447:
minutes each, to cover all the day's news. The Prime
Minister's office closely supervised the news items that were to be broadcast. Newsreels were tightly censored; they were told to feature non-controversial but glamorous entertainers, film premieres, sporting events, high-fashion, new automobiles, an official ceremonies. Motion pictures likely likewise were censored, and were encouraged to reinforce stereotypes to the effect that the French were always lovers of liberty and justice, contending against cruel and barbarous Germans. The government-subsidized films that glorified military virtues and the French Empire. The goal was to tranquilize public opinion, to give it little or nothing to work with, so as not to interfere with the policies of the national government. When serious crises emerged such as the Munich crisis of 1938, people were puzzled and mystified by what was going on. When war came in 1939, Frenchman had little understanding of the issues, and little correct information. They suspiciously distrusted the government, with the result that French morale in the face of the war with Germany was badly prepared.
360:
publish unfavorable information unless the business immediately started advertising in the paper. Foreign governments, especially Russia and Turkey, secretly paid the press hundreds of thousands of francs a year to guarantee favorable coverage of the bonds it was selling in Paris. When the real news was bad about Russia, as during its 1905 Revolution or during its war with Japan, it raised the bribes it paid to millions of francs. Each ministry in Paris had a group of journalists whom it secretly paid and fed stories. During the World War, newspapers became more of a propaganda agency on behalf of the war effort; there was little critical commentary. The press seldom reported the achievements of the Allies; instead they credited all the good news to the French army. In a word, the newspapers were not independent champions of the truth, but secretly paid advertisements for special interests and foreign governments.
39:
brief public opinion pamphlets and daily life periodicals were reviewed and edited heavily in order to indirectly influence the people, even hiring writers for such propaganda. Radical
Republican journalism experienced a dramatic proliferation as the Estates General convened: “in that month over a hundred pamphlets appeared… and the figure rose to 300 in June”. Between 1789 and 1799, over 1,300 new newspapers had emerged, combined with a large demand for pamphlets and periodical literature, which caused a flowering, albeit short-lived press. While official regulations attempted to suppress dissent in large-scale publications, some smaller papers and journals provided readers with more radical subject matter.
145:
seventy-two papers were left in Paris, and he soon closed all but 13. In 1811, he took the final step: he allowed only four papers in Paris and one in each of the other departments; all of them closely censored. It is recognized that propaganda was heavily used throughout the rise of
Napoleon. Napoleon utilized propaganda in a wide range of media including newspapers, art, theatres, and his famous bulletins. Through the use of media, Napoleon proved to be an early master of modern propaganda. Napoleon ensured that his efforts were being met by not only censoring the majority of media content but by also creating and publishing his own works. For example, Napoleon owned two military newspapers, the
567:
304:
326:, a weekly Sunday supplement that was the first to feature color illustrations. In 1887, it boasted a daily circulation of 950,000, the highest of any newspaper in the world. In 1914. It sold 1.5 million copies a day across France. Most Frenchmen lived in rural areas, and traditionally had minimal access to newspapers. The illustrated popular press revolutionized the rural opportunities for entertaining and colorful news, and helped modernize traditional peasants into Frenchmen.
