 6103: 6090: 6069:Fisher, Debra (August 1, 2006). 6062: 6016: 5997:Harrison, Edward Robert (2000), 5914: 5791: 5750: 5717: 5694: 5661: 5635: 5610: 5584: 5559: 5530: 5509: 5480: 5431: 5391:The General History of Astronomy 5383: 5370: 5340: 5315: 5207: 5143: 4996: 4941: 4928: 4895: 4866: 4853: 4840: 4819: 4792: 4777: 4763: 2394: 2258:Copernican Revolution (metaphor) 2000:William Herschel's heliocentrism 1674: 1545:and that the Sun rotates in his 1497: 1488: 1451:Epitome astronomiae Copernicanae 1237:Reception in Early Modern Europe 1101:Commentary on the First Book of 1055:Domenico Maria Novara da Ferrara 989:was found in an earlier work by 786:rather than one of mathematics. 732:. According to later astronomer 639: 32:Heliocentric (Paul Weller album) 6723:, vol. 406, translated by 6651:Journal of the History of Ideas 6627:Linton, Christopher M. (2004). 6609:Galileo, Science and the Church 6409:Graney, Christopher M. (2015), 5504:Journal of the History of Ideas 4936:Journal of the History of Ideas 4831:Journal of the History of Ideas 4730: 4717: 4674: 4619: 4592: 4545: 4441: 4427: 4403: 4389: 4358: 4338: 4324: 4290: 4222: 4178: 4140: 4103: 4070: 4057: 3992: 3968: 3948: 3926: 3872: 3833: 3697: 3629: 3595: 3578: 3536: 3499: 3474: 3421: 3396: 3335: 3322: 3309: 3296: 3261: 3210: 3151: 3060: 3047:, pp. viii & 201–217, 3029: 2983: 2953: 2903: 2833: 2761: 2752: 2735: 2688: 2661: 2619: 2613:Epitome of Copernican Astronomy 2604: 2591: 2381: 1740:Bernard le Bovier de Fontenelle 1730:Epitome of Copernican Astronomy 1456:Epitome astronomia Copernicanae 319:(4th century BC) said that the 279: 77:and planets revolve around the 27:Sun-centered astronomical model 6795:. Translated by Levy, Silvio. 6394:. Leiden, Netherlands: Brill. 6119: 5974:Coming of Age in the Milky Way 3561:"Rediscovering Arabic Science" 2611:Kepler, Johannes (1618–1621). 2572: 2563: 2536: 2505: 2478: 2461: 2427: 2364: 2275: 1889:Friedrich Georg Wilhelm Struve 1258:Johann Albrecht Widmannstetter 1068:" (10th to 12th centuries) in 855:, a commentary on Aryabhata's 653:(476–550), in his magnum opus 172:Ancient and medieval astronomy 13: 1: 7478:Inferior and superior planets 6983:. New York: Springer-Verlag. 6761:Copernicus and his Successors 6607:Langford, Jerome K. (1998) . 6375:. London: William Heinemann. 6350:Finocchiaro, Maurice (2010), 6201:Lives of Eminent Philosophers 5548:" it is because it hastens (" 5254:Finochiario, Maurice (2007). 3481:Nasr, Seyyed Hossein (1993). 3452:Young, M. J. L., ed. (2006). 3073:, Feltrinelli, Milano, 2003, 2400:On the other hand, Calvin is 2263: 1759:and what came to be known as 1708:(1644), Descartes introduced 730:Earth rotates around its axis 368: 117:of a heliocentric system was 7653:Early scientific cosmologies 6685:, in Godwin, William (ed.), 6049:10.1016/0083-6656(75)90049-5 5908:10.1016/0083-6656(75)90049-5 5824:10.1016/0083-6656(75)90049-5 5009:From Stargazers to Starships 4531:. I.B. Tauris. p. 179. 4330:N.K. Singh, M. Zaki Kirmani, 2420: 2268: 2231:. From the point of view of 2012:In 1783, amateur astronomer 1359:Prior to the publication of 929:In the 14th century, bishop 549:Opinions of the Philosophers 537:Opinions of the Philosophers 133:. In the following century, 7: 6914:Galileo: Decisive Innovator 6763:. London: Hambledon Press. 6023:Berendzen, Richard (1975). 5798:Berendzen, Richard (1975). 5591:Jeremy, Brown (2008–2009). 5348:Gillispie, Charles Coulston 4687:. Cambridge: Icon. p. 3975:Eastwood, Bruce S. (2007), 3485:. SUNY Press. p. 135. 3430:Scientia/Rivista di Scienza 3111:Eastwood, Bruce S. (2007), 2246: 1663:Index Librorum Prohibitorum 1610:Master of the Sacred Palace 1543:Jupiter is orbited by moons 1009:, which translated some of 700:Astronomy in medieval Islam 478:, c. 6, pp. 922 F – 923 A.) 186:yearly orbit around the Sun 10: 7674: 7555:Medieval Islamic astronomy 7352:On the Sizes and Distances 6912:Sharratt, Michael (1994). 6514:Joseph, George G. (2000). 6493:Heilbron, John L. (2010). 6270:Fantoli, Annibale (2003). 6156:10.1177/002182869502600203 5536:In a marginal note in his 5380:, Vol. 2, No. 1, June 1964 4850:. New York: Walker and Co. 4578:10.1177/002182867300400205 4552:Veselovsky, I. N. (1973), 4459:, pp. 261–69, 476–86. 3592:Beirut, 1983, pp. 573–595. 2648:10.1177/002182869202300401 2311: 2298: 2058: 1860:when it appeared in 1835. 1678: 1576:. Cardinal and Inquisitor 1531:, and disproved Ptolemy's 1465: 1439:between 1609 and 1619. In 1410:Giovanni Battista Riccioli 1343: 1240: 1136: 1123:Theoricae Novae Planetarum 1013:'s works from Arabic into 983:used by Copernicus in the 888: 697: 643: 558: 545:Against the Mathematicians 439:had been developed in the 272: 29: 7545:Medieval European science 7537: 7516: 7425: 7374: 7313: 7275:Sosigenes the Peripatetic 7095: 6893: 6546:. London: Penguin Books. 5600:The Torah U-Madda Journal 5441:(in McMullin, Ernan ed., 4889:October 27, 2017, at the 4043:10.1007/s00407-017-0198-3 3732:10.1017/s0269889701000060 3235:10.1007/s00407-017-0198-3 3196:10.1007/s00407-017-0198-3 2828:Russo & Medaglia 1996 2599:A History of Mathematics. 2290: 2237:inertial reference frames 1812:. The Observatory of the 1738:, published in France by 1614:Congregation of the Index 1082:Thebit (Thabit Ibn Qurra) 885:Renaissance-era astronomy 152:With the observations of 5971:Ferris, Timothy (2003), 5465:, pp. 279, 312–313. 4976:Smith, Homer W. (1952). 4902:Gingerich, Owen (1993). 4846:Gingerich, Owen (2004), 3673:Samsó, Julio (1970–80). 3506:Hoskin, Michael (1999). 3375:, pp. 393–394, 408. 2543:Debus, Allen G. (1987). 2320:"center"; the adjective 2281:Optionally capitalised, 1936:Joseph Solomon Delmedigo 1869:Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel 1809:Index of Forbidden Books 1705:Principles of Philosophy 1476:In the 17th century AD, 1437:laws of planetary motion 1139:Copernican heliocentrism 1133:Copernican heliocentrism 1090:Alpetragius (Al-Bitruji) 1074:Albategnius (Al-Battani) 376:. Like his contemporary 263:Copernican heliocentrism 7648:Ancient Greek astronomy 7270:Sosigenes of Alexandria 7089:Ancient Greek astronomy 6979:Thurston, Hugh (1993). 