3120:. In 1971, it was the priests in TorreĂłn who brought in the PolĂtica Popular (PP) Maoists, and together they had a large influence on the people primarily the students in La Laguna. Throughout 1971-1974, students would be influenced by Maoist activists who would in infiltrate their schools by even becoming their teachers. Their influence would lead to a long string of student protests. The range of ages of students were from high school to college where they protested by marching in the streets to even the suspension of classes. The priests and the maoists combined the new Catholic teachings post-Vatican II and the political beliefs of the Maoism all circulating back to the belief of helping the people and poor. Many of the protests were fighting for better conditions for the working class and especially the poor as well. Even the Bishop of Torreon, Fernando Romo declared that âWe have to understand that, in case of doubt, Christians should always act on behalf of those in need because that was the position of our Lord Jesus Christ.â Along with PolĂtica Popular, Sacerdotes para el Pueblo (Priest for the People, SPP) was also another prominent radical clerical movement in Mexico. SPP was founded in 1972, by a group of theologians who very embraced the Preferential Option for the Poor and socialism. Headed by Dominican Alex Morell, and the movement was centralized around four main goals: The strengthening ties with the popular sectors of society; helping them succeed at economic and political independence from caciques and political parties; educating them the foundations of liberation theology as useful tools to improve their everyday lives; and calling for a socialist alternative to capitalism. The movement ultimately folded in 1975 due to pressure from higher ecclesiastical authority and the violence that priests were facing.
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Article 24 prevented public worship outside the confines of the Church buildings. According to article 27, religious institutions were denied the right to acquire, hold, or administer real property. Furthermore, all real estate held by religious institutions through third parties, like hospitals and schools, was declared national property. Finally in article 130, it declared all basic civil responsibilities like voting or commenting on public affairs was taken away from Church officials. But
Article 130's most important legal power against the Church was that it declared the State the final arbiter of public religious worship, including the power to limit the number of priests and requiring priests to register with the government as "professionals". Mexican bishops protested the articles from their exile in Texas and continued to object to the anticlerical articles in subsequent years. The Mexican government was firm in their attempt to eliminate the Catholic Church's legal existence in Mexico, but that led to decades-long conflict between Church and State. The Church immediately rejected the constitution and "call on Catholics to fight for its abolition." The constitution did not ban the Church as an institution, or prevent Mexicans from practicing Catholicism, but it forced some Catholics into a dilemma of respecting civil law or their conscience when the government enforced the anticlerical laws the 1920s. Some Catholics took up arms against the government.
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1161:. However, as more Spanish families were created and there were a larger number of daughters, the social economy could accommodate the creation of nunneries for women. The first convent in New Spain was founded in 1540 in Mexico City by the Conceptionist Order. Mexico City had the largest number of nunneries with 22. Puebla, New Spain's second largest city, had 11, with its first in 1568; Guadalajara had 6, starting in 1578; Antequera (Oaxaca), had 5, starting in 1576. In all, there were 56 convents for creole women in New Spain, with the greatest number in the largest cities. However, even a few relatively small provincial cities had convents, including Påtzcuaro (1744), San Miguel el Grande (1754), Aguascalientes (1705-07), Mérida (Yucatån) 1596, and San Cristóbal (Chiapas) 1595. The last nunnery before independence in 1821 was in Mexico City in 1811, Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe. Over the colonial period, there were 56 nunneries established in New Spain, the largest number being the
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corrupt and assumed their vote would not count. Almeida called upon voters to participate and then continue involvement by monitoring winnersâ performance in office. This document was the reassertion of the Church's right to "evangelize the totality of human existence including the political dimension." The archbishop did not explicitly advocate for a particular party, although the
National Action Party was gaining increasing numbers of votes in northern Mexico. In the municipal elections in Chihuahua that year, voter participation increased significantly and the Institutional Revolutionary Party's candidates fared badly. This touched off an attack by the PRI, that denounced Church participation in elections, and a response from Almeida criticizing the PRI's characterization, saying that their "vision, in addition to being unjust, ingenuous, and arrogant, inevitably leads to an absolutist conception of power, with the consequent destruction of democracy."
3136:). Located in the town of TehuacĂĄn, Puebla, Mexico, SERESURE intended to train priests to be active participants in solving the problems pervasive in the indigenous countryside of southern Mexico such as "economic and political marginalization, caciquismo, land loss, and environmental degradation." They set up the seminary to work with the indigenous people. Scholars argue that SERESURE work on pastoral training separated themselves from other seminaries. This was due to SERESUREâs consistent emphasis on socially aware pastoral work along with hosting annual conferences on indigenous pastoral work. The training in SERESURE focused on three pillars: theological training, intellectual training, and pastoral formation. They believed instead of them teaching the indigenous people about god in their life, the indigenous should be the ones to figure out themselves with the help of the seminary, to be "agents of their own liberation."
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1952 and was the founder of the
Juventud Obrera CatĂłlica (Catholic WorkersâYouth, JOC). He advocated the radical âSee, Judge, Actâ form of socio-religious activism method for public action. Such as priests like GarcĂa were radical thinkers that would have a large role in the lives of people in Mexican communities educating them on issues such as social justice. Although, some paid the cost by imprisonment, torture, and at worst death. As for GarcĂa, he was seen as a threat to the Mexican Government that was a PRI (Institutionalized Revolutionary Party), which sided with a very conservative Church and Escamilla GarcĂa was violently murdered by the Mexican Government in Mexico City in 1977. That same year, Mexico saw another killing of another priest, Rodolfo Aguilar Ălvarez. Aguilar Alvarez was from Chihuahua and who offered his support to a group of forcibly displaced Campesinos.
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the sacraments, the archbishop enacted practices that in many ways harkened back to the early Church, with a more empowered laity and decentralized, secret worship, often in people's homes. Lay women in some cases became religious leaders in their communities, leading the liturgy of worship but in the absence of a priest, there was no communion. Catholics were urged to strengthen their inner faith, but for those who engaged in violent action what they wanted was the Church's blessing. As a long-term strategy, the archbishop put confidence in the survival of the faith, despite the political assault by the
Mexican state. For most in rural Mexico, religion was an integral way of being, what urban secular Mexicans considered the "superstition" of backward peasants and a key reason that attacks on the Catholic Church as an institution were necessary to modernize Mexico.
2404:, deeming the Huerta government illegitimate. Because the Catholic Church and the National Catholic Party had supported Huerta, they were a target of the liberal Constitutionalists. As with liberals in the nineteenth century who sought to reduce the Catholic Church's power, the Constitutionalist were not necessarily anti-Catholic or atheists. As one scholar assessed the Constitutionalistsâ position, "there seems to be no reason to reject the protestations of Mexican officials that the reform was not aimed at the Church in its spiritual sphere, but at the clergy in their temporal activities." Carranza himself was staunchly anticlerical. During the Constitutionalist struggle against Huerta as early October 1913, following the February Huerta coup, Carranza was clearly planning on strictly enforcing the Laws of the
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pilgrimage to religious sites, and other visible manifestations of religious belief undermined the essence of many rural communities. The absence of a priest to baptize children, prepare
Catholics for confirmation, hear confession, perform marriages, and administer the last rites of Extreme Unction before death, meant that the rhythm of the sacramental life cycle for individuals and their families as well as their larger community was being suppressed. Lay organizations became important during the crisis, a strategy of the hierarchy to strengthen Catholic resistance without the hierarchy's direct intervention, But there is also evidence of widespread lay Catholic desire to passively resist the anticlerical measures, as opposed to the active and often violent resistance of the Cristero fighters.
682:) founded in the Nahua area starting in the late sixteenth century and were established elsewhere in indigenous communities. Confraternities functioned as burial societies for their members, celebrated their patron saint, and conducted other religious activities, nominally under the supervision of a priest, but like their European counterparts there was considerable power in the hands of the lay leadership. Confraternities usually had religious banners, many of their officials wore special ritual attire, and they participated in larger religious festivities as an identifiable group. For Indians and Blacks, these religious organizations promoted both their spiritual life and their sense of community, since their membership was exclusively of those groups and excluded Spaniards. On the contrary,
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1915:'s first provision was the continuation of the existing standing and privileges of the Catholic Church. The Church played a crucial role in achieving it. In the immediate aftermath of the September 1821 fall of the Spanish royal government, a Constituent Assembly was created in February 1822 to implement the independence plan to a framework for the new sovereign state. The assembly included priests, so the interests of the Catholic Church were directly represented. Demonstrating the importance of the Catholic Church in the new order, before the assembly convened for the business of creating the governing document of the new state, all went to the cathedral to hear Mass and they took an oath to uphold the exclusivity of Catholicism in Mexico.
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their overseas territories. Since the
Jesuits had been the premier educators of elite young men in New Spain and the preferred order if a young man had a vocation for the priesthood, the connection between the Jesuits and creole elites was close. Their churches were magnificent, sometimes more opulent than the cathedral (the main church of a diocese). Their estates were well run and profitable, funding both their educational institutions as well as frontier missions. The expulsion of the Jesuits meant the exile of their priests, many of them to Italy, and for many creole families connected to the order by placing a son there, it meant splitting of elite families. One Mexican Jesuit who was expelled was
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the sixteenth century. In the North there were vast spaces with few cities or towns and an indigenous population that was largely nomadic and converted to
Christianity via the few missions established in the region. Also not to be discounted is the influence of the United States, a largely Protestant country but with separation of Church and State, and the efforts of mainline, U.S.-based Protestants in northern Mexico, who in the nineteenth century saw Mexico as a country ripe for the message of Protestant missionaries. A small but significant number of Protestants participated in the Mexican Revolution and they saw the diminution of the power of the Catholic Church aiding their own cause.
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action would lead to a huge change for the
Catholic church and the indigenous people, especially the poor, living in Latin America. Liberation Theology established progressive ideologies with Catholic teachings. One bishop described liberation theology as a âprogressive prototype of Catholic faith-an enlightened Christianity that is organic to people's way of life and empowers them to work for social justice for themselves and for others in their community.â Liberation Theology is said to have two different strategies: one using interpreting catholic the gospel to contemporary problems and how the faithful should take action on these problems.
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selected heirs became standard in Nahua towns during the second half of the sixteenth century and carried on as a documentary type until
Mexican independence in 1821. Early testaments in Nahuatl have been invaluable for the information they provide about Nahua men and women's property holding, but the religious formulas at the beginning of wills were largely that and did not represent individual statements of belief. However, testators did order property to be sold for Masses for their souls or gave money directly to the local friar, which may well have been encouraged by the recipients but can also be the testatorsâ gesture of piety.
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with many academics saw the imposition of socialist education as an infringement on academic freedom. Brito
Foucher was a lawyer and had headed UNAM's faculty of law. In his reading of the Constitution of 1917 on the restrictions on the Church being involved with education, he noted the restrictions only applied to primary and secondary education. Founding a Catholic university, therefore, was not in violation of the constitution. Although UNAM's rector played an important role, the establishment of Catholic institutions of higher learning could not have gone forward without the approval of the hierarchy. In 1940
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3084:, In the 1970s in San Juanito, the CEB in Santa Cecilia was led by hundreds of working-class women in the community. They provided aid to the community in a variety of different ways from improving water infrastructure to creating a night school for adults. It wasn't just aid that was provided but the education of progressive ideologies such as gender equality. For example, the community had weekly group discussions and sometimes workshops that reflected on sexism and relationships between men and women. Another CEB that played an important role in its community was in San Juanito,
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3337:) stated flatly that the government would not amend Article 130. Nonetheless, the Mexican government began moves to normalize diplomatic relations with the Vatican. The pope's second 1990 trip in May put increased pressure on the Mexican government to take steps to normalization, particularly after the Vatican and the Soviet Union did so that year. Although Salinas planned a trip to the Vatican in 1991, the Catholic hierarchy in Mexico did not want normalization of relations with the Vatican without discussion of significant changes to the constitution.
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indigenous communities the parish priest, who under the Habsburgs had functioned as a representative of both the Church and the crown, was now supplanted by civil authorities. Curates could no longer use corporal punishment, manage confraternity funds, or undertake church construction projects without a license from the crown. The parish priest had often dealt with regulation of public morals, but changes in their powers meant they no longer could mete out punishment for drunkenness, gambling, adultery, or consensual unions without benefit of marriage.
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2085:, marriages, or funeral services. Marriage became a civil contract, although no provision for divorce was authorized. Registry of births, marriages and deaths became a civil affair, with President Benito JuĂĄrez registering his newborn son in Veracruz. The number of religious holidays was reduced and several holidays to commemorate national events introduced. Religious celebrations outside churches, such as processions and outdoor Masses, were forbidden, use of church bells restricted, and clerical dress was prohibited in public.
2000:. Catholic missions were dissolved and their assets confiscated by the State; the educational system was secularized, which ended religious dominance in education; the State ceased collecting tithes for the support of the Catholic Church, and declared that monastic vows were no longer binding. However sweeping these reforms were, liberals did not end Catholicism as the exclusive religion of Mexico. This brief period of reform ended when a coalition of conservatives and the Mexican army forced GĂłmez FarĂas's resignation in 1834.
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1616:. Most serious for elite creole families was the crown's law, the Act of Consolidation in 1804, which changed the terms of mortgages. Rather than long-term mortgages with a modest schedule of repayment, the crown sought to gain access to that capital immediately. Thus, families were suddenly faced with paying off the entire mortgage without the wherewithal to gain access to other credit. It was economically ruinous to many elite families and is considered a factor in elite creolesâ alienation from the Spanish crown.
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2999:, bishop of Zacatecas at the time of Vatican II, and Manuel TalamĂĄs Camandari, head of the Mexican Social Secretariat, an entity under the control of the hierarchy that dealt with social issues. Both men attended all four sessions of the Second Vatican Council and the two drafted a major critique of Mexican social policy. "The Development and Integration of our Country" was a pastoral letter that addressed marginalization of Mexicans and income inequality during Mexico's rapid period of growth, the so-called
2789:. CĂĄrdenas accepted the political platform of the new PNR as his own, campaigned on it, and his first cabinet was essentially chosen by Calles. So there was the potential for continued Church-State conflict. The Church-State situation began deteriorating. In 1935, the government nationalized every Church building used in any way to forward its mission, including private homes that had been used for religious services ("house churches") or for religious schools, as well as bookstores selling religious books.
3440:. Father Maciel was accused of abusing dozens of boys over a period of fifty years; although he was never convicted of a crime and always maintained his innocense, both the Legion of Christ and the Catholic Church apologized for his actions and the coverup after his death. In December 2019 the Legion admitted that 33 priests had sexually abused at least 175 children ages 11â16 between 1941 and 2019. Sixty of the cases were related to Maciel and the total does not include 90 pupils abused by 54 seminrians.
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2327:, calling for the ouster of DĂaz. This was accomplished in May 1911 after a series of revolts in the north and in the state of Morelos, just 50 miles from Mexico City. With DĂaz's ouster and exile, Madero was poised to take power in Mexico, but did so only after nationwide elections. The Catholic Church was already on edge about what changes might occur in this new government, perhaps particularly so since Madero himself was a follower of spiritism, and not obviously or even nominally Catholic.
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3174:. Over time, Prigione helped the Vatican select 31 new bishops whose theological outlook was acceptable to the Vatican, basically replacing liberationist bishops with conservative ones. But also important was the Vatican's practice of assigning administrative coadjutors to dioceses and archdioceses, which undermined the power of those bishops who were outspoken and activist. These included Bartolomé Carrasco, bishop of Tapachula in Southern Mexico; Manuel Talamås, bishop of Ciudad Juårez; and
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that the monarch came to be viewed more as an oppressive authoritarian rather than a benevolent father figure. The Bourbon crown's local representatives were often military men or administrators with no reverence for the Church as an institution; no respect for the local priest, whom they sometimes insulted publicly; and no understanding of local life ways. They burst into churches during Mass to arrest Indians, "sometimes shouting obscenities and insulting the priest if he objected."
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2060:, and enacted in 1856 but not fully enforced until 1867. Under this new law, the government began to confiscate Church land. This proved to be considerably more controversial than the JuĂĄrez Law. The purpose of the law was to convert lands held by corporate entities such as the Church into private property, favoring those who already lived on it. It was thought that such would encourage development and the government could raise revenue by taxing the process.
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Washington that "he Roman Catholic Church and the party that takes its name have become violently antagonistic to Madero, and are busily engaged through the Republic in criticizing his motives, decrying his policies, and censuring the weakness and vacillation which is supposed to characterize his direction of affairs." Madero was elected in a landslide and took the oath of office, despite the National Catholic Party's attempt to undermine his popularity.
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anticipated. General Huerta became head of state, vowing to restore the Porfirian order, in what many have called a reactionary government. Catholic support was not uniform, however, with some objecting to the coup that ended Mexico's experiment in democracy. However, the Church as an institution chose the losing side when it opted for Huerta. "Catholics seemingly feared radicalism more than they feared dictatorship," in the view of one historian.
1085:. Jesuits did significantly expand missions to the indigenous in the frontier area and a number were martyred, but the crown supported those missions. Mendicant orders that had real estate were less economically integrated, so that some individual houses were wealthy while others struggled economically. The Franciscans, who were founded as an order embracing poverty, did not accumulate real estate, unlike the Augustinians and Dominicans in Mexico.
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383:
275:
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3248:, who split from the PRI to form a leftist coalition. The election was again widely seen to have fraudulent results, with Salinas winning, but with the smallest margin ever. CĂĄrdenas and Clouthier and their supporters protested the election results, but Salinas took office in December 1988. Salinas transformed Church-State relations in Mexico during his term and the Vatican and the PAN became important players in that transformation.
129:(1988â1994). In a sweeping program of reform to "modernize Mexico" that he outlined in his 1988 inaugural address, his government pushed through revisions in the Mexican Constitution, explicitly including a new legal framework that restored the Catholic Church's juridical personality. The majority of Mexicans in the twenty-first century identify themselves as being Catholic, but the growth of other religious groups such as Protestant
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the political arena, generating a climate favorable to a more open implementation of the conciliation strategy." The number of functioning churches doubled during these four decades, as did the number of seminaries training Mexican priests. The number of priests tripled, which matched the growth in Mexico's population which was rapidly urbanizing. A conservative, pro-Catholic political party had been established in 1939, the
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could and did limit the number and nationality of clergy permitted in the country. Foreign priests were denied licenses. Although the Church had seminaries in Mexico that trained priests for placement in Mexico, there were many foreign priests, particularly from Spain, who were excluded from Mexico on nationalist grounds. In theory the State could have approved Mexican priests who were unacceptable to the Catholic hierarchy.
3212:, the closest official to a papal ambassador since Mexico and the Vatican had no diplomatic relations, overruled the archbishop. Prigione did not want to see another wave of anticlericalism in Mexico by allowing the church closure. However, the stance that the Church took in challenging electoral fraud in Chihuahua gained it greater legitimacy amongst ordinary Mexicans who also sought to have free and fair elections.
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Inquisition in Mexico began to closely scrutinize the merchant community in which many Portuguese merchants were crypto-Jews. In 1649, crypto-Jews both living and dead were "relaxed to the secular arm" of crown justice for punishment. The Inquisition had no power to execute the convicted, so civil justice carried out capital punishment in a grand public ceremony affirming the power of Christianity and the State.
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not make public statements about the election results. Behind the scenes the apostolic delegate to Mexico, Prigione, Mexican bishops, and government officials had a series of secret meetings that hammered out the outlines of a new Church-State relationship. At this point, the PRI needed an ally to shore up its wavering grip on power, and the Church proved to be such an ally. It has been considered a
2107:, who became president in 1876, strengthened the government's ties with the Catholic Church with an agreement formulated in 1905. The Church's influence over Mexico increased due to the large number of changes that occurred while DĂaz was in power. These institutional reforms included: administrative reorganization, improved training of the laity, the expansion of the Catholic press, an expansion of
2552:, more fanatical in his ideology than many other Constitutionalists, perhaps because he felt the sting of his status as a natural son of parents who had not married in the Church, nor had they bothered to baptize him; his father had abandoned him and his mother died when he was three. Some scholars view his illegitimacy as fundamentally shaping his attitude toward religion and the Catholic Church.
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1450:, another sixteenth-century holy person, was a lay Franciscan, an immigrant from Spain, who became a Franciscan late in life. He built a reputation for holiness in Puebla, colonial Mexico's second largest city, and was beatified (named Blessed) in 1789. Puebla was also the home of another immigrant, Catarina de San Juan, one who did not come to New Spain of her own volition, but as an Asian (
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distribution of lands, and most famously in 1938, the expropriation of foreign oil companies. Article 27 also prevented churches from holding real property at all. For the Catholic hierarchy, Article 130 prevented the recognition of the Church as a legal entity, denied to clergy the exercise of political rights, and prevented the Church from participating in any way in political matters.
2692:, UDCM), "as a nonpolitical lay organization dedicated to re-Catholicizing Mexican society." Their work during the military phase of the Mexican Revolution (1910â17) had been more in the social realm rather than the political, attempting to aid the urban poor who had suffered under Porfirio DĂaz's economic policies. These Mexican elite women were responding to the 1891 papal encyclical
2869:, who had held other posts in post-revolution Mexico, was concerned about the government's attack on academic freedom and freedom of thought. GĂłmez MorĂn encountered in UNEC the leaders who successfully thwarted implementation of socialist education at UNAM. This alliance between GĂłmez MorĂn and UNEC had enduring consequences, becoming the foundation for the creation of the
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reform public education and expand it. Madero was not overtly anticlerical but many of his supporters were, and the Catholic Church saw the need to organize opposition. Under Madero this was possible, since as an ardent adherent of democracy, he valued the right and exercise of freedom of expression and association, including the formation of political parties.
3208:"patriotic fraud." Immediately after the election, Archbishop Almeida preached a powerful sermon, cast as the parable of the Good Samaritan, but its meaning was clear, that the voters of Chihuahua had been mugged and brutalized by the PRI's actions. Almeida went further and planned on closing churches in Chihuahua in protest. The Apostolic Delegate in Mexico,
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others saw a less full role. Individual Mexican states in Mexico's federated republic could and did differ in their constitutions, a manifestation of Mexico's regional differences. Some states amended their constitutions to enshrine anticlerical measures of the Constitution of 1857, but ten states retained their constitutions without those amendments.
1937:. With the triumph of the liberals, the Catholic Church lost its exclusive standing as the only allowable religion and the Mexican State ceased to assert control over its patronage. But in the early Republic, established in 1824, the Catholic Church exerted both power and influence and sought to establish its complete independence of civil authority.
1463:" (Asian woman of Puebla), Catarina lived an exemplary life and was regarded in her lifetime as a holy woman, but the campaign for her recognition by the Vatican stalled in the seventeenth century, despite clericsâ writing her spiritual autobiography. Her status as an outsider and non-white might have affected her cause for designation as holy. Madre
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mere constitution could be changed and liberalism as a philosophy did not support religious institutions as such. When Ferdinand VII was restored to the throne, he promised to abide by the constitution, but quickly repudiated it, reasserting Bourbon autocratic rule. Spanish liberals pushed back and a coup of 1820 re-established the constitution.
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Emperor AgustĂn I of Mexico. Although most of the peninsular-born priests supported the new order, the archbishop of Mexico resigned, immediately creating a conflict with the Vatican about which entity had the power to name a replacement. The papacy had ceded the right of appointment and other significant privileges to the Spanish crown via the
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smashing of religious statues and stabling horses in churches. The practice was defended by a Constitutionalist general, who said it was "for the deliberate purpose of showing the Indians that lightning would not strike â that the Constitutionalists were not the enemies of God as the priests told them." The Constitutionalistsâ best general,
1432:, who was born in Mexico, became its first saint, a martyr in Japan; he was beatified in 1627, a step in the process of sainthood, and canonized a saint in 1862, during a period of conflict between Church and the liberal State in Mexico. One of the martyrs of the Japanese state's crackdown on Christians, San Felipe was crucified.
1919:, an important, late nineteenth-century historian of Mexico and political liberal, assessed the significance, contending that "This religious ceremony indicates the supremacy of the clergy, without whose intervention in matters of policy, acts would have been illegal and all authority would have been insecure and weak."
2466:(1920â24), the State could have rigorously enforced anticlerical provisions, but there were many pressing issues to deal with in consolidating power and likely they were unwilling to provoke conflict with the Church at this juncture. Under President Calles (1924â28), and continued dominance in power when he ruled as
1841: ...Independence was achieved by the very ones who had opposed it." With these assurances, the hierarchy supported independence and parish priests gave sermons in support. The Catholic Church had judged well, since it emerged "from the struggles for independence as a much stronger power than the state."
87:(1876â1911) the liberal general pursued a policy of conciliation with the Catholic Church; though he kept the anticlerical articles of the liberal constitution in force, he in practice allowed greater freedom of action for the Catholic Church. With DĂaz's ouster in 1911 and the decade-long conflict of the
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effective religious freedom." The government proposed changes to the constitution to "respect freedom of religion," but affirmed the separation of Church and State and kept in place secular public education as well as restrictions on clericsâ political participation in civic life and accumulating wealth.
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Constitutionalists disdained the Zapatistas as too Indian, too Catholic, the embodiment of traditional Mexico that the liberals sought to transform and modernize. In Morelos, priests were not persecuted, and some actively supported the guerrilla struggle. The priest in Cuautla typed the first copy of the
1587:, such as that of Santa LucĂa. More important, however, was the Church's taking the role of the major lender for mortgages. Until the nineteenth century in Mexico, there were no banks in the modern sense, so that those needing credit to finance real estate acquisitions turned to the Church as a banker.
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was shot 14 times at point blank range at the international city's airport, as he waited in his car for the arrival of the apostolic nuncio. The Mexican government claimed that the cardinal's murder was the result of mistaken identity by narcotrafficker hitmen. The Catholic hierarchy has disputed the
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surveying the prospective candidates about their stance on religious freedom in Mexico. Technocrat Carlos Salinas de Gortari declined to answer the survey and Mexican bishops were concerned about Salinas's attitude toward Church-State relations. The presidential election took an unexpected turn, with
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The idea would be incorporated with Catholic women's organizations and a foundation to help the strugglers of the workers, peasants, farmers, railroad workers and more. Priests involved with this concept, would also reached out to wealthy catholics and people with the power of influence to reconsider
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The effects of the war on the Church were profound. Between 1926 and 1934 at least 40 priests were killed. There were 4,500 priests serving the people before the rebellion, but by 1934 there were only 334 priests licensed by the government to serve fifteen million people. The rest had been eliminated
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His Sonoran origins also likely played a factor in his stance against the Catholic Church, since the North was far less traditionally Catholic than what some called "Old Mexico", the Center and South, with large indigenous populations, many large sized cities, and a strong Church presence dating from
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Venustiano Carranza assumed the presidency on May 1, 1915, but the country was not at peace. Emiliano Zapata and peasants in Morelos continued fighting against the central government. The differences between the revolutionaries of northern Mexico and those in the center and south were significant and
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The Federal Army, the Catholic hierarchy, and the National Catholic Party, along with supporters of the Porfirian order and international investors, as well as the government of the United States, supported the coup against Madero and his vice president, though their assassination was not necessarily
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During the late Porfiriato, the Jesuits were allowed to return to Mexico and they were to play an important role in twentieth-century political struggles in Mexico. The Catholic Church recovered economically, with intermediaries holding land and buildings for it. It also pursued charity work inspired
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royal line became Philip V of Spain, coming to power in 1714. Initially, in terms of ecclesiastical matters there were no major changes, but the Bourbon monarchs in both France and Spain began making major changes to existing political, ecclesiastical, and economic arrangements, collectively known as
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These institutions were designed for the daughters of elites, with individual living quarters not only for the nuns, but also their servants. Depending on the particular religious order, the discipline was more or less strict. The Carmelites were strictly observant, which prompted Doña Juana Asbaje y
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Many Jesuit haciendas were huge, with Palafox asserting that just two colleges owned 300,000 head of sheep, whose wool was transformed locally in Puebla to cloth; six sugar plantations worth a million pesos and generating an income of 100,000 pesos. The immense Jesuit hacienda of Santa LucĂa produced
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Members of the upper levels of the hierarchy, parish priests, and priests who functioned in religious institutions such as hospitals, received a salaried income, a benefice. However, not all ordained priests had a secure income from such benefices and had to find a way to make a living. Since secular
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or Royal Patronage, giving the monarch the power to appoint candidates for high ecclesiastical posts, collection of tithes and support of the clergy, but did not cede power in matters of doctrine or dogma. This essentially made the Spanish monarch the highest power of Church and State in its overseas
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United States. Congress. House. Committee on International Relations. Subcommittee on Africa, Global Human Rights, and International Operations. An end to impunity: investigating the 1993 killing of Mexican Archbishop Juan JesĂșs Posadas Ocampo: hearing before the Subcommittee on Africa, Global Human
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from the Institutional Revolutionary Party to become a candidate. Mexican bishops urged Mexican voters to "overcome apathy" and fight electoral fraud by participation in the election. The election result of a Salinas victory was almost universally considered to be fraudulent. The Mexican bishops did
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began to be outspoken against electoral fraud and government corruption. Almeida issued a document in 1983 entitled "Vote with Responsibility: A Christian Orientation," in which the archbishop urged citizens to vote. Voter apathy had become a problem in Mexico, since many citizens saw the process as
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that promoted a new way of the laity to engage in their faith by promoting their activism. This was similar to the rise of such lay groups under Church supervision in Brazil and in Central America. MĂ©ndez Arceo on his own account investigated the circumstances of prisoners following the 1968 student
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was founded in Mexico City in 1943. The university in Guadalajara was established during the presidency of LĂĄzaro CĂĄrdenas, when church-state tensions were still quite evident. The establishment of the Universidad Iberoamericana was facilitated by the rector of UNAM, Rodolfo Brito Foucher, who along
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By enforcing regulations that deemed priests as professionals like doctors or lawyers, the State asserted its power to control the institution but it also challenged the Church's function in the spiritual sphere. The Church had already ceased to contest the constitutional restrictions on its holding
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As a political novice who had never held office before becoming president, Madero found governing Mexico extremely challenging. In supporting freedom of the press, the Mexican press was ruthless in its criticisms of Madero. In supporting the formation of unions, unions struck and made life difficult
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By contrast Porfirio DĂaz was a political pragmatist and not an ideologue, likely seeing that if the religious question were re-opened there would be renewed political discord in Mexico and possible war with the U.S. "Persecution of the Church, whether or not the clergy enters into the matter, means
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One other significant Reform Law was the Law for the Nationalization of Ecclesiastical Properties, which would eventually secularize nearly all of the country's monasteries and convents. The government had hoped that this law would bring in enough revenue to secure a loan from the United States, but
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had many objectionable elements for the clergy in New Spain, even though it pledged in Article 12: "The religion of the Spanish nation is, and ever shall be, the Catholic Apostolic Roman and only true faith; the State shall, by wise and just laws, protect it and prevent the exercise of any other." A
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The Church had accumulated wealth from donations by patrons. That capital was too significant to let sit idle, so it was lent to reputable borrowers, generally at 5 percent interest. Thus, elite land owners had access to credit to finance acquisitions of property and infrastructure improvement, with
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The crown also expanded its reach into ecclesiastical matters by bringing in new laws that empowered families to veto the marriage choices of their offspring. This disproportionately affected elite families, giving them the ability to prevent marriages to those they deemed social or racial unequals.