194:. Previously, publishers used expensive rag paper and slow hand-operated screw presses. Now they used much cheaper wood pulp paper, on high-speed presses. The cost of production fell by an order of magnitude. The opening of the railway system in the 1860s made rapid distribution possible between Paris and all the outlying cities and provinces. As a result of the technical revolution, much greater quantities of news was distributed much faster, and more cheaply. In June 1836
80:
240:
19:
553:
112:, the government's press censorship was stricter than that of the Old Regime, censoring hundreds of papers and brochures that did not align with the government's policies or ideals. Newspapers changed their names and titles frequently to avoid being censored or banned, and multiple journalists were executed at the guillotine during this time including
428:
all venal, taking large secret subsidies to promote the policies of various special interests. Many leading journalists were secretly on the government payroll. The regional and local newspapers were heavily dependent on government advertising and published news and editorials to suit Paris. Most of the international news was distributed through the
423:, and that Italy allegedly paid 65 million francs to French newspapers in 1935. France was a democratic society in the 1930s, but the people were kept in the dark about critical issues of foreign policy. The government tightly controlled all of the media to promulgate propaganda to support the government's foreign policy of
153:. This allowed Napoleon to distribute propaganda related to his military successes, which swayed public opinion in France in his favor. Under Napoleon, the organ of official information was the Moniteur (Gazette nationale, ou le moniteur universal), which was founded in 1789 under the same general management as the
346:
It vigorously advocated for traditional
Catholicism while at the same time innovating with the most modern technology and distribution systems, with regional editions tailored to local taste. Secularists and Republicans recognize the newspaper as their greatest enemy, especially when it took the lead
42:
The increasing popularity of these revolutionary publications was reflected in the increased political activity of the French population, particularly those in Paris, where citizens flocked to coffeehouses to read pamphlets and newspapers and to listen to orators. Two important newspapers of the time
427:
to the aggressions of Italy and especially Nazi
Germany. There were 253 daily newspapers, all owned separately. The five major national papers based in Paris were all under the control of special interests, especially right-wing political and business interests that supported appeasement. They were
185:
for much of the nineteenth century. Under these laws, censorship was light, but there were restrictions such as the requirement to pay a large deposit with the government, and a stamp tax of five centimes on each copy. A handful of newspapers were published, closely aligned with political factions.
248:
The new Third
Republic, 1871–1914, was a golden era for French journalism. Newspapers were cheap, energetic, uncensored, omnipresent, and reflected every dimension of political life. The circulation of the daily press combined was only 150,000 in 1860. It reached 1 million in 1870 and 5 million in
144:
and
Jacques HĂ©bert. In 1789, all restrictions on the press were eliminated; by 1793 over 400 newspapers had been founded, including 150 in Paris alone. During the conservative era of the Directory, from 1794 to 1799, newspapers declined sharply in importance. When Napoleon took power in 1799, only
455:
The press was heavily censored during the Second World War; the Paris newspapers were under tight German supervision by collaborators; others were closed. In 1944, the Free French liberated Paris, and seized control of all of the collaborationist newspapers. They turned the presses and operations
359:
Businesses and banks secretly paid certain newspapers to promote particular financial interests, and hide or cover up possible most behavior. Publishers took payments for favorable notices in news articles of commercial products. Sometimes, a newspaper would blackmail a business by threatening to
203:
The revolution of 1848 gave rise to many ephemeral papers. However, liberty of the press disappeared in 1851 under the Second Empire of
Napoleon III. Most newspapers were suppressed; each party was allowed only one paper. The severity of the censorship relax in the 1860s but did not end until the
38:
Print media played a significant role in the formation of popular public opinion towards the monarchy and Old Regime. Under the Old Regime, France had a small number of heavily censored newspapers which needed royal licenses to operate; papers without licenses had to operate underground. Both the
219:
The paper clashed with government censors. In 1848 editors were convicted of "inciting hate and scorn of the government." The paper had many supporters and the emperor issued a pardon. In 1861 authorities forced the dismissal of a professor at the
University of Lyons for an offensive article he
446:
Alternative news sources were likewise tightly controlled. Radio was a potentially powerful new medium, but France was quite laggard in consumer ownership of radio sets, and the government impose very strict controls. After 1938, stations were allowed only three brief daily bulletins, of seven
230:
undersold the competition by half, thanks to is cheaper production and heavier advertising. Like most prominent journalists, Girardin was deeply involved in politics, and served in parliament. To his bitter disappointment, he never held high office. He was of brilliant polemicist, a master of
107:
allowed for the freedom of the press but also allowed for the government to repress abuses of the press. This allowed the government to define “abuses of the press” as it saw fit and justified the heavy censorship that took place during the
Revolution. At the height of the
477:
was under government ownership and strict supervision. Under the Fifth Republic, radio and television remained under strict control of the national government. Newspapers provided limited news of international affairs, and had little influence on government decisions.
