History of U.S. foreign policy, 1897–1913

407:". Such ties, Taft hoped, would promote world peace. Dollar diplomacy was designed to avoid military power and instead use American banking power to create a tangible American interest in China that would limit the scope of the other powers, increase the opportunity for American trade and investment, and help maintain the Open Door of trading opportunities of all nations. Whereas Theodore Roosevelt wanted to conciliate Japan and help it neutralize Russia, Taft and Knox ignored Roosevelt's policy and his advice. Dollar diplomacy was based on the false assumption that American financial interests could mobilize their potential power, and wanted to do so in East Asia. However the American financial system was not geared to handle international finance, such as loans and large investments, and had to depend primarily on London. The British also wanted an open door in China, but were not prepared to support American financial maneuvers. Finally, the other powers held territorial interests, including naval bases and designated geographical areas which they dominated inside China, while the United States refused anything of the kind. Bankers were reluctant, but Taft and Knox kept pushing them to invest. Most efforts were failures, until finally the United States forced its way into the 2048:

Hui. Unlike the reactionary Boxers, these reformers were modernizers. The Manchu government had supported the Boxers, but these reformers—of whom Sun Yat-sen was representative, opposed the government. The boycott was put into effect by merchants and students in south and central China. It made only a small economic impact, because China bought few American products apart from Standard Oil's kerosene. Washington was outraged and treated the boycott as a Boxer-like violent attack, and demanded the Peking government stop it or else. President Theodore Roosevelt asked Congress for special funding for a naval expedition. Washington refused to consider softening the exclusion laws because it responded to deep-seated anti-Chinese prejudices that were widespread especially on the West Coast. It now began to denounce Chinese nationalism. The impact on the Chinese people, in China and abroad, was far-reaching. Jane Larson argues the boycott, "marked the beginning of mass politics and modern nationalism in China. Never before had shared nationalistic aspirations mobilized Chinese across the world in political action, joining the cause of Chinese migrants with the fate of the Chinese nation."

671:. The United States and Cuba enjoyed close trade relations, and the Cuban rebellion adversely affected the American economy which was already weakened by the depression. As rebellion engulfed the island, Spanish reprisals grew ever harsher, and Spanish authorities began removing Cuban families to guarded camps near Spanish military bases. The rebels put high priority on their appeals to the sympathy of ordinary Americans, and public opinion increasingly favored the rebels. President Cleveland had supported continued Spanish control of the island, as he feared that Cuban independence would lead to a racial war or intervention by another European power. McKinley also favored a peaceful approach, but he hoped to convince Spain to grant Cuba independence, or at least to allow the Cubans some measure of autonomy. The United States and Spain began negotiations on the subject in 1897, but it became clear that Spain would never concede Cuban independence, while the rebels and their American supporters would never settle for anything less. 996:), upgrading the infrastructure, introducing public health programs, and launching a program of economic and social modernization. The enthusiasm shown in 1898-99 for colonies cooled off, and Roosevelt saw the islands as "our heel of Achilles." He told Taft in 1907, "I should be glad to see the islands made independent, with perhaps some kind of international guarantee for the preservation of order, or with some warning on our part that if they did not keep order we would have to interfere again." By then the president and his foreign policy advisers turned away from Asian issues to concentrate on Latin America, and Roosevelt redirected Philippine policy to prepare the islands to become the first Western colony in Asia to achieve self-government. Though most Filipino leaders favored independence, some minority groups, especially the Chinese who controlled much of local business, wanted to stay under American rule indefinitely. 1688: 2057: 901:, the French Ambassador to the United States, to represent Spain in negotiating peace. The Spanish initially wished to restrict their territorial loss to Cuba, but were quickly forced to recognize that their other possessions would be claimed as spoils of war. McKinley's Cabinet unanimously agreed that Spain must leave Cuba and Puerto Rico, but they disagreed on the Philippines, with some wishing to annex the entire archipelago and some wishing only to retain a naval base in the area. Although public sentiment mostly favored annexation of the Philippines, prominent Democrats like Bryan and Grover Cleveland, along with some intellectuals and older Republicans, opposed annexation. These annexation opponents formed the 1634:, which Roosevelt explicitly denounced. But Roosevelt was mediating the war between Russia and Japan and could not publicly take sides. Therefore Secretary Hay took the initiative in Washington. Finally Roosevelt forwarded a petition to the Tsar, who rejected it claiming the Jews were at fault. Roosevelt won Jewish support in his 1904 landslide reelection. The pogroms continued, as hundreds of thousands of Jews fled Russia, most heading for London or New York. With American public opinion turning against Russia, Congress officially denounced its policies in 1906. Roosevelt kept a low profile as did his new Secretary of State Elihu Root. However in late 1906 Roosevelt did appoint the first Jew to the cabinet, 675:

economic recovery. The leading railroad magazine editorialized, "from a commercial and mercenary standpoint it seems peculiarly bitter that this war should come when the country had already suffered so much and so needed rest and peace." The strong anti-war consensus of the business community strengthened McKinley's resolve to use diplomacy and negotiation rather than brute force to end the Spanish tyranny in Cuba. On the other hand, humanitarian sensibilities reached fever pitch as church leaders and activists wrote hundreds of thousands of letters to political leaders, calling for intervention in Cuba. These political leaders in turn pressured McKinley to turn the ultimate decision for war over to Congress.

1055:, Secretary of War Root proposed to eliminate all tariff barriers with Puerto Rico. His proposal initiated a serious disagreement between the McKinley administration and Republican leaders in Congress, who were wary of lowering the tariffs on the newly acquired territories. Rather than relying on Democratic votes to pass a no-tariff bill, McKinley compromised with Republican leaders on a bill that cut tariffs on Puerto Rican goods to a fraction of the rates set by the Dingley Tariff. While considering the tariff bill, the Senate also began hearings on a bill to establish a civil government for Puerto Rico, which the Senate passed in a party-line vote. McKinley signed the 831:, for an invasion of Cuba. The army faced difficulties in supplying the rapidly expanding force even before they departed for Cuba, but by June, Corbin had made progress in resolving the problems. The U.S. Navy began a blockade of Cuba in April while the Army prepared to invade the island, on which Spain maintained a garrison of approximately 80,000. Disease was a major factor: for every American soldier killed in combat in 1898, seven died of disease. The U.S. Army Medical Corps made great strides in treating tropical diseases. There were lengthy delays in Florida—Colonel William Jennings Bryan spent the entire war there as his militia unit was never sent to combat. 835: 2012: 1080: 887: 419:" revolt against foreign investment that overthrew the Chinese government. The bonds caused no end of disappointment and trouble. As late as 1983, over 300 American investors tried, unsuccessfully, to force the government of China to redeem the worthless Hukuang bonds. When Woodrow Wilson became president in March 1913, he immediately canceled all support for Dollar diplomacy. Historians agree that Taft's Dollar diplomacy was a failure everywhere, In the Far East it alienated Japan and Russia, and created a deep suspicion among the other powers hostile to American motives. 1362: 2162:, presented in 1884 as a gift to the United States from the French people. From 1870 until 1918, France was the only major republic in Europe, which endeared it to the United States. Many French people held the United States in high esteem, as a land of opportunity and as a source of modern ideas. Few French people emigrated to the United States. Intellectuals, however, saw the United States as a land built on crass materialism, lacking in a significant culture, and boasting of its distrust of intellectuals. Very few self-styled French intellectuals were admirers. 1800: 729:

crisis, the United States would see “a duty imposed by our obligations to ourselves, to civilization and humanity to intervene with force." Louis Perez states, "Certainly the moralistic determinants of war in 1898 has been accorded preponderant explanatory weight in the historiography." By the 1950s, however, American political scientists began attacking the war as a mistake based on idealism, arguing that a better policy would be realism. They discredited the idealism by suggesting the people were deliberately misled by propaganda and sensationalist