6931:Speller, Jules (2008). 6851:Perspectives on Science 6243:Edwards, James (1998), 6221:Dreyer, John Louis Emil 4297:King, David A. (2007). 4229:Saliba, George (1995). 2473:Encyclopædia Britannica 2337:Johann Jakob Zimmermann 2145:principle of relativity 1761:Newton's laws of motion 1685:17th-century philosophy 1584:In January 1616, Msgr. 1394:apparent sizes of stars 800:school of astronomy in 736:, al-Sijzi invented an 401:translates as follows: 275:Ancient Greek astronomy 178:sphericity of the Earth 7342:On Sizes and Distances 6759:Rosen, Edward (1995). 6732:Qadir, Asghar (1989). 6721:Loeb Classical Library 6717:Plutarch's Moralia XII 6476:The Church and Galileo 5776:10.1098/rstl.1785.0012 5724:Brown, Jeremy (2013). 5668:Brown, Jeremy (2013). 5642:Rabbi Natan, Slifkin. 5542:Midrash Bereshit Rabba 5443:The Church and Galileo 5412:, Book 3 (1729 vol.2) 5219:March 2, 2021, at the 4884:Available online here. 4825:Rosen, Edward (1960), 3801:Huff, Toby E. (2003). 3393: 2798:; Cherniss 1957]], p. 2776:Gent & Godwin 1883 2585:July 29, 2012, at the 2121:cosmological principle 2009: 1798: 1720:; these rotate due to 1647: 1638: 1606: 1481: 1356: 1281: 1152: 1051:Johannes Regiomontanus 908: 775: 694:Medieval Islamic world 528: 523:Platonicae Quaestiones 495:A reply to Aristarchus 481: 476:De facie in orbe lunae 429: 359: 250:, a regression, since 227: 56: 7453:Deferent and epicycle 7382:Antikythera mechanism 6390:Goddu, André (2010). 5947:"Meet the Stargazers" 5005:"Kepler and His Laws" 4859:Hooykaas, R. (1973). 4801:Revolution in Science 4527:Freely, John (2015). 4411:Cook, Theodore Andrea 3636:Samsó, Julio (2007). 3388: 3332:, 64 (1973): 239–243. 3268:Plofker, Kim (2009). 2485:Russo, Lucio (2003). 2007: 1787: 1767:observatories called 1757:universal gravitation 1689:Scientific revolution 1679:Further information: 1642: 1634: 1595: 1475: 1353: 1277: 1264:and several Catholic 1243:Copernican Revolution 1146: 1086:Arzachel (Al-Zarqali) 903: 861:system later proposed 833:Samarkand observatory 791:Nur ad-Din al-Bitruji 766:An illustration from 765: 506: 460: 403: 354: 321:rotation of the Earth 224: 190:Copernican Revolution 131:Copernican Revolution 81:at the center of the 54:Harmonia Macrocosmica 48: 7524:Babylonian astronomy 7215:Hippocrates of Chios 6998:JV Chelliah (1946). 6863:10.1162/posc_a_00552 6373:The Book Nobody Read 6128:Philosophia Islamica 6111:center-of-mass frame 5488:"Viviani's pendulum" 5477:, pp. 279, 312. 5333:Weintraub, David A. 4986:Grosset & Dunlap 4872:Bye, Dan J. (2007). 4848:The Book Nobody Read 4784:Melanchthon (1549). 4681:Henry, John (2001). 4091:on November 27, 2018 3559:Covington, Richard. 3345:Mathematics in India 3342:Kim Plofker (2009). 3271:Mathematics in India 2830:, pp. 113–117). 2615:. Book IV, Part 1.2. 2512:Dicks, D.R. (1970). 2253:Copernican principle 2203:" and "heliocentric 2117:Copernican principle 1989:relativity of motion 1907:Reception in Judaism 1726:centripetal pressure 1384:Aristotelian physics 1125:(printed in 1472 by 961:Maragheh observatory 924:John Scotus Eriugena 851:(1444–1544), in his 661:spinning on its axis 561:Seleucus of Seleucia 555:Seleucus of Seleucia 364:Aristarchus of Samos 347:Aristarchus of Samos 317:Heraclides of Pontus 288:was proposed by the 252:Aristarchus of Samos 201:Aristarchus of Samos 91:Aristarchus of Samos 7295:Theon of Alexandria 6887:Columbia University 6769:1995cops.book.....R 6558:Available from the 6419:2015saaa.book.....G 6148:1995JHA....26..133D 6041:1975VA.....17...65B 6029:Vistas in Astronomy 5900:1975VA.....17...65B 5888:Vistas in Astronomy 5861:1965PASP...77..325V 5816:1975VA.....17...65B 5804:Vistas in Astronomy 5648:Rationalist Judaism 5571:www.hebrewbooks.org 5428:, pp. 147–175. 5140:, pp. 110–115. 5108:, pp. 110–111. 5041:] the same... " 4837:, pp. 161–171. 4799:Cohen, I. Bernard. 4786:Elements of Physics 4630:of Nicole Oresme", 4570:1973JHA.....4..128V 4469:Huff, T.E. (2010). 4375:Library of Congress 4268:1973PAPhS.117..423S 4161:2008Obs...128..231G 4065:De docta ignorantia 3854:1998BASI...26...11R 3770:2001Osir...16...49R 3543:Nicolaus Copernicus 3007:1987NYASA.500..525V 2971:on January 27, 2018 2920:2000eaa..bookE3998. 2711:1923PA.....31..510R 2669:Neugebauer, Otto E. 2640:1992JHA....23..233E 2043:introduced motion, 1887:. In the same year 1826:Vatican Observatory 1816:was established by 1554:Letters on Sunspots 1513:Venus showed phases 1300:Nicolaus Copernicus 1254:Nicolaus Copernicus 1223:Heraclides Ponticus 1156:Nicolaus Copernicus 1149:Nicolaus Copernicus 1119:Georg von Peuerbach 1108:Questiones de Spera 1027:Theodore Metochites 954:Hermes Trismegistus 849:Nilakantha Somayaji 269:Classical antiquity 127:Nicolaus Copernicus 95:Philolaus of Croton 73:model in which the 62:(also known as the 7529:Egyptian astronomy 7443:Circle of latitude 7028:on August 16, 2013 6206:Hicks, Robert Drew 6076:Astronomy Magazine 4416:The Curves of Life 4368:(April 27, 2006). 4063:Nicholas of Cusa, 3893:10.1007/BF02839373 3720:Science in Context 2938:10.1888/0333750888 2580:Ptolemy's Universe 2378:' work on gravity. 2233:general relativity 2010: 1981:R. M.M. Schneerson 1921:radical skepticism 1799: 1724:and the resulting 1710:a mechanical model 1658:Pope Alexander VII 1529:heliocentric model 1523:, as predicted by 1482: 1357: 1275:purportedly said: 1153: 1066:Islamic Golden Age 1047:Basilios Bessarion 1019:Gregory Chioniades 998:Otto E. Neugebauer 909: 784:natural philosophy 776: 772:phases of the Moon 728:accepted that the 710:Muslim astronomers 519:Platonic Questions 502:Platonic Questions 360: 248:Astronomical Units 228: 115:mathematical model 108:Hellenistic period 64:heliocentric model 57: 40:Heliocentric orbit 7563: 7562: 7438:Celestial spheres 6990:978-0-387-94107-3 6965:978-0-521-24254-7 6944:978-3-631-56229-1 6923:978-0-521-56671-1 6904:978-0-19-920687-2 6806:978-3-642-18904-3 6778:978-1-85285-071-5 6687:Plutarch's Morals 6638:978-0-521-82750-8 6618:978-1-890318-25-3 6599:978-0-8014-0504-4 6553:978-0-14-019246-9 6506:978-0-19-958352-2 6485:978-0-268-03483-2 6466:978-0-674-00536-5 6451:Heilbron, John L. 6436:Heath, Sir Thomas 6428:978-0-268-02988-3 6401:978-90-04-18107-6 6382:978-0-434-01315-9 6340:Finn's fine books 6338:is available at 6328:on July 13, 2007. 