189:
In the mid-19th century, 1815-1880s, a series of technical innovations revolutionized the newspaper industry and made possible mass production of cheap copies for a mass national readership. The telegraph arrived in 1845, and, about 1870, the rotary press developed by
139:
gained enormous influence through his powerful L'Ami du peuple with its attacks on scandals and conspiracies that alarmed the people until he was assassinated in 1793. In addition to Marat, numerous important politicians came to the fore through journalism, including
314:
Advertising grew rapidly, providing a steady financial basis that was more lucrative than single-copy sales. A new liberal press law of 1881 abandoned the restrictive practices that had been typical for a century. New types of popular newspapers, especially
62:
and his influential sister, Madame Fréfron. The pamphlet began on September 1, 1790 and it was one of the most widely read right-wing journals. After a short run, the paper was denounced in May 1792 by the Assembly citing its news briefs condemning the
243:
Illustrated literary supplement, January 1903. The inexpensive eight-page color supplement covered world affairs and national politics on the cover, but specializing catastrophes shipwrecks, mining disasters, riots --the more gruesome or gossipy, the
375:; which lacked any political agenda and was dedicated to providing a mix of sensational reporting to aid circulation, and serious articles to build prestige. By 1939 its circulation was over 1.7 million, double that of its nearest rival the tabloid
226:(1806–1881) was the most successful and flamboyant journalist of the era, presenting himself as a promoter of mass education through mass journalism' His magazines reached over hundred thousand subscribers, and his inexpensive daily newspaper
75:
with stolen arms and fifty people died during the confrontation. Both liberal and conservative publications together became the main communication medium; newspapers were read aloud in taverns and clubs and circulated amongst patrons.
333:), a telegraphic news service with a network of reporters and contracts with Reuters to provide world service. The staid old papers retained their loyal clientele because of their concentration on serious political issues.
368:
Regional newspapers flourished after 1900. However the Parisian newspapers were largely stagnant after the war; circulation inched up to 6 million a day from 5 million in 1910. The major postwar success story was
51:, which were operated by Marat and Robespierre respectively. While both papers presented republican arguments and anti-religious sentiments, the result was a direct competition for support from the same readers.
214:
founded in 1843 and published fortnightly, expressed liberal Catholic opinion, urged a restoration of freedom in France, resisted a growing anti-clericalism, and fought its conservative Catholic rival paper
321:
reached an audience more interested in diverse entertainment and gossip rather than hard news. It captured a quarter of the Parisian market, and forced the rest to lower their prices. In 1884, it added the
200:
became the first French newspaper to include paid advertising in its pages, allowing it to lower its price, extend its readership and increase its profitability; other titles soon copied the formula.
300:
The heavy-handed censorship of the First World War, the conscription of journalists, and the severe shortage of newsprint, drastically undercut the size, scope, and quality of all the newspapers.
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The main dailies employed their own journalists who competed for news flashes. All newspapers relied upon the Agence Havas (now
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over to new teams of editors and publishers, and provided financial support. As a result, the previously high-prestige
280:." Much more popular than any of these, and much less political, with nationwide circulation of a million or more came
1527:
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1591:
1566:
1521:
1513:
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s publication) were honest; "Most of the others, from top to bottom, have news columns for sale". He reported that
64:
71:
just a year before in July, where a large number of protesters illegally gathered signatures. They resisted the
1275:
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1209:
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157:. Both newspapers were sources of establishment messages and written for an establishment audience, with the
1446:
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of the Abbé Royou as a Center of Royalist Propaganda," French Historical Studies 15, no. 4 (1988): 626.
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996:
991:
Gregory Shaya, "The Flaneur, the Badaud, and the Making of a Mass Public in France, circa 1860-1910."
1021:
Judson Mather, "The Assumptionist Response to Secularisation, 1870-1900," in Robert J. Bazucha, ed.,
141:
580:
25:
Newspapers have played a major role in French politics, economy and society since the 17th century.
1258:
495:
161:
representing the majority view in the French assembly and the Mercure representing the minority.
72:
1051:(1977) vol. 2 ch. 11, "Newspapers and corruption" pp. 492–573; pp. 522–24 on foreign subsidies.
113:
1503:
1248:
1331:
Caricature and French Political Culture 1830–1848: Charles Philipon and the Illustrated Press
633:
Harvey Chisick, "Pamphlets and Journalism in the Early French Revolution: The Offices of the
205:
59:
1384:(Birmingham Alabama: Summa Publications, Inc., 1998), 370pp; Comprehensive scholarly history
1115:
Valerie Holman, "The Impact of War: British Publishers and French Publications 1940-1944,"
341:
330:
264:
1243:
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231:
controversy, with pungent short sentences that immediately caught the reader's attention.