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One of the major challenges for friars in creating such materials was to find words and phrasing that evoked the sacred without confusing the indigenous about Christianity and their old beliefs. For that reason, a whole series of words from Spanish and a few from Latin were incorporated as loanwords
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banned Indians from ordination to the priesthood. The failure to create a Christian priesthood of indigenous men has been deemed a major failure of the Catholic Church in Mexico. With the banning of ordination for indigenous men, the priest was always a Spaniard (and in later years one who passed as
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In general, Indians did not resist conversion to Christianity. Priests of the indigenous were displaced and the temples transformed into Christian churches. Mendicants targeted Indian elites as key converts, who would set the precedent for the commoners in their communities to convert. Also targeted
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Given the small number of mendicants and the vast number of indigenous to convert, outlying populations of indigenous communities did not have resident priests but priests visited at intervals to perform the sacraments (mainly baptism, confession, and matrimony). In prehispanic Central Mexico, there
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in 2020 revealed that 97.8 million Mexicans (77.7%) of a total population of 126 million identify as Catholics. This represents an increase from 2010 when 84 million people (82.7%) were Catholics, which is a "drastic fall" in percentage according to a Church spokesperson. Protestant and Evangelical
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Archbishop Ruiz y Flores, both of whom had played decisive roles during the height of Church-State conflict under Calles. The Vatican appointed Luis MarĂa MartĂnez as Archbishop of Mexico, who was considered "a realist who believed in moderation in the defense of the Church's rights and interests."
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whose linguists translated the Bible into a plethora of languages. The SIL began work in southern Mexico, a region of large indigenous populations with strong religious traditions, where the SIL produced Bibles in indigenous languages. From this small group, Protestantism in Mexico began to spread.
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in place, but brought an end to the conflict. Many Cristero fighters and supporters of the Church saw the hierarchy's settlement as "cowardly" and selling out the Church. However, it has been argued that the long-term interests of the Church were forwarded by coming to the settlement given that the
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The crux of the conflict for the Church hierarchy was the assertion of State power over the autonomy of the Church in personnel matters. The State decreed the compulsory registration of the clergy and thereby put priests under the authority of the State rather than the Catholic hierarchy. The State
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The conciliation policy meant that the Catholic Church regained a level of freedom of action, but one not protected by the constitution, so that their loyalty or prudence in criticism of the DiĂĄz regime, or both, were in the Church's best interest. In a number of regions, the Church re-emerged, but
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Lerdo de Tejada was the Minister of Finance and required that the Church sell much of its urban and rural land at reduced prices. If the Church did not comply, the government would hold public auctions. The Law also prohibited future acquisition of land by the Church. However, the Lerdo Law did not
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The initial period after Mexican independence was not marked by major changes in the role of the Catholic Church in Mexico, but in the mid-nineteenth century Mexican liberals initiated a reform to separate Church and State and undermine the political and economic role of the Church, codified in the
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To support their colleges and members of the Society of Jesus, the Jesuits acquired landed estates that were run with the best-practices for generating income in that era. A number of these haciendas were donated by wealthy elites. The donation of an hacienda to the Jesuits was the spark igniting a
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The crown had significant power in the economic realm regarding the Church, since it was granted the use of tithes (a ten percent tax of agriculture) and the responsibility of collecting them. In general the crown gave these revenues for the support of the Church, and where revenues fell short, the
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The ecclesiastical structure was ruled by a bishop, who had considerable power encompassing legislative, executive, and judicial matters. A bishop ruled over a geographical district, a diocese, subdivided into parishes, each with a parish priest. The seat of the diocese was its cathedral, which had
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Fray Alonso de Molina's 1569 confessional manual had a model testament in Spanish and Nahuatl. Whether or not it was the direct model for Nahua scribes or notaries in indigenous towns, the making of testaments that were simultaneously a religious document as well as one designed to pass property to
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he told the indigenous people that "the world needs their culture and asked for forgiveness for those who had contaminated their lands." He broke with Vatican tradition in celebrating Mass with these indigenous peoples, and challenged Catholic bishops in Mexico to "show singular tenderness" toward
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who saw anticlericalism as an inherent element of post-Revolution Mexico. It was clear that given the contested nature of the 1988 elections that Salinas could not expect to operate with a mandate for his program. However, the debate was now open. The leftists led by CĂĄrdenas opposed any change in
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The Church had contested all these restrictions from the beginning. With the possibility of changed relations between Church and State, "the main demand of the Catholic hierarchy was centered on the modification of Article 130" to recognize the Church as a legal entity, restore political rights to
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The Constitution of 1917 had several anticlerical restrictions. Article 5 restricted the existence of religious orders; Article 24 restricted church services outside of church buildings; Article 27 empowered the State over fundamental aspects of property ownership and resulted in expropriation and
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Before explaining the different radical movements, it is important to mention one Jesuit Priest Rodolfo Escamilla GarcĂa. Escamilla GarcĂa was one of the prominent radical priests or the "rebellious priests." Such as movements such priests for the people Garcia joined Mexican Social Secretariat in
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was the result of both Church and State realizing that further conflict was damaging to both, and the government might have seen a better relationship with the Church as fostering legitimacy for the regime. The president's actions "established the concept of conciliation as an acceptable policy in
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Earlier in the 1930s, the Mexican government under CĂĄrdenas attempted to impose socialist education, emphasizing Marxist thought including the idea of class conflict. This imposition of a particular ideology was destabilizing in Mexico, which had just experienced the religious crisis of the 1920s,
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Both lay and religious women also performed valuable services to the Catholic community in a less formalized fashion. They took leadership roles during the unsettled times that made priests the target of regulation and persecution, as an extraordinary measure, but that empowerment has been seen to
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Even though Archbishop Ruiz did not support the Cristerosâ resort to violence, he did advocate a response that profoundly affected the relations between the hierarchy and the laity. Since priests were the target of State action and since church buildings were no longer available for celebration of
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which had been ignored in the later DĂaz regime, though not repealed. The Constitutionalist targeting of clergy, churches, and sacred objects was likely no surprise. In areas controlled by the Constitutionalists, there was tremendous violence against church property and holy objects, including the
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Diaz strengthened the Mexican government ties with the Catholic Church with an agreement formulated in 1905. The Church's influence in Mexico increased while DĂaz was in power. These institutional reforms included: administrative reorganization, improved training of the laity, the expansion of the
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The first of the Liberal Reform Laws were passed in 1855. The JuĂĄrez Law, named after Benito JuĂĄrez, restricted clerical privileges, specifically the authority of Church courts, by subverting their authority to civil law. It was conceived of as a moderate measure, rather than abolish church courts
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This loss of power and influence in local communities contributed not only to the alienation of the lower secular clergy from the crown, but also began to dismantle the judicial state. As the crown strengthened its own civil role, it unwittingly undermined the aura of the sacred from its power, so
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The Jesuits were an international order with an independence of action due to its special relationship as "soldiers of the pope." The Portuguese expelled the Jesuits in 1759 and the French in 1764, so the Spanish crown's move against them was part of a larger assertion of regal power in Europe and
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In the sixteenth century, the establishment of the episcopal hierarchy was part of a larger Crown policy that in the early period increasingly aimed at diminishing the role of the mendicant orders as parish priests in central areas of the colony and strengthening the role of the diocesan (secular)
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New Spain became the seat of an archbishopric in 1530, with the archbishop overseeing multiple dioceses. The diocese of Michoacan (now MorelĂa) became an archdiocese in the sixteenth century as well. The creation of further dioceses in Mexico is marked by the construction of cathedrals in the main
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Bernardino de SahagĂșn wrote a book of psalms in Nahuatl for friars to use in their preaching; it was the only one of his many works that was published in his lifetime. When friars began to evangelize elsewhere in New Spain where there were other indigenous groups, they created similar materials in
2741:. This recognition can be considered in the context of Mexican national politics. In the July 1988 presidential elections, the Institutional Revolutionary Party, which had evolved from the party Calles had founded in 1929, was elected by the narrowest of margins and by fraudulent means. President
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For the Catholic laity, the restrictions on their ability to exercise freedom of worship in public settings and the closure of churches in their communities may have had greater resonance than the matter of State regulation of the clergy. Community celebrations of their patron saint, processions,
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called for the overthrow of the DĂaz government, there was little in it explicitly addressing the Catholic Church or religion. However, the Church had concerns about the Plan's call for land reform, which might have affected properties held for the Church, but more alarming was the Plan's call to
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founded by the mendicant orders (meaning that the secular or diocesan clergy rather than the orders were in charge). An even more sweeping change was the expulsion of the Jesuits from Spain and Spain's overseas territories in 1767. The crown expanded the jurisdiction of the Inquisition to include
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The Jesuits engaged in conflict with the episcopal hierarchy over the question of payment of tithes, the ten percent tax on agriculture levied on landed estates for support of the Church hierarchy, from bishops and cathedral chapters to parish priests. Since the Jesuits were the largest religious
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Hospitals were not just places to treat the sick and dying, but were spiritual institutions as well. At the Royal Indian Hospital, the ordinances for governing called for four chaplains, appointed by the crown and not the church, to minister to the sick and dying. All four had to be proficient in
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The 1917 Mexican Constitution included many anti-clerical elements. Five elements in this Constitution were aimed at reducing the Catholic Church's influence in Mexican domestic affairs. Article 3 enforced secular education in Mexican schools. Monastic vows and orders were outlawed in Article 5.
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organized urban workers in "Red Battalions" to go to Morelos to fight the Zapatistas as well as the followers of Pancho Villa in the north. The Zapatistas have the distinction of opposing every government from DĂaz to Madero to Huerta to Carranza for failing to protect and restore their lands to
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and the Catholic congresses that had met to discuss these issues)". They were accused of actively disseminating information that undermined public confidence in Madero and his policies. Even before Madero had been officially elected president, the U.S. Ambassador to Mexico wrote his superiors in
1960:
The effect of independence on the Catholic Church in Mexico and the patronage dispute meant that many dioceses lacked a bishop when one died or left Mexico, since who had the power to appoint a new one was not resolved. In Puebla, Mexico's second largest city, there was no bishop from 1829 until
1882:
The nineteenth century saw initial continuity of church-state relations in Mexico, but Mexican liberals increasingly sought to curtail the power and privilege of the Roman Catholic Church. There were violent conflicts resulting from these differing views during the Liberal Reform, but during the
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in 1821 marked a turning point for the Catholic Church. In the vision it articulated of an independent Mexico, the Plan of Iguala kept the Catholic Church as the exclusive religious institution. The hierarchy saw the Catholic Church's best interests as being with an independent Mexico where they
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The Gran Auto de Fe of 1649 saw Crypto-Jews burned alive, while the effigies or statues along with the bones of others were burned. Although the trial and punishment of those already dead might seem bizarre to those in the modern era, the disinterment of the remains of crypto-Jews from Christian
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or Jesuits, a new religious order founded on new principles, came to Mexico in 1572. The Jesuits distinguished themselves in several ways. They had high standards for acceptance to the order and many years of training. They were adept at attracting the patronage of elite families whose sons they
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and Spanish colonial architecture. The Catholic Church was a privileged institution until the mid nineteenth century. It was the sole permissible church in the colonial era and into the early Mexican Republic, following independence in 1821. Following independence, it involved itself directly in
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An even more significant change came when in his official state of the nation address in November 1991, Salinas stated that "the moment has come to promote new judicial proceedings for the churches," which were impelled by the need "to reconcile the definitive secularization of our society with
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The first establishment in San Juanito was in 1980 but started to see growth with the arrival of Maryknoll nuns in 1982. The CEB in San Juanito did a number of great things to improve daily life for the community. For example, they set up agriculture practices such as planting crops, setting up
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The passage above mentions the different bishops that played the role of liberationists in Mexico. Though this is important, Liberation Theology in Mexico is much deeper and will be explained in the following information. Liberation Theology as one could put it is a call to action. This call to
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In 1936, rather than Church-State relations going from bad to worse, CĂĄrdenas changed the government's approach to one of conciliation. He said "The government will not commit the error of previous administrations by considering the religious question as a problem of preeminence to other issues
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Madero as a martyr to democracy did what he was unable to do since his election, that is, bring together disparate forces into action against Huerta's government, while the National Catholic Party and the clergy stood with it. When Huerta was ousted in 1914, the Catholic Church and the National
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Although the Royal Indian Hospital was a crown institution and not an ecclesiastical one, the nursing staff during the eighteenth century was the brothers of the religious order of San HipĂłlito. The order was founded in Mexico by Bernardino de Alvarez (1514â1584), and it established a number of
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During the conquest, the Spaniards pursued a dual policy of military conquest, bringing indigenous peoples and territory under Spanish control, and spiritual conquest, that is, conversion of indigenous peoples to Christianity. When Spaniards embarked on the exploration and conquest of Mexico, a
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In June 1926, Calles enacted a decree often referred to as "Calles Law." Under this provision, Article 130 of the 1917 Mexican Constitution was to be enforced. Catholic Church officials were not only alarmed by the suddenness of Calles's decision, but also by the profound shift in Church-State
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The Plan of Iguala had provided for a European prince to rule Mexico. When none presented himself to serve as monarch, in a series of political moves the royalist-turned-insurgent AgustĂn Iturbide with support of the Catholic Church (and with the opposition of those favoring a republic) became
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Events in Spain again profoundly affected politics in New Spain and on the position of the leaders of the episcopal hierarchy. Following the ouster of Napoleon, Spanish liberals created a constitution for the first time, establishing the monarch not as an absolute ruler but as a constitutional
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In general though the Inquisition imposed penalties that were far less stringent than capital punishment. They prosecuted cases of bigamy, blasphemy, Lutheranism (Protestantism), witchcraft, and, in the eighteenth century, sedition against the crown was added to the Inquisition's jurisdiction.
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Although the legislation was inclusive of all "religious associations", the Catholic Church in Mexico had been the object of the government's regulation of religious institutions, worship, and personnel. Protestant groups remained largely silent during the debates, although in both theory and
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began to expand its voter base from mainly Catholics to one of the larger Mexican middle class. In Chihuahua, the PAN gained a larger share of votes, and in 1986, was widely expected to win the gubernatorial election. The PAN did not win, due to rigging of the vote, which the PRI justified as
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Liberation Theology was making progress in Mexico improving the lives of the indigenous peopleâs and their societies as different Church workers and scholars would come and go. In the 1980s, there would be shift in the Catholic church and the Vatican would eventually lean away from Liberation
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came to the presidency openly identifying as Catholic. He effectively put an end to church-state tensions, and during his term the constitutional amendment mandating social education was repealed. The founding of two Catholic universities in this period is an important step toward a different
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The change in government policy and the new leader of Mexico's Church hierarchy implementing a policy of flexibility with the government, resulted in an effective policy of conciliation. For CĂĄrdenas, this new relationship meant that when he nationalized oil in March 1938, the Church not only
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In his inaugural address, Salinas de Gortari announced a program to "modernize" Mexico via structural transformation. "The modern state is a state which ... maintains transparency and updates its relation with political parties, entrepreneurial groups, and the church." His declaration was an
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The National Catholic Party in Mexico was organized with the support of the Church but not with its direct involvement in the interim between the exile of DĂaz and the election of Madero. It advocated for "fair elections, democracy, and the application of Catholic principles (as expressed in
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Mendicants did not usually function as parish priests, administering the sacraments, but mendicants in early Mexico were given special dispensation to fulfill this function. The Franciscans, the first-arriving mendicants, staked out the densest and most central communities as their bases for
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refused to support the revolt and was accused of cowardliness and even freemasonry. However, the archbishop has been seen as being "guided by a keener appreciation of the ultimate realities of power than were those adamant clerics who pressed the Church to engage in mortal combat." When the
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issued decrees nationalizing church property, separating church and state, and suppressing religious institutes. Church properties were confiscated and basic civil and political rights were denied to religious institutes and the clergy. The Church supported the regime of JuĂĄrez's successor,
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The Bourbon Reforms had strengthened the role of the State at the expense of the Catholic Church. Parish priests and other secular clergy in particular experienced not only loss of status, but loss of income. The crown had created a new administrative regime as part of its civil reforms. In
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announced in his December 1988 inaugural address that he would "modernize" Mexico and led the process to change the Mexican constitution, including most of its anticlerical provisions, that was passed in 1992. By 2000, the Vatican likely perceived no danger in recognizing Catholics who had
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In 1926, the Church hierarchy declared what was in essence a clerical strike, ceasing to say Mass or administer the sacraments. For the Mexican faithful, the suspension of the sacraments brought the Church-State conflict into their daily lives. The episcopal hierarchy supported boycotts on
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Little is known about Ruiz de AlarcĂłn himself, but his work is an important contribution to early Mexico for understanding Nahua religion, beliefs, and medicine. He collected information about Nahuas in what is now modern Guerrero. He came to the attention of the Inquisition for conducting
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The Portuguese empire included territories in West Africa and was the source of African slaves sold in Spanish territories. Quite a number of Portuguese merchants in Mexico were involved in the transatlantic slave trade. When Portugal successfully revolted against Spanish rule in 1640, the
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CEBs provided an opportunity for aid for many of the Mexican communities. In addition to rural areas, CEBs flourished in places with high places of poverty, extremely low unemployment rates, alarming overall malnutrition, and more. For example, in communities in a CEB in Santa Cecilia,
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multi-decade mortgages. Many elite familiesâ consumption patterns were such that they made little progress on paying off the principal and many estates were very heavily mortgaged to the Church. Estates were also burdened with liens on their income to pay for the salary of the family's
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In one Nahua sodality in Tula, women not only participated but held publicly religious office. When the confraternity was given official recognition in 1631, they are noted in the confraternity's records in Nahuatl: "Four mothers of people in holy matters to take good care of the holy
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A significant difference between the Zapatistas and the Constitutionalists was cultural, since the Zapatistas fought under the banner of the Virgin of Guadalupe and often had a picture of her or other saints on their big hats "to protect them". Many leftist intellectuals and northern
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reverted to the Vatican now that the political situation was transformed, and that Mexico needed to petition to receive the concession in its own right. The Vatican's position was that until that occurred, replacement of ecclesiastics reverted to the ruling hierarchy of the dioceses.
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businesses, petitioned the government to not implement the proposed changes, and used other peaceful means of persuading and pressuring the State. Those who took up arms in the Cristero Rebellion did not receive the support of the Mexican Catholic hierarchy. In Michoacan, Archbishop
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was the key act of the crown asserting control over the clergy, both mendicant and secular. It was promulgated by the crown in 1574, codifying this policy, which simultaneously strengthened the crown's role, since it had the power of royal patronage over the diocesan clergy, the
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The friars founded 120 hospitals in the first hundred years of the colonial era, some serving only Spaniards but others exclusively for the indigenous. These hospitals for Indians were especially important since epidemics sickened and killed countless Indians after the conquest.
2371:, who was a senior general under DĂaz that Madero relied upon, having dismissed the revolutionary fighters who helped bring him to power, keeping the Federal Army. They were loyal to Madero right up to the point when they fomented a successful coup against him in February 1913.
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In 1767, the Spanish crown ordered the expulsion of the Jesuits from Spain and its overseas territories. Their properties passed into the hands of elites who had the wherewithal to buy them. The mendicants did not protest their expulsion. The Jesuits had established missions in
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on the throne, there was a crisis of legitimacy of crown rule in Spain's overseas empire. Having spent decades alienating the lower clergy by its measures, the Bourbon monarchy found itself without priests supporting it, but who participated in the insurgency for independence.
1550:
ceding the crown power in the ecclesiastical sphere continued in force, but the centralizing tendencies of the Bourbon state meant that policies were implemented that directly affected clerics. Most prominent of these was the attack on the special privileges of the clergy, the
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with the Catholic Church in the latter years of his presidency. As DĂaz aged the question of presidential succession became important. DĂaz ran again in 1910, despite previously saying he would not, but his initial announcement set off great political activity and the rise of
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The Colegio continued for a number of decades more, with some of its most able students becoming participants in SahagĂșn's project to compile information about the prehispanic Aztecs in order that Christian evangelization would be more effective. The twelve-volume magnum opus
915:), which meant that they were exempt from civil courts, no matter what the offense, but were tried in canonical courts. This separation of jurisdictions for different groups meant that the Church had considerable independent power. In the late eighteenth century, one of the
1078:, the fermented juice of the agave cactus whose main consumers were the lower classes and Indians in Spanish cities. Although most haciendas had a free work force of permanent or seasonal laborers, the Jesuit haciendas in Mexico had a significant number of black slaves.
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The implementation of reforms entailed amending the constitution, but before that overcoming opposition on the Left and also in the Catholic Church itself. After considerable debate, the Mexican legislature voted for these fundamental revisions in Church-State policy.
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Despite an increasingly visible role of the Catholic Church during the Porfiriato and much better Church-State relations, the Vatican was unsuccessful in getting the reinstatement of a formal relationship with the papacy. It was not until 1992 under the presidency of
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is in the ascendancy of the diocesan clergy over the mendicants, but also indicates the growth in the Spanish population in New Spain and the necessity not only to minister to it but also to provide ecclesiastical posts for the best American-born Spaniards (creoles).
2988:, mobilized around opposition to the 1968 Olympics hosted in Mexico, but expanding to become a larger critique and mobilization against the Mexican state. His report to the Mexican hierarchy received no action, in keeping with the hierarchy's policy to maintain its
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practice they would be affected. Evangelical churches suffered initially with the new regulations, since in order for a religious group to register with the government, it has to have been functioning for five years and have sufficient property to support itself.
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agreement. Sometime during the presidential campaign, the PRI had indicated to the Church that a Salinas victory would be beneficial to the Church. A delegation of the leadership of the episcopal hierarchy attended the inauguration of Salinas on December 1, 1988.
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order holding real estate, surpassing the Dominicans and Augustinians who had accumulated significant property, this was no small matter. They argued that they were exempt, due to special pontifical privileges. In the mid-seventeenth century, bishop of Puebla Don
45:
dates from the period of the Spanish conquest (1519â21) and has continued as an institution in Mexico into the twenty-first century. Catholicism is one of many major legacies from the Spanish colonial era, the others include Spanish as the nation's language, the
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During the period 1876 to 1911, relations between the Catholic Church and the Mexican government were stable. This was a sharp contrast to the political discord that had led to outright warfare between Mexican liberals, who implemented anti-clerical laws during
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In the early conquest era of Mexico, the formal institutions of Church and State had not been established. But to initiate the spiritual conquest even though the episcopal hierarchy (the diocesan clergy) had not yet been established, Cortés requested that the
2918:, and the Church began urging parishioners to vote for the PAN in a number of elections, starting in 1955. Some clerics criticized the government's economic development strategy, but in general, the Church did not intervene in civil matters in any major way.
5641:. "After more than a century of estrangement, the Mexican Government and the Vatican are suddenly moving toward re-establishing formal diplomatic relations and are also having informal talks on restoring some civil rights to the Roman Catholic Church here."
1854:. Mexican conservatives challenged those reforms and a decade of civil conflict ensued. Mexican liberals were ultimately the victors and began implementing laws passed in the late 1850s curtailing the power of the Catholic Church. The long presidency of
1186:. Nuns were required to provide a significant dowry to the nunnery on their entrance. As "brides of Christ", nuns often entered the nunnery with an elaborate ceremony that was an occasion for the family to display not only its piety but also its wealth.
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taught at the school, but the Franciscans concluded that although their elite Indian students were capable of high learning, their failure to maintain life habits expected of a friar resulted in the ending of their religious education toward ordination.
3034:. Ruiz's diocese had a high proportion of indigenous Mayan parishioners. As he came to know his diocese better, he paid increasing attention to the marginalization and oppression of the Maya. In keeping with the move toward the formation of grassroots
2181:, a wealthy and well-connected cleric, whom DĂaz met via agricultural expositions. Gillow's appointment as archbishop of Oaxaca, DĂaz's home state, and his personal relationship with DĂaz, positioned him to influence church-state relations in Mexico.
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The friars sought ways to make their task of converting millions of Indians less daunting. By using existing indigenous settlements in Central Mexico where indigenous rulers were kept in place in the post-conquest period, the mendicant orders created
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was established in Mexico in 1571, Indians were exempted from its jurisdiction. There was a concern that Indians were insufficiently indoctrinated in Catholic orthodox beliefs to be held to the same standards as Spaniards and other members of the
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was elected president of Mexico in 1934, the Mexican government had backed away from its enforcement of many of the anticlerical articles of the constitution. However the articles and enforcing statutes remained on the books. In the midst of the
2660:, created in 1925, in the early part of Calles's presidential term, but prior to the 1926 promulgation of the Calles Law that same year. The Mexico City-based organization was created by former members of the short-lived National Catholic Party (
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for Catholic activism on behalf of the poor and working class against the new challenge of industrialization and capitalism. Their aid of the poor was an extension of their family role as Catholic nurturers and educators in the domestic sphere.
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Pope Francis in his visit to Mexico was criticized by some for his effort to not antagonize the government. "He focused on one of his main talking points, inequality, while skipping any thorny local political issues." But at the USA border in
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as a priest and then turned over to civil authorities and executed. For parish priests, the Bourbon policies of the last 50 years had undermined their authority and distanced the allegiance to the monarch as the patron of the Catholic Church.
2416:, took anticlerical measures when he entered Mexico City in triumph, imposing a fine of 500,000 pesos on the Church to be paid to the Revolutionary Council for Aid to the People. He also jailed and expelled nearly 200 clerics in Mexico City.
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The Vatican likely sensed a sea-change and in 1990 John Paul II visited Mexico for the first time since 1979 for the Puebla conference of Latin American bishops. After the announcement of his intentions, the Mexican Minister of the Interior
3071:
CEBs were initially encouraged by the Catholic Church in Mexico, due to reasons such as the deficiency of priests and nuns in Mexico particularly in the rural areas. As well as the church was worried about the growing number of protestants.
1696:, the Mexico City Poor House, founded in 1774 with funds of a single ecclesiastical donor, Choirmaster of the Cathedral, Fernando Ortiz Cortés, who became its first director. That institution lasted about a century, until 1871, going from a
2783:, it seemed prudent to deal with matters other than the role of the Catholic Church in Mexican life. Although CĂĄrdenas was elected, Calles doubtless expected to continue to be the actual power behind the presidency during the period of the
2792:
A less confrontational policy of the government was its encouragement of Protestant missionaries in Mexico, in an attempt to create religious competition and undermine the power of the Catholic Church. CĂĄrdenas welcomed the benignly named
2806:
involved in the national program. Antireligious campaigns would only result in further resistance and definitely postpone economic revival." This was a major policy change in Mexico, but it is also significant that it was reported in the
666:
either Nahuatl or Otomi, with two to serve in each language. Although many secular clerics without a benefice held multiple posts in order to make a living, the chaplains at the Royal Indian Hospital were forbidden to serve elsewhere.
1364:
The cult of the Virgin of Guadalupe grew in importance in the seventeenth century, becoming especially associated with American-born Spaniards. In the era of independence, she was an important symbol of liberation for the insurgents.
1609:
The Bourbon monarchy increasingly tried to gain control over ecclesiastical funds for their own purposes. They eliminated tax exemptions for ecclesiastical donations, put a 15% tax on property passing into the hands of the Church in
5654:. "Mexico and the Vatican re-established full diplomatic relations today after a break of more than 130 years, completing a reconciliation based on the Government's restoration of legal rights to religious groups earlier this year."
3105:
their belief in Catholicism and look to help their fellow Catholics who suffer. Based on the idea of the theological idea of the option for the people emerged two progressive movements political popular and priest for the people.