6321:978-88-09-20881-0 6256:978-0-19-509539-5 6236:978-0-486-60079-6 6196:Diogenes Laërtius 6187:978-0-226-16226-3 6010:978-0-521-66148-5 5984:978-0-06-053595-7 5735:978-0-19-975479-3 5679:978-0-19-975479-3 5437:John L.Heilbron, 5335:Is Pluto a Planet 5084:, pp. 56–57. 4698:978-1-84046-251-7 4613:978-0-387-06995-1 4538:978-1-78453-138-6 4482:978-1-139-49535-6 4312:978-0-387-31022-0 4240:978-0-8147-8023-7 4001:De revolutionibus 3986:978-90-04-16186-3 3814:978-0-521-52994-5 3690:978-0-684-10114-9 3651:978-0-387-31022-0 3533:, pp. 5–10.. 3517:978-0-521-57600-0 3492:978-1-4384-1419-5 3467:978-0-521-02887-5 3408:Famous Scientists 3387:, pp. 317f: 3359:978-0-691-12067-6 3281:978-1-4008-3407-5 3137:De revolutionibus 3122:978-90-04-16186-3 3071:Flussi e riflussi 3054:978-965-223-626-5 2947:978-0-333-75088-9 2698:Popular Astronomy 2682:978-3-540-06995-9 2556:978-0-521-29328-0 2529:978-0-8014-0561-7 2498:978-3-540-20068-0 2455:The Sand Reckoner 2328:) in 1685, after 2209:mechanical energy 2166:extrasolar planet 2094:globular clusters 1917:Maharal of Prague 1871:, and in 1851 by 1850:De Revolutionibus 1830:De Revolutionibus 1722:centrifugal force 1618:De Revolutionibus 1578:Robert Bellarmine 1361:De Revolutionibus 1331:De Revolutionibus 1305:De Revolutionibus 1293:De Revolutionibus 1203:De Revolutionibus 1176:retrograde motion 1070:De Revolutionibus 1059:Leonardo da Vinci 1039:Demetrios Kydones 1007:Byzantine science 940:Learned Ignorance 916:Early Middle Ages 912:Martianus Capella 875:Copernican models 853:Aryabhatiyabhasya 704:Islamic cosmology 630:Martianus Capella 626:Early Middle Ages 622:Martianus Capella 491:Diogenes Laërtius 420:The Sand Reckoner 394:The Sand Reckoner 244:celestial spheres 226:around the Earth. 139:elliptical orbits 129:, leading to the 50:Andreas Cellarius 16:(Redirected from 7665: 7628: 7627: 7626: 7616: 7615: 7614: 7604: 7603: 7602: 7592: 7591: 7580: 7579: 7578: 7571: 7550:Indian astronomy 7503:Sublunary sphere 7473:Hipparchic cycle 7412:Mural instrument 7387:Armillary sphere 7366: 7356: 7346: 7336: 7326: 7082: 7075: 7068: 7059: 7058: 7048: 7037: 7035: 7033: 7024:. Archived from 7005: 6994: 6975: 6974: 6972: 6948: 6927: 6908: 6890: 6874: 6842: 6831:10.2307/20547344 6817: 6815: 6813: 6782: 6755: 6728: 6725:Cherniss, Harold 6704: 6690: 6674: 6642: 6622: 6603: 6586:Koyré, Alexandre 6575:Koyré, Alexandre 6570: 6569: 6563: 6561:Internet Archive 6557: 6538:Koestler, Arthur 6533: 6510: 6489: 6470: 6446: 6431: 6405: 6386: 6364: 6329: 6324:. Archived from 6293: 6266: 6265: 6263: 6239: 6216: 6215: 6213: 6204:, translated by 6191: 6167: 6113: 6107: 6101: 6094: 6088: 6087: 6085: 6083: 6066: 6060: 6059: 6057: 6055: 6020: 6014: 6013: 5994: 5988: 5987: 5968: 5962: 5961: 5959: 5957: 5943: 5937: 5936: 5934: 5932: 5918: 5912: 5911: 5883: 5874: 5873: 5872: 5855:(458): 324–328, 5844: 5835: 5834: 5832: 5830: 5795: 5789: 5788: 5778: 5754: 5748: 5747: 5721: 5715: 5714: 5712: 5710: 5698: 5692: 5691: 5665: 5659: 5658: 5656: 5654: 5639: 5633: 5632: 5630: 5628: 5614: 5608: 5607: 5597: 5588: 5582: 5581: 5579: 5577: 5563: 5557: 5534: 5528: 5522: 5516: 5513: 5507: 5498: 5492: 5491: 5484: 5478: 5472: 5466: 5460: 5454: 5435: 5429: 5423: 5417: 5406: 5397: 5387: 5381: 5374: 5368: 5367: 5344: 5338: 5331: 5322: 5319: 5313: 5303: 5297: 5287: 5281: 5269: 5260: 5259: 5256:Retrying Galileo 5251: 5242: 5236: 5227: 5214:Domínguez (2014) 5211: 5205: 5195: 5189: 5183: 5177: 5171: 5165: 5162:Finocchiaro 2010 5159: 5153: 5147: 5141: 5135: 5129: 5127: 5115: 5109: 5103: 5097: 5091: 5085: 5079: 5073: 5063: 5057: 5051: 5042: 5026: 5020: 5019: 5017: 5015: 5000: 4994: 4993: 4983: 4980:Man and His Gods 4973: 4967: 4961: 4955: 4950:J. Hist. Astron. 4945: 4939: 4938:, 51, 1990, 364. 4932: 4926: 4925: 4899: 4893: 4870: 4864: 4857: 4851: 4844: 4838: 4823: 4817: 4811: 4805: 4804: 4796: 4790: 4789: 4781: 4775: 4774: 4767: 4761: 4751: 4745: 4734: 4728: 4721: 4715: 4709: 4703: 4702: 4678: 4672: 4662: 4656: 4655: 4623: 4617: 4616: 4600:Neugebauer, Otto 4596: 4590: 4589: 4549: 4543: 4542: 4524: 4518: 4512: 4506: 4500: 4494: 4493: 4491: 4489: 4466: 4460: 4454: 4448: 4445: 4439: 4438: 4431: 4425: 4424: 4407: 4401: 4400: 4393: 4387: 4386: 4384: 4382: 4362: 4356: 4352:(2014), 183–195 4342: 4336: 4328: 4322: 4316: 4294: 4288: 4287: 4251: 4245: 4244: 4226: 4220: 4219: 4182: 4176: 4170: 4164: 4163: 4144: 4138: 4137: 4107: 4101: 4100: 4098: 4096: 4087:. Archived from 4074: 4068: 4061: 4055: 4054: 4022: 4013: 4012: 3996: 3990: 3989: 3972: 3966: 3952: 3946: 3945: 3930: 3924: 3918: 3912: 3911: 3876: 3870: 3864: 3858: 3857: 3837: 3831: 3825: 3819: 3818: 3798: 3789: 3788: 3749: 3743: 3742: 3726:(1–2): 145–163, 3715: 3709: 3701: 3695: 3694: 3670: 3661: 3655: 3633: 3627: 3621: 3610: 3599: 3593: 3582: 3576: 3575: 3573: 3571: 3556: 3550: 3540: 3534: 3528: 3522: 3521: 3503: 3497: 3496: 3478: 3472: 3471: 3449: 3438: 3437: 3425: 3419: 3418: 3416: 3414: 3400: 3394: 3382: 3376: 3370: 3364: 3363: 3339: 3333: 3326: 3320: 3313: 3307: 3300: 3294: 3293: 3265: 3259: 3253: 3247: 3246: 3214: 3208: 3207: 3175: 3169: 3155: 3149: 3148: 3132: 3126: 3125: 3108: 3102: 3088: 3082: 3064: 3058: 3057: 3045:Brill Publishers 3033: 3027: 3026: 2987: 2981: 2980: 2978: 2976: 2967:. Archived from 2957: 2951: 2950: 2931: 2907: 2901: 2891: 2885: 2875: 2864: 2850: 2844: 2837: 2831: 2765: 2759: 2756: 2750: 2739: 2733: 2723: 2714: 2713: 2692: 2686: 2685: 2665: 2659: 2658: 2623: 2617: 2616: 2608: 2602: 2595: 2589: 2576: 2570: 2567: 2561: 2560: 2540: 2534: 2533: 2509: 2503: 2502: 2482: 2476: 2465: 2459: 2431: 2414: 2411:Abraham Calovius 2398: 2392: 2385: 2379: 2368: 2362: 2316: 2315: 2303: 2302: 2279: 2241:Mach's