223:
8:
408:
1441:
1229:
Collins, Ross F. "The Business of Journalism in Provincial France during World War I."
1200:
420:
303:
271:
117:
1562:
1509:
848:
572:
295:
288:
457:
251:
170:
100:
507:
277:
1556:
1360:
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1306:
1224:
595:
136:
109:
88:
1529:
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419:
was simultaneously subsidized by the French government, German government, and
348:
336:
1580:
558:
186:
They were expensive, sold only by subscription, and served by a small elite.
178:
135:
The Moniteur Universel served as the official record of legislative debates.
68:
537:
220:
wrote. The circulation was 3,290 in 1861, 5,000 in 1868, and 4,500 in 1869.
1070:
483:
399:
1338:
Making the News: Modernity and the Mass Press in Nineteenth-Century France
590:
1475:
The de Gaulle presidency and the media: statism and public communications
531:
525:
501:
424:
389:
239:
1348:
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402:
wrote in 1940 that of the more than 100 daily newspapers in Paris, two (
128:
1427:
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845:
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371:
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103:, from 1794 to 1799, newspapers declined sharply in importance. The
1520:, wide-ranging survey; bibliography (mostly in French) pp. 169–79.
1287:
Goldstein, Robert Justin. "Fighting French Censorship, 1815–1881."
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481:
In the early 21st century, the best-selling daily was the regional
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67:. This was especially inflammatory following the shootings on the
18:
1317:
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1308:
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1104:
Grandeur and Misery: France’s Bid for Power in Europe 1914-1940
1091:
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393:
was modeled after the photojournalism of the American magazine
182:
1355:
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339:
revolutionized pressure group media by its national newspaper
1010:
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429:
255:
was the serious paper of record. Moderates additionally read
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925:
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912:
Le Correspondent: French liberal catholic journal, 1843-1855
276:
Socialists (and after 1920 Communists) took direction from "
1218:
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873:
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was in effect the official organ of the foreign ministry.
432:
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1442:
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437:
Union syndicale des journalistes polonais en France
249:1910. In 1914 Paris published 80 daily newspapers.
105:
Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen
1304:
939:Joanna Richardson, "Emile de Girardin 1806–1881,"
796:The Genesis of Napoleonic Propaganda: 1796 to 1799
1554:
1177:Censer, Jack Richard, and Jeremy D. Popkin, eds.
54:Such is the case of the royalist daily pamphlet:
1578:
798:(New York: Columbia University Press, 2005), 21.
505:in Marseille. In Paris the Communists published
1198:
383:sponsored a highly successful women's magazine
28:
1480:Delporte, Christian. "Sarkozy and the Media."
1179:Press and politics in pre-revolutionary France
733:(New Haven: Yale University Press, 1991), 321.
622:Munitions of the Mind: A History of Propaganda
469:During the Fourth Republic from 1944 to 1958,
1501:
1236:Collins, Ross F., and E. M. Palmegiano, eds.
1069:
914:(Catholic University of America Press, 1958).
601:Office de Radiodiffusion Télévision Française
1299:The Newspaper Press in the French Revolution
1282:The French press: class, state, and ideology
899:Modern France: A Companion to French Studies
661:The Newspaper Press in the French Revolution
33:
1482:Contemporary French and Francophone Studies
1456:. (Paris: La documentation française 2004).
1410:Henri Rochefort, prince of the gutter press
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1172:Comparative Studies in Society and History,
1063:
731:A Cultural History of the French Revolution
234:
1240:(2007), Chapter on France by Ross Collins
1573:, 370pp; comprehensive scholarly history
1477:(Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002).
1253:Darnton, Robert, and Daniel Roche, eds.