2172:
When he rebelled against Lerdo, DĂaz had the tacit and perhaps the explicit support of the Church. When he came to power in 1877, DĂaz left the anticlerical laws in place, but the central government no longer enforced them. This
1181:
Nuns were enclosed in their convents, but some orders regularly permitted visits from the nunsâ family members (and in Sor Juana's case, the viceroy and his wife the virreina), as well as her friend, the priest and savant Don
9319:
3478:, Bernardo Barranco, states that "the rise of violence against priests reflects the role in which they place themselves: as warriors on the front lines of the struggle for human rights in the midst of drug-related violence."
3092:
health nutrition classes, and weekly meetings discussing peoples' daily problems. The CEBs were not the only contribution to come out of Liberation Theology in Mexico, but also the emergence of radical progressive movements.
1242:(burning place) of the Inquisition. 1596â1771". The Inquisition tried those accused, but did not itself have the power to execute the convicted. They were turned over ("relaxed") to secular authorities for capital punishment.
1782:
The insurgency for independence in the period 1810-13 was prominently led by lower secular clerics, but the top levels of episcopal hierarchy strongly condemned it. When Hidalgo was captured by royalist forces, he was first
1571:
Previously, the regulation of marriage was in the hands of the Church, which consistently supported a couple's decision to marry even when the family objected. With generations of racial mixing in Mexico in a process termed
1255:) but continued practicing Judaism, did emigrate. Many were merchants of Portuguese background, who could more easily move within the Spanish realms during the period 1580â1640 when Spain and Portugal had the same monarch.
3161:
had been appointed in 1978 as the pope's representative in Mexico. With the papacy of John Paul II, he became a key instrument in reining in of activist bishops who had a liberationist stance. In Cuernavaca, liberationist
2228:. He officiated at the religious marriage of Porfirio and Delfina DĂaz hours before the death of the latter. Years later he maintained a friendly relationship with Porfirio DĂaz, which strengthened the relationship of the
1263:
sacred ground and then burning their remains protected living and dead Christians from the pollution of those who rejected Christ. A spectacular case of sedition was prosecuted a decade later in 1659, the case of Irishman
1004:, thus ensuring the economic well-being of one of its own. Although the endowment was for a religious purpose, the Church itself did not control the funds. It was a way that pious elite families could direct their wealth.
1000:). Wealthy members of society would set aside funds, often by a lien on real property, to ensure Masses would be said for their souls in perpetuity. Families with an ordained priest as a member often designated him as the
1290:
Indigenous men and women were excluded from the jurisdiction of the Inquisition when it was established, but there were on-going concerns about indigenous beliefs and practice. In 1629, Hernando Riz de AlarcĂłn wrote the
2715:) that can be seen as an armistice between Church and State, since the anticlerical constitutional articles remained in force, but the Arreglos brought the conflict to an end. Brokered by the U.S. Ambassador to Mexico,
319:
The justification of Spanish (and Portuguese) overseas conquests was to convert the existing populations to Christianity. The pope granted the Spanish monarch (and the crown of Portugal) broad concessions termed the
3194:
In the 1980s, the Church in Chihuahua began to take an activist stance on creating a new civic culture in which citizen participation was aimed at promoting clean elections and rule of law. In Chihuahua, Archbishop
1494:. The Niños Mårtires de Tlaxcala (child martyrs of Tlaxcala), who died during the initial "spiritual conquest" of the 1520s, were the first lay Catholics from the Americas beatified, done in 1990 by John Paul II.
1189:
Nunneries accumulated wealth due to the dowries donated for the care of nuns when they entered. Many nunneries also acquired urban real estate, whose rents were a steady source of income to that particular house.
1053:. Those same elite families hoped that a son with a vocation to the priesthood would be accepted as a Jesuit. Jesuits were also zealous in evangelization of the indigenous, particularly on the northern frontiers.
58:
brought major changes in church-state relations. Mexican liberals in power challenged the Catholic Church's role, particularly in reaction to its involvement in politics. The Reform curtailed the Church's role in
7430:
4978:
J. Benedict Warren, "An Introductory Survey of Secular Writings in the European Tradition on Colonial Middle America, 1503-191." Handbook of Middle American Indians, Guide to Ethnohistorical Sources, 1973, vol.
2169:
war, and such a war, the Government can win against its own people only through the humiliating, despotic, costly and dangerous support of the United States. Without its religion, Mexico is irretrievably lost."
1666:) were expressions of religious belief and the wealthy in Mexico established institutions to aid the poor, sometimes with the support of the Church and the crown. The 1777 establishment of what is now called
1246:
Non-Catholics were banned from emigrating to Spain's overseas territories, with potential migrants needing to receive a license to travel that stated they were of pure Catholic heritage. However, a number of
5899:
Monica I. Orozco, "Protestant Missionaries, Mexican Liberals, Nationalism, and the Issue of Cultural Incorporation of Indigenous Peoples in Mexico." PhD dissertation. University of California, Santa Barbara
1961:
1840. Even worse for many of the faithful in Mexico was the lack of parish priests, who had been important figures in local communities, despite all the Bourbon crown's efforts to undermine their authority.
1169:
with 7. Sor Juana's Jeronymite order had only 3 houses. The largest concentration of convents was in the capital, Mexico City, with 11 built between 1540 and 1630, and, by 1780 another 10 for a total of 21.
7121:
Secretaria de GobernaciĂłn, Diario Official, "Decreto por el que se reforman los. ArtĂculos 3, 5, 24, 130 y se adiciona el art. 17 Transitorio de la ConstituciĂłn de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos," 28 January
3221:
2033:
altogether. The move opened latent divisions in the country. Archbishop LĂĄzaro de la Garza in Mexico City condemned the Law as an attack on the Church itself, and clerics went into rebellion in the city of
983:) and priests who did not come out on top were curates who served on an interim basis by appointment by the bishop; those who failed entirely did not even hold a temporary assignment. The importance of the
2732:
Although the Church hierarchy at the time did not support Cristero violence, it did recognize some of those who died fighting for religious rights in Mexico. In September 1988 the Vatican beatified Father
2680:; the National Parents' Association; and the National Catholic Labor Confederation. The League had by June of its founding year 1925 about 36,000 members and chapters in almost every state of the country.
1282:
Historians have in recent decades utilized Inquisition records to find information on a broad range of those in the Hispanic sector and discern social and cultural patterns and colonial ideas of deviance.
932:
priests did not take a vow of poverty, they often pursued economic functions like any other member of Hispanic society. An example of a secular cleric piecing together an income from multiple posts is Don
2111:, and the growth of the Church's influence in rural areas. The lack of enforcement of anti-clerical laws by DĂaz can also be attributed to the profound influence of his wife, who was a devout Catholic.
3523:"El bien generalmente no es noticia, el mal, siempre es magnificado. La Iglesia ha tenido un desgaste moral ante la sociedad, por el mal ejemplo de algunos. Es tiempo de conversiĂłn hacia el interior."
1874:
ensued in 1940. In 1992, the Mexican constitution was amended to remove most of the anti-clerical elements. Roman Catholicism has remained the dominant religion in Mexico since the colonial era.
1300:
and punishing Indians without authority. The Holy Office exonerated him due to his ignorance and then appointed him to a position to inform the Holy Office of pagan practices, resulting in the
758:. The diocese of Mexico was established in Mexico City in 1530. Initially, Mexico was not an episcopal jurisdiction in its own right; until 1547 it was under the authority of the Archbishop of
2470:, there was extreme Church-State conflict. Calles was determined to enforce the anticlerical articles of the Constitution. The conflict was ended by mediation in 1929. Under the presidency of
2425:
made the conflict regional. Those fighting in Morelos were peasants seeking the return of their lands. Rather than armies of movement, as in the north of Mexico, the fighters were guerrillas.
589:, the language of the Aztecs and other groups. Fray Andrés de Olmos completed a manual designed to teach the friars Nahuatl. Fray Alonso de Molina compiled a bilingual dictionary in Nahuatl (
2909:
With the cessation of open conflict between Church and State beginning with the Avila Camacho presidency (1940â46), the Catholic Church entered a new period of growth and consolidation. The
1070:
in that city. Since the Jesuits resisted paying the tithe on their estates, this donation effectively took revenue out of the church hierarchy's pockets by removing it from the tithe rolls.
7184:
Rights, and International Operations of the Committee on International Relations, House of Representatives, One Hundred Ninth Congress, second session, April 6, 2006. Vol. 8. USGPO, 2006.
3042:
Center of Human Rights, as a step to push back against violence against indigenous and poor peasants. When the 1994 rebellion in Chiapas erupted, Ruiz was named as a mediator between the
3491:, he "delivered a stinging critique of leaders on both sides of the fence" for the "humanitarian crisis" of forced migration. And "he went to the heart of the cartel's dark territory in
2873:(PAN), in 1939. Although not directly connected to the Catholic hierarchy, the PAN was an independent, pro-democratic, nonviolent, opposition political party with many Catholic members.
3026:
also became an important advocate for liberation theology in his poor, southern Mexican diocese. He attended Vatican II, as well as a 1971 bishops' retreat attended by Peruvian cleric
2249:, who was a devout Catholic. She became a go-between to alert ecclesiastical establishments, such as nunneries, if anticlerical forces attempted to enforce statues against the Church.
9058:
2201:
1984:
was elected president in 1833 and, rather than exercising power himself, retired to his estate in Veracruz, leaving the government in the hands of his vice president, radical liberal
7098:
Vargas, Jorge A., "Mexico's Legal Revolution: An Appraisal of Its Recent Constitutional Changes, 1988â1995." 25 Georgia Journal of International and Comparative Law, 497-559 (1996).
2486:
3525:("Good is generally not news, evil is always magnified. The Church has suffered a moral erosion before society, due to the bad example of some. It is time for inward conversion.")
701:
In the Maya area, confraternities had considerable economic power since they held land in the name of their patron saint and the crops went to the support of the saint's cult. The
75:, the Church was an ally of conservative forces that attempted to oust the liberal government. They also were associated with the conservatives' attempt to regain power during the
1674:, who had made a fortune in silver mining, and the pawnshop continues to operate as a national institution in the twenty-first century, with its headquarters still right off the
698:
to enter, and they are to take care of the brothers who are sick, and the orphans; they are to see to what is needed for their souls and what pertains to their earthly bodies."
601:
languages as diverse as Zapotec, Maya, and Chinantec. Increasingly the crown became hostile to the production of materials in indigenous languages, so that SahagĂșn's multivolume
8487:
3320:
priests, and to end restrictions "on the social actions of the Church and its members." The initial reaction to changing the constitution was quite negative from members of the
801:, appointing high-born Spaniards loyal to the crown as the top civil official. On occasion in all three centuries of Spanish rule, the crown appointed archbishops or bishops as
5264:
3344:
The bill to amend the constitution was submitted to the legislature to reform Articles 3, 5, 24, and 130. The bill passed in December 1991 with the support of the conservative
1929:. But now that Mexico was a sovereign state, the issue was whether that right was transferred to the new national government. This question was a major issue until the Liberal
1102:. The mendicant orders were envious of the Jesuitsâ economic power and influence and the fact that fewer good candidates for their orders chose them as opposed to the Jesuits.
705:(indigenous community) retention of considerable land via the confraternities was a way the Maya communities avoided colonial officials, the clergy, or even indigenous rulers (
2193:
114:(1926â29) was resolved, with the aid of diplomacy of the U.S. Ambassador to Mexico, ending the violence, but the anticlerical articles of the constitution remained. President
843:, archbishop of Mexico City archdiocese, who served twice as interim viceroy, February 27, 1696, to December 18, 1696, and again from November 4, 1701, to November 27, 1702.
1404:
included the Cristo Negro de Esquipulas; the Cristo Negro of Otatitlan, Veracruz; the Cristo Negro of San Pablo Anciano, AcatitlĂĄn de Osorio, Puebla; the Lord of Chalma, in
773:
and consecrated in 1532. In general, a member of a mendicant order was not appointed to a high position in the episcopal hierarchy, so ZumĂĄrraga and his successor Dominican
532:
The crown and the Franciscans had hopes for the training of indigenous men to become ordained Catholic priests, and with the sponsorship of Bishop Juan de ZumĂĄrraga and Don
437:
initiated what came to be called The Spiritual Conquest of Mexico. Many of the names and accomplishments of earliest Franciscans have come down to the modern era, including
4314:
2045:) traditionally enjoyed by the military, which was significant since the military had been instrumental in putting and keeping Mexican governments in office since Emperor
379:
had been a long tradition of conquered city-states adding the gods of their conquerors to their existing pantheon so that conversion to Christianity seemed to be similar.
2814:) that religious liberty and freedom of conscience would be respected and that the government would not provoke conflict with the Church. These were also reported in the
1606:
entirely. The lower secular clergy was significantly affected, many of whom not having a steady income via a benefice, or having a benefice insufficient to support them.
4759:
Nancy Farriss, ââMaya Society under Colonial Rule: The Collective Enterprise of Survivalââ, Princeton: Princeton University Press 1984, p. 266. Emphasis in the original.
2585:
The suppression of the Church included the closing of many churches and the killing or forced marriage of priests. The persecution was most severe in Tabasco under the
2320:, a member of a rich, estate-owning family in the state of Coahuila. Anti-DĂaz forces coalesced behind Madero, whom DĂaz arrested and imprisoned prior to the election.
9228:
996:
One type of institution that produced income for priests without a parish or other benefice was to say Masses for the souls of men and women who had set up chantries (
429:
Indigenous mural painting in the Exconvento de Huejotzingo (former Convent Huejotzingo) which represents six of the twelve first Franciscan missionaries to New Spain.
8376:
1837:
observed, Mexican independence "was the natural result of a simple change of front by the army, instigated by the higher clergy who were antagonistic to the Spanish
625:). Some Christian dichotomous concepts, such as good and evil, were not easy to convey to Nahuas, since their belief system sought a middle ground without extremes.
195:
2037:
in 1855â56. Bishop of Michoacan Clemente de JesĂșs MunguĂa also vociferously opposed the reform laws and the requirement for Mexicans to swear fealty to the liberal
1980:
of Mexican liberals who opposed the institutional powers of the Catholic Church and its continued dominance in economic matters found expression when military hero
83:
was invited to become emperor of Mexico. The empire fell and conservatives were discredited, along with the Catholic Church. However, during the long presidency of
7473:
2442:
them. Carranza's solution to the problem was to arrange Zapata's assassination in 1919, effectively ending the struggle in Morelos against the central government.
5542:
Karl Schmitt, "The DĂaz Conciliation Policy on State and Local Levels, 1876â1911." ââHispanic American Historical Reviewââ vol. 40, no. 4, November 1960, p. 515.
9273:
8683:
8678:
7325:
3050:) and the Mexican government. His role was a significant departure from government practice of working with the Catholic hierarchy, but not giving them power.
1583:
In the economic sphere, the Church had acquired a significant amount of property, particularly in Central Mexico, and the Jesuits ran efficient and profitable
809:
was the first secular cleric to be appointed archbishop of Mexico and he was also the first cleric to serve as viceroy, September 25, 1584 â October 17, 1585.
17:
8895:
1678:
in Mexico City with branches in many other places in Mexico. The Count of Regla's donation is an example of private philanthropy in the late colonial period.
1400:
In colonial New Spain, there were several devotions to Christ with images of Christ focusing worship. A number of them were images are of a Black Christ. The
1202:
in 1724 was another round of debate about the capacity of Indians, male or female, for religious life. The early sixteenth century had seen the demise of the
496:
Friars built churches on the sites of temples, transforming the ancient sacred space into a place for Catholic worship. Some of these have been recognized by
9178:
8809:
5081:
2657:
3007:
attended. Significant documents articulating liberation theology were drawn up at the meeting, with Almeida helping draft documents on justice and peace.
1771:â national heroes in Mexico, with Mexican states named after them. Also extremely important in the struggle for independence was the symbolic role of the
975:
guaranteed parish priests an income and a permanent position. Priests competed for desirable parishes through a system of competitive examinations called
9554:
8748:
7246:
1988:. GĂłmez FarĂas and liberals in the legislature enacted strong anticlerical measures that were a foretaste of the liberal reforms of the 1850s and 1860s.
67:, restricting the Church's corporate ownership of property and other limitations. Although there were some liberal clerics who advocated reform, such as
9625:
8027:
7507:
242:
398:
were youngsters who had not yet grown up with pagan beliefs. In Tlaxcala, some young converts were murdered and later touted as martyrs to the faith.
8402:
3517:
congregations have grown 7.5% in the last decade, and 10.2 million people (8.1%) have no religion, double that of ten years ago. The Catholic weekly
585:
The Franciscans were especially prolific in creating materials so that they could evangelize in the indigenous language, which in Central Mexico was
214:
642:
endowed the Hospital of the Immaculate Conception, more commonly known as the Hospital de JesĂșs, in Mexico City, which was run by religious. Bishop
9630:
9023:
8477:
1098:
took on the Jesuits over this matter and was so soundly defeated that he was recalled to Spain, where he became the bishop of the minor diocese of
63:, property ownership, and control of birth, marriage, and death records, with specific anticlerical laws. Many of these were incorporated into the
8900:
4589:
Louise Burkhart, ââThe Slippery Earth: The Nahua-Christian Moral Dialogue of Sixteenth-Century Mexico,ââ Tucson: University of Arizona Press 1989.
3427:
850:, served six years as viceroy, March 17, 1734, to August 17, 1740. The last two cleric-viceroys followed the more usual pattern of being interim.
597:) to aid the friars in teaching and preaching. He also created a bilingual confessional manual, so that friars could hear confessions in Nahuatl.
9048:
8978:
8845:
1042:
137:, as well as secularism is consistent with trends elsewhere in Latin America. The 1992 federal Act on Religious Associations and Public Worship (
6221:
Soren Hvalkof and Peter Aaby, editors, 163-172. Copenhagen" International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs; Long: Survival International 1981.,
1153:
In the first generation of Spaniards in New Spain, women emigrated to join existing kin, generally marrying. With few marital partners of equal
221:
8948:
6652:
4896:
Robert Michael Van Handel, "The Jesuit and Franciscan Missions in Baja California." M.A. thesis. University of California, Santa Barbara, 1991.
3937:
Butler, Matthew. "Keeping the Faith in Revolutionary Mexico: Clerical and Lay Resistance to Religious Persecution, East MichoacĂĄn, 1926â1929."
3513:
1816:
In New Spain, the episcopal hierarchy was highly concerned, since their position would be affected. The emergence of royalist military officer
9193:
9098:
8993:
6002:
Matthew Butler, "Keeping the Faith in Revolutionary Mexico: Clerical and Lay Resistance to Religious Persecution, East MichoacĂĄn, 1926â1929."
979:, with the aim of having the most qualified candidates receiving benefices. With these competitions, the winners became holders of benefices (
367:
as they are known were the first Franciscans who arrived in 1524, followed by the Dominican order in 1526, and the Augustinian order in 1533.
8998:
8983:
7787:
7514:
7220:
7163:
3953:
El Catolicismo Social: Un Tercero en Discordia, Rerum Novarum, la 'CuestiĂłn Social,' y la MovilizaciĂłn de los CatĂłlicos Mexicanos (1891â1911)
9083:
3474:
are particularly at risk. The Catholic hierarchy in the state issued a plea to the Mexican government to deal with drug violence. A Mexican
7466:
2737:, who had been summarily executed in crucifix posture; further beatifications and some canonizations occurred in 2000 and 2005, considered
1670:
allowed urban dwellers who had any property at all to pawn access to interest-free, small-scale credit. It was established by the Count of
1401:
9427:
9293:
9248:
505:
228:
8953:
8060:
7553:
7299:
7272:
1224:
was established in 1569 to maintain orthodoxy and Christian morality. In 1570, Indians were removed from the Inquisition's jurisdiction.
9063:
2241:
Catholic press, an expansion of Catholic education, and the growth of the Church's influence in rural areas. The lack of enforcement of
1973:
ValentĂn GĂłmez FarĂas implemented a series of anticlerical measures during his administration, including the secularization of missions.
1558:
Bourbon policy also began to systematically exclude American-born Spaniards from high ecclesiastical and civil office while privileging
9188:
9143:
8963:
8915:
8442:
7741:
7085:
Vargas, Jorge A., "Freedom of Religion and Public Worship in Mexico: A Legal Commentary on the 1992 Federal Act on Religious Matters."
3607:
Cline, Sarah. "Church and State: Habsburg New Spain," in Encyclopedia of Mexico vol. 1, p. 248-50. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn 1997.
3325:
the anticlerical articles of the constitution, since they were seen as the foundation for the power of the secular state. However, the
295:'s expedition. Spaniards were appalled at the ritual practice of human sacrifice and initially attempted to suppress it, but until the
9038:
8988:
4231:
Jorge A. Vargas, "Freedom of Religion and Public Worship in Mexico: A Legal Commentary on the 1992 Federal Act on Religious Matters."
4077:
Vargas, Jorge A. "Freedom of Religion and Public Worship in Mexico: A Legal Commentary on the 1992 Federal Act on Religious Matters,"
3610:
Cline, Sarah. "Church and State: Bourbon New Spain," in Encyclopedia of Mexico vol. 1, p. 250-53. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn 1997.
2821:
There were changes in the Church hierarchy during this period, with the death of Archbishop of Mexico DĂaz and the resignation of the
2157:
defaulted on foreign loans in 1861, opening the door to foreign intervention supported by Mexican conservatives. With the fall of the
1198:
In the eighteenth century, the Poor Clares established a convent for noble Indian women. The debate leading up to the creation of the
9258:
9138:
8860:
5261:
210:
6081:
Patience A. Schell, "An Honorable Avocation for Ladies: The Work of the Mexico City UniĂłn de Damas CatĂłlicas Mexicanas, 1912â1926."
2205:
9473:
9158:
9028:
8920:
8865:
8195:
5001:
4279:
Vargas, "Freedom of religion and Public Worship in Mexico." The text of the act appears in English in the appendix of this article.
4058:
The Diplomatic Relations Between the United States and Mexico as Affected by the Struggle for Religious Liberty in Mexico, 1925-29.
3400:(2000â06), the investigation was re-opened but with no definitive results. The US Congress also held hearings on the case in 2006.
2887:
Two Catholic universities were founded to give Catholic students an alternative to socialist education at public universities. The
2858:
8930:
6683:"S ilencing R ebellious P riests : Rodolfo Escamilla GarcĂa and the Repression of Progressive Catholicism in Cold-War Mexico"
4580:. Instituto de Investigaciones FilolĂłgicas, Instituto de Investigaciones HistĂłricas, Universidad Nacional AutĂłnoma de MĂ©xico 1984.
3112:
As mentioned above, some radical priests prided themselves on educating people on the leftist ideologies. Such ideologies include
847:
9450:
9208:
9078:
8885:
8850:
8741:
7459:
4150:
3364:
154:
9238:
6183:
6161:
4322:
3356:
struggled with whether to support this significant change to Mexico's anticlericalism, but most PRD legislators did in the end.
3003:. Bishop Almeida participated in the 1968 meeting of the Conference of Latin American Bishops in MedellĂn, Colombia, which Pope
1388:
is important. In the colonial period and particularly during the struggle for independence in the early nineteenth century, the
9635:
9153:
8840:
7889:
7831:
7374:
1199:
9183:
9123:
2888:
1081:
The Jesuits operated their properties as an integrated unit with the larger Jesuit order; thus revenues from haciendas funded
409:, was accused and convicted of sedition by the apostolic inquisition (which gives inquisitorial powers to a bishop) headed by
9348:
9128:
8968:
8905:
8890:
8855:
7061:
6628:
5478:
5404:
4145:
3901:
3773:. Translated by Lesley Byrd Simpson. Berkeley: University of California Press 1966. (originally published in French in 1933).
3232:
The 1988 election in Mexico was a watershed event. For the first time there were three viable candidates for the presidency,
3043:
1428:
New Spain had residents who lived holy lives and were recognized in their own communities. Late sixteenth-century Franciscan
855:
9198:
9068:
9013:
8875:
4257:
Ricardo HernĂĄndez-Forcada, "The Effect of International Treaties on Religious Freedom in Mexico". 2002 BYU L. Rev. 301(202).
2865:(UNEC â National Union of Catholic Students) founded in 1931 mobilized to resist the government's push. The rector of UNAM,
2490:"Good Friday scene in the midst of the 20th century", from the archive of the Mexican priest JesĂșs MarĂa RodrĂguez, showing
839:, served an unusually long term as viceroy, from December 13, 1673, to November 7, 1680. Another unusual cleric-viceroy was
9173:
9133:
9008:
8925:
8910:
8880:
8870:
7699:
7595:
6732:
6682:
6484:
Robert Sean Mackin, "In Word and Deed: Assessing the Strength of Progressive Catholicism in Latin America, 1960s-1970s" in
2968:
2938:
829:
375:) saw the establishment of resident friars and the building of churches, often on the same sacred ground as pagan temples.
296:
9018:
2548:
was elected president in 1924, he was determined to enforce the constitutional provisions on religion. Calles was a known
9278:
9218:
9213:
9148:
8561:
8459:
8346:
4409:
translated by Lesley Byrd Simpson. Berkeley, University of California Press 1966. Originally published in French in 1933.
1625:
1203:
851:
686:(pure Spanish blood) status was gradually necessary for certain religious orders, confraternities, convents, and guilds.
537:
9033:
2529:
Government forces publicly hanged Cristeros on main thoroughfares throughout Mexico, including in the Pacific states of
832:
9640:
9283:
9263:
9243:
9233:
9223:
9203:
9163:
9118:
9108:
9093:
8973:
8734:
8599:
7901:
7652:
3829:
Ceballos RamĂrez, Manuel. "La EncĂclica Rerum Novarum y los Trabajadores CatĂłlicos en la Ciudad de MĂ©xico, 1891â1913."
3459:
3458:, Mexico City, was sentenced to 60 years of prison in 2018 for abusing a boy. Fr. Luis Esteban Zavala RodrĂguez of the
3286:
1563:
1527:
With the death of Charles II of Spain in 1700 without heir, the crown of Spain was contested by European powers in the
481:
became archbishop of Mexico in 1573 that a diocesan cleric rather than a mendicant served as Mexico's highest prelate.
34:
7195:"175 casos de abuso sexual a menores (60 del padre Marcial Maciel): el histĂłrico informe de los Legionarios de Cristo"
4382:
3030:, who wrote the seminal text on liberation theology; Sergio MĂ©ndez Arceo, bishop of Cuernavaca; and Salvadoran bishop
1435:
1412:, Morelos, the Christ crucified image that appeared in 1543 has been the subject of a full-scale scholarly monograph.
1368:
Although the Virgin of Guadalupe is the most important Marian devotion in Mexico, she is by no means the only one. In
1220:
At the same time that the episcopal hierarchy in Mexico first had a secular cleric as archbishop, the tribunal of the
793:
Archbishop Juan Antonio de VizarrĂłn, Viceroy of New Spain, served an unusually long term as interim viceroy 1734â1740.
235:
9288:
9253:
9168:
9088:
9073:
7731:
5514:
5440:
3470:
Since 2012, the violence by narcotraffickers has widened to include Catholic priests; those in the southern state of
3321:
1377:
1183:
964:
933:
261:
7040:
Salinas, quoted in Roberto Blancarte, "Recent Changes in Church-State Relations in Mexico: An Historical Approach."
6513:"The Politics of Liberation: The Popular Church, Indigenous Theology, and Grassroots Mobilization in Oaxaca, Mexico"
5102:
4497:
4471:
1467:(1602â1665), named Venerable in 1675, was a Spanish nun who, while cloistered in Spain, is said to have experienced
1174:
RamĂrez de Santillana to withdraw from their community and join the Jeronymite nunnery in Mexico City, becoming Sor
565:, completed in the 1570s, is one of the high achievements of the early colonial period, published in English as the
9113:
9103:
9043:
9003:
8502:
7982:
7872:
3859:
The Lawyer of the Church: Bishop Clemente de JesĂșs MunguĂa and the Clerical Response to the Mexican Liberal Reforma
2108:
1743:
This lower secular clergy was "often accused of leading unruly protests against the acts of royal officials." When
1385:
846:
Once the Spanish Bourbon monarchy was established, just three clerics served as viceroy. Archbishop of Mexico City
825:
549:
6733:"T he N azas -A guanaval G roup : Radical Priests, Catholic Networks, and Maoist Politics in Northern Mexico"
413:
in 1536 and was executed. His execution prompted the crown to reprimand ZumĂĄrraga and when the Holy Office of the
9053:
8958:
7997:
7921:
7541:
7519:
6219:
Is God an American? An Anthropological Perspective on the Missionary Work of the Summer Institute of Linguistics.
3923:
Bantjes, Adrian. "Idolatry and Iconoclasm in Revolutionary Mexico: The Dechristianization Campaigns, 1929â1940."
2794:
2270:
1381:
1121:
prior to their expulsion. These were taken over by the Franciscans, who then went on to establish 21 missions in
150:
9372:
3836:
Chowning, Margaret. "Culture Wars in the Trenches? Public Schools and Catholic Education in Mexico, 1867-1897".