principle 2229:scientific model 2205:angular momentum 2185:reference frames 2014:William Herschel 1893:Thomas Henderson 1883:of a star named 1818:Pope Clement XIV 1604: 1586:Francesco Ingoli 1574:Council of Trent 1548:Sidereus Nuncius 1533:geocentric model 1501: 1492: 1262:Pope Clement VII 1043:Gemistos Plethon 1023:Manuel Bryennios 935:Nicholas of Cusa 905:Nicholas of Cusa 829:Earth's rotation 806:Earth's rotation 757:'alā Baṭalamiyūs 756: 727: 721: 714:Ptolemaic system 646:Indian astronomy 541:Sextus Empiricus 526: 525:viii. I, 1006 C) 479: 427: 375: 373: 370: 206:geocentric model 158:Friedrich Bessel 154:William Herschel 21: 7673: 7672: 7668: 7667: 7666: 7664: 7663: 7662: 7638: 7637: 7634: 7624: 7622: 7612: 7610: 7600: 7598: 7586: 7576: 7574: 7566: 7564: 7559: 7533: 7512: 7498:Spherical Earth 7433:Callippic cycle 7421: 7402:Equatorial ring 7370: 7364: 7354: 7344: 7334: 7324: 7309: 7300:Theon of Smyrna 7091: 7086: 7046: 7031: 7029: 7016: 7013: 7008: 6991: 6981:Early Astronomy 6970: 6968: 6966: 6945: 6924: 6905: 6811: 6809: 6807: 6779: 6744: 6663:10.2307/2708908 6639: 6619: 6600: 6564: 6559: 6554: 6530: 6507: 6486: 6467: 6429: 6402: 6383: 6369:Gingerich, Owen 6362: 6322: 6298:Favaro, Antonio 6282: 6261: 6259: 6257: 6237: 6211: 6209: 6188: 6177:Galileo At Work 6172:Drake, Stillman 6122: 6117: 6116: 6108: 6104: 6100:, 32 (1), 1–29. 6095: 6091: 6081: 6079: 6067: 6063: 6053: 6051: 6021: 6017: 6011: 5995: 5991: 5985: 5969: 5965: 5955: 5953: 5945: 5944: 5940: 5930: 5928: 5920: 5919: 5915: 5884: 5877: 5845: 5838: 5828: 5826: 5796: 5792: 5755: 5751: 5736: 5722: 5718: 5708: 5706: 5701: 5699: 5695: 5680: 5666: 5662: 5652: 5650: 5640: 5636: 5626: 5624: 5622:hebrewbooks.org 5616: 5615: 5611: 5595: 5589: 5585: 5575: 5573: 5565: 5564: 5560: 5556:, p. 220). 5535: 5531: 5523: 5519: 5514: 5510: 5499: 5495: 5486: 5485: 5481: 5473: 5469: 5461: 5457: 5436: 5432: 5424: 5420: 5407: 5400: 5388: 5384: 5375: 5371: 5364: 5345: 5341: 5332: 5325: 5320: 5316: 5304: 5300: 5288: 5284: 5270: 5263: 5252: 5245: 5237: 5230: 5221:Wayback Machine 5212: 5208: 5196: 5192: 5184: 5180: 5172: 5168: 5160: 5156: 5148: 5144: 5136: 5132: 5125: 5116: 5112: 5104: 5100: 5092: 5088: 5080: 5076: 5064: 5060: 5052: 5045: 5027: 5023: 5013: 5011: 5001: 4997: 4974: 4970: 4962: 4958: 4952:, Vol. 29, 1998 4946: 4942: 4933: 4929: 4914: 4900: 4896: 4891:Wayback Machine 4879:The Freethinker 4871: 4867: 4858: 4854: 4845: 4841: 4824: 4820: 4812: 4808: 4797: 4793: 4782: 4778: 4769: 4768: 4764: 4752: 4748: 4735: 4731: 4722: 4718: 4710: 4706: 4699: 4679: 4675: 4663: 4659: 4624: 4620: 4614: 4597: 4593: 4550: 4546: 4539: 4525: 4521: 4515:Veselovsky 1973 4513: 4509: 4501: 4497: 4487: 4485: 4483: 4467: 4463: 4455: 4451: 4446: 4442: 4433: 4432: 4428: 4408: 4404: 4395: 4394: 4390: 4380: 4378: 4363: 4359: 4343: 4339: 4329: 4325: 4313: 4295: 4291: 4252: 4248: 4241: 4227: 4223: 4195:(3): 365–378 , 4183: 4179: 4171: 4167: 4149:The Observatory 4145: 4141: 4108: 4104: 4094: 4092: 4075: 4071: 4062: 4058: 4023: 4016: 3997: 3993: 3987: 3973: 3969: 3953: 3949: 3937:Current Science 3931: 3927: 3919: 3915: 3877: 3873: 3865: 3861: 3838: 3834: 3826: 3822: 3815: 3799: 3792: 3750: 3746: 3716: 3712: 3702: 3698: 3691: 3671: 3664: 3652: 3634: 3630: 3622: 3613: 3600: 3596: 3583: 3579: 3569: 3567: 3557: 3553: 3541: 3537: 3529: 3525: 3518: 3504: 3500: 3493: 3479: 3475: 3468: 3450: 3441: 3426: 3422: 3412: 3410: 3402: 3401: 3397: 3383: 3379: 3371: 3367: 3360: 3340: 3336: 3327: 3323: 3314: 3310: 3301: 3297: 3282: 3266: 3262: 3254: 3250: 3215: 3211: 3176: 3172: 3156: 3152: 3133: 3129: 3123: 3109: 3105: 3089: 3085: 3065: 3061: 3055: 3043:, vol. 2, 3034: 3030: 3001:(1): 525–545 , 2988: 2984: 2974: 2972: 2959: 2958: 2954: 2948: 2929:10.1.1.255.9251 2908: 2904: 2892: 2888: 2876: 2867: 2863:, for instance. 2859:and n. 104, p. 2851: 2847: 2838: 2834: 2766: 2762: 2757: 2753: 2743:celestial poles 2740: 2736: 2724: 2717: 2693: 2689: 2683: 2666: 2662: 2624: 2620: 2609: 2605: 2596: 2592: 2587:Wayback Machine 2577: 2573: 2568: 2564: 2557: 2541: 2537: 2530: 2510: 2506: 2499: 2483: 2479: 2466: 2462: 2432: 2428: 2423: 2418: 2417: 2399: 2395: 2386: 2382: 2369: 2365: 2359:Heliozentrismus 2355:Heliocentrismus 2289:, according to 2280: 2276: 2271: 2266: 2249: 2193:Right ascension 2181: 2141: 2102:galactocentrism 2083:stellar systems 2067: 2061:Galactocentrism 2059:Main articles: 2057: 2041:Jacobus Kapteyn 2002: 1997: 1966:Yafe’ah le-Ketz 1911:Already in the 1909: 1838:Filippo Anfossi 1779:pinhole cameras 1777:", or gigantic 1691: 1677: 1624:Pope Urban VIII 1605: 1602: 1539: 1538: 1537: 1536: 1535:(second image). 1509:Galileo Galilei 1504: 1503: 1502: 1494: 1493: 1478:Galileo Galilei 1470: 1464: 1442:Astronomia nova 1433:Johannes Kepler 1429: 1427:Johannes Kepler 1418: 1377:Tychonic system 1367:, in which the 1348: 1346:Tychonic system 1342: 1297: 1291:Publication of 1250: 1245: 1239: 1188:Tychonic system 1141: 1135: 1035:Nilos Kabasilas 1031:Gregory Palamas 1015:Byzantine Greek 898: 896:Medieval period 893: 887: 845: 816:(d. 1277), and 754: 723: 717: 706: 696: 648: 642: 611: 576:Seleucid Empire 563: 557: 527: 517: 480: 470: 428: 418: 371: 366: 349: 282: 277: 271: 174: 143:Galileo Galilei 135:Johannes Kepler 43: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 7671: 7661: 7660: 7655: 7650: 7633: 7632: 7620: 7608: 7596: 7584: 7561: 7560: 7558: 7557: 7552: 7547: 7541: 7539: 7535: 7534: 7532: 7531: 7526: 7520: 7518: 7514: 7513: 7511: 7510: 7505: 7500: 7495: 7490: 7485: 7480: 7475: 7470: 7465: 7460: 7455: 7450: 7445: 7440: 7435: 7429: 7427: 7423: 7422: 7420: 7419: 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Otzar770.com 5693: 5678: 5660: 5634: 5609: 5583: 5558: 5529: 5517: 5508: 5493: 5479: 5467: 5455: 5430: 5418: 5414:at pp. 232–233 5398: 5382: 5369: 5362: 5339: 5323: 5314: 5298: 5282: 5261: 5243: 5241:, p. 218. 5228: 5206: 5190: 5178: 5176:, pp. 71. 5166: 5164:, pp. 72. 5154: 5142: 5130: 5110: 5098: 5096:, p. 240. 5086: 5074: 5058: 5043: 5021: 4995: 4968: 4966:, p. 109. 