2003:", in which all nations would freely trade with China and none would seek to violate that nation's territorial integrity.Hay circulated two notes promoting the Open Door to the European powers. Great Britain favored the idea, but Russia opposed it; France, Germany, Italy and Japan told Hay they agreed in principle, but only if all the other nations went along. Hay then announced that the principal had been adopted by consensus, and indeed every power promised to uphold the Open Door, and objected loudly when Russia or Japan tried to flout it. 304: 1301:. The blockade originated due to money owed by Venezuela to European creditors. Both powers assured the U.S. that they were not interested in conquering Venezuela, and Roosevelt sympathized with the European creditors, but he became suspicious that Germany would demand territorial indemnification from Venezuela. Roosevelt and Hay feared that even an allegedly temporary occupation could lead to a permanent German military presence in the Western Hemisphere. As the blockade began, Roosevelt mobilized the U.S. fleet under the command of Admiral 762:

a "policy" early in his administration that ultimately and logically led to war. If Spain could not quell the rebellion through "civilized" warfare, the United States would have to intervene. In early 1898, the Havana riots, the De Lome letter, the destruction of the Maine, and the Redfield Proctor speech convinced McKinley that the autonomy project had failed and that Spain could not defeat the rebels. He then demanded Cuban independence to end both the suffering on the island and the uncertainty in American political and economic affairs.

529:." President McKinley's position was that Hawaii could never survive on its own. It would quickly be gobbled up by Japan—already a fourth of the islands' population was Japanese. Japan would then dominate the Pacific and undermine American hopes for large-scale trade with Asia. The issue of annexation became a major political issue heatedly debated across the United States, which carried over into the 1900 presidential election. By then the national consensus was in favor of the annexation of both Hawaii and the Philippines. Historian 1154:, with 39,000 men in 1890, was the smallest and least powerful army of any major power in the late 19th century. By contrast, France's army consisted of 542,000 soldiers. The Spanish–American War had been fought mostly by temporary volunteers and state national guard units, and it demonstrated that more effective control over the department and bureaus was necessary. Roosevelt gave strong support to the reforms proposed by Secretary of War Elihu Root, who wanted a uniformed chief of staff as general manager and a European-style 1726:

mobilize that base. The businessmen believed that economic rivalries were cause of war, and that extensive trade led to an interdependent world that would make war a very expensive and useless anachronism. One early success came in the Newfoundland fisheries dispute between the United States and Britain in 1910. Taft's 1911 treaties with France and Britain were killed by Roosevelt, who had broken with his protégé in 1910. They were dueling for control of the Republican Party. Roosevelt worked with his close friend Senator

1440: 1428:. A presidential commission appointed by McKinley had recommended the construction of the canal across Nicaragua, but it noted that a canal across Panama could prove less expensive and might be completed more quickly. Roosevelt and most of his advisers favored the Panama Canal, as they believed that war with a European power, possibly Germany, could soon break out over the Monroe Doctrine and the U.S. fleet would remain divided between the two oceans until the canal was completed. After a long debate, Congress passed the 1022:

intention of ultimately granting Cuba independence. Many Republican leaders, including Roosevelt and possibly McKinley himself, hoped that benevolent American leadership of Cuba would eventually convince the Cubans to voluntarily request annexation after they gained full independence. Even if annexation was not achieved, McKinley wanted to help establish a stable government that could resist European interference and would remain friendly to U.S. interests. With input from the McKinley administration, Congress passed the