9406:
9354:
9268:
8766:
8236:
7855:
7502:
7494:
7482:
6193:
6171:
4244:
Jorge A. Vargas, "Mexico's Legal Revolution: An Appraisal of Its Recent Constitutional Changes, 1988â1995." 25
3345:
3326:
3204:
2915:
2870:
2850:
2064:
apply only to the Church. It stated that no corporate body could own land. Broadly defined, this would include
1221:
662:) after an investigation into allegations of irregularities, and the brothers were to return to their convent.
658:
hospitals. The religious order was to be removed from its role at the Royal Indian Hospital by a royal decree (
438:
199:
1981:
8531:
8110:
8085:
7694:
5283:
revised edition. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press 1966, p. 340 from Vicente Riva Palacio, ed.
4720:
Nicole von Germeten, "Routes to respectability: Confraternities and Men of African Descent in New Spain," in
3790:
1528:
1050:
1026:
141:), known in English as the Religious Associations Act or (RAA), has affected all religious groups in Mexico.
110:
articles of Constitution of 1917 provoked a major crisis with violence in a number of regions of Mexico. The
3019:
2719:, Calles and the Mexican Catholic hierarchy came to an agreement that left the anticlerical elements of the
1985:
8571:
8090:
8080:
7536:
7393:
6785:"From Liberation Theology to TeologĂa India: The Progressive Catholic Church in Southern Mexico, 1954-1994"
5146:
Church Wealth in Mexico: A Study of the "Juzgado de CapellanĂas" in the Archbishopric of Mexico, 1800â1856.
2830:
supported CĂĄrdenas's move, but CĂĄrdenas also publicly acknowledged the Church's cooperation a month later.
2688:
In 1912, Catholic women had organized themselves in Mexico City into the Union of Mexican Catholic Ladies (
2177:
with the Catholic Church was termed his "conciliation policy." A key player in the conciliation policy was
540:
was established in 1536, in an indigenous section of Mexico City. Several prominent Franciscans, including
9390:
9366:
3613:
Cline, Sarah. "The Spiritual Conquest Re-Examined: Baptism and Church Marriage in Early Colonial Mexico."
3388:
3167:
2162:
1540:. Church-state Bourbon policy shifted toward an increase in state power and a decrease in ecclesiastical.
1142:
158:
8774:
8536:
7906:
7679:
6620:
Liberation theology and the others : contextualizing Catholic activism in 20th century Latin America
6094:
Sr. Barbara Miller, "The Role of Women in the Mexican Cristero Rebellion: Las Señoras y Las Religiosas."
4419:
4037:
Popular Movements and State Formation in Revolutionary Mexico: The Agraristas and Cristeros of MichoacĂĄn.
3652:
The Conquest of Mexico: The Incorporation of Indian Societies into the Western World 16th-18th Centuries.
3622:
Church Wealth in Mexico: A Study of the Juzgado de CapellanĂas in the Archbishopric of Mexico, 1800â1856.
1157:
for Spanish men, there was pressure for Spanish women to marry rather than take the veil as a cloistered
1146:
840:
508:. Churches were built in the major Indian towns and, by the late sixteenth century, local neighborhoods;
9396:
9384:
3817:
Alienation of Church Wealth in Mexico: Social and Economic Aspects of the Liberal Revolution, 1856â1875.
3132:) worked together to operate the Regional Seminary of the Southeast (el Seminario Regional del Sureste,
2767:
1948:
with all rights and responsibilities was an essential element of political sovereignty, codified in the
1692:
Another eighteenth-century example of private philanthropy that then became a crown institution was the
489:, major Indian towns designated as important for the initial evangelization, while smaller settlements,
8545:
7570:
6828:
6656:
4969:
translated and edited by J. Richard Andrews and Ross Hassig. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press 1984.
4099:
3385:
3196:
3175:
3035:
2996:
2980:
2892:
2881:
2798:
2738:
1996:. The government asserted its right to appoint clerics, rather than the Church hierarchy, claiming the
1643:
1634:
1508:
1293:
Treatise on the Heathen Superstitions that today live among the Indians native to this New Spain. 1629.
1111:
162:
3705:
The Origins of Mexican Catholicism: Nahua Rituals and Christian Sacraments in Sixteenth-Century Mexico
3570:
The Roots of Conservatism in Mexico: Catholicism, Society, and Politics in the Mixteca Baja, 1750-1962
3432:
Several cases of sexual abuse of minors by priests have come to light. The best known case is that of
2948:
2336:
2324:
2074:
were exempt from the law, but eventually these Indian communities suffered an extensive loss of land.
1504:
was beatified in 1990 and canonized in 2002 by John Paul II in the Basilica of Our Lady of Guadalupe.
8757:
8604:
8306:
7617:
6057:
Jesuit Student Groups, the Universidad Iberoamericana, and Political Resistance in Mexico, 1913â1979.
3974:
Jesuit Student Groups, the Universidad Iberoamericana, and Political Resistance in Mexico, 1913â1979.
3233:
3068:
2742:
2575:
2478:(1940â1946), Church-State relations entered a new period of conciliation, similar to the Porfiriato.
2266:
1989:
1764:
1487:
1063:
817:
434:
364:
126:
68:
6849:
6813:
6321:
Jesuit Student Groups, the Universidad Iberoamericana, and Political Resistance in Mexico, 1913â1979
5993:
MoisĂ©s GonzĂĄlez Navarro, ââMasones y Cristeros en Jalisco.ââ Mexico City: El Colegio de MĂ©xico 2000.
4631:, Tempe: Arizona State University Center for Latin American Studies, Special Studies 20, 1979, p. 1.
4173:
Anne Staples, "Clerics as Politicians: Church, State, and Political Power in Independent Mexico" in
3451:
3039:
2770:
was driven out of his diocese and forced to live the remainder of his life in hiding in Mexico City.
2624:
462:
387:
9464:
8437:
8012:
7529:
2611:
2209:
2089:
sales would prove disappointing from the time it was passed all the way to the early 20th century.
2081:) regulated the collection of clerical fees from the poor and prohibited clerics from charging for
2078:
1667:
836:
821:
798:
9360:
5262:
http://www.cervantesvirtual.com/servlet/SirveObras/c1812/12159396448091522976624/p0000001.htm#I_3_
3930:
Blancarte, Roberto. "Recent Changes in Church-State Relations in Mexico: An Historical Approach,"
3348:(PAN). The enabling legislation was debated far more than the initial bill, but in July 1992, the
2590:
2545:
2495:
2253:
by Catholic social doctrine. In addition, it had newspapers promoting its positions. In 1895, the
2184:
1347:
1175:
541:
442:
103:
9415:
9342:
8832:
8055:
7911:
7638:
5018:
Biography of a Mexican Crucifix: Lived Religion and Local Faith from the Conquest to the Present.
4369:
4215:
Roberto Blancarte, "Recent Changes in Church-State Relations in Mexico: An Historical Approach."
3444:
3171:
2866:
2842:
2595:
2582:, supported the diminution of Church power in the economic sphere, but not the spiritual sphere.
2178:
2119:
1969:
1796:
1768:
1323:
806:
778:
739:
478:
188:
5650:
Tim Golden, (22 September 1992). "Mexico and the Catholic Church Restore Full Diplomatic Ties".
5506:
5432:
3157:, the Polish-born prelate began to systematically dismantle liberation theology. Italian cleric
2475:
1717:
454:
8526:
8412:
8125:
2964:
2057:
1776:
1483:
1389:
307:, and the lords of Tlaxcala showing this event. But not until the fall of the Aztec capital of
299:
was accomplished, it was not stamped out. The rulers of Cortés's allies from the city-state of
6217:
Jan Rus and Robert Wasserstrom, "Evangelization and Political Control: The SIL in Mexico." In
3257:
3241:
3163:
2972:
2952:
2810:. The implementation of the policy was marked by statements of the Secretary of the Interior (
2261:, the Fifth Provincial Council of Mexico ordered Mexican Catholics to "obey civil authority."
2149:(1855â1861), and conservatives, who sought continuing privileges for the Catholic Church. The
2046:
1904:
1817:
1338:, is said to have experienced a vision of a young girl on the site of a destroyed temple to a
729:
288:
9497:
8422:
8407:
8120:
7977:
7884:
7684:
7667:
7580:
7524:
7412:
6836:
6800:
4832:
Ida Altman and James Lockhart, eds. Los Angeles: UCLA Latin American Center 1976, pp. 137-38.
3878:
Schmitt, Karl M. " Catholic Adjustment to the Secular State: The Case of Mexico, 1867â1911."
3437:
3313:
3282:
2930:
2921:
The Catholic Church and the Mexican government had visibly warming relations, with President
2724:
State had backed away from its enforcement of the anticlerical articles of the Constitution.
2615:
2158:
1934:
1501:
1447:
1358:
1327:
1318:
1046:
959:
904:
876:
8472:
4289:
3864:
Powell, T.G. "Priests and Peasants in Central Mexico: Social Conflict During 'La Reforma'".
2703:
have affected the emergence of different roles for Catholic women in the twentieth century.
2433:; a priest gave Zapata his beautiful horse for the war. In TepoztlĂĄn, the priest translated
2245:
laws by Diaz can also be partially attributed to the profound influence of his second wife,
2192:, all with future bright ecclesiastical careers; sitting is the future archbishop of Puebla
1343:
774:
474:
8801:
8654:
8649:
8644:
8639:
8634:
8629:
8624:
8619:
8614:
8581:
8508:
8351:
8311:
8130:
8032:
8007:
7946:
7751:
7726:
7662:
7413:"The pope visited an indigenous church in southern Mexico, breaking with Vatican tradition"
5176:
The First America: The Spanish Monarchy, Creole Patriots, and the Liberal State, 1492â1867.
4445:
3245:
3220:
2897:
2775:
2720:
2471:
2455:
2401:
2308:
2038:
1949:
1916:
1867:
1851:
1809:
1747:
invaded Spain in 1808, forcing the Bourbon monarch to abdicate and placing his own brother
1464:
802:
654:) in Mexico city in 1553, which functioned until 1822 when Mexico gained its independence.
115:
96:
80:
64:
5965:
5597:
Jesuit Student Groups, the Universidad Iberoamericana, and Political Resistance in Mexico.
4863:
The First America: The Spanish Monarchy, Creole Patriots, and the Liberal State, 1492-1867
3225:
3027:
2763:
2355:
for city dwellers. Peasants saw his inaction on land reform as a betrayal, and in Morelos
766:
458:
410:
339:
8:
9546:
9523:
8703:
8427:
8417:
8366:
8224:
8210:
8070:
7812:
7575:
4125:
3979:
Jrade, RamĂłn, "Inquiries into the Cristero Insurrection Against the Mexican Revolution."
3885:
Scholes, Walter V. "Church and state in the Mexican Constitutional Convention, 1856-57."
3352:(Religious Associations Act), the implementation legislation, passed 408â10. The leftist
3101:
2976:
2677:
2463:
2459:
2397:
2254:
2246:
1772:
1215:
884:
501:
92:
76:
60:
3447:
was pressured into retirement in 2007 after he was accused of covering-up sexual abuse.
2514:
888:
9592:
9445:
9419:
8715:
8492:
8261:
8185:
8153:
7972:
7941:
7778:
7766:
7627:
7565:
6760:
6710:
6646:
6600:
6548:
6540:
6412:
The Church at the Grassroots in Latin America: Perspectives on Thirty Years of Activism
5499:
5425:
4155:
3757:
Enlightened Immunity: Mexico's Experiments with Disease Prevention in the Age of Reason
3750:
Our Lady of Guadalupe: The Origins and Sources of a Mexican National Symbol, 1531â1797.
3586:
Utopia and History in Mexico: The First Chroniclers of Mexican Civilization, 1520â1569.
2822:
2711:
After three yearsâ of widespread violence (1926â1929), the U.S. brokered an agreement (
2451:
2393:
2282:
1863:
1682:
639:
533:
406:
292:
111:
88:
71:, the Church came to be seen as conservative and anti-revolutionary. During the bloody
8281:
4724:, Martin Austin Nesvig, ed. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press 2006, 215-233.
3666:
Quetzalcoatl and Guadalupe: The Formation of Mexican National Consciousness, 1532-1815
2922:
2632:
that did not change the anticlerical articles of the constitution but did result in a
1478:
In the twentieth century, the Vatican beatified in 1988 eighteenth-century Franciscan
1342:. The cult of the Virgin of Guadalupe was promoted by Dominican archbishop of Mexico,
446:
9514:
8783:
8661:
8566:
8341:
8327:
8301:
8286:
8190:
8175:
8105:
8095:
7964:
7896:
7797:
7761:
7657:
7057:
6764:
6752:
6714:
6702:
6634:
6624:
6592:
6532:
6189:
6167:
5510:
5474:
5436:
5400:
3897:
3717:
3413:
3209:
3158:
2755:
by emigration, expulsion and assassination. By 1935, 17 states had no priest at all.
2368:
2292:
2150:
1993:
1405:
1373:
812:
The seventeenth century saw the largest number of clerics as viceroys. The Dominican
694:
so it will be much respected, and they are to urge those who have not yet joined the
72:
6552:
4797:
John Frederick Schwaller, "The Ordenanza del Patronazgo in New Spain, 1574â1600,"in
3499:, and told the young crowd that Jesus wants them to be disciples, not 'hitmen'." In
3462:
was convicted of raping a 12-year-old girl in 2019; he received 65 years in prison.
3329:
in alliance with the weakened PRI became allies to move toward fundamental reforms.
2942:
2491:
2438:
2413:
2077:
By 1857, additional anti-clerical legislation such as the Iglesias Law (named after
1479:
828:, bishop of Puebla, served from June 29, 1664 â October 15, 1664. Archbishop of the
9489:
8551:
8356:
8336:
8256:
8241:
8140:
8042:
7916:
7756:
7714:
7709:
7689:
7672:
7585:
6788:
6744:
6694:
6584:
6524:
6135:
5637:
Larry Rohter, (15 February 1990). "Mexico and Vatican Move Toward Restoring Ties".
3845:
Church and State in Independent Mexico: A Study of the Patronage Debate, 1821â1857.
3408:
3237:
2780:
2716:
2317:
1821:
1748:
1575:, elite families had anxiety about interlopers who were of inferior racial status.
1562:
Spaniards. The Bourbon crown diminished the power and influence of parish priests,
1532:
1033:
880:
789:
750:
The Catholic Church is organized by territorial districts or dioceses, each with a
643:
566:
450:
5911:
Protestants and the Mexican Revolution: Missionaries, Ministers, and Social Change
5281:
Church and State in Latin America: A History of Politico-Ecclesiastical Relations,
3595:
Mexican Phoenix: Our Lady of Guadalupe: Image and Tradition across Five Centuries.
3488:
2213:
2154:
2123:
2104:
2021:
1884:
1855:
1232:
813:
769:. The church that became the first cathedral was begun in 1524 on the main square
469:
and black slave dealer in the early Caribbean before he became a Dominican friar;
84:
9328:
8609:
8576:
8520:
8514:
8371:
8276:
8180:
7992:
7486:
7451:
6148:
6069:
5935:
5268:
4931:
4653:
3794:
Magistrates of the Sacred: Priests and Parishioners in Eighteenth-Century Mexico.
3675:
3100:
Another idea that came out Liberation Theology was the idea for The Preferential
3000:
2458:
strengthened the State's power against the Church. For the first two presidents,
2356:
2229:
2153:(1858â61) ended with the defeat of conservatives. Then the liberal government of
2135:
2114:
1977:
1887:, a new, more peaceful mode of church-state relations was in place, although the
1791:
1728:
1537:
1440:
1429:
1264:
1122:
1118:
1095:
916:
675:
646:
founded hospitals in Michoacan. The crown established the Royal Indian Hospital (
577:
402:
356:
303:
converted to Christianity almost immediately and there is a depiction of Cortés,
99:
that strengthened the anticlerical measures in the liberal Constitution of 1857.
4711:
RELIGION IN NEW SPAIN: Interrogating Blood Lines by MarĂa Elena MartĂnez p. 203.
3031:
2833:
2579:
1834:
777:(r. 1551â1572) as bishops of Mexico should be seen as atypical figures. In 1572
8672:
8497:
8291:
8266:
8230:
8170:
8163:
8158:
8148:
8002:
7987:
7926:
7802:
7792:
7548:
6528:
4555:
Rémi Siméon, editor. Facsimile of 1875. Guadalajara: Edmundo Aviña Levy Editor.
4113:
4086:
Revolutions in Mexican Catholicism: Reform and Revolution in Oaxaca, 1887â1934.
3727:
3602:
The Slippery Earth: Nahua-Christian Moral Dialogue in Sixteenth-Century Mexico.
3450:
In 2012, Fr. Manuel RamĂrez GarcĂa was accused of abusing thirteen children in
3433:
2945:(1976â82) gave the pope a warm welcome even though this was not a state visit.
2364:
2034:
1925:
1912:
1825:
1544:
1339:
1162:
952:
911:
The ordained clergy (but not religious sisters) had ecclesiastical privileges (
322:
7865:
7194:
6638:
4051:
Mexico's Hidden Revolution: The Catholic Church in Law and Politics Since 1929
3965:
Ellis, L. Elthan. "Dwight Morrow and the Church-State Controversy in Mexico."
2904:
2857:
and mobilized an array of middle class opponents, including Catholics. At the
1630:
1392:
was the symbolic leader of the royalists defending Spanish rule in New Spain.
1138:
854:, archbishop of Mexico City, served from May 8, 1787, to August 16, 1787, and
470:
311:
in 1521 was a full-scale conversion of the indigenous populations undertaken.
9619:
9604:
9335:
8556:
8482:
8448:
8432:
8392:
8075:
8050:
7826:
7736:
7721:
7643:
7394:"At Mexican-U.S. border, Pope delivers a stinging critique of both countries"
7149:
Allan Metz, "Protestantism in Mexico: Contemporary Contextual Developments."
6784:
6756:
6706:
6596:
6536:
6107:
L. Elthan Ellis, "Dwight Morrow and the Church-State Controversy in Mexico",
4137:
3918:
Viva Cristo Rey!: The Cristero Rebellion and Church-State Conflict in Mexico.
3669:
3634:
3591:
3010:
2694:
2600:
2430:
2360:
2346:
2098:
2026:
1459:
1350:
were deeply suspicious because of the possibility of confusion and idolatry.
524:
493:, were visited at intervals to teach, preach, and administer the sacraments.
122:) and Church-State relations improved though without constitutional changes.
51:
politics, including in matters that did not specifically involve the Church.
8726:
5473:. Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing Group, Incorporated. pp. 101â192.
3801:
Black Blood Brothers: Confraternities and Social Mobility for Afro-Mexicans.
3309:
2610:
A modern reproduction of the flag used by the Cristeros with references to "
2396:, led by the governor of Coahuila and formerly part of the DĂaz government,
1724:
1149:, poet, and playwright, was famous in her lifetime in both Mexico and Spain.
936:, one of New Spain's most distinguished intellectuals, who had no benefice.
8666:
8541:
8397:
8361:
8100:
8022:
7866:
7612:
7607:
7602:
7590:
7326:"Condenaron a 65 años de prisión a cura que violó a una niña en Guanajuato"
6618:
6588:
5847:
Soledad Loaeza, "Continuity and Change in the Mexican Catholic Church," in
5218:
3368:
3278:
3154:
2963:
in Mexico, but as the Catholic Church underwent changes as a result of the
2934:
2926:
2656:
A coalition of urban groups was brought together under the umbrella of the
2549:
2520:
2499:
2400:. The Constitutionalists took their name from their support of the liberal
2384:
Catholic Party suffered the consequences of its support of his government.
2242:
1888:
1689:, which is the only venue in Mexico City that has a bust of the conqueror.
1516:
1491:
1357:
on which the image of the Virgin appeared. This ultimately became known as
730:
Establishment of the episcopal hierarchy and the assertion of crown control
713:(literally community-owned chests that had locks and keys). "n Yucatan the
425:
422:. In the eyes of the Church and in Spanish law, Indians were legal minors.
360:
308:
279:
130:
107:
8823:
3496:
1992:, a secular priest, was a force behind secularizing education, along with
29:
8467:
8296:
8271:
8246:
8219:
8206:
8115:
8017:
7704:
6748:
6698:
6623:. Christian BĂŒschges, Andrea MĂŒller, Noah Oehri. Lanham, Maryland. 2021.
3475:
3397:
3392:
3290:
3129:
3077:
3023:
2568:
real property, forcing the sale of its landed estates during the liberal
2257:
was crowned "Queen of Mexico", in very public ceremonies. In an apparent
1654:
1248:
466:
414:
391:
6604:
6572:
3558:(revised edition). Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press 1966.
3251:
Religion was an issue in the 1988 elections, with the leftist newspaper
3170:, who dismantled the liberationist programs in the diocese and promoted
2606:
2323:
Madero escaped from jail, fled to the United States, and proclaimed the
1933:
and the definitive defeat of conservatives in 1867 with the fall of the
1899:
1420:
1267:, also known as Don Guillén de Lampart y Guzmån, who was executed in an
899:
858:, archbishop of Mexico City, served from July 19, 1809, to May 8, 1810.
805:, usually on an interim basis, until a new viceroy was sent from Spain.
617:) and others to denote new concepts, such as a last will and testament (
557:, who was a nobleman who aided the priest in the affairs of the church.
9531:
9378:
9303:
8251:
7836:
7431:"Reduce el nĂșmero de creyentes catĂłlicos: Iglesia "Hay desgaste moral""
7350:
Deborah Bonello, "Guerrero Priests are prime targets of Mexican gangs"
7221:"Sex abuse ruling in Los Angeles doesn't affect Vatican, attorney says"
6792:
6544:
6512:
5694:
El pensamiento polĂtico y social de los catĂłlicos mexicanos, 1867â1914.
5399:. Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing Group, Incorporated. p. 101.
3629:
Laywomen and the Making of Colonial Catholicism in New Spain, 1630-1790
3215:
3186:
2734:
2537:, where bodies would often remain hanging for extended lengths of time.
2300:
2145:
2015:
2009:
1712:
1704:
for adults to mainly being an orphanage for abandoned street children.
1701:
1697:
1559:
1512:
1497:
1482:(1713â84) and canonized him in 2015. He founded most of the Franciscan
1468:
1335:
1269:
1166:
743:
352:
314:
202: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
55:
47:
7131:
Blancarte, "Recent Changes in Church-State Relations in Mexico," p. 5.
7112:
Blancarte, "Recent Changes in Church-State Relations in Mexico," p. 4.
7076:
Blancarte, "Recent Changes in Church-State Relations in Mexico", p. 2.
6573:"Liberation or Theology? Ecclesial Base Communities in Oaxaca, Mexico"
4202:
Karl Schmitt, "The DĂaz Policy on State and Local Levels, 1876â1911."
9536:
7300:"Sacerdote mexicano es condenado a 60 años en prisión por pederastia"
7164:"Investigation exposes truth behind narco-murder of Mexican cardinal"
4801:, John F. Schwaller, ed. Wilmington: Scholarly Resources 2000, p. 50.
2985:
2838:
2515:
Anticlericalism of Calles and violent church-state conflict 1926â1929
2130:
2053:
1784:
1595:, a priest guaranteed an income to say Masses for the founder of the
1409:
1238:
755:
734:
348:
102:
With the presidency of Northern, anticlerical, revolutionary general
4566:
Vocabulario en lengua castellana y mexicana y mexicana y castellana,
3270:
articulation of the direction of change, but not list of specifics.
3128:
From 1969 to 1990, the Bishops of Southern Mexico (including Bishop
2525:
2303:, 1912. The image depicts women and children on their way to church.
2221:
2200:
1675:
1471:
between 1620 and 1623 and is believed to have helped evangelize the
1021:
770:
382:
335:
274:
177:
9587:
8710:
8065:
7819:
7807:
3544:
Mexico: Fondo de Cultura EconĂłmico / El Colegio de MĂ©xiquense 1992.
3471:
3133:
3067:
One of the bigger actions that were taken was the establishment of
2785:
2542:
2467:
2217:
1820:
as a champion of Mexican independence, his alliance with insurgent
1744:
1612:
1584:
1578:
1369:
1032:
At the same time that the episcopal hierarchy was established, the
820:
also served briefly as viceroy, June 10, 1642 â November 23, 1642.
519:
304:
300:
4227:
4225:
3712:
Visualizing Guadalupe: From Black Madonna to Queen of the Americas
3273:
3038:, Bishop Ruiz actively promoted them. In 1989 he founded the Fray
1312:
8940:
8322:
7936:
7558:
6247:, p. 409 citing New York Times March 31, 1936 and August 2, 1937.
5781:
Mexico: Biography of Power: A History of Modern Mexico, 1810â1996
4120:
3873:
El liberalismo y el campesiando en el centro de MĂ©xico, 1850-1876
3500:
3492:
3455:
3117:
3004:
2586:
2570:
2534:
2434:
2406:
2082:
1930:
1894:
875:
cities: the cathedral in Antequera (now Oaxaca City) (1535), the
759:
674:
Organizations that were more in the hands of the indigenous were
586:
167:
134:
7005:, see esp. chapter 5, "Salinismo, the Church, and Quid Pro Quo".
5044:
Spanish American Saints and the Rhetoric of Identity, 1600â1810.
5031:
Spanish American Saints and the Rhetoric of Identity, 1600â1810.
4613:
Colonial Culhuacan, 1580â1600: A Social History of an Aztec Town
4422:[Friar Juan de Zumarraga, Inquisitor in the New World].
4002:
The Cristero Rebellion: Mexican People Between Church and State.
3698:
Spanish American Saints and the Rhetoric of Identity, 1600â1810.
3690:
2363:
in opposition. There were revolts by former supporters, such as
1731:, where on September 16, 1810, the Independence of Mexico began.
1707:
1658:
National Monte de Piedad Building off the ZĂłcalo in Mexico City.
824:, bishop of YucatĂĄn, served from May 15, 1648 â April 22, 1649.
8488:
Pope Pius XII 1942 consecration to the Immaculate Heart of Mary
7931:
7841:
7746:
5221:. Chapel Hill, University of North Carolina Press 1985, p. 151.
5054:
5052:
4222:
3988:
Mexico's AcciĂłn Nacional: A Catholic Alternative to Revolution.
3294:
3113:
3085:
3081:
2669:
2593:. Events relating to this were famously portrayed in the novel
2530:
1877:
1833:). As nineteenth-century conservative politician and historian
1472:
1165:
with 15, followed by Franciscans at 14, Dominicans with 9, and
751:
497:
5696:
Mexico: Universidad Nacional AutĂłnoma de MĂ©xico 1981, 181-182.
4578:
Confessionario mayor en la lengua mexicana y castellana (1569)
4370:
https://www.thebritishacademy.ac.uk/pubs/proc/files/81p163.pdf
3764:
Playing in the Cathedral: Music, Race, and Status in New Spain
3724:
Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press 1970.
3685:
Leibsohn, Dana, and Barbara E. Mundy, âOtherworldly Visions,â
3359:
2122:
of Oaxaca, who was key to the process of conciliation between
2070:, or communal land owned by Indian villages. Initially, these
1755:
1646:, who wrote a history of Mexico that extolled the Aztec past.
1353:
The vision became embodied in a physical object, the cloak or
572:
5135:
Sarah Cline, "Church and State in Bourbon New Spain," p. 252.
4988:
J. Richard Andrews and Ross Hassig, "Editors' Introduction",
3894:
Victory on Earth or in Heaven: Mexico's Religionero Rebellion
3181:
3143:
2834:
Government-mandated socialist education and Catholic pushback
2683:
2311:
theoretically remained in force, in fact, DĂaz had come to a
2161:, liberal presidents Benito JuĂĄrez and, following his death,
2065:
1671:
1486:. Seventeenth-century bishop of Puebla and Osma (Spain), Don
1206:, which had been founded to train Indian men for ordination.
553:
one). The highest religious official in Indian towns was the
6867:
Mexico at the Crossroads: Politics, the Church, and the Poor
6286:
Lyle C. Brown, "Mexican Church-State Relations, 1933â1940."
5551:
Timothy J. Henderson, "Eulogio Gregorio Gillow y Zavala" in
5322:(5 vols. 1888-89), IV pp. 54-55, quoted in J. Lloyd Mecham,
5049:
4876:
A Jesuit Hacienda in Colonial Mexico: Santa LucĂa 1576â1767.
3645:
The Mexican Inquisition of the Sixteenth Century, 1536â1543.
3417:, a monumental cross in Tuxtla Gutiérrez constructed in 2011
3293:. The statue was made entirely of metal keys donated by the
2975:, initially appointed in 1953, became an active adherent of
2967:, so too did a number of Mexican bishops and laypeople. The
2929:
in 1974 and the president's support for the new basilica of
2224:, and Perfirio Diaz allowed him to return to the country in
1507:
The Church has also canonized a number of twentieth-century
781:
became the first bishop of Mexico who was a secular cleric.
5251:
Cline, "Church and State in Bourbon New Spain" pp. 252-253.
5189:
Containing the Poor: The Mexico City Poor House, 1774â1871.
4474:[Very Illustrious Friar Alonso de MontĂșfar, O.P.].
3722:
The Millennial Kingdom of the Franciscans in the New World.
3647:
Washington DC: Academy of American Franciscan History 1962.
3123:
3047:
2905:
Growth during the new Church-State modus vivendi, 1940â1980
2901:
relationship between church and state regarding education.
2846:
2503:
2225:
2189:
1940:
The Mexican state asserted the right of what it called the
1759:
A flag carried by Miguel Hidalgo and his insurgent militia.
1555:
which exempted churchmen from prosecution in civil courts.