4956: 4940: 4927: 4912: 4894: 4865: 4852: 4839: 4818: 4806: 4803:. p. 497. 4791: 4776: 4762: 4746: 4744:, p. 32). 4742:Gingerich 2004 4740:, p. 85; 4729: 4716: 4712:Gingerich 2004 4704: 4697: 4673: 4657: 4644:10.1086/350791 4638:(4): 490–498, 4618: 4612: 4591: 4564:(2): 128–130, 4544: 4537: 4519: 4507: 4495: 4481: 4461: 4449: 4440: 4426: 4402: 4388: 4366:Saliba, George 4357: 4337: 4323: 4311: 4289: 4246: 4239: 4221: 4201:10.1086/350144 4177: 4165: 4139: 4126:10.1086/348774 4120:(3): 232–234. 4102: 4069: 4056: 4014: 3991: 3985: 3967: 3947: 3925: 3923:, p. 408. 3913: 3871: 3869:, p. 788. 3859: 3832: 3820: 3813: 3790: 3778:10.1086/649338 3760:, 2nd Series, 3744: 3710: 3705:Hikmat al-'Ain 3696: 3689: 3662: 3650: 3628: 3611: 3594: 3577: 3551: 3535: 3523: 3516: 3498: 3491: 3473: 3466: 3439: 3420: 3395: 3377: 3365: 3358: 3334: 3321: 3308: 3295: 3280: 3260: 3258:, p. 188. 3248: 3209: 3170: 3150: 3127: 3121: 3103: 3083: 3059: 3053: 3028: 2982: 2952: 2946: 2902: 2886: 2865: 2845: 2832: 2760: 2751: 2734: 2715: 2687: 2681: 2660: 2618: 2603: 2590: 2571: 2562: 2555: 2535: 2528: 2504: 2497: 2477: 2460: 2425: 2424: 2422: 2419: 2416: 2415: 2393: 2380: 2363: 2333:heliocentricus 2273: 2272: 2270: 2267: 2265: 2262: 2261: 2260: 2255: 2248: 2245: 2225:gravity assist 2189:center of mass 2180: 2172:Modern use of 2170: 2140: 2137: 2090:Harlow Shapley 2065:Big Bang model 2056: 2053: 2001: 1998: 1996: 1995:Modern science 1993: 1977:Shlomo Benizri 1908: 1905: 1901:Alpha Centauri 1852:and Galileo's 1694:René Descartes 1676: 1673: 1660:published his 1600: 1506: 1505: 1496: 1495: 1487: 1486: 1485: 1484: 1483: 1468:Galileo affair 1466:Main article: 1463: 1460: 1435:developed his 1428: 1425: 1421:Giordano Bruno 1417: 1416:Giordano Bruno 1414: 1344:Main article: 1341: 1338: 1296: 1289: 1249: 1246: 1241:Main article: 1238: 1235: 1137:Main article: 1134: 1131: 986:Commentariolus 897: 894: 886: 883: 870:Tantrasamgraha 844: 843:Medieval India 841: 750:Ibn al-Haytham 695: 692: 641: 638: 615:Roman Carthage 610: 609:Late antiquity 607: 603:center of mass 559:Main article: 556: 553: 515: 468: 416: 348: 345: 281: 278: 270: 267: 236:spinning Earth 197:Pythagoreanism 182:daily rotation 173: 170: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7670: 7659: 7656: 7654: 7651: 7649: 7646: 7645: 7643: 7636: 7631: 7621: 7619: 7609: 7607: 7597: 7595: 7590: 7585: 7583: 7573: 7572: 7569: 7556: 7553: 7551: 7548: 7546: 7543: 7542: 7540: 7536: 7530: 7527: 7525: 7522: 7521: 7519: 7515: 7509: 7506: 7504: 7501: 7499: 7496: 7494: 7491: 7489: 7486: 7484: 7483:Metonic cycle 7481: 7479: 7476: 7474: 7471: 7469: 7468:Heliocentrism 7466: 7464: 7461: 7459: 7456: 7454: 7451: 7449: 7448:Counter-Earth 7446: 7444: 7441: 7439: 7436: 7434: 7431: 7430: 7428: 7424: 7418: 7415: 7413: 7410: 7408: 7405: 7403: 7400: 7398: 7395: 7393: 7390: 7388: 7385: 7383: 7380: 7379: 7377: 7373: 7367: 7363: 7359: 7357: 7355:(Aristarchus) 7353: 7349: 7347: 7343: 7339: 7337: 7333: 7329: 7327: 7323: 7319: 7318: 7316: 7312: 7306: 7303: 7301: 7298: 7296: 7293: 7291: 7288: 7286: 7283: 7281: 7278: 7276: 7273: 7271: 7268: 7266: 7263: 7261: 7258: 7256: 7253: 7251: 7248: 7246: 7243: 7241: 7238: 7236: 7233: 7231: 7228: 7226: 7223: 7221: 7218: 7216: 7213: 7211: 7208: 7206: 7203: 7201: 7198: 7196: 7193: 7191: 7188: 7186: 7183: 7181: 7178: 7176: 7173: 7171: 7168: 7166: 7163: 7161: 7158: 7156: 7153: 7151: 7148: 7146: 7143: 7141: 7138: 7136: 7133: 7131: 7128: 7126: 7123: 7121: 7118: 7116: 7113: 7111: 7108: 7106: 7103: 7102: 7100: 7098: 7094: 7090: 7083: 7078: 7076: 7071: 7069: 7064: 7063: 7060: 7053: 7049: 7044: 7042: 7039: 7027: 7023: 7019: 7015: 7014: 7003: 7002: 6996: 6992: 6986: 6982: 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6287: 6283: 6281:88-209-7427-4 6277: 6273: 6268: 6258: 6252: 6248: 6247: 6241: 6238: 6232: 6228: 6227: 6222: 6218: 6207: 6203: 6202: 6197: 6193: 6189: 6183: 6179: 6178: 6173: 6169: 6165: 6161: 6157: 6153: 6149: 6145: 6142:(2): 133–54. 6141: 6137: 6132: 6129: 6125: 6124: 6112: 6106: 6099: 6093: 6078: 6077: 6072: 6065: 6050: 6046: 6042: 6038: 6034: 6030: 6026: 6019: 6012: 6006: 6002: 6001: 5993: 5986: 5980: 5976: 5975: 5967: 5952: 5948: 5942: 5927: 5923: 5917: 5909: 5905: 5901: 5897: 5893: 5889: 5882: 5880: 5871: 5866: 5862: 5858: 5854: 5850: 5843: 5841: 5825: 5821: 5817: 5813: 5809: 5805: 5801: 5794: 5786: 5782: 5777: 5772: 5768: 5764: 5760: 5753: 5745: 5741: 5737: 5731: 5727: 5720: 5704: 5697: 5689: 5685: 5681: 5675: 5671: 5664: 5649: 5645: 5638: 5623: 5619: 5613: 5605: 5601: 5594: 5587: 5572: 5568: 5562: 5555: 5551: 5547: 5543: 5539: 5533: 5526: 5521: 5512: 5505: 5502: 5497: 5489: 5483: 5476: 5475:Heilbron 2005 5471: 5464: 5463:Heilbron 2005 5459: 5452: 5451:0-268-03483-4 5448: 5444: 5440: 5434: 5427: 5426:Heilbron 1999 5422: 5415: 5411: 5405: 5403: 5396: 5393:, Volume 2A, 5392: 5386: 5379: 5373: 5365: 5363:0-691-02350-6 5359: 5355: 5354: 5349: 5343: 5336: 5330: 5328: 5318: 5311: 5307: 5306:Heilbron 1999 5302: 5295: 5291: 5290:Koestler 1990 5286: 5279: 5275: 5274: 5268: 5266: 5257: 5250: 5248: 5240: 5239:Heilbron 2010 5235: 5233: 5226: 5222: 5218: 5215: 5210: 5203: 5199: 5194: 5187: 5182: 5175: 5170: 5163: 5158: 5151: 5146: 5139: 5138:Sharratt 1994 5134: 5123: 5119: 5114: 5107: 5106:Sharratt 1994 5102: 5095: 5090: 5083: 5082:Langford 1998 5078: 5071: 5067: 5066:Koestler 1990 5062: 5055: 5050: 5048: 5040: 5039: 5034: 5030: 5029:Koestler 1990 5025: 5010: 5006: 4999: 4991: 4987: 4982: 4981: 4972: 4965: 4960: 4953: 4951: 4944: 4937: 4931: 4923: 4919: 4915: 4913:0-88318-863-5 4909: 4905: 4898: 4892: 4888: 4885: 4881: 4880: 4875: 4869: 4862: 4856: 4849: 4843: 4836: 4832: 4828: 4822: 4815: 4810: 4802: 4795: 4787: 4780: 4772: 4766: 4759: 4755: 4750: 4743: 4739: 4733: 4726: 4720: 4714:, p. 51. 4713: 4708: 4700: 4694: 4690: 4686: 4685: 4677: 4670: 4666: 4665:Koestler 1990 4661: 4653: 4649: 4645: 4641: 4637: 4633: 4629: 4622: 4615: 4609: 4605: 4601: 4595: 4587: 4583: 4579: 4575: 4571: 4567: 4563: 4559: 4555: 4548: 4540: 4534: 4530: 4523: 4516: 4511: 4504: 4499: 4484: 4478: 4474: 4473: 4465: 4458: 4453: 4444: 4436: 4430: 4422: 4418: 4417: 4412: 4406: 4398: 4392: 4377: 4376: 4371: 4367: 4361: 4355: 4351: 4347: 4341: 4335: 4333: 4327: 4320: 4314: 4308: 4304: 4300: 4293: 4285: 4281: 4277: 4273: 4269: 4265: 4261: 4257: 4250: 4242: 4236: 4233:. NYU Press. 