1785:. It turned on economic and fears and especially on Canadian nationalism. Fear of potential loss outweighed hoped for gains as the Conservatives made it a central issue, warning that it would be a "sell out" to the United States with economic annexation a grave threat. The Conservative slogan was "No truck or trade with the Yankees", as they appealed to Canadian nationalism and nostalgia for the British Empire to win a major victory. The treaty was dead and this unexpected loss for Taft further hurt his reputation. 592:, who whipped up popular excitement. Mahan and Roosevelt designed a global strategy calling for a competitive modern navy, Pacific bases, an isthmian canal through Nicaragua or Panama, and, above all, an assertive role for the United States as the largest industrial power. They warned that Japan was sending a warship and was poised to seize an independent Hawaii, and thereby be within range of California—a threat that alarmed the West Coast. The Navy prepared the first plans regarding a war with Japan. 1933:. Likewise Japan was the alternative to American takeover of the Philippines in 1900. These events were part of the American goal of transitioning into a naval world power, but it needed to find a way to avoid a military confrontation in the Pacific with Japan. One of Theodore Roosevelt's high priorities during his presidency and even afterwards, was the maintenance of friendly relations with Japan. Two of the most influential Japanese statesmen that Roosevelt allied with to promote goodwill were 2039:. The rescue went well, but several Congressional Democrats objected to McKinley dispatching troops without consulting Congress. McKinley's actions set a precedent that led to most of his successors exerting similar independent control over the military. After the rebellion ended, the United States reaffirmed its commitment to the Open Door policy, which became the basis of American policy toward China. It used the cash reparations paid by China to bring Chinese students to Americans schools. 921:, and Spain relinquished its claims to Cuba; in exchange, the United States agreed to pay Spain $ 20 million. McKinley had difficulty convincing the Senate to approve the treaty by the requisite two-thirds vote, but his lobbying, and that of Vice President Hobart, eventually saw success, as the Senate voted to ratify the treaty on February 6, 1899 on a 57 to 27 vote. Though a significant bloc of senators opposed the treaty, they were unable to unite behind an alternative to ratification. 486: 1216: 6753: 1012:; streamlining of the Insular Government; accurate, intelligible accounting; the construction of a telegraph and cable communications network; the establishment of a postal savings bank; large-scale road-and bridge-building; impartial and incorrupt policing; well-financed civil engineering; the conservation of old Spanish architecture; large public parks; a bidding process for the right to build railways; Corporation law; and a coastal and geological survey. 816:, the power to set up legal systems and raise taxes—necessities for a long occupation. By the time the troops arrived in the Philippines at the end of June 1898, McKinley had decided that Spain would be required to surrender the archipelago to the United States. He professed to be open to all views on the subject; however, he believed that as the war progressed, the public would come to demand retention of the islands as a prize of war, and he feared that 2155:, provided much medical, humanitarian, and diplomatic support to Parisians, gaining much credit to the Americans. In subsequent years the balance of power in the relationship shifted as the United States, with its very rapid growth in wealth, industry and population, came to overshadow the old powers. Trade was at a low level, France minimized the activity of American banks and insurance companies, tariffs were high, and mutual investments were uncommon. 1309: 1568:, and the United States, Japan, and Britain all sought the end of its military presence in the region. Russia agreed to withdrawal its forces in 1902, but it reneged on this promise and sought to expand its influence in Manchuria to the detriment of the other powers. Roosevelt was unwilling to consider using the military to intervene in the far-flung region, but Japan prepared for war against Russia in order to remove it from Manchuria. When the 1393:, agreed that the United States could control a future canal, provided that it was open to all shipping and not fortified. McKinley was satisfied with the terms, but the Senate rejected them, demanding that the United States be allowed to fortify the canal. Hay was embarrassed by the rebuff and offered his resignation, but McKinley refused it and ordered him to continue negotiations to achieve the Senate's demands. He was successful, and 930: 6743: 1769: 2075:, Taft was keenly interested in Asian-Pacific affairs. Because of the potential for trade and investment, Taft ranked the post of minister to China as most important in the Foreign Service. Knox did not agree, and declined a suggestion that he go to China to view the facts on the ground. American exports to China had declined sharply from $ 58 million in 1905 to only $ 16 million in 1910. Taft replaced Roosevelt's minister 1679:, Roosevelt secretly supported France, and he cooperated closely with the French ambassador. An agreement among the powers, reached on April 7, 1906, slightly reduced French influence by reaffirming the independence of the Sultan of Morocco and the economic independence and freedom of operations of all European powers within the country. Germany gained nothing of importance but was mollified and stopped threatening war. 1748: 513:. President Harrison tried to annex Hawaii, but his term ended before he could win Senate approval of an annexation treaty, and Cleveland withdrew the treaty. Cleveland deeply opposed annexation because of a personal conviction that would not tolerate what he viewed as an immoral action against the little kingdom. Additionally, annexation faced opposition from domestic sugar interests opposed to the importation of 19: 1983:, in which Congress forbade all immigration from Japan. Despite the agreement, tensions with Japan would continue to simmer due to the mistreatment of Japanese immigrants by local governments. Roosevelt never feared war with the Japanese during his tenure, but the friction with Japan encouraged further naval build-up and an increased focus on the security of the American position in the Pacific. 1630:. Stuart E. Knee reports that in April, 1903, Roosevelt received 363 addresses, 107 letters and 24 petitions signed by thousands of Christians leading public and church leaders—they all called on the Tsar to stop the persecution of Jews. Public rallies were held in scores of cities, topped off at Carnegie Hall in New York in May. The Tsar retreated a bit and fired one local official after the 1370: 356: 641: 245:. Day, an Ohio lawyer unfamiliar with diplomacy, was often reticent in meetings; Adee was somewhat deaf. One diplomat characterized the arrangement, "the head of the department knew nothing, the first assistant said nothing, and the second assistant heard nothing". McKinley asked Sherman to resign in 1898, and Day became the new secretary of state. Later that year, Day was succeeded by 1893:, and also represented the first time an American president visited Mexico. Diaz hoped to use the meeting as a propaganda tool to show that his government had the U.S.'s unconditional support. For his part, Taft was mainly interested in protecting American corporate investments in Mexico. The symbolically important meetings helped pave the way for the start of construction on the 1827:, who wanted to revoke commercial concessions granted to American companies. Secretary Knox was reportedly a major stockholder in one of the companies that would be hurt by such a move. The country was in debt to several foreign powers, and the U.S. was unwilling to have it (along with its alternate canal route) fall into the hands of Europeans. Zelaya and his elected successor, 952:, and relations between the United States and the Aguinaldo's supporters deteriorated after the conclusion of the Spanish–American War. McKinley believed that Aguinaldo represented just a small minority of the Filipino populace, and that benevolent American rule would lead to a peaceful occupation. In February 1899, Filipino and American forces clashed at the 1281:, the lone delegate from Britain itself. Alverstone joined with the three American delegates in accepting most American claims, and the tribunal announced its decision in October 1903. The outcome of the tribunal strengthened relations between the United States and Britain, though many Canadians were outraged by the British betrayal of the Canadian interest. 2132: 477:

women. Local churches frequently sponsored talks and fundraising campaigns for the missions, which greatly increased American knowledge of the world abroad, with China a topic of special interest to American women. The African-American community, led by Roosevelt's friend Booker T. Washington, had its own missionary program, especially in Africa.

2095:. Taft for years sought American participation in this project but first Britain then China blocked his efforts. Finally the western powers in 1911 forced China to approve the project. Widespread opposition across China, especially in the Chinese army, to the western imperialism represented by the Hukuang Loan was a major spark that incited the 866:" into combat. Roosevelt's battlefield exploits would later propel him to the governorship of New York in the fall election of 1898. After the American victory at San Juan Hill, the Spanish Caribbean squadron, which had been sheltering in Santiago's harbor, broke for the open sea. The Spanish fleet was intercepted and destroyed by Rear Admiral 1076:, meaning that the United States Constitution would not fully apply to Puerto Rico. Though the U.S. imposed tariffs on most Puerto Rican imports, it also invested in the island's infrastructure and education system. Nationalist sentiment remained strong on the island and Puerto Ricans continued to primarily speak Spanish rather than English. 1718:

members of the Senate during the negotiating process. By then many Republicans were opposed to Taft, and the president felt that lobbying too hard for the treaties might cause their defeat. He made some speeches supporting the treaties in October, but the Senate added amendments Taft could not accept, killing the agreements.

1495:. Panama sold the Canal Zone (consisting of the Panama Canal and an area generally extending five miles (8.0 km) on each side of the centerline) to the United States for $ 10 million and a steadily increasing yearly sum. In February 1904, Roosevelt won Senate ratification of the treaty in a 66-to-14 vote. The 451:

diesel engines. Tourism became important, as cost fell and new agencies made packaged tours a convenient vacation item. The number of Americans going to Europe jumped from 100,000 in 1885 to 250,000 by 1913, including tourist, business travelers, and immigrants going back and forth and bringing their families over.