363:
302:
238:
127:
78:
17:
1536:International Journal of Press/Politics
1257:(University of California Press, 1989)
1579:
842:
337:The Roman Catholic Assumptionist order
173:in 1815 allowed for a free press. The
1350:(LSU Press, 1966), pp. 167–93, 438-39
770:The A to Z of the French Revolution
581:History of journalism § France
177:, passed in May 1819, would govern
99:During the conservative era of the
13:
1558:The National Daily Press of France
1382:The national daily press of France
1152:
1130:The National Daily Press of France
487:in 47 local editions, followed by
94:
14:
1613:
1461:European Journal of Communication
1434:
1186:European Journal of Communication
151:La France vue de l’Armée d’Italie
123:
1602:History of journalism by country
995:109.1 (2004): 41-77 esp note 20
871:(1948) pp. 26–27; John P. Wolf,
781:Robert Justin Goldstein (1989).
565:
551:
65:Civil Constitution of the Clergy
58:produced and distributed by the
49:The Defender of the Constitution
1587:History of mass media in France
1333:(Oxford University Press, 2000)
1220:(Oxford University Press, 1959)
1143:France and the World since 1870
1135:
1122:
1109:
1096:
1083:
1054:
1041:
1036:France and the World since 1870
1028:
1015:
1002:
985:
972:
959:
946:
933:
917:
904:
891:
878:
861:
836:
827:
814:
801:
788:
785:. Palgrave Macmillan UK. p. 55.
775:
762:
749:
736:
723:
379:In addition to its daily paper
1544:Sterling, Christopher H., ed.
1370:Sterling, Christopher H., ed.
1311:(in French). Paris: P. Jannet.
1195:37.01 (1996): 143–159. 1919–39
1157:
1023:Modern European Social History
714:
701:
692:
679:
666:
653:
640:
627:
614:
462:was replaced by the new daily
1:
1193:European Journal of Sociology
1181:(U of California Press, 1987)
607:
450:
354:
1167:(1991) pp. 177–193. in JSTOR
1119:(2000), Issue 48, pp. 41–65.
720:Chisick, Pamphlets, 624-625.
586:List of newspapers in France
164:
147:Courrier de l’Armée d’Italie
29:1789–1815: Revolutionary era
7:
1597:Political history of France
1305:Grimont, Ferdinand (1835).
1165:Illinois Historical Journal
544:
475:French radio and television
10:
1618:
1555:Thogmartin, Clyde (1998).
1546:Encyclopedia of Journalism
1489:Columbia Journalism Review
1408:Williams, Roger Lawrence.
1372:Encyclopedia of Journalism
1284:(Praeger Publishers, 1981)
1213:18 (Fall 2001), pp. 29–44.
993:American Historical Review
843:Haynes, Christine (2010).
434:
192:Hippolyte Auguste Marinoni
87:stained with the blood of
1362:French Historical Studies
1273:Eisenstein, Elizabeth L.
1265:French Historical Studies
142:Maximilien de Robespierre
34:Pre- and early Revolution
1592:Social history of France
1468:Journal of Communication
1424:Public Opinion Quarterly
1199:Chambure, A. de (1914).
967:World press encyclopedia
943:(1976) 26#12 pp. 811–17.
886:World press encyclopedia
772:(2007) pp. 233–35 online
441:
310:, the most popular paper
235:Modern France: 1871–1918
1426:(1946) 10#3 pp. 382–91
1391:(Edwin Mellen Pr, 2002)
1188:(1996) 11#3 pp. 303–26.
1008:Patrick H, Hutton, ed.
954:Peasants into Frenchmen
698:Taylor, Munitions, 149.
169:The restoration of the
1561:. Summa Publications.
1538:19#2 (2014): 246–265.
1502:Kuhn, Raymond (2006).
1498:14#8 (2013): 989–1007.
1247:4.1 (2001) pp. 49–80.
1174:23 (1981), pp. 464–90.
591:Magazine § France
311:
245:
132:
114:Jacques Pierre Brissot
91:
22:
1484:16.3 (2012): 299–310.
1089:Anthony Adamthwaite,
1047:See Theodore Zeldin,
435:Further information:
364:Stagnation after 1914
306:
242:
206:French Third Republic
131:
82:
21:
1403:Journalism Quarterly
1396:Journalism Quarterly
523:had local rivals in
349:Dreyfus as a traitor
331:Agence France-Presse
45:Friend of the People
1505:The Media in France
1491:18.1 (1979): 58–61.
1454:La Presse Française
1387:Trinkle, Dennis A.
1380:Thogmartin, Clyde.
1353:Pettegree, Andrew.