4232: 4225: 4218: 4214: 4210: 4206: 4202: 4198: 4194: 4190: 4189: 4181: 4174: 4169: 4162: 4158: 4154: 4150: 4143: 4135: 4131: 4127: 4123: 4119: 4115: 4114: 4106: 4090: 4086: 4085: 4080: 4073: 4066: 4060: 4052: 4048: 4044: 4040: 4036: 4032: 4028: 4021: 4019: 4010: 4006: 4002: 3995: 3988: 3982: 3978: 3971: 3964: 3960: 3956: 3955:William Stahl 3951: 3943: 3939: 3938: 3929: 3922: 3917: 3910: 3906: 3902: 3898: 3894: 3890: 3887:(5): 58–72 , 3886: 3882: 3875: 3868: 3863: 3855: 3851: 3847: 3843: 3836: 3829: 3824: 3816: 3810: 3806: 3805: 3797: 3795: 3787: 3783: 3779: 3775: 3771: 3767: 3763: 3759: 3755: 3748: 3741: 3737: 3733: 3729: 3725: 3721: 3714: 3707: 3706: 3700: 3692: 3686: 3682: 3681: 3676: 3669: 3667: 3659: 3653: 3647: 3643: 3639: 3632: 3625: 3620: 3618: 3616: 3608: 3604: 3598: 3591: 3587: 3581: 3566: 3562: 3555: 3548: 3544: 3539: 3532: 3527: 3519: 3513: 3509: 3502: 3494: 3488: 3484: 3477: 3469: 3463: 3459: 3455: 3448: 3446: 3444: 3435: 3431: 3424: 3409: 3405: 3399: 3392: 3386: 3381: 3374: 3369: 3361: 3355: 3351: 3347: 3346: 3338: 3331: 3325: 3318: 3312: 3305: 3299: 3291: 3287: 3283: 3277: 3273: 3272: 3264: 3257: 3256:Thurston 1993 3252: 3244: 3240: 3236: 3232: 3228: 3224: 3220: 3213: 3205: 3201: 3197: 3193: 3189: 3185: 3181: 3174: 3167: 3163: 3159: 3158:William Stahl 3154: 3146: 3142: 3138: 3131: 3124: 3118: 3114: 3107: 3100: 3096: 3092: 3091:William Stahl 3087: 3080: 3079:88-07-10349-4 3076: 3072: 3068: 3063: 3056: 3050: 3046: 3042: 3038: 3037:Pines, Shlomo 3032: 3024: 3020: 3016: 3012: 3008: 3004: 3000: 2996: 2992: 2991:Bartel, B. L. 2986: 2970: 2966: 2962: 2956: 2949: 2943: 2939: 2935: 2930: 2925: 2921: 2917: 2913: 2906: 2899: 2895: 2890: 2883: 2879: 2874: 2872: 2870: 2862: 2858: 2854: 2849: 2842: 2836: 2829: 2825: 2821: 2817: 2813: 2809: 2805: 2801: 2797: 2793: 2792:Prickard 1911 2789: 2785: 2781: 2777: 2773: 2769: 2764: 2755: 2748: 2744: 2738: 2731: 2727: 2722: 2720: 2712: 2708: 2704: 2700: 2699: 2691: 2684: 2678: 2674: 2670: 2664: 2657: 2653: 2649: 2645: 2641: 2637: 2633: 2629: 2622: 2614: 2607: 2601:Wiley, p. 54. 2600: 2594: 2588: 2584: 2581: 2578:Dennis Duke, 2575: 2566: 2558: 2552: 2548: 2547: 2539: 2531: 2525: 2521: 2517: 2516: 2508: 2500: 2494: 2490: 2489: 2481: 2475: 2474: 2469: 2468:Heliocentrism 2464: 2457: 2456: 2451: 2447: 2443: 2439: 2435: 2430: 2426: 2412: 2408: 2403: 2397: 2390: 2384: 2377: 2373: 2370:According to 2367: 2360: 2356: 2352: 2348: 2347: 2342: 2338: 2334: 2331: 2327: 2326:heliocentrick 2323: 2319: 2314: 2308: 2307: 2301: 2296: 2292: 2288: 2287:heliocentrism 2284: 2283:Heliocentrism 2278: 2274: 2259: 2256: 2254: 2251: 2250: 2244: 2242: 2238: 2234: 2230: 2226: 2222: 2218: 2214: 2210: 2206: 2202: 2198: 2194: 2190: 2186: 2179: 2175: 2169: 2167: 2163: 2158: 2154: 2150: 2146: 2136: 2134: 2130: 2126: 2122: 2118: 2114: 2110: 2105: 2103: 2099: 2095: 2091: 2086: 2084: 2080: 2076: 2075:Immanuel Kant 2072: 2071:Thomas Wright 2066: 2062: 2052: 2050: 2046: 2042: 2037: 2035: 2029: 2027: 2023: 2019: 2015: 2006: 1992: 1990: 1986: 1982: 1978: 1973: 1971: 1967: 1963: 1959: 1954: 1952: 1948: 1943: 1941: 1937: 1933: 1929: 1924: 1922: 1918: 1914: 1904: 1902: 1898: 1894: 1890: 1886: 1882: 1878: 1874: 1873:Léon Foucault 1870: 1867:, in 1838 by 1866: 1865:James Bradley 1861: 1859: 1855: 1851: 1847: 1843: 1839: 1835: 1832:or Galileo's 1831: 1827: 1823: 1822:Pope Leo XIII 1819: 1815: 1814:Roman College 1811: 1810: 1804: 1796: 1795:Joseph Wright 1792: 1791: 1786: 1782: 1780: 1776: 1772: 1771: 1764: 1762: 1758: 1754: 1753: 1748: 1743: 1741: 1737: 1736: 1731: 1727: 1723: 1719: 1715: 1711: 1707: 1706: 1701: 1700: 1695: 1690: 1686: 1682: 1675:Age of Reason 1672: 1670: 1666: 1664: 1659: 1654: 1652: 1646: 1641: 1637: 1633: 1631: 1630: 1625: 1621: 1619: 1615: 1611: 1599: 1594: 1590: 1587: 1582: 1579: 1575: 1571: 1567: 1564:In his 1615 " 1562: 1560: 1556: 1555: 1550: 1549: 1544: 1534: 1530: 1526: 1522: 1518: 1514: 1510: 1500: 1491: 1479: 1474: 1469: 1459: 1457: 1453: 1452: 1446: 1444: 1443: 1438: 1434: 1424: 1422: 1413: 1411: 1406: 1402: 1397: 1395: 1390: 1385: 1380: 1378: 1374: 1370: 1366: 1362: 1352: 1347: 1337: 1335: 1332: 1327: 1325: 1321: 1316: 1312: 1311:Pope Paul III 1307: 1306: 1301: 1294: 1288: 1286: 1280: 1276: 1274: 1273:Martin Luther 1269: 1267: 1263: 1259: 1255: 1244: 1234: 1232: 1228: 1224: 1220: 1216: 1212: 1208: 1204: 1199: 1197: 1193: 1189: 1185: 1181: 1177: 1173: 1172: 1167: 1163: 1162: 1157: 1150: 1145: 1140: 1130: 1128: 1127:Regiomontanus 1124: 1120: 1115: 1113: 1112:Nicole Oresme 1109: 1105: 1104: 1098: 1093: 1091: 1087: 1083: 1080:(Ibn Rushd), 1079: 1075: 1071: 1067: 1062: 1060: 1056: 1052: 1048: 1044: 1040: 1036: 1032: 1028: 1024: 1020: 1016: 1012: 1008: 1003: 999: 994: 992: 991:Ibn al-Shatir 988: 987: 982: 978: 974: 970: 966: 962: 957: 955: 951: 947: 946:machina mundi 942: 941: 936: 932: 931:Nicole Oresme 927: 925: 921: 917: 913: 906: 902: 892: 882: 880: 876: 872: 871: 866: 862: 858: 854: 850: 840: 839:(1403–1474). 