1666:, and a crisis had begun after Germany protested this move. By asking Roosevelt to convene an international conference on Morocco, Kaiser Wilhelm II sought to test the new Anglo-British alliance, check French expansion, and potentially draw the United States into an alliance against France and Britain. Senator 2119:. Taft was reluctant to recognize the new government, although American public opinion was in favor of it. The U.S. House of Representatives in February 1912 passed a resolution supporting a Chinese republic, but Taft and Knox felt recognition should come as a concerted action by Western powers. In his final 149:, which held that the United States would intervene in the finances of unstable Caribbean and Central American countries in order to forestall direct European intervention. Partly as a result of the Roosevelt Corollary, the United States would engage in a series of interventions in Latin America known as the 1385:, at the southern tip of South America. With American business, humanitarian and military interests even more involved in Asia following the Spanish–American War, a canal seemed more essential than ever, and McKinley pressed for a renegotiation of the treaty. The British, who were distracted by the ongoing 1572:

broke out in February 1904, Roosevelt sympathized with the Japanese but sought to act as a mediator in the conflict. He hoped to uphold the Open Door policy in China and prevent either country from emerging as the dominant power in East Asia. Throughout 1904, both Japan and Russia expected to win the

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were signed by the Roosevelt administration in early 1909, and were approved by the Senate and also ratified by Panama. Colombia, however, declined to ratify the treaties, and after the 1912 elections, Knox offered $ 10 million to the Colombians (later raised to $ 25 million). The Colombians felt the

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McKinley proposed to open negotiations with Spain on the basis of Cuban liberation and Puerto Rican annexation, with the final status of the Philippines subject to further discussion. He stood firmly in that demand even as the military situation on Cuba began to deteriorate when the American army was

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from 25,000 to 61,000 personnel; including volunteers, a total of 278,000 men served in the Army during the war. McKinley not only wanted to win the war, he also sought to bring North and South together again, as white Southerners enthusiastically supported the war effort, and one senior command went

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McKinley was assassinated in September 1901 and was succeeded by Vice President Theodore Roosevelt. Roosevelt came into office without any particular domestic policy goals, broadly adhering to most Republican positions on economic issues. He had strong views on foreign policy, as he wanted the United

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that would continue for another ten years. In the Arizona Territory, two citizens were killed and almost a dozen injured, some as a result of gunfire across the border. Taft would not be goaded into fighting and so instructed the territorial governor not to respond to provocations. In March 1911, he

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as an alternative to warfare. Taft was a constitutional lawyer who later became Chief Justice; he had a deep understanding of the legal issues. Taft's political base was the conservative business community which largely supported peace movements before 1914—his mistake in this case was a failure to

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negotiated major treaties with Great Britain and with France providing that differences be arbitrated. Disputes had to be submitted to the Hague Court or other tribunal. These were signed in August 1911 but had to be ratified by a two thirds vote of the Senate . Neither Taft nor Knox consulted with

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in January 1903, granting the U.S. a lease across the isthmus of Panama. The Colombian Senate refused to ratify the treaty, and attached amendments calling for more money from the U.S. and greater Colombian control over the canal zone. Panamanian rebel leaders, long eager to break off from Colombia,

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Though it had largely been an afterthought in the Spanish–American War, Puerto Rico became an important strategic asset for the U.S. due to its position in the Caribbean Sea. The island provided an ideal naval base for defense of the Panama Canal, and it also served as an economic and political link

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due to the latter's alleged electoral fraud. Both Estrada Palma and his liberal opponents called for an intervention by the U.S., but Roosevelt was reluctant to intervene. When Estrada Palma and his Cabinet resigned, Secretary of War Taft declared that the U.S. would intervene under the terms of the

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Cuba was devastated from the war and from the long insurrection against Spanish rule, and McKinley refused to recognize the Cuban rebels as the official government of the island. Nonetheless, McKinley felt bound by the Teller Amendment, and he established a military government on the island with the

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McKinley was a decent, sensitive man with considerable personal courage and great political facility. A master manager of men, he tightly controlled policy decisions within his administration....Fully cognizant of the United States' economic, strategic, and humanitarian interests, he had laid out

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available for promoting American exports, forcing policymakers to seek exclusive bilateral agreements or unilateral concessions from trading partners instead of multilateral arrangements. It inhibited political cooperation with other major powers and implied an aggressive posture toward these states.