1395:
1099:
816:
served from June 19, 1611 â February 22, 1612. Blessed Don
6310:. Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press 2001, p. 157.
6302:
6300:
6298:
6296:
5838:, vol. 2, pp. 1348-49. Chicago: Fitzroy and Dearborn 1997.
5230:
Taylor, "Early Latin American Social History", pp. 151-52.
5103:"Holy Father's Celebrations: canonizations-beatifications"
4602:
Los Angeles: UCLA Latin American Center Publications 1984.
4044:
The Mexican Revolution and the Catholic Church, 1910â1929.
3428:
Catholic sexual abuse cases in Latin America § Mexico
3140:
theology which led to a clampdown on Liberation Theology.
1251:, that is, Jews who supposedly converted to Christianity (
330:
118:(1940â1946) came to office declaring "I am a believer," (
9437:
8377:
Dechristianization of France during the French Revolution
6130:
6128:
6126:
5851:, Dermot Keogh, ed. New York: St Martin'z Press 1990, 277
5707:
The Mexican Revolution and the Catholic Church, 1914-1929
5505:. Port Chester, NY: Cambridge University Press. pp.
5459:, vol. 4, p. 133. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons 1996.
5336:
5334:
5332:
2959:
The top echelons of the hierarchy sought to continue the
1844:
1158:
477:
who became the second bishop of Mexico. It was not until
390:
depicted as Savior of the Indians in a later painting by
6424:
Zupez, John (July 2020). "Small Christian Communities".
6163:
Latin America's Wars: The Age of the Caudillo, 1791â1899
6059:
Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press 2014, p. 38.
5431:. Port Chester, NY: Cambridge University Press. p.
5358:
Timothy J. Henderson, "Church and State: 1821â1910," in
2876:
1891:
articles of the Constitution of 1857 remained in place.
1681:
A much earlier example was the endowment that conqueror
1133:
1025:
Main altar of the Jesuit colegio in Tepozotlan, now the
1016:
6293:
5378:, vol. 3, p. 78. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons 1996
5296:
Cline, "Church and State in Bourbon New Spain", p. 253.
5122:
Sarah Cline, "Church and State: Bourbon New Spain," in
4065:
Church and State Education in Revolutionary Mexico City
3896:. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2019.
3465:
2474:(1934â40) there was less conflict. With his successor,
2437:
documents from Zapata's home community of Anenecuilco.
2165:
implemented anti-clerical laws with even greater zeal.
1193:
861:
7247:"Norberto se jubila y deja crisis en la ArquidiĂłcesis"
6188:
p. 393, (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1993);
6123:
5329:
5242:
Taylor, "Early Latin American Social History", p. 152.
5213:
William B. Taylor, "Early Latin American History," in
4887:
Cline, "Church and State: Habsburg New Spain," p. 250.
4420:"FRAY JUAN DE ZUMĂRRAGA, INQUISIDOR EN EL NUEVO MUNDO"
4177:. Jaime RodrĂguez O., ed. Boulder: Lynne Rienner 1994.
4175:
Mexico in the Age of Democratic Revolutions, 1750-1850
2995:
Two other major clerics influenced by Vatican II were
2706:
1862:
with the Church, which ended with the outbreak of the
1276:
1062:
conflict between seventeenth-century bishop of Puebla
926:
8408:
Dogma of the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin Mary
6185:
Triumphs and Tragedy: A History of the Mexican People
5731:
Mecham, ââChurch and State in Latin America", p. 381.
5555:, vol. 1, pp. 598-99. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn 1997.
5033:
Tucson: University of Arizona Press 2002, pp. 143-169
4845:, vol. 1, pp, 249-50. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn 1997.
4841:
Sarah Cline, "Church and State: Habsburg New Spain,"
4780:
4778:
4521:
4519:
4097:
3909:
3236:, an economist and technocrat from the dominant PRI;
1911:
The church supported Mexican independence, since the
871:
whose senior official was the dean of the cathedral.
363:
be sent to New Spain, to convert the indigenous. The
4907:
Brides of Christ: Conventual Life in Colonial Mexico
4500:[Very Illustrious Pedro Moya de Contreras].
4246:
Georgia Journal of International and Comparative Law
4009:
Iglesia y movimientos sociales en MĂ©xico, 1972â1987.
3687:
Vistas: Visual Culture in Spanish America, 1520-1820
3680:
Brides of Christ. Conventual Life in Colonial Mexico
3216:
Salinas, the Vatican, and reform of the constitution
2658:
National League for the Defense of Religious Liberty
2445:
2307:
Although the anticlerical provisions of the liberal
2188:
Photograph of young Mexican pilgrims in the city of
1870:
strengthened anti-clerical laws. A new Church-State
765:
The first bishop of Mexico was Franciscan friar Don
605:
was not a model for such works elsewhere in Mexico.
315:
Power of the Spanish Crown in ecclesiastical matters
125:
A major change came in 1992, with the presidency of
7108:
7106:
7104:
6323:. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press 2014.
6290:(Baylor University) VI, No. 2 (Spring 1964) p. 220.
5966:"Monoculture, Monopoly, and the Mexican Revolution"
5951:Barbara A. Tenenbaum and Georgette M. Dorn (eds.),
5666:
Schell, "An Honorable Avocation for Ladies", p. 79.
4702:, Stanford: Stanford University Press 1992, p. 220.
4642:
Régimen hospitalario para indios en la Nueva España
4615:. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press 1986.
4067:. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press 2003.
4014:Muro, Victor Gabriel. "Catholic Church: Mexico" in
3730:. "Church Law on the Ordination of the Indians and
3572:. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press 2012.
3379:
3148:
1716:A painting of Father Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, by
724:
7481:
5953:Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture
5498:
5457:Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture
5424:
5376:Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture
4947:Rosalva Loreto LĂłpez, "Convents in New Spain," in
4865:, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1991, 242.
4857:
4855:
4853:
4851:
4775:
4516:
4266:Victor Gabriel Muro, "Catholic Church: Mexico" in
4018:, vol. 1. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn 1997, 219â222.
3962:. Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press 2001.
3563:The Roman Catholic Church in Modern Latin America.
1775:for insurgents, but also the symbolic role of the
1619:
1307:
159:Yaqui people § Conquistadors and Missionaries
91:, the victorious Constitutionalist faction led by
7437:(in Spanish). Diario de Morelos. January 31, 2021
6955:
6953:
6467:
6465:
6046:. Vol. 1, p. 372. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn 1997.
5709:. Bloomington: Indiana University Press 1973, 38.
5607:
5605:
5599:Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press 2014.
5362:, vol. 1, p. 254. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn 1997.
5238:
5236:
4951:, vol. 1, p. 337. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn 1997.
4074:, vol. 1, 742â45. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn 1997.
4053:. South Bend:University of Notre Dame Press 1996.
3976:Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press 2014.
3946:Crossing Swords: Politics and Religion in Mexico.
3852:Church Property and the Mexican Reform, 1856-1910
3787:Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press 1985.
3780:Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press 1987.
3095:
1829:expected to maintain their power and privileges (
1209:
1088:
1013:crown supplemented them from the royal treasury.
282:, who granted the Spanish crown extensive powers.
9617:
8478:Persecutions of the Catholic Church and Pius XII
7332:(in European Spanish). Infobae. January 30, 2021
7101:
6726:
6724:
5573:Schmitt, "The DĂaz Conciliation Policy". p. 514.
5564:Schmitt, "The DĂaz Conciliation Policy," p. 525.
5492:
5490:
5455:Brian Hamnett, "Clemente de JesĂșs y MunguĂa" in
5260:Political Constitution of the Spanish Monarchy.
5046:Tucson: University of Arizona Press 2002, 39-66.
4909:. Stanford: Stanford University Press 2008, 359.
4681:
4679:
4191:Crossing Swords: Politics and Religion in Mexico
4032:vol. 1. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn 1997, 374â377.
3053:
1579:Changes in the Church as an economic institution
1522:
1443:in the convent of San Antonioof Padua in Puebla.
1236:The plaque says "In front of this place was the
1105:
939:
709:) from diverting of community revenues in their
520:The abandoned experiment to train Indian priests
5215:Reliving the Past: the Worlds of Social History
5126:vol. 1, p. 250. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn 1997.
4848:
4270:vol. 1, p. 222. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn 1997.
3707:. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press 2004.
3638:Crown and Clergy in Colonial Mexico, 1759â1821.
2578:, and conservative intellectual and politician
1500:, the Nahua who is credited with the vision of
1384:are important pilgrimage sites; in Oaxaca, the
1313:Virgin of Guadalupe and other devotions to Mary
746:of Mexico and first cleric to serve as viceroy.
528:The Church of Santiago Tlatelolco, Mexico City.
7273:"Nuevo LeĂłn: acusan a sacerdote de pederastia"
6950:
6571:MACNABB, VALERIE ANN; REES, MARTHA W. (1993).
6462:
5602:
5462:
5390:
5388:
5386:
5384:
5233:
5007:, (Cambridge University Press, 2001, ) pp. 1â2
4772:Berkeley: University of California Press 1987.
4343:Ida Altman, Sarah Cline, and Javier Pescador,
3803:Gainesville: University of Florida Press 2006.
3778:Church and Clergy in Sixteenth-Century Mexico.
3745:Berkeley: University of California Press 1987.
3659:Mexican Architecture of the Sixteenth Century.
3350:Ley de Asociaciones Religiosas y Culto PĂșblico
2574:. Nineteenth-century liberal priests, such as
2212:during the Second Mexican Empire. Expelled by
1895:The First Empire and Early Republic, 1821â1854
1799:, a secular priest and leader of independence.
784:
563:The General History of the Things of New Spain
168:Early period: The Spiritual Conquest 1519â1572
139:Ley de Asociaciones Religiosas y Culto PĂșblico
8756:
8742:
7467:
7375:"Pope Francis' disappointing visit to Mexico"
6721:
5487:
5418:
5416:
5178:Cambridge University Press 1991, pp. 450-462.
4676:
4028:Purnell, Jennie. "The Cristero Rebellion" in
3861:. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press 2015.
3403:
3062:
2647:
2003:
1708:The clergy and Mexican independence 1810â1821
1178:, known in her lifetime as the "Tenth Muse".
923:, making the clergy subject to civil courts.
7156:
6234:, quoting the New York Times, March 6, 1936.
5913:, Urbana: University of Illinois Press 1900.
5796:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press 1981.
5766:General Salvador Alvarado quoted in Mecham,
5082:"Canonization of Juan Diego Cuauhtlatoatzin"
4472:"Ilmo. Sr. D. Fray Alonso de MontĂșfar, O.P."
4206:vol. 40, No. 4 (November 1960), pp. 513-532.
3672:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press 1976.
2672:-led Catholic Association of Mexican Youth (
2481:
2392:The main faction in the north of Mexico was
2287:
1878:Independent Mexico in the nineteenth century
1402:Cristos Negros of Central America and Mexico
894:
457:. The first bishop of Mexico was Franciscan
405:, however, a member of the native nobility,
9229:Diocese of La Paz en la Baja California Sur
6570:
6111:vol 38, No. 4 (November 1958), pp. 482-505.
5381:
4235:Vol. 1998, issue 2, article 6, pp. 421-481.
4046:Bloomington: Indiana University Press 1973.
4004:Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1976.
3819:Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1971.
3759:. Stanford: Stanford University Press 2018.
3654:Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1993.
3624:Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1967.
3597:Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 2001.
3577:
3421:
3360:Protestant groups and constitutional reform
2674:AsociaciĂłn CatĂłlica de la Juventud Mexicana
2640:, Archbishop Ruiz y Flores supported them.
2454:began to consolidate power after 1917. The
1903:Coronation in the Mexico City cathedral of
1051:Colegio de San Francisco Javier, Tepozotlan
1037:educated in rigorous, newly founded Jesuit
891:(1598), and the Saltillo Cathedral (1762).
573:Mendicant-produced texts for evangelization
144:
8749:
8735:
8493:Dogma of the Assumption of the Virgin Mary
8443:Prayer of Consecration to the Sacred Heart
7474:
7460:
6651:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
5834:Robert E. Curley, "Social Catholicism" in
5413:
4383:"History of the Catholic Church in Mexico"
4070:Sherman, John W. "Liberation Theology" in
3889:IV No. 2. (October 1947), pp. 151â74.
3714:. Austin: University of Texas Press 2014.
3542:Historia de la Iglesia CatĂłlico en MĂ©xico.
3182:Church push for civic culture in Chihuahua
3144:Changing church-state relations, 1980â2000
2684:Catholic women and the church-state crisis
2628:Church-State negotiations resulted in the
2419:
1649:
211:"History of the Catholic Church in Mexico"
106:(1924â28), the State's enforcement of the
54:In the mid-nineteenth century the liberal
9626:History of the Catholic Church by country
9428:Monasteries on the slopes of Popocatépetl
6869:. Maryknoll NY: Orbis Books, 1995, p. 63.
6829:"Maria Guadalupe and Liberation Theology"
6151:, p. 50, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2002
6042:Jennie Purnell, "Cristero Rebellion", in
5374:D.F. Stevens, "ValentĂn GĂłmez FarĂas" in
5191:Durham: Duke University Press 2000 p. 44.
4878:Stanford: Stanford University Press 1980.
4025:. Lanham MD: Rowman and Littlefield 2007.
3990:Syracuse: Syracuse University Press 1973.
3796:Stanford: Stanford University Press 1996.
3766:. New York: Oxford University Press 2016.
3700:Tucson: University of Arizona Press 2002.
3682:Stanford: Stanford University Press 2008.
3604:Tucson: University of Arizona Press 1989.
3454:, Nuevo Leon. Fr. Carlos LĂłpez Valdez of
2979:. He promoted the creation of grassroots
2664:); the Union of Mexican Catholic Ladies (
2387:
2276:
2204:Former member of the Conservative Party,
2092:
1964:
1602:The Bourbon crown attempted to eliminate
506:Monasteries on the slopes of Popocatépetl
262:Learn how and when to remove this message
8792:History of the Catholic Church in Mexico
5783:. New York: Harper Collins 1997, p. 382.
5468:
5394:
5095:
4629:The Royal Indian Hospital of Mexico City
4315:"Introduction to the Lienzo de Tlaxcala"
3997:. 3 vols. Mexico City: Siglo XXI (1985).
3840:, 94:4 (November 2017) pp. 613â650.
3407:
3363:
3308:
3272:
3219:
3185:
3124:Liberation Theology in Seminary Training
3009:
2947:
2941:' gathering in Puebla, President Miguel
2875:
2859:National Autonomous University of Mexico
2837:
2762:
2668:); a Catholic student organization, the
2605:
2524:
2485:
2291:
2199:
2183:
2129:
2113:
1968:
1898:
1790:
1754:
1723:
1711:
1653:
1629:
1434:
1419:
1396:Devotions to Christ and pilgrimage sites
1322:
1231:
1137:
1020:
967:, priest, scientist, and creole patriot.
958:
898:
788:
733:
576:
523:
424:
381:
334:
273:
28:
9631:History of Catholicism in North America
9451:University of the Cloister of Sor Juana
7411:Hackman, Michelle (February 17, 2016).
7410:
7372:
6778:
6776:
6774:
6680:
6676:
6674:
6672:
6670:
6668:
6666:
6566:
6564:
6562:
6015:Butler, "Keeping the Faith", pp. 13-14.
5586:, New York: HarperCollins 1997, p. 227.
5496:
5422:
5074:
5020:New York: Oxford University Press 2010.
4151:Roman and Eastern Catholicism in Mexico
3948:New York: Oxford University Press 1997.
3920:Austin: University of Texas Press 1974.
3785:The Origins of Church Wealth in Mexico.
3240:, a charismatic figure of the PAN; and
2863:UniĂłn Nacional de Estudiantes CatĂłlicos
2450:The revolutionary faction that won the
331:The first evangelists to the indigenous
155:Franciscan Missions in the Sierra Gorda
14:
9618:
7297:
7089:Vol. 1998, issue 2, article 6, p. 433.
7072:
7070:
6984:
6982:
6861:
6859:
6510:
5942:New Haven, Yale University Press 1968.
5804:
5802:
5662:
5660:
5004:Mexican Phoenix: Our Lady of Guadalupe
4936:Conventos de monjas en la Nueva España
4553:Arte para aprender la lengua Mexicana.
4498:"Ilmo. Sr. D. Pedro Moya de Contreras"
4193:. Oxford University Press 1997, p. 25.
4081:Volume 421 (1998), Issue 2, article 6.
3847:London: Royal Historical Society 1978.
3824:Church and State in Mexico, 1822â1857.
3661:New Haven: Yale University Press 1948.
2937:visited Mexico in 1979 as part of the
2206:Pelagio Antonio de Labastida y DĂĄvalos
2041:. Other laws attacked the privileges (
1845:Post-Independence Mexico, 1821-present
1804:monarchy, subject to a legislature or
1475:Indians of west Texas and New Mexico.
754:. The main church of a diocese is the
18:History of Roman Catholicism in Mexico
9274:Diocese of San CristĂłbal de Las Casas
8767:Catholic Bishops Conference of Mexico
8730:
7455:
7391:
7373:Guevara, Miguel (February 18, 2016).
6782:
6423:
5940:Mexican Liberalism in the Age of Mora
5370:
5368:
5354:
5352:
5350:
4990:Treatise on the Heathen Superstitions
4623:
4621:
4598:S.L. Cline and Miguel LeĂłn-Portilla,
4146:List of the oldest churches in Mexico
3808:
3507:
3481:
3044:Zapatista Army of National Liberation
1302:Treatise on the Heathen Superstitions
1285:
1134:Establishments for elite creole women
1017:Society of Jesus in Mexico, 1572â1767
856:Francisco Javier de Lizana y Beaumont
848:Juan Antonio de VizarrĂłn y Eguiarreta
461:. Early Dominicans in Mexico include
8896:Archdiocese of Puebla de los Angeles
6820:
6771:
6730:
6663:
6559:
6410:John Burdick, Warren Edward Hewitt,
5969:Mexican Studies / Estudios Mexicanos
5849:Church and Politics in Latin America
4799:The Church in Colonial Latin America
4345:The Early History of Greater Mexico,
4185:
4183:
3955:. Mexico: El Colegio de MĂ©xico 1991.
3927:13:1 (winter 1997), pp. 87â120.
3752:Tucson: University of Arizona Press.
3466:Priests targeted by narcotraffickers
2939:Conference of Latin American Bishops
2758:
2749:
2330:
1637:, Mexican Jesuit historian of Mexico
1194:Establishments for Indian noblewomen
862:Structure of the episcopal hierarchy
830:Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Mexico
297:Spanish conquest of the Aztec empire
200:adding citations to reliable sources
171:
8347:Suppression of the Society of Jesus
7392:Burke, Daniel (February 18, 2016).
7279:(in European Spanish). 5 March 2013
7067:
6979:
6856:
6826:
6109:Hispanic American Historical Review
5799:
5657:
5163:Hispanic American Historical Review
4786:Crown and Clergy in Colonial Mexico
4204:Hispanic American Historical Review
4088:Durham: Duke University Press 2009.
4039:Durham: Duke University Press 1999.
3969:Vol 38, 4 (November 1958), 482â505.
3967:Hispanic American Historical Review
3866:Hispanic American Historical Review
3838:Hispanic American Historical Review
3826:Durham: Duke University Press 1926.
3736:Hispanic American Historical Review
3615:Hispanic American Historical Review
3396:story and during the presidency of
2889:Universidad AutĂłnoma de Guadalajara
2707:End of the Cristero Rebellion, 1929
1626:Suppression of the Society of Jesus
1277:Other jurisdictional transgressions
1204:Colegio de Santa Cruz de Tlatelolco
1056:
991:
927:Secular or diocesan clergy's income
538:Colegio de Santa Cruz de Tlatelolco
24:
9059:Prelature of JesĂșs MarĂa del Nayar
7902:Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran
6098:vol. 4-, no. 3. January 1984, 303.
6085:, Vol. 10, No. 4 (Winter), 78-103.
6072:p. 147, Taylor & Francis, 2001
6033:Butler, "Keeping the Faith" p. 16.
6024:Butler, "Keeping the Faith" p. 13.
5365:
5347:
4618:
4023:Religious Culture in Modern Mexico
4011:Mexico: Colegio de MichoacĂĄn 1994.
3925:Mexican Studies/Estudios Mexicanos
3910:Twentieth and Twenty-First Century
3631:. Cambridge University Press 2018.
3588:University of Colorado Press 1995.
3528:
3354:Partido Revolucionario DemocrĂĄtico
3153:In 1979 with the election of Pope
2727:
2690:UniĂłn de Damas CatĂłlicos Mexicanas
2666:UniĂłn de Damas CatĂłlicas Mexicanas
2374:
2029:, who was opposed to land reform.
669:
35:Mexico City Metropolitan Cathedral
25:
9652:
9179:Diocese of Ciudad LĂĄzaro CĂĄrdenas
6271:Church and State in Latin America
6258:Church and State in Latin America
6245:Church and State in Latin America
6232:Church and State in Latin America
6206:Church and State in Latin America
6149:Mexico, the end of the revolution
5768:Church and State in Latin America
5755:Church and State in Latin America
5742:Church and State in Latin America
5720:Church and State in Latin America
5677:Church and State in Latin America
5626:Church and State in Latin America
5531:Church and State in Latin America
5342:Church and State in Latin America
5324:Church and State in Latin America
5307:Church and State in Latin America
4722:Local Religion in Colonial Mexico
4568:(1571). Mexico: Editorial PorrĂșa.
4407:The Spiritual Conquest of Mexico,
4180:
3882:XLVIII No. 2 (July 1962) 182â204.
3556:Church and State in Latin America
3322:Institutional Revolutionary Party
3228:receiving the Pope in August 1993
3069:Christian Base Communities (CEB).
2797:(SIL) in 1936, a division of the
2446:Church-State relations, 1917â1940
2335:Although Francisco Madero's 1910
1415:
1378:Our Lady of San Juan de los Lagos
9598:
9586:
9129:Diocese of Atlacomulco de Fabela
9049:Diocese of San Juan de los Lagos
8846:Archdiocese of Antequera, Oaxaca
8822:
8709:
8697:
8028:Fourth Council of Constantinople
7983:Second Council of Constantinople
7423:
7404:
7385:
7366:
7357:
7344:
7318:
7291:
7265:
7239:
7213:
7187:
7177:
7143:
7134:
7125:
7115:
7092:
7079:
7047:
7034:
7021:
7008:
6995:
6966:
6937:
6924:
6911:
6898:
6885:
6872:
6681:Pensado, Jaime M. (April 2022).
6611:
6504:
6491:
6478:
6449:
6436:
6417:
6404:
6391:
6378:
6365:
6352:
6339:
6326:
6313:
6280:
6263:
6250:
6237:
6224:
6211:
6198:
6176:
6154:
6141:
6114:
6101:
6088:
6075:
6062:
6049:
6036:
6027:
6018:
6009:
5996:
5987:
5974:
5958:
5945:
5929:
5916:
5903:
5893:
5880:
5867:
5854:
5841:
5828:
5815:
5786:
5773:
5760:
5747:
5734:
5725:
5712:
5699:
5686:
5679:p. 380, citing Ernest Gruening,
5669:
5644:
5631:
5161:in the Bishopric of MichoacĂĄn."
5148:Cambridge University Press 1967.
4527:The Spiritual Conquest of Mexico
4502:Catedral Metropolitana de Mexico
4476:Catedral Metropolitana de Mexico
4358:Early History of Greater Mexico,
4219:, Autumn 1993, Vol. 35, Issue 4.
4131:
4119:
4107:
3771:The Spiritual Conquest of Mexico
3549:Historia de la Iglesia de MĂ©xico
3380:Cardinal Posadas Ocampo's murder
3149:Clampdown on liberation theology
2134:Basilica of Guadalupe Basilica.
1952:. The papacy countered that the
1531:. The candidate from the French
1386:Basilica of Our Lady of Solitude
1043:Colegio de San Pedro y San Pablo
956:, but not the mendicant orders.
833:Payo EnrĂquez de Rivera Manrique
826:Diego Osorio de Escobar y Llamas
725:Spanish Habsburg Era (1550â1700)
550:Third Mexican Provincial Council
371:conversion. These bases (called
176:
8949:Diocese of Chilpancingo-Chilapa
8926:Archdiocese of Tuxtla Gutiérrez
7998:Third Council of Constantinople
7922:First Council of Constantinople
7201:(in Spanish). December 21, 2019
6414:. Greenwood Press 2000, 40, 44.
5618:
5589:
5576:
5567:
5558:
5545:
5536:
5523:
5449:
5312:
5299:
5290:
5273:
5254:
5245:
5224:
5207:
5194:
5181:
5168:
5151:
5138:
5129:
5116:
5065:
5036:
5023:
5010:
4995:
4982:
4972:
4963:
4954:
4941:
4925:
4912:
4899:
4890:
4881:
4868:
4835:
4822:
4813:
4804:
4791:
4762:
4753:
4740:
4727:
4714:
4705:
4692:
4663:
4647:
4634:
4605:
4592:
4583:
4571:
4558:
4545:
4540:Early History of Greater Mexico
4532:
4490:
4464:
4438:
4412:
4399:
4375:
4363:
4350:
4337:
4307:
4282:
3934:, autumn 1993, Vol 35. Issue 4.
2871:National Action Party of Mexico
2795:Summer Institute of Linguistics
1382:Basilica of Our Lady of Zapopan
1308:Devotions to holy men and women
187:needs additional citations for
151:Franciscan missions to the Maya
8999:Diocese of Nuevo Casas Grandes
8901:Archdiocese of San Luis PotosĂ
8871:Archdiocese of Jalapa (Xalapa)
8810:Pastoral Visits (Pope Francis)
8237:Dissolution of the monasteries
7503:History of the Catholic Church
7298:Pineda, Elsy (14 March 2018).
7044:, Autumn 1993, vol. 35. No. 4.
6070:Concise encyclopedia of Mexico
5683:, New York, 1928, p. 212, n.2.
5287:(5 vols. 1888-89), III p. 657.
5071:See Knowledge page in Spanish.
4960:LĂłpez, "Convents", pp. 337-38.
4273:
4260:
4251:
4238:
4209:
4196:
4167:
3981:Latin American Research Review
3327:National Action Party (Mexico)
3205:National Action Party (Mexico)
3096:Radical Clerical Organizations
2955:, bishop of Cuernavaca in 1970
2851:National Action Party (Mexico)
2746:participated in the conflict.
2136:University of Dayton Libraries
1944:, that is the transfer of the
1824:, and the promulgation of the
1227:
1222:Holy Office of the Inquisition
1210:Holy Office of the Inquisition
1089:Jesuit resistance to the tithe
852:Alonso NĂșñez de Haro y Peralta
439:Toribio de Benavente Motolinia
433:The arrival of the Franciscan
13:
1:
9636:History of religion in Mexico
8111:Fourth Council of the Lateran
8086:Second Council of the Lateran
7695:Apostles in the New Testament
7042:Journal of Church & State
6288:A Journal of Church and State
5955:(New York: Scribner's, 1996).
5320:Mexico a través de los Siglos
5285:Mexico a través de los Siglos
5159:ConsolidaciĂłn de Vales Reales
4788:. London: Athlone Press 1968.
4700:The Nahuas After the Conquest
4658:Hospitales de la Nueva España
4424:Relatos e Historias en Mexico
4217:Journal of Church & State
4161:
3932:Journal of Church & State
3691:http://www.fordham.edu/vistas
3371:in Mexico. February 13, 2016.
3054:Liberation Theology in Mexico
3014:Bishop of Chiapas Samuel Ruiz
1620:Expulsion of the Jesuits 1767
1529:War of the Spanish Succession
1523:Spanish Bourbon Era 1700â1821
1106:Expulsion of the Jesuits 1767
1027:Museo Nacional del Virreinato
940:Reduction of mendicants' role
742:, first secular cleric to be
504:under the general listing of
342:, the first bishop of Mexico.
9373:José Maria de Yermo y Parres
9294:Prelature of CancĂșn-Chetumal
9194:Diocese of Huajuapan de LeĂłn
9099:Diocese of San Andrés Tuxtla
8994:Diocese of Cuauhtémoc-Madera
8954:Diocese of Ciudad Altamirano
8225:Catholic Counter-Reformation
8091:Third Council of the Lateran
8081:First Council of the Lateran
7537:Catholic ecumenical councils
7363:Bonello, "Guerrero priests".
6961:Mexico's Political Awakening
6945:Mexico's Political Awakening
6932:Mexico's Political Awakening
6919:Mexico's Political Awakening
6906:Mexico's Political Awakening
6893:Mexico's Political Awakening
6473:Mexico's Political Awakening
6457:Mexico's Political Awakening
6444:The Church at the Grassroots
6399:Mexico's Political Awakening
6386:Mexico's Political Awakening
6360:Mexico's Political Awakening
6308:Mexico's Political Awakening
4600:The Testaments of Culhuacan.
4446:"FRAY DIEGO DURĂN 1537-1588"
3960:Mexico's Political Awakening
3178:of archbishop of Chihuahua.
2891:was founded in 1935 and the
2052:The next Reform Law was the
1567:sedition against the crown.