838: 834: 830: 826: 821: 819: 815: 811: 807: 803: 799: 794: 792: 787: 785: 781: 780:Masudic Canon 773: 769: 764: 760: 758: 751: 747: 743: 739: 735: 731: 726: 720: 715: 712:accepted the 711: 705: 701: 691: 689: 685: 681: 677: 674: 670: 666: 662: 658: 657: 652: 647: 640:Ancient India 637: 635: 631: 627: 623: 620: 616: 606: 604: 600: 595: 593: 589: 585: 584:trigonometric 581: 577: 573: 568: 562: 552: 550: 546: 542: 538: 534: 524: 520: 514: 512: 505: 503: 498: 496: 492: 488: 487: 477: 473: 467: 465: 459: 457: 453: 449: 444: 442: 438: 434: 425: 421: 415: 413: 409: 402: 400: 396: 395: 390: 385: 383: 379: 365: 357: 353: 344: 342: 341:ancient Egypt 338: 334: 330: 326: 322: 318: 314: 311: 307: 303: 299: 295: 291: 287: 276: 266: 264: 259: 257: 253: 249: 245: 241: 237: 233: 223: 219: 217: 216: 211: 208:described in 207: 202: 198: 193: 191: 187: 183: 179: 169: 167: 163: 159: 155: 150: 148: 144: 140: 136: 132: 128: 124: 120: 116: 111: 109: 104: 100: 96: 92: 88: 84: 80: 76: 72: 69: 65: 61: 60:Heliocentrism 55: 51: 47: 41: 37: 33: 19: 7658:Solar System 7635: 7630:Solar System 7467: 7361: 7351: 7345:(Hipparchus) 7341: 7332:Catasterismi 7331: 7321: 7180:Eratosthenes 7032:November 27, 7030:. Retrieved 7026:the original 7021: 7000: 6980: 6969:, retrieved 6954: 6933: 6913: 6894: 6886: 6854: 6850: 6847:Sabra, A. I. 6822: 6810:. Retrieved 6791: 6787:Russo, Lucio 6760: 6733: 6716: 6699: 6686: 6654: 6650: 6647:Neher, André 6628: 6608: 6589: 6578: 6541: 6519: 6516: 6495: 6475: 6455: 6440: 6410: 6391: 6372: 6354:, Springer, 6351: 6335: 6326:the original 6307: 6302: 6271: 6260:, retrieved 6245: 6225: 6210:, retrieved 6200: 6176: 6139: 6135: 6127: 6105: 6097: 6092: 6080:. Retrieved 6074: 6064: 6052:. Retrieved 6035:(1): 65–83. 6032: 6028: 6018: 5999: 5992: 5973: 5966: 5954:. Retrieved 5950: 5941: 5929:. Retrieved 5925: 5916: 5894:(1): 65–83. 5891: 5887: 5852: 5848: 5827:. Retrieved 5810:(1): 65–83. 5807: 5803: 5793: 5766: 5762: 5752: 5725: 5719: 5707:. Retrieved 5696: 5669: 5663: 5651:. Retrieved 5647: 5637: 5625:. Retrieved 5621: 5612: 5603: 5599: 5586: 5574:. Retrieved 5570: 5561: 5549: 5545: 5541: 5538:Massé Touvia 5537: 5532: 5520: 5511: 5503: 5496: 5482: 5470: 5458: 5442: 5438: 5433: 5421: 5409: 5390: 5385: 5377: 5372: 5352: 5342: 5334: 5317: 5301: 5285: 5277: 5271: 5255: 5209: 5193: 5181: 5169: 5157: 5145: 5133: 5126:(in Italian) 5113: 5101: 5089: 5077: 5061: 5036: 5024: 5014:September 5, 5012:. Retrieved 5008: 4998: 4984:. New York: 4979: 4971: 4964:Fantoli 2003 4959: 4949: 4943: 4935: 4930: 4903: 4897: 4877: 4873: 4868: 4860: 4855: 4847: 4842: 4830: 4826: 4821: 4809: 4800: 4794: 4785: 4779: 4765: 4754:Speller 2008 4749: 4732: 4724: 4719: 4707: 4683: 4676: 4660: 4635: 4631: 4627: 4621: 4603: 4594: 4561: 4557: 4547: 4528: 4522: 4510: 4503:di Bono 1995 4498: 4486:. Retrieved 4471: 4464: 4452: 4443: 4429: 4415: 4405: 4391: 4379:. Retrieved 4373: 4360: 4349: 4345: 4340: 4331: 4326: 4302: 4292: 4259: 4255: 4249: 4230: 4224: 4192: 4186: 4180: 4168: 4155:: 231–239 , 4152: 4148: 4142: 4117: 4111: 4105: 4095:November 27, 4093:. Retrieved 4089:the original 4082: 4072: 4064: 4059: 4034: 4030: 4008: 4004: 4000: 3994: 3976: 3970: 3962: 3958: 3950: 3941: 3935: 3928: 3916: 3884: 3880: 3874: 3862: 3845: 3841: 3835: 3823: 3803: 3761: 3757: 3747: 3723: 3719: 3713: 3703: 3699: 3678: 3641: 3631: 3602: 3597: 3589: 3585: 3580: 3570:November 20, 3568:. Retrieved 3565:Aramco World 3564: 3554: 3538: 3526: 3507: 3501: 3482: 3476: 3453: 3433: 3429: 3423: 3413:November 20, 3411:. Retrieved 3407: 3404:"Al-Battani" 3398: 3389: 3380: 3368: 3344: 3337: 3329: 3324: 3316: 3311: 3303: 3298: 3270: 3263: 3251: 3226: 3222: 3212: 3187: 3183: 3173: 3165: 3161: 3153: 3144: 3140: 3136: 3130: 3112: 3106: 3098: 3094: 3086: 3070: 3062: 3040: 3031: 2998: 2994: 2985: 2975:November 20, 2973:. Retrieved 2969:the original 2965:Ics.forth.gr 2964: 2955: 2911: 2905: 2889: 2853:Edwards 1998 2848: 2835: 2815: 2811: 2803: 2763: 2754: 2737: 2705:: 511–512 , 2702: 2696: 2690: 2672: 2663: 2631: 2627: 2621: 2612: 2606: 2598: 2593: 2574: 2565: 2545: 2538: 2514: 2507: 2487: 2480: 2471: 2463: 2453: 2429: 2401: 2396: 2388: 2383: 2366: 2358: 2354: 2350: 2344: 2340: 2332: 2325: 2322:heliocentric 2321: 2317: 2304: 2286: 2282: 2277: 2182: 2178:heliocentric 2177: 2173: 2149:Solar System 2142: 2106: 2098:Edwin Hubble 2087: 2068: 2038: 2030: 2011: 1974: 1970:Mei Menuchot 1969: 1965: 1955: 1944: 1925: 1910: 1862: 1857: 1853: 1849: 1833: 1829: 1807: 1802: 1800: 1788: 1768: 1765: 1750: 1747:Isaac Newton 1744: 1733: 1729: 1718:curved space 1703: 1697: 1692: 1661: 1655: 1648: 1643: 1639: 1635: 1627: 1622: 1617: 1607: 1596: 1591: 1583: 1563: 1552: 1546: 1540: 1455: 1449: 1447: 1440: 1430: 1419: 1398: 1381: 1360: 1358: 1330: 1328: 1304: 1298: 1292: 1282: 1278: 1270: 1251: 1219:Pythagoreans 1202: 1200: 1169: 1159: 1154: 1147:Portrait of 1122: 1116: 1107: 1100: 1094: 1069: 1063: 995: 984: 958: 949: 945: 938: 928: 910: 868: 856: 852: 846: 822: 795: 788: 779: 777: 753: 741: 708:For a time, 707: 680:Varahamihira 654: 649: 612: 596: 564: 548: 544: 536: 529: 522: 518: 507: 501: 499: 494: 484: 482: 475: 471: 461: 455: 445: 430: 423: 419: 411: 407: 404: 399:Thomas Heath 392: 386: 378:Eratosthenes 361: 356:Aristarchus' 315: 292:philosopher 283: 280:Pythagoreans 260: 231: 229: 213: 194: 175: 166:Solar System 151: 112: 71:astronomical 63: 59: 58: 53: 18:Heliocentric 7618:Outer space 7606:Spaceflight 7463:Geocentrism 7375:Instruments 7365:(Aristotle) 7170:Cleostratus 7135:Aristarchus 7115:Anaximander 7097:Astronomers 6971:November 6, 6314:: Barbera. 6120:Works cited 5769:: 213–266. 5709:December 4, 5554:Neher (1977 5198:Favaro 1907 5186:Graney 2015 5174:Graney 2015 5150:Graney 2015 5120:, pp. 5118:Favaro 1907 4988:. pp. 4954:, pp. 1, 24 4488:October 31, 4319:PDF version 4037:(1): 1–20. 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865). 588:Hipparchus 448:common era 437:telescopes 389:Archimedes 372: 270 273:See also: 176:While the 162:barycenter 68:superseded 7582:Astronomy 7392:Astrolabe 7325:(Ptolemy) 7245:Philolaus 7235:Oenopides 7220:Hypsicles 7165:Cleomedes 7160:Callippus 7150:Autolycus 7105:Aglaonice 6871:117426616 6752:841809663 6540:(1990) . 6223:(1953) , 6198:(1972) , 6164:118330488 5926:Astro 801 5785:186213203 5744:808316428 5688:808316428 5653:August 8, 5410:Principia 5395:at p. 233 4652:144526697 4586:118453340 4276:0003-049X 4217:143569912 4134:143592051 4051:0003-9519 3909:118434268 3901:0973-712X 3881:Resonance 3786:142586786 3740:145372613 3586:Al-Abhath 3290:650305544 3243:0003-9519 3204:0003-9519 3023:222087224 2924:CiteSeerX 2812:Cleanthes 2656:118643709 2421:Citations 2330:Neo-Latin 2269:Footnotes 2109:expanding 2022:Milky Way 1803:Principia 1770:meridiane 1745:In 1687, 1699:The World 1656:In 1664, 1651:Simplicio 1570:Augustine 1320:heretical 1271:In 1539, 1266:cardinals 1231:Ecphantus 1227:Philolaus 1213:and that 1192:epicycles 981:epicycles 920:Macrobius 867:. In the 814:Al-Katibi 768:al-Biruni 755:Al-Shukūk 746:firmament 742:al-zūraqī 738:astrolabe 734:al-Biruni 651:Aryabhata 634:Macrobius 580:geometric 464:Cleanthes 424:Arenarius 337:Egyptians 333:Macrobius 294:Philolaus 147:telescope 119:presented 99:Philolaus 7493:Solstice 7426:Concepts 7322:Almagest 7265:Seleucus 7225:Menelaus 7185:Euctemon 6881:(1999). 