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as Secretary of State. Taft trusted Knox, who took full charge of diplomacy. However, Knox had poor relations with the Senate, the media and foreign diplomats. Knox restructured the State Department, especially in setting up divisions for geographical areas, including the Far East, Latin America and

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Secretary of State John Hay had charge of China policy until 1904, when war broke out between Russia and Japan and Roosevelt himself took over. Both of them started with grand ambitions about new American involvements in the region, but each, within a year or so, pulled back realizing that American

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Vituperative anti-Japanese sentiment among Americans on the West Coast, soured relations during the latter half of Roosevelt's term. In 1906, the San Francisco Board of Education caused a diplomatic incident by ordering the segregation of all schoolchildren in the city. The Roosevelt administration

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to impose those amendments that ruined the goals of the treaties. Lodge thought the treaties impinge too much on senatorial prerogatives. Roosevelt, however, was acting to sabotage Taft's campaign promises. At a deeper level, Roosevelt truly believed that arbitration was a naïve solution and that

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Taft was opposed to the traditional practice of rewarding wealthy supporters with key ambassadorial posts, preferring that diplomats not live in a lavish lifestyle and selecting men who, as Taft put it, would recognize an American when they saw one. High on his list for dismissal was the ambassador

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to the Monroe Doctrine. It stated that the U.S. would intervene in the finances of unstable Caribbean and Central American countries if they defaulted on their debts to European creditors and, in effect, guarantee their debts, making it unnecessary for European powers to intervene to collect unpaid

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Roosevelt’s legacy is judicious support of the national interest and promotion of world stability through the maintenance of a balance of power; creation or strengthening of international agencies, and resort to their use when practicable; and implicit resolve to use military force, if feasible, to

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attacked imperialism, although he had been a leader in demanding war in 1898. After McKinley's assassination in 1901, Roosevelt promised to continue his policies and increase American influence in world affairs. Reflecting this view, Roosevelt stated in 1905, "We have become a great nation, forced

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The telegraph and the telephone gave McKinley a greater control over the day-to-day management of the war than previous presidents had enjoyed. He set up the first war room and used the new technologies to direct the army's and navy's movements. McKinley did not get along with the Army's commanding

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The overwhelming consensus of observers in the 1890s, and historians ever since, is that an upsurge of humanitarian concern with the plight of the Cubans was the main motivating force that caused the war with Spain in 1898. McKinley put it succinctly in late 1897 that if Spain failed to resolve its

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American Protestant and Catholic denominations sponsored large-scale missionary activities, most of which were inside the United States but an increasing number were abroad. Although there were relatively few conversions, the missions promoted education, modern medicine, and upgrading the status of

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Most Democrats wanted a lower tariff, but failed to make much difference. The Republican Party stressed the goal of rapid economic growth, as well as high wage rates for industrial workers. Indeed the high American wage rates attracted large numbers of skilled European workers, who filled the upper

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In response to severe restrictions on Chinese immigration to the United States, the overseas Chinese living in the United States organized a boycott whereby people in China refuse to purchase American products. The project was organized by a reform organization based in the United States, Baohuang

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The situation in Mexico deteriorated throughout 1910, and there were a number of incidents in which Mexican rebels crossed the U.S. border to obtain horses and weapons. After Díaz jailed opposition candidate Madero prior to the 1910 presidential election, Madero's supporters responded by taking up

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what only war could bring—an end to the Cuban rebellion, which outraged his humanitarian impulses, prolonged instability in the economy, destroyed American investments and trade with Cuba, created a dangerous picture of an America unable to master the affairs of the Caribbean, threatened to arouse

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American knowledge of the world grew exponentially, as businessmen shuttled back and forth. The leading banking house of J.P. Morgan had a dual base in New York City and London. Standard Oil had business operations in many countries, as the chief supplier of kerosene for lamps and fuel for the new

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treaty that would lower tariffs and remove many trade barriers. Canadian manufacturing interests were alarmed that free trade would allow the bigger and more efficient American factories to take their Canadian markets. Conservatives in Canada opposed an accord, fearing more Americanization would

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faced significant resistance from Democrats and anti-expansionist Republicans like Speaker of the House Reed, but pressure from McKinley helped the bill win passage by wide margins in both houses of Congress. McKinley signed the Newlands Resolution into law on July 8, 1898. McKinley biographer H.