1233:27 (2001), 112–121.
1211:American Journalism
1202:A travers la presse
324:Supplément illustré
262:Catholics followed
1470:(2012) 62#1: 21–38
1463:(2007) 22#1 27–48.
1398:(1941) pp. 376–84.
1346:Olson, Kenneth E.
1231:Journalism History
1128:Clyde Thogmartin,
1117:Publishing History
1106:(1995) pp. 175–92.
1093:(1995) pp. 175–92.
927:(1985) pp. 143–44
923:William E. Echard
910:Flavia Augustine,
901:(1922) pp. 181–82.
888:(1982) pp. 341–42.
620:Philip M. Taylor,
421:Alexandre Stavisky
377:Le Petit Parisien.
312:
269:Nationalists read
246:
133:
118:Camille Desmoulins
92:
23:
1550:table of contents
1473:Chalaby, Jean K.
1417:France: 1848-1945
1415:Zeldin, Theodore
1405:(1942) pp. 277–86
1376:table of contents
1319:(Routledge, 2008)
1301:(Routledge, 1988)
1267:(1971): 175–203.
1049:France: 1848–1945
1038:(2001) pp. 37–38.
1025:(1972) pp. 59–89.
884:George T Kurian,
869:France, 1814-1940
854:978-0-674-03576-8
573:Journalism portal
387:Another magazine
296:Le Petit Parisien
224:Émile de Girardin
208:started in 1871.
1609:
1572:
1519:
1452:Albert, Pierre.
1412:(Scribner, 1966)
1357:(Yale UP, 2014).
1326:(Springer, 1974)
1322:Isser, Natalie.
1312:
1291:(1998): 785–96.
1280:Freiberg, J. W.
1216:Collins, Irene.
1206:
1146:
1139:
1133:
1126:
1120:
1113:
1107:
1100:
1094:
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989:
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865:
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858:
840:
834:
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805:
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779:
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727:
721:
718:
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651:
644:
638:
631:
625:
618:
575:
570:
569:
568:
561:
556:
555:
554:
535:and the leftist
414:
409:Action Française
318:Le Petit Journal
308:Le Petit Journal
283:Le Petit Journal
212:Le Correspondent
171:House of Bourbon
1617:
1616:
1612:
1611:
1610:
1608:
1607:
1606:
1577:
1576:
1569:
1516:
1437:
1364:(1990): 664–83
1329:Kerr, David S.
1160:
1155:
1153:Further reading
1150:
1149:
1140:
1136:
1127:
1123:
1114:
1110:
1101:
1097:
1088:
1084:
1068:
1064:
1060:Hutton 2:692-94
1059:
1055:
1046:
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1033:
1029:
1020:
1016:
1012:(1986) 2:690-94
1007:
1003:
990:
986:
977:
973:
964:
960:
951:
947:
938:
934:
922:
918:
909:
905:
897:Arthur Tilley,
896:
892:
883:
879:
866:
862:
855:
841:
837:
832:
828:
819:
815:
806:
802:
793:
789:
780:
776:
768:Paul R Hanson,
767:
763:
754:
750:
741:
737:
729:Emmet Kennedy,
728:
724:
719:
715:
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702:
697:
693:
684:
680:
671:
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658:
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632:
628:
619:
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596:Media of France
571:
566:
564:
557:
552:
550:
547:
496:La Voix du Nord
453:
444:
439:
412:
366:
357:
272:L'Intransigeant
237:
167:
137:Jean-Paul Marat
126:
110:Reign of Terror
97:
95:Reign of Terror
85:L’Ami du peuple
36:
31:
12:
11:
5:
1615:
1605:
1604:
1599:
1594:
1589:
1575:
1574:
1567:
1552:
1548:(6 vol. 2009)
1542:
1532:
1531:(2014): 27–46.
1525:
1514:
1499:
1492:
1485:
1478:
1471:
1464:
1457:
1450:
1447:
1444:
1436:
1435:Recent history
1433:
1432:
1431:
1430:In summer 1945
1420:
1413:
1406:
1399:
1392:
1385:
1378:
1374:(6 vol. 2009)
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1040:
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969:(1982) 1: 342.