1346:, while Franciscans such as
1184:Carlos de SigĂŒenza y GĂłngora
965:Carlos de SigĂŒenza y GĂłngora
934:Carlos de SigĂŒenza y GĂłngora
867:its own administration, the
632:
609:into Nahuatl to denote God (
7:
8964:Diocese of Puerto Escondido
8916:Archdiocese of Tlalnepantla
7151:Journal of Church and State
6577:Journal of Church and State
6517:Latin American Perspectives
6120:Butler, "Keeping the Faith"
5279:quoted in J. Lloyd Mecham,
4426:(in Spanish). 12 April 2016
4093:
4021:Nesvig, Martin Austin, ed.
3857:Mijanos y GonzĂĄlez, Pablo.
3833:33:1 (JulyâSeptember 1983).
3783:Schwaller, John Frederick.
3776:Schwaller, John Frederick.
3710:Peterson, Jeanette Favrot.
3640:London: Athlone Press 1958.
3617:73:3(1993) pp. 453â80.
2861:(UNAM), the Jesuit-founded
2616:Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe
2271:Holy See â Mexico relations
1982:Antonio LĂłpez de Santa Anna
1866:in 1910. The revolutionary
1128:
785:Bishops as interim viceroys
581:Friar Bernardino de SahagĂșn
10:
9657:
9259:Diocese of Valle de Chalco
9249:Diocese of NetzahualcĂłyotl
9139:Diocese of Ciudad Victoria
8861:Archdiocese of Guadalajara
7571:History of the Roman Curia
7354:, November 29, 2015, p. A3
7225:National Catholic Reporter
6930:Almeida, quoted in Chand,
6917:Almeida, quoted in Chand,
6731:Puma, Jorge (April 2022).
6529:10.1177/0094582X9702400506
6083:Journal of Women's History
5924:Mexico: Biography of Power
5888:Mexico: Biography of Power
5875:Mexico: Biography of Power
5613:Mexico: Biography of Power
5584:Mexico: Biography of Power
5318:Vicente Riva Palacio, ed.
4830:Provinces of Early Mexico,
4450:Historia y Cultura de Maiz
3951:Ceballos RamĂrez, Manuel.
3880:Catholic Historical Review
3868:57, no. 2 (1977), 296â313.
3738:61, no. 4, (1981): 637â50.
3533:
3425:
3404:Issues in the 21st century
3197:Adalberto Almeida y Merino
3176:Adalberto Almeida y Merino
3063:Christian Base Communities
3036:ecclesial base communities
3020:San CristĂłbal de Las Casas
2997:Adalberto Almeida y Merino
2981:ecclesial base communities
2893:Universidad Iberoamericana
2882:Universidad Iberoamericana
2799:Wycliffe Bible Translators
2739:Saints of the Cristero War
2648:Catholic lay organizations
2518:
2502:of the labor organization
2280:
2096:
2013:
2007:
2004:Liberal reform (1857â1861)
1763:Two lower clerics led it,
1644:Francisco Javier Clavijero
1635:Francisco Javier Clavijero
1623:
1509:Saints of the Cristero War
1316:
1213:
1112:Suppression of the Jesuits
1109:
797:The crown established the
652:Hospital Real de Naturales
163:Spanish missions in Mexico
148:
9641:Catholic Church in Mexico
9581:
9563:
9545:
9522:
9513:
9488:
9472:
9463:
9436:
9414:
9405:
9367:Jenaro SĂĄnchez Delgadillo
9355:JosĂ© MarĂa Robles Hurtado
9318:
9302:
9159:Diocese of Piedras Negras
9064:Diocese of Ciudad ObregĂłn
9029:Diocese of Aguascalientes
8939:
8921:Archdiocese of Tulancingo
8866:Archdiocese of Hermosillo
8831:
8820:
8800:
8782:
8773:
8764:
8758:Catholic Church in Mexico
8692:
8592:
8458:
8385:
8320:
8307:European wars of religion
8204:
8139:
8041:
7963:
7854:
7777:
7637:
7626:
7618:Eastern Catholic Churches
7493:
7253:(in Spanish). 4 June 2017
5971:17.1 (Winter, 2001): 143.
5501:Concise History of Mexico
5497:Hamnett, Brian R (1999).
5469:Kirkwood, Burton (2000).
5427:Concise History of Mexico
5423:Hamnett, Brian R (1999).
5395:Kirkwood, Burton (2000).
5016:Jennifer Scheper Hughes,
4828:Marta Espejo-Ponce Hunt,
4748:Nahuas After the Conquest
4735:Nahuas After the Conquest
4671:The Royal Indian Hospital
4660:. 2 vols. Mexico 1956-60.
4290:"Hernan Cortez biography"
3822:Callcott, Wilfred Hardy.
3389:Juan JesĂșs Posadas Ocampo
3234:Carlos Salinas de Gortari
3168:Juan JesĂșs Posadas Ocampo
2743:Carlos Salinas de Gortari
2662:Partido CatĂłlico Nacional
2482:1917 Mexican Constitution
2288:The end of the Porfiriato
2267:Carlos Salinas de Gortari
2163:SebastiĂĄn Lerdo de Tejada
2118:The Archbishop of Oaxaca
1765:Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla
1515:was beatified in 1988 by
1490:was beatified in 2011 by
1488:Juan de Palafox y Mendoza
1376:is important; in Jalisco
1200:convent of Corpus Christi
1143:Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz
1007:
895:Ecclesiastical privileges
818:Juan de Palafox y Mendoza
516:(Nahuatl) built chapels.
435:Twelve Apostles of Mexico
365:Twelve Apostles of Mexico
127:Carlos Salinas de Gortari
43:Catholic Church in Mexico
9397:Rafael GuĂzar y Valencia
9385:Anacleto GonzĂĄlez Flores
9209:Diocese of Ciudad Valles
9079:Diocese of Coatzacoalcos
9039:Diocese of Ciudad GuzmĂĄn
8989:Diocese of Ciudad JuĂĄrez
8886:Archdiocese of Monterrey
8851:Archdiocese of Chihuahua
8438:Mary of the Divine Heart
8061:Clash against the empire
8013:Second Council of Nicaea
7907:Old St. Peter's Basilica
7140:Jorge A. Vargas, p. 424.
7029:Mexico at the Crossroads
7016:Mexico at the Crossroads
7003:Mexico at the Crossroads
6990:Mexico at the Crossroads
6974:Mexico at the Crossroads
6880:Mexico at the Crossroads
6511:Norget, Kristin (1997).
6499:Mexico at the Crossroads
5984:, vol. 1, pp. 27, 340-42
5794:The Secret War in Mexico
5157:Margaret Chowning, "The
4938:. Mexico: Santiago 1946.
4770:Pedro Moya de Contreras.
4640:Carmen Venegas RamĂrez,
3743:Pedro Moya de Contreras.
3578:Colonial Era - 1519â1821
3512:The census conducted by
3422:Child sex abuse scandals
2768:Rafael GuĂzar y Valencia
2367:, suppressed by General
2216:, he went into exile in
2210:Maximiliano de Habsburgo
2126:and the Catholic Church.
2109:Roman Catholic education
1668:Nacional Monte de Piedad
1047:Colegio de San Ildefonso
1041:("colleges"), including
947:Ordenanza del Patronazgo
919:was the removal of this
822:Marcos de Torres y Rueda
799:viceroyalty of New Spain
145:Colonial era (1521â1821)
9343:Mateo Correa Magallanes
9154:Diocese of Nuevo Laredo
8841:Archdiocese of Acapulco
8704:Vatican City portal
8056:Investiture Controversy
7912:First Council of Nicaea
6138:Faith & Reason 1994
5681:Mexico and Its Heritage
5060:Spanish American Saints
4564:Fray Alonso de Molina,
4030:Encyclopedia of Mexico.
3762:Ramos-Kittrell, JesĂșs.
3521:wrote in an editorial,
3445:Norberto Rivera Carrera
3244:, the son of President
3190:The Chihuahua cathedral
3172:charismatic Catholicism
2636:similar to that in the
2596:The Power and the Glory
2420:Zapatistas and religion
2337:Plan of San Luis PotosĂ
2325:Plan of San Luis PotosĂ
2232:with the Mexican State.
2208:. He was an advisor to
2194:RamĂłn Ibarra y GonzĂĄlez
2179:Eulogio Gillow y Zavala
2120:Eulogio Gillow y Zavala
1650:Charitable Institutions
1424:Blessed Juan de Palafox
807:Pedro Moya de Contreras
779:Pedro Moya de Contreras
740:Pedro Moya de Contreras
648:Hospital Real de Indios
479:Pedro Moya de Contreras
9593:Catholicism portal
9555:Fasting and abstinence
8969:Diocese of Tehuantepec
8931:Archdiocese of YucatĂĄn
8906:Archdiocese of Tijuana
8891:Archdiocese of Morelia
8856:Archdiocese of Durango
8716:Catholicism portal
8527:Second Vatican Council
8413:Our Lady of La Salette
8220:Protestant Reformation
8207:Protestant Reformation
8126:Second Council of Lyon
7515:Ecclesiastical history
6844:Cite journal requires
6808:Cite journal requires
6147:Hodges, Donald Clark,
6044:Encyclopedia of Mexico
6006:59:1 July 2002, p. 13.
5836:Encyclopedia of Mexico
5553:Encyclopedia of Mexico
5360:Encyclopedia of Mexico
5124:Encyclopedia of Mexico
4949:Encyclopedia of Mexico
4843:Encyclopedia of Mexico
4268:Encyclopedia of Mexico
4072:Encyclopedia of Mexico
4016:Encyclopedia of Mexico
4007:Muro, Victor Gabriel.
3799:von Germeten, Nicole.
3547:Cuevas, Mariano, S.J.
3452:San Pedro Garza GarcĂa
3418:
3372:
3316:
3298:
3287:Metropolitan Cathedral
3229:
3191:
3040:Bartolomé de Las Casas
3015:
2965:Second Vatican Council
2956:
2884:
2853:
2771:
2625:Leopoldo Ruiz y FlĂłres
2619:
2538:
2507:
2388:The Constitutionalists
2304:
2277:The Mexican Revolution
2233:
2197:
2139:
2127:
2093:Porfiriato (1876â1911)
2058:Miguel Lerdo de Tejada
1974:
1965:Liberal reform of 1833
1908:
1858:(1876-1911) created a
1808:. The Spanish liberal
1800:
1777:Virgin of Los Remedios
1760:
1732:
1721:
1685:gave to establish the
1659:
1638:
1484:Missions of California
1444:
1425:
1390:Virgin of Los Remedios
1331:
1243:
1150:
1029:
968:
908:
841:Juan Ortega y Montañés
794:
747:
582:
529:
465:, who famously was an
463:Bartolomé de Las Casas
430:
420:RepĂșblica de Españoles
394:
388:Bartolomé de las Casas
343:
283:
81:Maximilian of Habsburg
38:
9498:Our Lady of Guadalupe
9361:Toribio Romo GonzĂĄlez
9349:Atilano Cruz Alvarado
9239:Diocese of CuautitlĂĄn
9174:Diocese of Apatzingan
9134:Diocese of Cuernavaca
9024:Prelature of El Salto
9009:Diocese of Tarahumara
8911:Archdiocese of Toluca
8881:Archdiocese of Mexico
8423:First Vatican Council
8121:First Council of Lyon
7885:Constantine the Great
7581:Christian monasticism
6655:) CS1 maint: others (
6488:, 2010, 71(2) p. 233.
6486:Sociology of Religion
6334:Jesuit Student Groups
6136:Blood-Drenched Altars
5692:Jorge Adame Goddard,
5144:Michael P. Costeloe,
4687:Royal Indian Hospital
4084:Wright-Rios, Edward.
4056:Rice, Elizabeth Ann.
3941:59:1 July 2002, 9-32.
3843:Costeloe, Michael P.
3426:Further information:
3411:
3367:
3346:National Action Party
3314:Guadalajara Cathedral
3312:
3281:with an image of the
3276:
3223:
3203:During the 1980s the
3189:
3013:
2951:
2931:Our Lady of Guadalupe
2916:National Action Party
2879:
2841:
2766:
2609:
2591:TomĂĄs Garrido Canabal
2546:Plutarco ElĂas Calles
2528:
2496:Plutarco ElĂas Calles
2489:
2295:
2203:
2187:
2159:Second Mexican Empire
2133:
2117:
1986:ValentĂn GĂłmez FarĂas
1972:
1935:Second Mexican Empire
1902:
1794:
1758:
1727:
1715:
1657:
1633:
1502:Our Lady of Guadalupe
1448:Sebastian de Aparicio
1438:
1423:
1359:Our Lady of Guadalupe
1348:Bernardino de SahagĂșn
1328:Our Lady of Guadalupe
1326:
1319:Our Lady of Guadalupe
1235:
1176:Juana Inés de la Cruz
1141:
1024:
962:
905:Guadalajara Cathedral
902:
877:Guadalajara Cathedral
792:
737:
717:in its modified form
580:
542:Bernardino de SahagĂșn
527:
443:Bernardino de SahagĂșn
428:
385:
338:
277:
104:Plutarco ElĂas Calles
32:
9391:JosĂ© SĂĄnchez del RĂo
9279:Diocese of Tapachula
9219:Diocese of Zacatecas
9214:Diocese of Matehuala
9184:Diocese of TacĂĄmbaro
9149:Diocese of Matamoros
9124:Diocese of Querétaro
8979:Prelature of Huautla
8600:Sexual abuse scandal
8509:Mit brennender Sorge
8352:Age of Enlightenment
8131:Bernard of Clairvaux
8008:Byzantine Iconoclasm
7947:Council of Chalcedon
7727:Council of Jerusalem
7596:Role in civilization
7576:Religious institutes
7508:By country or region
6783:Levey, Eben (2021).
6749:10.1017/tam.2021.141
6699:10.1017/tam.2021.146
6589:10.1093/jcs/35.4.723
6442:Burdick and Hewitt,
6182:Ruiz, RamĂłn Eduardo
6068:Werner, Michael S.,
5909:Deborah J. Baldwin,
4319:Explore Mesolore.org
4063:Schell, Patience A.
3850:Knowlton, Robert J.
3643:Greenleaf, Richard.
3627:Delgado, Jessica L.
3540:Blancarte, Roberto.
3102:Option for the Poor.
2969:bishop of Cuernavaca
2898:Manuel Avila Camacho
2721:Constitution of 1917
2576:JosĂ© MarĂa Luis Mora
2476:Manuel Ăvila Camacho
2456:Constitution of 1917
2402:Constitution of 1857
2309:Constitution of 1857
2039:Constitution of 1857
1990:JosĂ© MarĂa Luis Mora
1950:Constitution of 1824
1917:Vicente Riva Palacio
1868:Constitution of 1917
1852:Constitution of 1857
1810:Constitution of 1812
1718:José Clemente Orozco
1564:secularized missions
869:cabildo eclesiĂĄstico
803:viceroy of New Spain
502:World Heritage Sites
455:GerĂłnimo de Mendieta
196:improve this article
116:Manuel Avila Camacho
97:Constitution of 1917
69:JosĂ© MarĂa Luis Mora
65:Constitution of 1857
9338:, Franciscan priest
9331:, Franciscan cleric
9284:Diocese of Campeche
9264:Diocese of Huejutla
9244:Diocese of Ecatepec
9234:Diocese of Mexicali
9224:Diocese of Ensenada
9204:Diocese of Tlaxcala
9199:Diocese of TehuacĂĄn
9164:Diocese of Saltillo
9119:Diocese of Irapuato
9109:Diocese of Veracruz
9094:Diocese of Papantla
9069:Diocese of CuliacĂĄn
9014:Diocese of MazatlĂĄn
8974:Diocese of Tuxtepec
8876:Archdiocese of LeĂłn
8428:Papal infallibility
8418:Our Lady of Lourdes
8367:Shimabara Rebellion
8211:Counter-Reformation
7435:diariodemorelos.com
6273:p. 410 quoting the
6160:Scheina, Robert L.
5202:Containing the Poor
5165:69:3 (1989) 451-78.
4325:on November 2, 2021
4060:Washington DC 1959.
3892:Brian A. Stauffer.
3620:Costeloe, Michael.
3460:Diocese of Irapuato
3283:Virgin of Guadalupe
3258:Cuauhtemoc CĂĄrdenas
3242:Cuauhtemoc CĂĄrdenas
3164:Sergio MĂ©ndez Arceo
3080:, and San Juanito,
2977:liberation theology
2973:Sergio MĂ©ndez Arceo
2953:Sergio MĂ©ndez Arceo
2925:(1970â76) visiting
2849:and founder of the
2845:, former rector of
2678:Knights of Columbus
2506:persecuting Christ.
2460:Venustiano Carranza
2398:Venustiano Carranza
2255:Virgin of Guadalupe
2247:Carmen Romero Rubio
2079:JosĂ© MarĂa Iglesias
2047:AgustĂn de Iturbide
1905:AgustĂn de Iturbide
1818:AgustĂn de Iturbide
1779:for the royalists.
1773:Virgin of Guadalupe
1216:Mexican Inquisition
1064:Don Juan de Palafox
885:Zacatecas Cathedral
613:) rather than god (
289:GerĂłnimo de Aguilar
93:Venustiano Carranza
77:French Intervention
41:The history of the
9446:La Merced Cloister
9289:Diocese of Tabasco
9254:Diocese of Texcoco
9169:Diocese of Tampico
9144:Diocese of Linares
9089:Diocese of Orizaba
9084:Diocese of CĂłrdoba
9074:Diocese of Nogales
9019:Diocese of TorreĂłn
8984:Prelature of Mixes
8473:Our Lady of FĂĄtima
8262:Ignatius of Loyola
8186:Catherine of Siena
8154:Pope Boniface VIII
7973:Benedict of Nursia
7942:Council of Ephesus
7779:Ante-Nicene period
7732:Split with Judaism
7566:Crusading movement
7153:36(1) 1994, 76-78.
7056:Anura Guruge 2010
6865:Michael Tangeman,
6827:Posadas, Damariz.
6793:10.13016/4bla-77sh
6497:Michael Tangeman,
5652:The New York Times
5639:The New York Times
5267:2015-09-24 at the
5058:Ronald J. Morgan,
5042:Ronald J. Morgan,
5029:Ronald J. Morgan,
4156:Religion in Mexico
3944:Camp, Roderic Ai.
3809:Nineteenth century
3791:Taylor, William B.
3718:Phelan, John Leddy
3703:Pardo, Osvaldo F.
3696:Morgan, Ronald J.
3650:Gruzinski, Serge.
3600:Burkhart, Louise.
3554:Mecham, J. Lloyd.
3551:. 5 vols. 1921â28.
3508:Falling membership
3482:Pope Francis visit
3419:
3373:
3317:
3299:
3230:
3192:
3016:
2957:
2885:
2867:Manuel GĂłmez MorĂn
2854:
2843:Manuel GĂłmez MorĂn
2823:Apostolic Delegate
2772:
2620:
2539:
2508:
2452:Mexican Revolution
2394:Constitutionalists
2305:
2283:Mexican Revolution
2234:
2198:
2140:
2128:
2020:Starting in 1855,
1998:Patronato Nacional
1975:
1942:Patronato Nacional
1909:
1864:Mexican Revolution
1801:
1797:JosĂ© MarĂa Morelos
1769:JosĂ© MarĂa Morelos
1761:
1733:
1722:
1694:Hospicio de Pobres
1660:
1639:
1553:fuero eclesiĂĄstico
1445:
1426:
1344:Alonso de MontĂșfar
1334:In 1531, a Nahua,
1332:
1286:Indigenous beliefs
1244:
1151:
1030:
969:
909:
795:
775:Alonso de MontĂșfar
748:
711:cajas de comunidad
583:
534:Antonio de Mendoza
530:
475:Alonso de MontĂșfar
431:
395:
344:
284:
112:Cristero Rebellion
89:Mexican Revolution
39:
9613:
9612:
9605:Mexico portal
9577:
9576:
9509:
9508:
9459:
9458:
9189:Diocese of Zamora
9114:Diocese of Celaya
9104:Diocese of Tuxpan
9044:Diocese of Colima
9034:Diocese of AutlĂĄn
9004:Diocese of Parral
8818:
8817:
8724:
8723:
8684:COVID-19 pandemic
8662:Pope Benedict XVI
8567:Pope John Paul II
8342:Pope Benedict XIV
8328:French Revolution
8312:Thirty Years' War
8302:Robert Bellarmine
8287:John of the Cross
8191:Pope Alexander VI
8176:Council of Vienne
8106:Francis of Assisi
8096:Pope Innocent III
7965:Early Middle Ages
7959:
7958:
7955:
7954:
7897:Arian controversy
7850:
7849:
7798:Apostolic Fathers
7352:Los Angeles Times
7166:. romereports.com
7062:978-0-615-35372-2
6630:978-1-7936-3364-4
6306:Vikram K. Chand,
6277:, April 28, 1938.
5480:978-1-4039-6258-4
5471:History of Mexico
5406:978-1-4039-6258-4
5397:History of Mexico
5340:J. Lloyd Mecham,
5305:J. Lloyd Mecham,
4905:AsunciĂłn Lavrin,
4810:Schwaller, p. 52.
4551:Andrés de Olmos,
4347:Pearson 2003, 36.
4294:Aztec History.com
4248:, 497-559 (1996).
4189:Roderic Ai Camp,
4042:Quirk, Robert E.
4035:Purnell, Jennie.
3986:Mabry, Donald J.
3972:Espinosa, David.
3958:Chand, Vikram K.
3916:Bailey, David C.
3902:978-0-8263-6127-1
3831:Historia Mexicana
3748:Poole, Stafford.
3741:Poole, Stafford.
3664:Lafaye, Jacques.
3584:Baudot, Georges.
3568:Smith, Benjamin.
3436:, founder of the
3414:Cristo de Chiapas
3277:A statue of Pope
3226:Dulce MarĂa Sauri
3210:Girolamo Prigione
3159:Girolamo Prigione
3028:Gustavo Gutiérrez
2759:CĂĄrdenas, 1934-40
2750:Impact of the War
2369:Victoriano Huerta
2331:Madero, 1911â1913
2273:were normalized.
2151:War of the Reform
1687:Hospital de JesĂșs
1406:Chalma, Malinalco
1374:Virgin of Ocotlan
767:Juan de ZumĂĄrraga
459:Juan de ZumĂĄrraga
411:Juan de ZumĂĄrraga
340:Juan de ZumĂĄrraga
287:Catholic priest,
272:
271:
264:
246:
73:War of the Reform
16:(Redirected from
9648:
9603:
9602:
9601:
9591:
9590:
9520:
9519:
9470:
9469:
9412:
9411:
9054:Diocese of Tepic
8959:Diocese of Tlapa
8826:
8780:
8779:
8751:
8744:
8737:
8728:
8727:
8714:
8713:
8702:
8701:
8700:
8679:Patriarch Kirill
8552:Pope John Paul I
8357:Anti-clericalism
8337:Pope Innocent XI
8257:Society of Jesus
8242:Council of Trent
8196:Age of Discovery
8141:Late Middle Ages
8043:High Middle Ages
8033:EastâWest Schism
7917:Pope Sylvester I
7863:
7862:
7852:
7851:
7762:General epistles
7757:Pauline epistles
7690:John the Baptist
7673:Great Commission
7635:
7634:
7586:Catholic culture
7476:
7469:
7462:
7453:
7452:
7447:
7446:
7444:
7442:
7427:
7421:
7420:
7408:
7402:
7401:
7389:
7383:
7382:
7370:
7364:
7361:
7355:
7348:
7342:
7341:
7339:
7337:
7322:
7316:
7315:
7313:
7311:
7295:
7289:
7288:
7286:
7284:
7269:
7263:
7262:
7260:
7258:
7243:
7237:
7236:
7234:
7232:
7217:
7211:
7210:
7208:
7206:
7191:
7185:
7181:
7175:
7174:
7172:
7171:
7160:
7154:
7147:
7141:
7138:
7132:
7129:
7123:
7119:
7113:
7110:
7099:
7096:
7090:
7083:
7077:
7074:
7065:
7051:
7045:
7038:
7032:
7025:
7019:
7012:
7006:
6999:
6993:
6986:
6977:
6970:
6964:
6957:
6948:
6941:
6935:
6928:
6922:
6915:
6909:
6902:
6896:
6889:
6883:
6876:
6870:
6863:
6854:
6853:
6847:
6842:
6840:
6832:
6824:
6818:
6817:
6811:
6806:
6804:
6796:
6780:
6769:
6768:
6728:
6719:
6718:
6678:
6661:
6660:
6650:
6642:
6615:
6609:
6608:
6568:
6557:
6556:
6508:
6502:
6495:
6489:
6482:
6476:
6469:
6460:
6453:
6447:
6440:
6434:
6433:
6421:
6415:
6408:
6402:
6395:
6389:
6382:
6376:
6369:
6363:
6356:
6350:
6343:
6337:
6330:
6324:
6319:David Espinosa,
6317:
6311:
6304:
6291:
6284:
6278:
6267:
6261:
6254:
6248:
6241:
6235:
6228:
6222:
6215:
6209:
6202:
6196:
6180:
6174:
6158:
6152:
6145:
6139:
6134:Van Hove, Brian
6132:
6121:
6118:
6112:
6105:
6099:
6092:
6086:
6079:
6073:
6066:
6060:
6055:David Espinosa,
6053:
6047:
6040:
6034:
6031:
6025:
6022:
6016:
6013:
6007:
6000:
5994:
5991:
5985:
5978:
5972:
5962:
5956:
5949:
5943:
5933:
5927:
5920:
5914:
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5901:
5897:
5891:
5884:
5878:
5871:
5865:
5858:
5852:
5845:
5839:
5832:
5826:
5819:
5813:
5806:
5797:
5792:Friedrich Katz,
5790:
5784:
5779:Enrique Krauze,
5777:
5771:
5764:
5758:
5751:
5745:
5738:
5732:
5729:
5723:
5716:
5710:
5703:
5697:
5690:
5684:
5673:
5667:
5664:
5655:
5648:
5642:
5635:
5629:
5622:
5616:
5609:
5600:
5595:David Espinosa,
5593:
5587:
5582:Enrique Krauze,
5580:
5574:
5571:
5565:
5562:
5556:
5549:
5543:
5540:
5534:
5527:
5521:
5520:
5504:
5494:
5485:
5484:
5466:
5460:
5453:
5447:
5446:
5430:
5420:
5411:
5410:
5392:
5379:
5372:
5363:
5356:
5345:
5338:
5327:
5316:
5310:
5303:
5297:
5294:
5288:
5277:
5271:
5258:
5252:
5249:
5243:
5240:
5231:
5228:
5222:
5211:
5205:
5198:
5192:
5185:
5179:
5172:
5166:
5155:
5149:
5142:
5136:
5133:
5127:
5120:
5114:
5113:
5111:
5110:
5099:
5093:
5092:
5090:
5089:
5078:
5072:
5069:
5063:
5056:
5047:
5040:
5034:
5027:
5021:
5014:
5008:
4999:
4993:
4986:
4980:
4976:
4970:
4967:
4961:
4958:
4952:
4945:
4939:
4929:
4923:
4920:Brides of Christ
4916:
4910:
4903:
4897:
4894:
4888:
4885:
4879:
4872:
4866:
4859:
4846:
4839:
4833:
4826:
4820:
4817:
4811:
4808:
4802:
4795:
4789:
4782:
4773:
4768:Stafford Poole,
4766:
4760:
4757:
4751:
4744:
4738:
4733:James Lockhart,
4731:
4725:
4718:
4712:
4709:
4703:
4696:
4690:
4683:
4674:
4667:
4661:
4651:
4645:
4638:
4632:
4625:
4616:
4609:
4603:
4596:
4590:
4587:
4581:
4575:
4569:
4562:
4556:
4549:
4543:
4536:
4530:
4523:
4514:
4513:
4511:
4509:
4494:
4488:
4487:
4485:
4483:
4468:
4462:
4461:
4459:
4457:
4442:
4436:
4435:
4433:
4431:
4416:
4410:
4403:
4397:
4396:
4395:
4394:
4379:
4373:
4367:
4361:
4354:
4348:
4341:
4335:
4334:
4332:
4330:
4321:. Archived from
4311:
4305:
4304:
4302:
4300:
4286:
4280:
4277:
4271:
4264:
4258:
4255:
4249:
4242:
4236:
4229:
4220:
4213:
4207:
4200:
4194:
4187:
4178:
4171:
4136:
4135:
4134:
4124:
4123:
4112:
4111:
4110:
4103:
3769:Ricard, Robert.
3676:Lavrin, AsunciĂłn
3657:Kubler, George.
3438:Legion of Christ
3238:Manuel Clouthier
3166:was replaced by
2992:with the state.
2781:Great Depression
2717:Dwight W. Morrow
2462:(1915â1920) and
2318:Francisco Madero
2103:Liberal general
1907:as emperor, 1822
1822:Vicente Guerrero
1749:Joseph Bonaparte
1533:House of Bourbon
1147:religious sister
1057:Jesuit haciendas
1034:Society of Jesus
992:Pious endowments
889:MĂ©rida Cathedral
881:Puebla Cathedral
721:the community."