6839:20547344 6812:June 13, 6789:(2013). 6711:(1957), 6709:Plutarch 6697:(1911), 6695:Plutarch 6681:(1883), 6679:Plutarch 6588:(1973). 6577:(1957). 6453:(1999). 6438:(1913). 6371:(2004). 6336:Le Opere 6312:Florence 6290:52897897 6262:July 16, 6212:July 16, 6174:(1978). 6082:July 15, 5350:(1960). 5217:Archived 4922:24247242 4887:Archived 4628:De spera 4602:(1975), 4413:(1914). 4381:March 1, 4003:I, 10", 3139:I, 10", 3039:(1986), 2914:: 3998, 2671:(1975), 2583:Archived 2407:Lutheran 2247:See also 2215:(either 2201:velocity 2113:Big Bang 1885:61 Cygni 1877:parallax 1854:Dialogue 1842:Pius VII 1834:Dialogue 1775:sundials 1714:vortices 1601:— 1598:writing. 1519:and not 1507:In 1610 1315:Osiander 1215:Plutarch 1184:parallax 1171:Almagest 1078:Averroes 967:and the 825:Averroes 802:Ilkhanid 725:al-Sijzi 676:eclipses 567:Plutarch 516:— 511:Seleucus 469:— 452:Plutarch 433:parallax 417:— 286:universe 232:Almagest 215:Almagest 83:universe 7568:Portals 7397:Dioptra 7260:Pytheas 7255:Ptolemy 7205:Hicetas 7195:Geminus 7190:Eudoxus 7145:Attalus 7110:Agrippa 7052:YouTube 6765:Bibcode 6671:2708908 6499:. OUP. 6496:Galileo 6415:Bibcode 6144:Bibcode 6037:Bibcode 5956:June 6, 5931:June 5, 5896:Bibcode 5857:Bibcode 5812:Bibcode 5550:ratseta 5122:297–298 4990:310–311 4566:Bibcode 4264:Bibcode 4157:Bibcode 3850:Bibcode 3766:Bibcode 3708:, p. 78 3549:(2004). 3003:Bibcode 2916:Bibcode 2747:equator 2707:Bibcode 2636:Bibcode 2470:at the 2438:135–148 2318:kentron 2313:κέντρον 2221:natural 2162:Jupiter 2155:of the 2079:nebulae 2045:density 1964:titled 1962:Genesis 1824:as the 1401:Clavius 1365:Ptolemy 1355:Saturn. 1211:Hicetas 1196:pretzel 1166:Ptolemy 1158:in his 1097:Proclus 1011:al-Tusi 979:by two 948:) will 937:in his 818:Al-Tusi 810:Al-Urdi 798:Maragha 752:in his 740:called 426:I, 4–7) 325:Mercury 310:planets 210:Ptolemy 164:of the 121:by the 103:Hicetas 66:) is a 7508:Zodiac 7458:Equant 7407:Gnomon 7285:Thales 7280:Strabo 7130:Aratus 6987: 6962: 6941: 6920: 6901: 6869: 6837: 6803: 6775: 6750: 6740: 6669: 6635: 6615: 6596: 6550: 6526: 6503: 6482: 6463: 6425: 6398: 6379: 6358: 6342:, and 6318: 6288: 6278: 6253: 6233: 6184: 6162: 6007: 5981: 5783: 5742: 5732: 5686: 5676: 5606:: 142. 5449: 5360: 5280:(1632) 4920: 4910: 4695: 4650: 4610: 4584: 4535: 4479: 4309: 4284:986461 4282: 4274: 4237: 4215: 4209:228366 4207: 4132: 4049: 3983: 3907: 3899: 3811: 3784: 3758:Osiris 3738: 3687: 3648: 3607:UNESCO 3514: 3489: 3464: 3356: 3288: 3278: 3241: 3202: 3119: 3077: 3051: 3021: 2944: 2926: 2679: 2654: 2553: 2526: 2495: 2389:Icones 2306:Helios 2127:, and 2119:, the 2047:, and 1985:Chabad 1932:Hebrew 1913:Talmud 1687:, and 1389:aether 1295:(1543) 1229:, and 1207:Cicero 1151:(1578) 1103:Euclid 1088:, and 977:equant 837:Qushji 835:under 686:, and 617:, the 592:Rhazes 565:Since 533:Aëtius 493:lists 141:, and 7594:Stars 7314:Works 7230:Meton 7175:Conon 6867:S2CID 6835:JSTOR 6667:JSTOR 6442:notes 6306:[ 6160:S2CID 5781:S2CID 5596:(PDF) 5546:eretz 4648:S2CID 4582:S2CID 4280:JSTOR 4213:S2CID 4205:JSTOR 4130:S2CID 3905:S2CID 3782:S2CID 3736:S2CID 3019:S2CID 2855:, p. 2652:S2CID 2300:ἥλιος 2295:Greek 2153:focus 1940:Padua 1858:Index 1521:Earth 1369:Earth 950:quasi 673:lunar 669:solar 665:Lalla 619:pagan 599:tides 441:1830s 329:Venus 298:Earth 240:model 75:Earth 7155:Bion 7034:2018 6985:ISBN 6973:2009 6960:ISBN 6939:ISBN 6918:ISBN 6899:ISBN 6814:2017 6801:ISBN 6773:ISBN 6748:OCLC 6738:ISBN 6633:ISBN 6613:ISBN 6594:ISBN 6548:ISBN 6524:ISBN 6501:ISBN 6480:ISBN 6461:ISBN 6423:ISBN 6396:ISBN 6377:ISBN 6356:ISBN 6344:here 6316:ISBN 6286:OCLC 6276:ISBN 6264:2018 6251:ISBN 6231:ISBN 6214:2018 6182:ISBN 6140:xxvi 6109:See 6084:2024 6056:2020 6005:ISBN 5979:ISBN 5958:2018 5951:WHYY 5933:2018 5831:2020 5740:OCLC 5730:ISBN 5711:2012 5684:OCLC 5674:ISBN 5655:2017 5629:2017 5578:2017 5447:ISBN 5358:ISBN 5016:2019 4918:OCLC 4908:ISBN 4693:ISBN 4632:Isis 4608:ISBN 4533:ISBN 4490:2020 4477:ISBN 4383:2008 4307:ISBN 4272:ISSN 4235:ISBN 4188:Isis 4113:Isis 4097:2018 4047:ISSN 3981:ISBN 3897:ISSN 3809:ISBN 3685:ISBN 3646:ISBN 3572:2018 3512:ISBN 3487:ISBN 3462:ISBN 3415:2018 3354:ISBN 3330:Isis 3286:OCLC 3276:ISBN 3239:ISSN 3200:ISSN 3117:ISBN 3075:ISBN 3049:ISBN 2977:2018 2942:ISBN 2745:and 2677:ISBN 2551:ISBN 2524:ISBN 2493:ISBN 2446:38f. 2346:-ism 2213:body 2195:and 2176:and 2096:and 2073:and 2063:and 2026:disk 1979:and 1949:and 1899:and 1897:Vega 1891:and 1669:P.M. 1405:Mars 1180:real 796:The 702:and 671:and 327:and 308:and 306:Moon 184:and 101:and 34:and 7050:on 6859:doi 6827:doi 6659:doi 6152:doi 6045:doi 5904:doi 5865:doi 5820:doi 5771:doi 5310:203 5294:491 5202:320 5070:433 5038:sic 5033:338 4876:in 4829:in 4669:212 4640:doi 4574:doi 4421:390 4354:ADS 4260:117 4197:doi 4153:128 4122:doi 4039:doi 4009:126 3889:doi 3774:doi 3728:doi 3458:413 3434:108 3350:111 3231:doi 3192:doi 3145:126 3011:doi 2999:500 2934:doi 2898:139 2882:305 2861:455 2841:281 2816:Sun 2788:138 2780:240 2772:304 2730:302 2644:doi 2402:not 2357:or 2285:or 2219:or 1983:of 1716:in 1527:'s 1517:Sun 1198:". 1121:'s 1110:of 1099:'s 863:by 374:BC) 302:Sun 212:'s 79:Sun 7644:: 7020:. 6885:. 6865:. 6853:. 6833:. 6799:. 6771:. 6746:. 6719:, 6665:. 6655:38 6653:. 6421:, 6284:. 6158:. 6150:. 6138:. 6073:. 6043:. 6033:17 6031:. 6027:. 5949:. 5924:. 5902:. 5892:17 5890:. 5878:^ 5863:, 5853:77 5851:, 5839:^ 5818:. 5808:17 5806:. 5802:. 5779:. 5767:75 5765:. 5761:. 5738:. 5682:. 5646:. 5620:. 5604:15 5602:. 5598:. 5569:. 5416:). 5401:^ 5326:^ 5264:^ 5246:^ 5231:^ 5223:; 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