958:
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853:
835:
826:
813:
800:
794:Wayne Hanley,
787:
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761:
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722:
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665:
652:
639:
626:
612:
611:
609:
606:
605:
604:
603:, radio and TV
598:
593:
588:
583:
577:
576:
562:
546:
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499:in Lille, and
452:
449:
443:
440:
365:
362:
356:
353:
236:
233:
166:
163:
125:
124:Napoleonic Era
122:
96:
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73:National Guard
35:
32:
30:
27:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1614:
1603:
1600:
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1570:
1568:9781883479206
1564:
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1543:
1541:
1537:
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1526:
1523:
1517:
1515:9781134980536
1511:
1508:. Routledge.
1507:
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1315:Harris, Bob.
1314:
1310:
1309:
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1300:
1297:Gough, Hugh.
1296:
1294:
1290:
1289:French Review
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1102:Adamthwaite,
1099:
1092:
1086:
1078:
1077:
1076:Inside Europe
1072:
1071:Gunther, John
1066:
1057:
1050:
1044:
1037:
1034:John Keiger,
1031:
1024:
1018:
1011:
1005:
998:
994:
988:
982:(1976) p 464.
981:
978:Eugen Weber,
975:
968:
962:
956:(1976) p 464.
955:
949:
942:
941:History Today
936:
930:
926:
920:
913:
907:
900:
894:
887:
881:
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867:J.P.T. Bury,
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559:France portal
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417:Bec et Ongles
411:
410:
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401:
397:
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392:
391:
386:
385:Marie-Claire.
382:
378:
374:
373:
361:
352:
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347:in attacking
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179:press freedom
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102:
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69:Champ de Mars
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52:
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40:
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1254:
1245:Book History
1244:
1237:
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1217:
1210:
1201:
1192:
1185:
1178:
1171:
1164:
1145:(2001) p 39.
1142:
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536:
530:
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518:
512:
506:
500:
494:
488:
484:Ouest-France
482:
480:
470:
468:
458:
454:
445:
416:
407:
403:
400:John Gunther
398:
394:
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98:
84:
55:
53:
48:
44:
41:
37:
24:
15:
1158:Before 1945
1132:(1998) p 11
875:(1940) p 51
526:Le Parisien
425:appeasement
1581:Categories
1496:Journalism
659:H. Gough,
635:Ami Du Roi
608:References
538:Libération
508:l'Humanité
490:Le Progres
451:Since 1940
404:L'Humanité
381:Paris Soir
372:Paris Soir
355:Corruption
278:L'Humanité
217:L'Univers.
175:Serre laws
83:A copy of
60:abbé Royou
56:Ami du Roi
755:Kennedy,
742:Kennedy,
709:Pamphlets
707:Chisick,
687:Munitions
674:Pamphlets
672:Chisick,
648:Munitions
520:Le Figaro
502:Provençal
493:of Lyon,
471:Le Figaro
258:Le Figaro
228:La Presse
197:La Presse
165:1815–1871
101:Directory
1428:in JSTOR
1366:in JSTOR
1293:in JSTOR
1269:in JSTOR
1141:Keiger,
1073:(1940).
965:Kurian,
820:Hanley,
807:Hanley,
757:Cultural
744:Cultural
685:Taylor,
646:Taylor,
545:See also
532:L'Aurore
514:Le Monde
464:Le Monde
459:Le Temps
342:La Croix
289:Le Matin
265:La Croix
252:Le Temps
159:Moniteur
1522:excerpt
952:Weber,
822:Genesis
809:Genesis
244:better.
155:Mercure
1565:
1540:online
1512:
1342:online
1277:(1992)
1259:online
1249:online
1225:online
997:online
929:online
851:
746:, 322.
711:, 624.
689:, 145.
676:, 624.
663:(1988)
511:while
183:France
47:, and
811:, 21.
759:, 323
650:, 145
442:Radio
430:Havas
413:'
395:Life.
390:Match
89:Marat
43:were
1563:ISBN
1510:ISBN
849:ISBN
824:, 21
517:and
406:and
293:and
149:and
116:and
181:in
1583::
529:,
466:.
120:.
1571:.
1524:.
1518:.
999:.
857:.
540:.
344:.
298:.
291:,
285:,
274:.
267:.
260:.
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