644:Vasco de Quiroga
567:Florentine Codex
451:Alonso de Molina
267:
260:
256:
253:
247:
245:
204:
180:
172:
21:
9656:
9655:
9651:
9650:
9649:
9647:
9646:
9645:
9616:
9615:
9614:
9609:
9599:
9597:
9585:
9573:
9559:
9541:
9505:
9484:
9455:
9432:
9401:
9329:Felipe de JesĂșs
9314:
9298:
9269:Diocese of Tula
8935:
8827:
8814:
8796:
8769:
8760:
8755:
8725:
8720:
8708:
8698:
8696:
8688:
8610:World Youth Day
8588:
8577:World Youth Day
8521:Pacem in terris
8515:Pope John XXIII
8454:
8381:
8372:Edict of Nantes
8330:
8326:
8316:
8282:Teresa of Ăvila
8277:Tridentine Mass
8213:
8209:
8200:
8181:Knights Templar
8135:
8037:
7993:Gregorian chant
7951:
7877:
7874:
7871:
7869:
7858:
7846:
7773:
7642:
7630:
7622:
7489:
7487:Catholic Church
7480:
7450:
7440:
7438:
7429:
7428:
7424:
7409:
7405:
7390:
7386:
7371:
7367:
7362:
7358:
7349:
7345:
7335:
7333:
7324:
7323:
7319:
7309:
7307:
7296:
7292:
7282:
7280:
7271:
7270:
7266:
7256:
7254:
7245:
7244:
7240:
7230:
7228:
7219:
7218:
7214:
7204:
7202:
7193:
7192:
7188:
7182:
7178:
7169:
7167:
7162:
7161:
7157:
7148:
7144:
7139:
7135:
7130:
7126:
7120:
7116:
7111:
7102:
7097:
7093:
7084:
7080:
7075:
7068:
7052:
7048:
7039:
7035:
7026:
7022:
7013:
7009:
7000:
6996:
6987:
6980:
6971:
6967:
6958:
6951:
6942:
6938:
6929:
6925:
6916:
6912:
6903:
6899:
6890:
6886:
6877:
6873:
6864:
6857:
6845:
6843:
6834:
6833:
6825:
6821:
6809:
6807:
6798:
6797:
6781:
6772:
6729:
6722:
6679:
6664:
6644:
6643:
6631:
6617:
6616:
6612:
6569:
6560:
6509:
6505:
6496:
6492:
6483:
6479:
6470:
6463:
6454:
6450:
6441:
6437:
6422:
6418:
6409:
6405:
6396:
6392:
6383:
6379:
6373:Crossing Swords
6370:
6366:
6357:
6353:
6347:Crossing Swords
6344:
6340:
6331:
6327:
6318:
6314:
6305:
6294:
6285:
6281:
6268:
6264:
6255:
6251:
6242:
6238:
6229:
6225:
6216:
6212:
6203:
6199:
6181:
6177:
6159:
6155:
6146:
6142:
6133:
6124:
6119:
6115:
6106:
6102:
6093:
6089:
6080:
6076:
6067:
6063:
6054:
6050:
6041:
6037:
6032:
6028:
6023:
6019:
6014:
6010:
6001:
5997:
5992:
5988:
5979:
5975:
5964:Stan Ridgeway,
5963:
5959:
5950:
5946:
5936:Charles A. Hale
5934:
5930:
5921:
5917:
5908:
5904:
5898:
5894:
5885:
5881:
5872:
5868:
5862:Crossing Swords
5859:
5855:
5846:
5842:
5833:
5829:
5820:
5816:
5807:
5800:
5791:
5787:
5778:
5774:
5765:
5761:
5752:
5748:
5739:
5735:
5730:
5726:
5717:
5713:
5704:
5700:
5691:
5687:
5674:
5670:
5665:
5658:
5649:
5645:
5636:
5632:
5623:
5619:
5610:
5603:
5594:
5590:
5581:
5577:
5572:
5568:
5563:
5559:
5550:
5546:
5541:
5537:
5528:
5524:
5517:
5495:
5488:
5481:
5467:
5463:
5454:
5450:
5443:
5421:
5414:
5407:
5393:
5382:
5373:
5366:
5357:
5348:
5339:
5330:
5317:
5313:
5304:
5300:
5295:
5291:
5278:
5274:
5269:Wayback Machine
5259:
5255:
5250:
5246:
5241:
5234:
5229:
5225:
5212:
5208:
5199:
5195:
5186:
5182:
5173:
5169:
5156:
5152:
5143:
5139:
5134:
5130:
5121:
5117:
5108:
5106:
5101:
5100:
5096:
5087:
5085:
5080:
5079:
5075:
5070:
5066:
5057:
5050:
5041:
5037:
5028:
5024:
5015:
5011:
5002:D. A. Brading,
5000:
4996:
4987:
4983:
4977:
4973:
4968:
4964:
4959:
4955:
4946:
4942:
4932:Josefina Muriel
4930:
4926:
4917:
4913:
4904:
4900:
4895:
4891:
4886:
4882:
4874:Herman Konrad,
4873:
4869:
4860:
4849:
4840:
4836:
4827:
4823:
4818:
4814:
4809:
4805:
4796:
4792:
4783:
4776:
4767:
4763:
4758:
4754:
4745:
4741:
4732:
4728:
4719:
4715:
4710:
4706:
4697:
4693:
4684:
4677:
4668:
4664:
4654:Josefina Muriel
4652:
4648:
4639:
4635:
4626:
4619:
4610:
4606:
4597:
4593:
4588:
4584:
4576:
4572:
4563:
4559:
4550:
4546:
4538:Altman et al.,
4537:
4533:
4524:
4517:
4507:
4505:
4496:
4495:
4491:
4481:
4479:
4470:
4469:
4465:
4455:
4453:
4444:
4443:
4439:
4429:
4427:
4418:
4417:
4413:
4405:Robert Ricard,
4404:
4400:
4392:
4390:
4381:
4380:
4376:
4368:
4364:
4356:Altman, et al.
4355:
4351:
4342:
4338:
4328:
4326:
4313:
4312:
4308:
4298:
4296:
4288:
4287:
4283:
4278:
4274:
4265:
4261:
4256:
4252:
4243:
4239:
4230:
4223:
4214:
4210:
4201:
4197:
4188:
4181:
4172:
4168:
4164:
4142:
4132:
4130:
4118:
4108:
4106:
4098:
4096:
4091:
3912:
3907:
3811:
3806:
3755:Ramirez, Paul.
3734:in New Spain".
3728:Poole, Stafford
3580:
3575:
3561:Schmitt, Karl.
3536:
3531:
3529:Further reading
3510:
3484:
3468:
3430:
3424:
3406:
3382:
3362:
3256:the bolting of
3246:LĂĄzaro CĂĄrdenas
3218:
3184:
3151:
3146:
3126:
3098:
3065:
3056:
3001:Mexican Miracle
2923:Luis EcheverrĂa
2907:
2836:
2776:LĂĄzaro CĂĄrdenas
2761:
2752:
2730:
2728:Cristero saints
2709:
2686:
2650:
2612:Viva Cristo Rey
2523:
2517:
2484:
2472:LĂĄzaro CĂĄrdenas
2448:
2422:
2390:
2377:
2375:Huerta, 1913-14
2357:Emiliano Zapata
2333:
2290:
2285:
2279:
2230:Catholic Church
2101:
2095:
2018:
2012:
2006:
1978:Anticlericalism
1967:
1897:
1880:
1847:
1729:Dolores Hidalgo
1710:
1652:
1628:
1622:
1581:
1538:Bourbon Reforms
1525:
1465:MarĂa de Ăgreda
1441:Philip of Jesus
1430:Felipe de JesĂșs
1418:
1398:
1321:
1315:
1310:
1288:
1279:
1265:William Lamport
1230:
1218:
1212:
1196:
1136:
1131:
1123:Alta California
1119:Baja California
1114:
1108:
1096:Juan de Palafox
1091:
1066:and the Jesuit
1059:
1019:
1010:
994:
942:
929:
917:Bourbon Reforms
897:
864:
787:
732:
727:
676:confraternities
672:
670:Confraternities
635:
603:General History
593:) and Spanish (
575:
522:
447:Andrés de Olmos
333:
317:
268:
257:
251:
248:
205:
203:
193:
181:
170:
165:
147:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
9654:
9644:
9643:
9638:
9633:
9628:
9611:
9610:
9608:
9607:
9595:
9582:
9579:
9578:
9575:
9574:
9572:
9571:
9567:
9565:
9561:
9560:
9558:
9557:
9551:
9549:
9543:
9542:
9540:
9539:
9534:
9528:
9526:
9517:
9511:
9510:
9507:
9506:
9504:
9503:
9500:
9494:
9492:
9486:
9485:
9483:
9482:
9478:
9476:
9467:
9461:
9460:
9457:
9456:
9454:
9453:
9448:
9442:
9440:
9434:
9433:
9431:
9430:
9424:
9422:
9409:
9403:
9402:
9400:
9399:
9393:
9387:
9381:
9375:
9369:
9363:
9357:
9351:
9345:
9339:
9332:
9324:
9322:
9316:
9315:
9313:
9312:
9308:
9306:
9300:
9299:
9297:
9296:
9291:
9286:
9281:
9276:
9271:
9266:
9261:
9256:
9251:
9246:
9241:
9236:
9231:
9226:
9221:
9216:
9211:
9206:
9201:
9196:
9191:
9186:
9181:
9176:
9171:
9166:
9161:
9156:
9151:
9146:
9141:
9136:
9131:
9126:
9121:
9116:
9111:
9106:
9101:
9096:
9091:
9086:
9081:
9076:
9071:
9066:
9061:
9056:
9051:
9046:
9041:
9036:
9031:
9026:
9021:
9016:
9011:
9006:
9001:
8996:
8991:
8986:
8981:
8976:
8971:
8966:
8961:
8956:
8951:
8945:
8943:
8937:
8936:
8934:
8933:
8928:
8923:
8918:
8913:
8908:
8903:
8898:
8893:
8888:
8883:
8878:
8873:
8868:
8863:
8858:
8853:
8848:
8843:
8837:
8835:
8829:
8828:
8821:
8819:
8816:
8815:
8813:
8812:
8806:
8804:
8798:
8797:
8795:
8794:
8788:
8786:
8777:
8771:
8770:
8765:
8762:
8761:
8754:
8753:
8746:
8739:
8731:
8722:
8721:
8719:
8718:
8706:
8693:
8690:
8689:
8687:
8686:
8681:
8676:
8669:
8664:
8659:
8658:
8657:
8652:
8647:
8642:
8637:
8632:
8627:
8622:
8617:
8607:
8602:
8596:
8594:
8590:
8589:
8587:
8586:
8585:
8584:
8574:
8569:
8564:
8559:
8554:
8549:
8539:
8534:
8529:
8524:
8517:
8512:
8505:
8500:
8498:Lateran Treaty
8495:
8490:
8485:
8480:
8475:
8470:
8464:
8462:
8456:
8455:
8453:
8452:
8445:
8440:
8435:
8430:
8425:
8420:
8415:
8410:
8405:
8400:
8395:
8389:
8387:
8383:
8382:
8380:
8379:
8374:
8369:
8364:
8359:
8354:
8349:
8344:
8339:
8333:
8331:
8323:Baroque period
8321:
8318:
8317:
8315:
8314:
8309:
8304:
8299:
8294:
8292:Peter Canisius
8289:
8284:
8279:
8274:
8269:
8267:Francis Xavier
8264:
8259:
8254:
8249:
8244:
8239:
8234:
8231:Exsurge Domine
8227:
8222:
8216:
8214:
8205:
8202:
8201:
8199:
8198:
8193:
8188:
8183:
8178:
8173:
8171:Pope Clement V
8168:
8167:
8166:
8164:Avignon Papacy
8159:Western Schism
8156:
8151:
8149:Thomas Aquinas
8145:
8143:
8137:
8136:
8134:
8133:
8128:
8123:
8118:
8113:
8108:
8103:
8098:
8093:
8088:
8083:
8078:
8073:
8068:
8063:
8058:
8053:
8047:
8045:
8039:
8038:
8036:
8035:
8030:
8025:
8020:
8015:
8010:
8005:
8003:Saint Boniface
8000:
7995:
7990:
7988:Pope Gregory I
7985:
7980:
7975:
7969:
7967:
7961:
7960:
7957:
7956:
7953:
7952:
7950:
7949:
7944:
7939:
7934:
7929:
7927:Biblical canon
7924:
7919:
7914:
7909:
7904:
7899:
7894:
7893:
7892:
7881:
7879:
7860:
7856:Late antiquity
7848:
7847:
7845:
7844:
7839:
7834:
7829:
7824:
7823:
7822:
7817:
7816:
7815:
7810:
7805:
7803:Pope Clement I
7793:Church Fathers
7790:
7784:
7782:
7775:
7774:
7772:
7771:
7770:
7769:
7764:
7759:
7754:
7749:
7744:
7734:
7729:
7724:
7719:
7718:
7717:
7712:
7707:
7702:
7692:
7687:
7682:
7677:
7676:
7675:
7670:
7665:
7660:
7649:
7647:
7632:
7624:
7623:
7621:
7620:
7615:
7610:
7605:
7600:
7599:
7598:
7593:
7583:
7578:
7573:
7568:
7563:
7562:
7561:
7556:
7554:Biblical canon
7549:Catholic Bible
7546:
7545:
7544:
7534:
7533:
7532:
7522:
7517:
7512:
7511:
7510:
7499:
7497:
7491:
7490:
7479:
7478:
7471:
7464:
7456:
7449:
7448:
7422:
7403:
7384:
7365:
7356:
7343:
7317:
7290:
7264:
7238:
7227:. 2 March 2011
7212:
7199:BBC News Mundo
7186:
7176:
7155:
7142:
7133:
7124:
7114:
7100:
7091:
7087:BYU Law Review
7078:
7066:
7046:
7033:
7020:
7007:
6994:
6978:
6965:
6949:
6936:
6923:
6910:
6897:
6884:
6871:
6855:
6846:|journal=
6819:
6810:|journal=
6770:
6743:(2): 291â320.
6720:
6693:(2): 263â289.
6662:
6629:
6610:
6583:(4): 723â749.
6558:
6503:
6490:
6477:
6461:
6448:
6435:
6416:
6403:
6390:
6377:
6364:
6351:
6338:
6325:
6312:
6292:
6279:
6275:New York Times
6262:
6249:
6236:
6223:
6210:
6197:
6175:
6166:p. 33 (2003);
6153:
6140:
6122:
6113:
6100:
6087:
6074:
6061:
6048:
6035:
6026:
6017:
6008:
5995:
5986:
5973:
5957:
5944:
5928:
5915:
5902:
5892:
5879:
5866:
5853:
5840:
5827:
5814:
5798:
5785:
5772:
5759:
5746:
5733:
5724:
5711:
5705:Robert Quirk,
5698:
5685:
5668:
5656:
5643:
5630:
5617:
5601:
5588:
5575:
5566:
5557:
5544:
5535:
5522:
5515:
5486:
5479:
5461:
5448:
5441:
5412:
5405:
5380:
5364:
5346:
5328:
5311:
5298:
5289:
5272:
5253:
5244:
5232:
5223:
5206:
5200:Silvia Arrom,
5193:
5187:Silvia Arrom,
5180:
5174:D.A. Brading,
5167:
5150:
5137:
5128:
5115:
5094:
5073:
5064:
5048:
5035:
5022:
5009:
4994:
4981:
4971:
4962:
4953:
4940:
4924:
4911:
4898:
4889:
4880:
4867:
4861:D.A. Brading,
4847:
4834:
4821:
4812:
4803:
4790:
4784:N.M. Farriss,
4774:
4761:
4752:
4739:
4726:
4713:
4704:
4691:
4675:
4662:
4646:
4644:. Mexico 1973.
4633:
4627:David Howard,
4617:
4604:
4591:
4582:
4570:
4557:
4544:
4531:
4515:
4489:
4463:
4437:
4411:
4398:
4374:
4362:
4349:
4336:
4306:
4281:
4272:
4259:
4250:
4237:
4233:BYU Law Review
4221:
4208:
4195:
4179:
4165:
4163:
4160:
4159:
4158:
4153:
4148:
4141:
4140:
4128:
4116:
4095:
4092:
4090:
4089:
4082:
4079:BYU Law Review
4075:
4068:
4061:
4054:
4049:Reich, Peter.
4047:
4040:
4033:
4026:
4019:
4012:
4005:
3998:
3991:
3984:
3977:
3970:
3963:
3956:
3949:
3942:
3935:
3928:
3921:
3913:
3911:
3908:
3906:
3905:
3890:
3883:
3876:
3869:
3862:
3855:
3848:
3841:
3834:
3827:
3820:
3812:
3810:
3807:
3805:
3804:
3797:
3788:
3781:
3774:
3767:
3760:
3753:
3746:
3739:
3725:
3715:
3708:
3701:
3694:
3683:
3673:
3662:
3655:
3648:
3641:
3635:Farriss, N. M.
3632:
3625:
3618:
3611:
3608:
3605:
3598:
3589:
3581:
3579:
3576:
3574:
3573:
3566:
3565:New York 1972.
3559:
3552:
3545:
3537:
3535:
3532:
3530:
3527:
3509:
3506:
3483:
3480:
3467:
3464:
3434:Marcial Maciel
3423:
3420:
3405:
3402:
3381:
3378:
3361:
3358:
3295:Mexican people
3217:
3214:
3183:
3180:
3150:
3147:
3145:
3142:
3125:
3122:
3097:
3094:
3064:
3061:
3055:
3052:
3018:The bishop of
2943:LĂłpez Portillo
2906:
2903:
2835:
2832:
2816:New York Times
2808:New York Times
2760:
2757:
2751:
2748:
2729:
2726:
2708:
2705:
2685:
2682:
2649:
2646:
2560:interactions.
2541:When Northern
2519:Main article:
2516:
2513:
2492:Alvaro ObregĂłn
2483:
2480:
2464:Ălvaro ObregĂłn
2447:
2444:
2439:Alvaro ObregĂłn
2421:
2418:
2414:Alvaro ObregĂłn
2389:
2386:
2376:
2373:
2365:Pascual Orozco
2332:
2329:
2297:Sunday morning
2289:
2286:
2281:Main article:
2278:
2275:
2094:
2091:
2056:, authored by
2049:in the 1820s.
2008:Main article:
2005:
2002:
1994:Lorenzo Zavala
1966:
1963:
1946:Patronato Real
1926:Patronato Real
1913:Plan of Iguala
1896:
1893:
1879:
1876:
1846:
1843:
1826:Plan of Iguala
1709:
1706:
1651:
1648:
1621:
1618:
1580:
1577:
1524:
1521:
1480:JunĂpero Serra
1457:Known as the "
1417:
1416:Mexican saints
1414:
1397:
1394:
1340:mother goddess
1317:Main article:
1314:
1311:
1309:
1306:
1287:
1284:
1278:
1275:
1229:
1226:
1214:Main article:
1211:
1208:
1195:
1192:
1163:Conceptionists
1135:
1132:
1130:
1127:
1107:
1104:
1090:
1087:
1058:
1055:
1018:
1015:
1009:
1006:
993:
990:
953:Patronato Real
941:
938:
928:
925:
896:
893:
863:
860:
786:
783:
731:
728:
726:
723:
671:
668:
634:
631:
574:
571:
521:
518:
332:
329:
323:Patronato Real
316:
313:
291:, accompanied
270:
269:
184:
182:
175:
169:
166:
146:
143:
95:wrote the new
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
9653:
9642:
9639:
9637:
9634:
9632:
9629:
9627:
9624:
9623:
9621:
9606:
9596:
9594:
9589:
9584:
9583:
9580:
9569:
9568:
9566:
9562:
9556:
9553:
9552:
9550:
9548:
9544:
9538:
9535:
9533:
9530:
9529:
9527:
9525:
9521:
9518:
9516:
9512:
9501:
9499:
9496:
9495:
9493:
9491:
9487:
9480:
9479:
9477:
9475:
9471:
9468:
9466:
9462:
9452:
9449:
9447:
9444:
9443:
9441:
9439:
9435:
9429:
9426:
9425:
9423:
9421:
9417:
9413:
9410:
9408:
9404:
9398:
9394:
9392:
9388:
9386:
9382:
9380:
9376:
9374:
9370:
9368:
9364:
9362:
9358:
9356:
9352:
9350:
9346:
9344:
9340:
9337:
9336:Peter Baptist
9333:
9330:
9326:
9325:
9323:
9321:
9317:
9310:
9309:
9307:
9305:
9301:
9295:
9292:
9290:
9287:
9285:
9282:
9280:
9277:
9275:
9272:
9270:
9267:
9265:
9262:
9260:
9257:
9255:
9252:
9250:
9247:
9245:
9242:
9240:
9237:
9235:
9232:
9230:
9227:
9225:
9222:
9220:
9217:
9215:
9212:
9210:
9207:
9205:
9202:
9200:
9197:
9195:
9192:
9190:
9187:
9185:
9182:
9180:
9177:
9175:
9172:
9170:
9167:
9165:
9162:
9160:
9157:
9155:
9152:
9150:
9147:
9145:
9142:
9140:
9137:
9135:
9132:
9130:
9127:
9125:
9122:
9120:
9117:
9115:
9112:
9110:
9107:
9105:
9102:
9100:
9097:
9095:
9092:
9090:
9087:
9085:
9082:
9080:
9077:
9075:
9072:
9070:
9067:
9065:
9062:
9060:
9057:
9055:
9052:
9050:
9047:
9045:
9042:
9040:
9037:
9035:
9032:
9030:
9027:
9025:
9022:
9020:
9017:
9015:
9012:
9010:
9007:
9005:
9002:
9000:
8997:
8995:
8992:
8990:
8987:
8985:
8982:
8980:
8977:
8975:
8972:
8970:
8967:
8965:
8962:
8960:
8957:
8955:
8952:
8950:
8947:
8946:
8944:
8942:
8938:
8932:
8929:
8927:
8924:
8922:
8919:
8917:
8914:
8912:
8909:
8907:
8904:
8902:
8899:
8897:
8894:
8892:
8889:
8887:
8884:
8882:
8879:
8877:
8874:
8872:
8869:
8867:
8864:
8862:
8859:
8857:
8854:
8852:
8849:
8847:
8844:
8842:
8839:
8838:
8836:
8834:
8830:
8825:
8811:
8808:
8807:
8805:
8803:
8799:
8793:
8790:
8789:
8787:
8785:
8781:
8778:
8776:
8772:
8768:
8763:
8759:
8752:
8747:
8745:
8740:
8738:
8733:
8732:
8729:
8717:
8712:
8707:
8705:
8695:
8694:
8691:
8685:
8682:
8680:
8677:
8675:
8674:
8670:
8668:
8665:
8663:
8660:
8656:
8653:
8651:
8648:
8646:
8643:
8641:
8638:
8636:
8633:
8631:
8628:
8626:
8623:
8621:
8618:
8616:
8613:
8612:
8611:
8608:
8606:
8603:
8601:
8598:
8597:
8595:
8591:
8583:
8580:
8579:
8578:
8575:
8573:
8570:
8568:
8565:
8563:
8560:
8558:
8557:Mother Teresa
8555:
8553:
8550:
8547:
8543:
8540:
8538:
8535:
8533:
8530:
8528:
8525:
8523:
8522:
8518:
8516:
8513:
8511:
8510:
8506:
8504:
8501:
8499:
8496:
8494:
8491:
8489:
8486:
8484:
8483:Pope Pius XII
8481:
8479:
8476:
8474:
8471:
8469:
8466:
8465:
8463:
8461:
8457:
8451:
8450:
8449:Rerum novarum
8446:
8444:
8441:
8439:
8436:
8434:
8433:Pope Leo XIII
8431:
8429:
8426:
8424:
8421:
8419:
8416:
8414:
8411:
8409:
8406:
8404:
8403:United States
8401:
8399:
8396:
8394:
8393:Pope Pius VII
8391:
8390:
8388:
8384:
8378:
8375:
8373:
8370:
8368:
8365:
8363:
8360:
8358:
8355:
8353:
8350:
8348:
8345:
8343:
8340:
8338:
8335:
8334:
8332:
8329:
8324:
8319:
8313:
8310:
8308:
8305:
8303:
8300:
8298:
8295:
8293:
8290:
8288:
8285:
8283:
8280:
8278:
8275:
8273:
8270:
8268:
8265:
8263:
8260:
8258:
8255:
8253:
8250:
8248:
8245:
8243:
8240:
8238:
8235:
8233:
8232:
8228:
8226:
8223:
8221:
8218:
8217:
8215:
8212:
8208:
8203:
8197:
8194:
8192:
8189:
8187:
8184:
8182:
8179:
8177:
8174:
8172:
8169:
8165:
8162:
8161:
8160:
8157:
8155:
8152:
8150:
8147:
8146:
8144:
8142:
8138:
8132:
8129:
8127:
8124:
8122:
8119:
8117:
8114:
8112:
8109:
8107:
8104:
8102:
8099:
8097:
8094:
8092:
8089:
8087:
8084:
8082:
8079:
8077:
8076:Scholasticism
8074:
8072:
8069:
8067:
8064:
8062:
8059:
8057:
8054:
8052:
8051:Pope Urban II
8049:
8048:
8046:
8044:
8040:
8034:
8031:
8029:
8026:
8024:
8021:
8019:
8016:
8014:
8011:
8009:
8006:
8004:
8001:
7999:
7996:
7994:
7991:
7989:
7986:
7984:
7981:
7979:
7976:
7974:
7971:
7970:
7968:
7966:
7962:
7948:
7945:
7943:
7940:
7938:
7935:
7933:
7930:
7928:
7925:
7923:
7920:
7918:
7915:
7913:
7910:
7908:
7905:
7903:
7900:
7898:
7895:
7891:
7888:
7887:
7886:
7883:
7882:
7880:
7876:
7868:
7864:
7861:
7857:
7853:
7843:
7840:
7838:
7835:
7833:
7830:
7828:
7827:Justin Martyr
7825:
7821:
7818:
7814:
7811:
7809:
7806:
7804:
7801:
7800:
7799:
7796:
7795:
7794:
7791:
7789:
7786:
7785:
7783:
7780:
7776:
7768:
7765:
7763:
7760:
7758:
7755:
7753:
7750:
7748:
7745:
7743:
7740:
7739:
7738:
7737:New Testament
7735:
7733:
7730:
7728:
7725:
7723:
7720:
7716:
7713:
7711:
7708:
7706:
7703:
7701:
7700:Commissioning
7698:
7697:
7696:
7693:
7691:
7688:
7686:
7683:
7681:
7678:
7674:
7671:
7669:
7666:
7664:
7661:
7659:
7656:
7655:
7654:
7651:
7650:
7648:
7645:
7644:Apostolic Age
7640:
7636:
7633:
7629:
7625:
7619:
7616:
7614:
7611:
7609:
7606:
7604:
7601:
7597:
7594:
7592:
7589:
7588:
7587:
7584:
7582:
7579:
7577:
7574:
7572:
7569:
7567:
7564:
7560:
7557:
7555:
7552:
7551:
7550:
7547:
7543:
7540:
7539:
7538:
7535:
7531:
7530:Papal primacy
7528:
7527:
7526:
7523:
7521:
7518:
7516:
7513:
7509:
7506:
7505:
7504:
7501:
7500:
7498:
7496:
7492:
7488:
7484:
7477:
7472:
7470:
7465:
7463:
7458:
7457:
7454:
7436:
7432:
7426:
7418:
7414:
7407:
7399:
7395:
7388:
7380:
7376:
7369:
7360:
7353:
7347:
7331:
7327:
7321:
7305:
7301:
7294:
7278:
7274:
7268:
7252:
7248:
7242:
7226:
7222:
7216:
7200:
7196:
7190:
7180:
7165:
7159:
7152:
7146:
7137:
7128:
7118:
7109:
7107:
7105:
7095:
7088:
7082:
7073:
7071:
7063:
7059:
7055:
7054:The Next Pope
7050:
7043:
7037:
7030:
7024:
7017:
7011:
7004:
6998:
6991:
6985:
6983:
6975:
6969:
6962:
6956:
6954:
6946:
6940:
6933:
6927:
6920:
6914:
6907:
6901:
6894:
6888:
6881:
6875:
6868:
6862:
6860:
6851:
6838:
6830:
6823:
6815:
6802:
6794:
6790:
6786:
6779:
6777:
6775:
6766:
6762:
6758:
6754:
6750:
6746:
6742:
6738:
6734:
6727:
6725:
6716:
6712:
6708:
6704:
6700:
6696:
6692:
6688:
6684:
6677:
6675:
6673:
6671:
6669:
6667:
6658:
6654:
6648:
6640:
6636:
6632:
6626:
6622:
6621:
6614:
6606:
6602:
6598:
6594:
6590:
6586:
6582:
6578:
6574:
6567:
6565:
6563:
6554:
6550:
6546:
6542:
6538:
6534:
6530:
6526:
6523:(5): 96â127.
6522:
6518:
6514:
6507:
6500:
6494:
6487:
6481:
6474:
6468:
6466:
6458:
6452:
6445:
6439:
6431:
6427:
6420:
6413:
6407:
6400:
6394:
6388:, pp. 158-59.
6387:
6381:
6374:
6368:
6361:
6355:
6348:
6342:
6335:
6329:
6322:
6316:
6309:
6303:
6301:
6299:
6297:
6289:
6283:
6276:
6272:
6266:
6259:
6253:
6246:
6240:
6233:
6227:
6220:
6214:
6207:
6201:
6195:
6191:
6187:
6186:
6179:
6173:
6169:
6165:
6164:
6157:
6150:
6144:
6137:
6131:
6129:
6127:
6117:
6110:
6104:
6097:
6091:
6084:
6078:
6071:
6065:
6058:
6052:
6045:
6039:
6030:
6021:
6012:
6005:
5999:
5990:
5983:
5977:
5970:
5967:
5961:
5954:
5948:
5941:
5937:
5932:
5925:
5919:
5912:
5906:
5896:
5889:
5883:
5876:
5870:
5863:
5857:
5850:
5844:
5837:
5831:
5824:
5818:
5811:
5805:
5803:
5795:
5789:
5782:
5776:
5769:
5763:
5756:
5750:
5743:
5737:
5728:
5722:, pp. 380-81.
5721:
5715:
5708:
5702:
5695:
5689:
5682:
5678:
5672:
5663:
5661:
5653:
5647:
5640:
5634:
5627:
5621:
5614:
5608:
5606:
5598:
5592:
5585:
5579:
5570:
5561:
5554:
5548:
5539:
5532:
5526:
5518:
5516:0-521-58120-6
5512:
5508:
5503:
5502:
5493:
5491:
5482:
5476:
5472:
5465:
5458:
5452:
5444:
5442:0-521-58120-6
5438:
5434:
5429:
5428:
5419:
5417:
5408:
5402:
5398:
5391:
5389:
5387:
5385:
5377:
5371:
5369:
5361:
5355:
5353:
5351:
5343:
5337:
5335:
5333:
5325:
5321:
5315:
5308:
5302:
5293:
5286:
5282:
5276:
5270:
5266:
5263:
5257:
5248:
5239:
5237:
5227:
5220:
5216:
5210:
5203:
5197:
5190:
5184:
5177:
5171:
5164:
5160:
5154:
5147:
5141:
5132:
5125:
5119:
5104:
5098:
5083:
5077:
5068:
5061:
5055:
5053:
5045:
5039:
5032:
5026:
5019:
5013:
5006:
5005:
4998:
4991:
4985:
4975:
4966:
4957:
4950:
4944:
4937:
4934:de la Torre,
4933:
4928:
4922:, pp. 359-61.
4921:
4915:
4908:
4902:
4893:
4884:
4877:
4871:
4864:
4858:
4856:
4854:
4852:
4844:
4838:
4831:
4825:
4819:Schwaller, 67
4816:
4807:
4800:
4794:
4787:
4781:
4779:
4771:
4765:
4756:
4749:
4743:
4736:
4730:
4723:
4717:
4708:
4701:
4695:
4688:
4682:
4680:
4672:
4666:
4659:
4655:
4650:
4643:
4637:
4630:
4624:
4622:
4614:
4608:
4601:
4595:
4586:
4579:
4574:
4567:
4561:
4554:
4548:
4541:
4535:
4528:
4522:
4520:
4503:
4499:
4493:
4477:
4473:
4467:
4451:
4447:
4441:
4425:
4421:
4415:
4408:
4402:
4388:
4384:
4378:
4371:
4366:
4359:
4353:
4346:
4340:
4324:
4320:
4316:
4310:
4295:
4291:
4285:
4276:
4269:
4263:
4254:
4247:
4241:
4234:
4228:
4226:
4218:
4212:
4205:
4199:
4192:
4186:
4184:
4176:
4170:
4166:
4157:
4154:
4152:
4149:
4147:
4144:
4143:
4139:
4129:
4127:
4122:
4117:
4115:
4105:
4104:
4101:
4087:
4083:
4080:
4076:
4073:
4069:
4066:
4062:
4059:
4055:
4052:
4048:
4045:
4041:
4038:
4034:
4031:
4027:
4024:
4020:
4017:
4013:
4010:
4006:
4003:
4000:Meyer, Jean.
3999:
3996:
3993:Meyer, Jean.
3992:
3989:
3985:
3982:
3978:
3975:
3971:
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3914:
3903:
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3881:
3877:
3874:
3871:Powell, T.G.
3870:
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3849:
3846:
3842:
3839:
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3815:Bazant, Jan.
3814:
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3674:
3671:
3670:Benjamin Keen
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3609:
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3599:
3596:
3593:
3592:Brading, D.A.
3590:
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3567:
3564:
3560:
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3546:
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3515:
3505:
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3498:
3494:
3490:
3489:Ciudad JuĂĄrez
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3201:
3198:
3188:
3179:
3177:
3173:
3169:
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3141:
3137:
3135:
3131:
3121:
3119:
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3110:
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3093:
3089:
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3079:
3073:
3070:
3060:
3051:
3049:
3045:
3041:
3037:
3033:
3029:
3025:
3021:
3012:
3008:
3006:
3002:
2998:
2993:
2991:
2990:modus vivendi
2987:
2982:
2978:
2974:
2970:
2966:
2962:
2961:modus vivendi
2954:
2950:
2946:
2944:
2940:
2936:
2932:
2928:
2924:
2919:
2917:
2912:
2911:modus vivendi
2902:
2899:
2894:
2890:
2883:
2880:Logo for the
2878:
2874:
2872:
2868:
2864:
2860:
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2827:
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2725:
2722:
2718:
2714:
2704:
2700:
2697:
2696:
2695:Rerum novarum
2691:
2681:
2679:
2676:, ACJM); the
2675:
2671:
2667:
2663:
2659:
2654:
2645:
2641:
2639:
2635:
2634:modus vivendi
2631:
2626:
2617:
2613:
2608:
2604:
2602:
2601:Graham Greene
2598:
2597:
2592:
2588:
2583:
2581:
2577:
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2557:
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2527:
2522:
2512:
2505:
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2493:
2488:
2479:
2477:
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2469:
2468:Maximum Chief
2465:
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2457:
2453:
2443:
2440:
2436:
2432:
2431:Plan of Ayala
2426:
2417:
2415:
2410:
2408:
2403:
2399:
2395:
2385:
2381:
2372:
2370:
2366:
2362:
2361:Plan of Ayala
2358:
2352:
2349:
2348:
2347:Rerum novarum
2341:
2338:
2328:
2326:
2321:
2319:
2314:
2313:modus vivendi
2310:
2302:
2298:
2294:
2284:
2274:
2272:
2268:
2262:
2260:
2256:
2250:
2248:
2244:
2238:
2231:
2227:
2223:
2219:
2215:
2214:Benito JuĂĄrez
2211:
2207:
2202:
2195:
2191:
2186:
2182:
2180:
2176:
2175:modus vivendi
2170:
2166:
2164:
2160:
2156:
2155:Benito JuĂĄrez
2152:
2148:
2147:
2137:
2132:
2125:
2124:Porfirio DĂaz
2121:
2116:
2112:
2110:
2106:
2105:Porfirio DĂaz
2100:
2099:Porfirio Diaz
2090:
2086:
2084:
2080:
2075:
2073:
2069:
2068:
2061:
2059:
2055:
2050:
2048:
2044:
2040:
2036:
2030:
2028:
2027:Porfirio Diaz
2023:
2022:Benito JuĂĄrez
2017:
2011:
2001:
1999:
1995:
1991:
1987:
1983:
1979:
1971:
1962:
1958:
1955:
1951:
1947:
1943:
1938:
1936:
1932:
1928:
1927:
1920:
1918:
1914:
1906:
1901:
1892:
1890:
1886:
1885:Porfirio DĂaz
1875:
1873:
1872:modus vivendi
1869:
1865:
1861:
1860:modus vivendi
1857:
1856:Porfirio DĂaz
1853:
1842:
1840:
1836:
1832:
1827:
1823:
1819:
1814:
1811:
1807:
1798:
1793:
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1780:
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1774:
1770:
1766:
1757:
1753:
1750:
1746:
1741:
1737:
1730:
1726:
1719:
1714:
1705:
1703:
1699:
1695:
1690:
1688:
1684:
1683:Hernån Cortés
1679:
1677:
1673:
1669:
1665:
1662:Pious works (
1656:
1647:
1645:
1636:
1632:
1627:
1617:
1615:
1614:
1607:
1605:
1600:
1598:
1594:
1588:
1586:
1576:
1574:
1568:
1565:
1561:
1556:
1554:
1549:
1547:
1546:Patronato Rea
1541:
1539:
1534:
1530:
1520:
1518:
1514:
1510:
1505:
1503:
1499:
1495:
1493:
1489:
1485:
1481:
1476:
1474:
1470:
1466:
1462:
1461:
1460:China Poblana
1455:
1453:
1449:
1442:
1437:
1433:
1431:
1422:
1413:
1411:
1407:
1403:
1393:
1391:
1387:
1383:
1379:
1375:
1371:
1366:
1362:
1360:
1356:
1351:
1349:
1345:
1341:
1337:
1329:
1325:
1320:
1305:
1303:
1299:
1294:
1283:
1274:
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1271:
1266:
1260:
1256:
1254:
1250:
1241:
1240:
1234:
1225:
1223:
1217:
1207:
1205:
1201:
1191:
1187:
1185:
1179:
1177:
1171:
1168:
1164:
1160:
1156:
1148:
1144:
1140:
1126:
1124:
1120:
1113:
1103:
1101:
1097:
1086:
1084:
1079:
1077:
1071:
1069:
1065:
1054:
1052:
1048:
1044:
1040:
1035:
1028:
1023:
1014:
1005:
1003:
999:
989:
986:
982:
978:
974:
966:
961:
957:
955:
954:
948:
937:
935:
924:
922:
918:
914:
906:
901:
892:
890:
886:
882:
878:
872:
870:
859:
857:
853:
849:
844:
842:
838:
834:
831:
827:
823:
819:
815:
814:GarcĂa Guerra
810:
808:
804:
800:
791:
782:
780:
776:
772:
768:
763:
761:
757:
753:
745:
741:
736:
722:
720:
716:
712:
708:
704:
699:
697:
693:
687:
685:
681:
677:
667:
663:
661:
655:
653:
649:
645:
641:
640:Hernån Cortés
630:
626:
624:
620:
616:
612:
606:
604:
598:
596:
592:
588:
579:
570:
568:
564:
558:
556:
551:
546:
543:
539:
535:
526:
517:
515:
512:(Spanish) or
511:
507:
503:
499:
494:
492:
488:
482:
480:
476:
472:
468:
464:
460:
456:
452:
448:
444:
440:
436:
427:
423:
421:
416:
412:
408:
404:
399:
393:
389:
384:
380:
376:
374:
368:
366:
362:
358:
354:
350:
341:
337:
328:
327:territories.
325:
324:
312:
310:
306:
302:
298:
294:
293:Hernån Cortés
290:
281:
276:
266:
263:
255:
244:
241:
237:
234:
230:
227:
223:
220:
216:
213: â
212:
208:
207:Find sources:
201:
197:
191:
190:
185:This section
183:
179:
174:
173:
164:
160:
156:
152:
142:
140:
136:
132:
128:
123:
121:
117:
113:
109:
105:
100:
98:
94:
90:
86:
85:Porfirio DĂaz
82:
78:
74:
70:
66:
62:
57:
52:
49:
44:
36:
31:
27:
19:
8833:Archdioceses
8802:Contemporary
8791:
8671:
8667:Pope Francis
8593:21st century
8542:Pope Paul VI
8519:
8507:
8460:20th century
8447:
8398:Pope Pius IX
8386:19th century
8362:Pope Pius VI
8229:
8101:Latin Empire
8071:Universities
8023:Pope Leo III
7890:Christianity
7875:state church
7867:Great Church
7668:Resurrection
7631:(30â325/476)
7628:Early Church
7613:Latin Church
7608:Papal States
7603:Vatican City
7439:. Retrieved
7434:
7425:
7416:
7406:
7397:
7387:
7378:
7368:
7359:
7351:
7346:
7334:. Retrieved
7329:
7320:
7308:. Retrieved
7306:(in Spanish)
7303:
7293:
7281:. Retrieved
7276:
7267:
7255:. Retrieved
7251:El Universal
7250:
7241:
7229:. Retrieved
7224:
7215:
7203:. Retrieved
7198:
7189:
7179:
7168:. Retrieved
7158:
7150:
7145:
7136:
7127:
7117:
7094:
7086:
7081:
7053:
7049:
7041:
7036:
7028:
7023:
7015:
7010:
7002:
6997:
6989:
6973:
6968:
6960:
6944:
6939:
6931:
6926:
6918:
6913:
6905:
6900:
6892:
6887:
6879:
6874:
6866:
6837:cite journal
6822:
6801:cite journal
6740:
6737:The Americas
6736:
6690:
6687:The Americas
6686:
6619:
6613:
6580:
6576:
6520:
6516:
6506:
6498:
6493:
6485:
6480:
6472:
6456:
6451:
6443:
6438:
6429:
6425:
6419:
6411:
6406:
6398:
6393:
6385:
6380:
6372:
6367:
6359:
6354:
6346:
6341:
6333:
6328:
6320:
6315:
6307:
6287:
6282:
6274:
6270:
6265:
6257:
6252:
6244:
6239:
6231:
6226:
6218:
6213:
6205:
6200:
6184:
6178:
6162:
6156:
6143:
6116:
6108:
6103:
6096:The Americas
6095:
6090:
6082:
6077:
6064:
6056:
6051:
6043:
6038:
6029:
6020:
6011:
6004:The Americas
6003:
5998:
5989:
5982:La Cristiada
5981:
5980:Jean Meyer,
5976:
5968:
5960:
5952:
5947:
5939:
5931:
5923:
5918:
5910:
5905:
5895:
5887:
5882:
5874:
5869:
5861:
5856:
5848:
5843:
5835:
5830:
5822:
5817:
5809:
5793:
5788:
5780:
5775:
5767:
5762:
5754:
5749:
5741:
5736:
5727:
5719:
5714:
5706:
5701:
5693:
5688:
5680:
5676:
5671:
5651:
5646:
5638:
5633:
5625:
5620:
5612:
5596:
5591:
5583:
5578:
5569:
5560:
5552:
5547:
5538:
5530:
5525:
5500:
5470:
5464:
5456:
5451:
5426:
5396:
5375:
5359:
5341:
5323:
5319:
5314:
5306:
5301:
5292:
5284:
5280:
5275:
5256:
5247:
5226:
5219:Olivier Zunz
5217:, edited by
5214:
5209:
5201:
5196:
5188:
5183:
5175:
5170:
5162:
5158:
5153:
5145:
5140:
5131:
5123:
5118:
5107:. Retrieved
5105:. vatican.va
5097:
5086:. Retrieved
5084:. vatican.va
5076:
5067:
5062:pp. 119-142.
5059:
5043:
5038:
5030:
5025:
5017:
5012:
5003:
4997:
4989:
4984:
4974:
4965:
4956:
4948:
4943:
4935:
4927:
4919:
4914:
4906:
4901:
4892:
4883:
4875:
4870:
4862:
4842:
4837:
4829:
4824:
4815:
4806:
4798:
4793:
4785:
4769:
4764:
4755:
4747:
4742:
4734:
4729:
4721:
4716:
4707:
4699:
4694:
4686:
4670:
4665:
4657:
4649:
4641:
4636:
4628:
4612:
4611:S.L. Cline,
4607:
4599:
4594:
4585:
4577:
4573:
4565:
4560:
4552:
4547:
4539:
4534:
4529:, pp. 294-95
4526:
4506:. Retrieved
4504:(in Spanish)
4501:
4492:
4480:. Retrieved
4478:(in Spanish)
4475:
4466:
4454:. Retrieved
4452:(in Spanish)
4449:
4440:
4428:. Retrieved
4423:
4414:
4406:
4401:
4391:, retrieved
4389:, 2020-08-09
4386:
4377:
4365:
4357:
4352:
4344:
4339:
4327:. Retrieved
4323:the original
4318:
4309:
4297:. Retrieved
4293:
4284:
4275:
4267:
4262:
4253:
4245:
4240:
4232:
4216:
4211:
4203:
4198:
4190:
4174:
4169:
4126:Christianity
4085:
4078:
4071:
4064:
4057:
4050:
4043:
4036:
4029:
4022:
4015:
4008:
4001:
3995:La Cristiada
3994:
3987:
3980:
3973:
3966:
3959:
3952:
3945:
3939:The Americas
3938:
3931:
3924:
3917:
3893:
3887:The Americas
3886:
3879:
3872:
3865:
3858:
3851:
3844:
3837:
3830:
3823:
3816:
3800:
3793:
3784:
3777:
3770:
3763:
3756:
3749:
3742:
3735:
3731:
3721:
3711:
3704:
3697:
3686:
3679:
3665:
3658:
3651:
3644:
3637:
3628:
3621:
3614:
3601:
3594:
3585:
3569:
3562:
3555:
3548:
3541:
3522:
3518:
3511:
3485:
3469:
3449:
3442:
3431:
3412:
3383:
3374:
3369:Pope Francis
3353:
3349:
3343:
3339:
3334:
3331:
3318:
3304:
3300:
3279:John Paul II
3268:
3263:quid pro quo
3262:
3252:
3250:
3231:
3202:
3193:
3155:John Paul II
3152:
3138:
3127:
3111:
3107:
3099:
3090:
3074:
3066:
3057:
3032:Ăscar Romero
3017:
2994:
2989:
2960:
2958:
2935:John Paul II
2933:. When Pope
2927:Pope Paul VI
2920:
2910:
2908:
2886:
2862:
2855:
2828:
2820:
2815:
2811:
2807:
2804:
2791:
2784:
2774:By the time
2773:
2753:
2731:
2712:
2710:
2701:
2693:
2689:
2687:
2673:
2665:
2661:
2655:
2651:
2642:
2637:
2633:
2629:
2621:
2594:
2584:
2580:Lucas AlamĂĄn
2569:
2566:
2562:
2558:
2554:
2550:anticlerical
2540:
2521:Cristero War
2509:
2500:Luis Morones
2449:
2427:
2423:
2405:
2391:
2382:
2378:
2359:drew up the
2353:
2345:
2342:
2334:
2322:
2312:
2306:
2296:
2263:
2259:quid pro quo
2258:
2251:
2243:anticlerical
2239:
2235:
2174:
2171:
2167:
2144:
2141:
2102:
2087:
2076:
2071:
2066:
2062:
2051:
2042:
2031:
2019:
1997:
1976:
1959:
1953:
1945:
1941:
1939:
1924:
1921:
1910:
1889:anticlerical
1881:
1871:
1859:
1848:
1838:
1835:Lucas AlamĂĄn
1830:
1815:
1805:
1802:
1781:
1762:
1742:
1738:
1734:
1693:
1691:
1686:
1680:
1663:
1661:
1640:
1611:
1608:
1603:
1601:
1596:
1592:
1589:
1582:
1572:
1569:
1557:
1552:
1545:
1542:
1526:
1517:John Paul II
1506:
1496:
1492:Benedict XVI
1477:
1458:
1456:
1451:
1446:
1439:Painting of
1427:
1399:
1367:
1363:
1354:
1352:
1333:
1301:
1297:
1292:
1289:
1280:
1268:
1261:
1257:
1252:
1245:
1237:
1219:
1197:
1188:
1180:
1172:
1154:
1152:
1115:
1092:
1082:
1080:
1075:
1072:
1067:
1060:
1038:
1031:
1011:
1001:
997:
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981:beneficiados
980:
976:
972:
970:
951:
946:
945:clergy. The
943:
930:
920:
912:
910:
887:(1568), the
879:(1541), the
873:
868:
865:
845:
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796:
764:
749:
718:
714:
710:
707:gobernadores
706:
702:
700:
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688:
683:
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659:
656:
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622:
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618:
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607:
602:
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594:
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548:In 1555 the
547:
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514:tlaxilacalli
513:
509:
495:
490:
486:
483:
432:
419:
400:
396:
377:
372:
369:
361:Augustinians
345:
321:
318:
309:Tenochtitlan
285:
280:Alexander VI
258:
249:
239:
232:
225:
218:
206:
194:Please help
189:verification
186:
138:
131:evangelicals
124:
120:soy creyente
119:
108:anticlerical
101:
53:
42:
40:
26:
8673:Laudato si'
8468:Pope Pius X
8297:Philip Neri
8272:Pope Pius V
8247:Thomas More
8116:Inquisition
8018:Charlemagne
7978:Monasticism
7788:Persecution
7680:Holy Spirit
7663:Crucifixion
7542:First seven
7441:January 31,
7336:January 31,
7310:January 31,
7304:Noticias Ya
7283:January 31,
7277:ContralĂnea
7257:January 31,
7231:January 31,
7205:January 31,
6446:pp. 40, 44.
5877:pp. 405-406
3983:20:2 (1985.
3519:Desde la Fe
3476:sociologist
3398:Vicente Fox
3393:Guadalajara
3335:GobernaciĂłn
3291:Mexico City
3285:, near the
3130:Samuel Ruiz
3078:Guadalajara
3024:Samuel Ruiz
3022:, Chiapas,
2812:GobernaciĂłn
1604:capellanĂas
1298:autos-de-fe
1249:crypto-Jews
1228:Crypto-Jews
998:capellanĂas
471:Diego DurĂĄn
467:encomendero
415:Inquisition
392:Felix Parra
353:Franciscans
9620:Categories
9532:Nochebuena
9379:Miguel Pro
8546:coronation
8252:Pope Leo X
7837:Tertullian
7767:Revelation
7742:Background
7170:2015-02-07
7031:pp. 71-72.
7027:Tangeman,
7014:Tangeman,
7001:Tangeman,
6988:Tangeman,
6972:Tangeman,
6878:Tangeman,
6639:1261767527
6332:Espinosa,
6194:0393310663
6172:1574884522
5109:2015-02-07
5088:2015-02-07
4746:Lockhart,
4737:, 218-229.
4698:Lockhart,
4393:2020-08-09
4162:References
3253:La Jornada
3088:, Mexico.
2984:movement,
2735:Miguel Pro
2638:Porfiriato
2301:Helen Hyde
2146:La Reforma
2097:See also:
2016:La Reforma
2014:See also:
2010:Reform War
1883:regime of
1702:work house
1698:poor house
1664:obras pĂas
1624:See also:
1597:capellanĂa
1560:peninsular
1513:Miguel Pro
1498:Juan Diego
1469:bilocation
1336:Juan Diego
1270:auto de fe
1167:Carmelites
1110:See also:
1049:, and the
883:1557, the
744:archbishop
619:testamento
595:Castellano
407:Don Carlos
357:Dominicans
351:orders of
222:newspapers
149:See also:
48:Civil Code
9547:Holy Week
9524:Christmas
9465:Devotions
9407:Religious
8562:Communism
8532:Ecumenism
7878:(380â451)
7870:(180â451)
7859:(313â476)
7781:(100â325)
7379:Aljazeera
6963:, p. 183.
6947:, p. 179.
6934:, p. 179.
6908:, p. 177.
6765:247418939
6757:0003-1615
6715:247637393
6707:0003-1615
6647:cite book
6597:0021-969X
6537:0094-582X
6475:, p. 168.
6459:, p. 167.
6432:: 99â100.
6401:, p. 159.
6362:, p. 158.
6260:, p. 410.
6208:, p. 408.
5926:, p. 421.
5825:, p. 384.
5812:, p. 297.
5770:, p. 382.
5615:, p. 227.
5326:, p. 341.
5309:, p. 341.
4750:, p. 227.
4542:, p. 148.
4387:Knowledge
3668:. Trans.
3497:MichoacĂĄn
3443:Cardinal
3384:In 1993,
3224:Governor
2986:Mexico 68
2589:governor
2269:that the
2054:Lerdo law
1954:Patronato
1785:defrocked
1585:haciendas
1573:mestizaje
1511:; Father
1454:) slave.
1410:Totolapan
1253:conversos
1239:quemadero
985:Ordenanza
977:oposiones
973:Ordenanza
762:(Spain).
756:cathedral
680:cofradĂas
633:Hospitals
487:doctrinas
349:mendicant
252:July 2019
61:education
9420:brothers
9304:Prelates
8941:Dioceses
8775:Timeline
8572:HIV/AIDS
8066:Crusades
7820:Irenaeus
7813:Ignatius
7808:Polycarp
7658:Ministry
7646:(30â100)
7520:Timeline
6976:, p. 67.
6605:23920855
6553:55921216
6375:, p. 29.
6269:Mecham,
6256:Mecham,
6243:Mecham,
6230:Mecham,
6204:Mecham,
5922:Krauze,
5886:Krauze,
5873:Krauze,
5864:, p. 27.
5821:Krauze,
5808:Krauze,
5753:Mecham,
5740:Mecham,
5718:Mecham,
5675:Mecham,
5611:Krauze,
5529:Mecham,
5265:Archived
4918:Lavrin,
4689:, p. 34.
4685:Howard,
4673:, p. 19.
4669:Howard,
4525:Ricard,
4508:July 20,
4482:July 20,
4456:July 20,
4430:July 20,
4329:July 20,
4299:July 20,
4094:See also
3875:. 1974.
3689:(2015).
3472:Guerrero
3386:Cardinal
3134:SERESURE
2786:Maximato
2713:Arreglos
2630:Arreglos
2543:caudillo
2218:Zaragoza
2083:baptisms
1745:Napoleon
1613:mortmain
1593:capellan
1380:and the
1370:Tlaxcala
1129:Convents
1083:colegios
1039:colegios
1002:capellĂĄn
715:cofradĂa
696:cofradĂa
692:cofradĂa
684:limpieza
591:Mexicana
373:doctrina
305:Malinche
301:Tlaxcala
9537:Navidad
9515:Culture
9438:Sisters
9416:Priests
8784:History
8537:Judaism
7937:Vulgate
7747:Gospels
7722:Stephen
7639:Origins
7559:Vulgate
7495:General
7485:of the
7483:History
7330:infobae
6959:Chand,
6943:Chand,
6921:p. 178.
6904:Chand,
6891:Chand,
6545:2634028
6471:Chand,
6455:Chand,
6426:The Way
6397:Chand,
6384:Chand,
6358:Chand,
6349:, p. 28
5890:p. 406.
5757:p. 382.
5744:p. 383.
5628:p. 459.
5624:Mecham
5507:163â164
5344:p. 342.
4992:, p. 7.
4372:, p. 13
4360:p. 124.
4114:History
4100:Portals
3854:. 1976.
3534:General
3501:Chiapas
3493:Morelia
3456:Tlalpan
3118:Marxism
3005:Paul VI
2614:" and "
2587:atheist
2571:Reforma
2535:Jalisco
2435:Nahuatl
2407:Reforma
1931:Reforma
1795:Father
1155:calidad
1068:colegio
760:Seville
587:Nahuatl
510:barrios
491:visitas
403:Texcoco
236:scholar
135:Mormons
79:, when
9564:Others
9490:Marian
9320:Saints
8503:Nazism
8325:to the
7932:Jerome
7842:Origen
7525:Papacy
7064:p. 227
7060:
7018:p. 71.
6992:p. 69.
6882:p. 64.
6763:
6755:
6713:
6705:
6637:
6627:
6603:
6595:
6551:
6543:
6535:
6501:p. 72.
6371:Camp,
6345:Camp,
6336:p. 77.
6192:
6170:
5860:Camp,
5823:Mexico
5810:Mexico
5533:p. 456
5513:
5477:
5439:
5403:
4138:Mexico
3900:
3732:Castas
3504:them.
3114:Maoism
3086:Oaxaca
3082:Oaxaca
2670:Jesuit
2531:Colima
2222:España
2072:ejidos
2067:ejidos
2043:fueros
2035:Puebla
1839:Cortes
1831:fueros
1806:cortes
1676:ZĂłcalo
1473:Jumano
1372:, the
1076:pulque
1008:Tithes
913:fueros
837:O.S.A.
771:ZĂłcalo
752:bishop
660:cédula
555:fiscal
536:, the
498:UNESCO
453:, and
359:, and
238:
231:
224:
217:
209:
161:, and
56:Reform
9570:(TBA)
9502:(TBA)
9481:(TBA)
9474:Jesus
9311:(TBA)
8605:Islam
7873:Roman
7832:Canon
7705:Peter
7653:Jesus
7122:1992.
6761:S2CID
6711:S2CID
6601:JSTOR
6549:S2CID
6541:JSTOR
4979:1383.
3514:INEGI
1672:Regla
1452:China
1408:. In
1355:tilma
921:fuero
703:cah's
623:ĂĄnima
615:teotl
386:Fray
278:Pope
243:JSTOR
229:books
9418:and
9395:St.
9389:St.
9383:St.
9377:St.
9371:St.
9365:St.
9359:St.
9353:St.
9347:St.
9341:St.
9334:St.
9327:St.
8655:2023
8650:2019
8645:2016
8640:2013
8635:2011
8630:2008
8625:2005
8620:2002
8615:2000
8582:1995
7752:Acts
7715:Paul
7710:John
7685:Mary
7443:2021
7338:2021
7312:2021
7285:2021
7259:2021
7233:2021
7207:2021
7058:ISBN
6850:help
6814:help
6753:ISSN
6703:ISSN
6657:link
6653:link
6635:OCLC
6625:ISBN
6593:ISSN
6533:ISSN
6190:ISBN
6168:ISBN
5900:1999
5511:ISBN
5475:ISBN
5437:ISBN
5401:ISBN
4510:2019
4484:2019
4458:2019
4432:2019
4331:2019
4301:2019
3898:ISBN
3116:and
3048:EZLN
2847:UNAM
2533:and
2504:CROM
2498:and
2226:1877
2190:Rome
1767:and
1543:The
1536:the
1100:Osma
971:The
963:Don
903:The
738:Don
611:Dios
473:and
215:news
33:The
7641:and
7591:Art
7417:VOX
7398:CNN
6789:doi
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6585:doi
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