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as a backward nation and did not object to Japan's attempt to gain control over Korea. With the withdrawal of the American legation from Seoul and the refusal of the Secretary of State to receive a Korean protest mission, the Americans signaled they would not intervene militarily to stop Japan's

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in November 1903, the U.S. recognized Panama as an independent nation and began negotiations regarding construction of the canal. According to Roosevelt biographer Edmund Morris, most other Latin American nations welcomed the prospect of the new canal in hopes of increased economic activity, but

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and Alaska raced to make for gold claims. Access to the main Canadian gold fields required a transit of Alaska. Canada wanted an all-Canadian route. They rejected McKinley's offer to lease them a port and demanded full ownership according to their maps. A treaty on the border between Alaska and

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Protectionism had several important consequences for American foreign policy on both economic and security issues. It led to a focus on less developed areas of the world that would not export manufactured goods to the United States instead of on wealthier European markets. It limited the tactics

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Although no general arbitration treaty was entered into, Taft's administration settled several disputes with Great Britain by peaceful means, often involving arbitration. These included a settlement of the boundary between Maine and New Brunswick, a long-running dispute over seal hunting in the

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A major turning point in establishing America's role in European affairs was the Moroccan crisis of 1905–1906. France and Britain had agreed that France would dominate Morocco, but Germany suddenly protested aggressively, with the disregard for quiet diplomacy characteristic of Kaiser Wilhelm.

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had been immediately hailed as an outstanding naval theorist by the leaders of Europe. Roosevelt paid very close attention to Mahan's emphasis that only a nation with a powerful fleet could dominate the world's oceans, exert its diplomacy to the fullest, and defend its own borders. By 1904, the

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For much of the 20th century historians and textbooks disparaged McKinley as a weak leader—echoing Roosevelt, who called him spineless. They blamed McKinley for losing control of foreign policy and agreeing to an unnecessary war. A wave of new scholarship in the 1970s, from both right and left,

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As the domestic economy expanded with many new factories, mines, and large corporations, American trade with the world grew very rapidly. The main trading partners were Britain and Germany, which were growing as well, and Canada. Apart from Britain, most countries had high tariffs at this time,

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Business interests overwhelmingly gave strong support to McKinley's go-slow policies. Big business, high finance, and Main Street businesses across the country were vocally opposed to war and demanded peace, as the uncertainties of a potentially long, expensive war posed serious threat to full

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McKinley submitted an annexation treaty in June 1897, but anti-imperialists prevented it from winning the support of two-thirds of the Senate. In mid-1898, during the Spanish–American War, McKinley and his congressional allies made another attempt to win congressional approval of an annexation

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A war to free Cuba from Spanish despotism, corruption, and cruelty, from the filth and disease and barbarity of General 'Butcher' Weyler's reconcentration camps, from the devastation of haciendas, the extermination of families, and the outraging of women; that would be a blow for humanity and

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Taft continued Roosevelt's policies regarding immigration from China and Japan. A revised treaty of friendship and navigation entered into by the U.S. and Japan in 1911 granted broad reciprocal rights to Japanese in America and Americans in Japan, but were premised on the continuation of the

1272:

briefly threatened interrupted negotiations over the border, but conciliatory actions by London ended the crisis and reduced the risk of hostilities regarding Alaska. In January 1903, the U.S. and Britain reached the Hay–Herbert Treaty, which would empower a six-member tribunal, composed of

1609:

Numerous repeated large-scale murderous pogroms in Russia in the late 19th and early 20th century increasingly angered American opinion. The well-established German Jews in the United States, although they were not directly affected by the Russian pogroms, were well organized and convinced

716:. As pressure for war mounted in Congress, McKinley continued to negotiate for Cuban independence. Spain refused McKinley's proposals, and on April 11, McKinley turned the matter over to Congress. He did not ask for war, but Congress declared war anyway on April 20, with the addition of the 1815:

towards Latin America, believing U.S. investment would benefit all involved and minimize European influence in the area. Although exports rose sharply during Taft's administration, his Dollar Diplomacy policy was unpopular among Latin American states that did not wish to become financial

733:. Political scientist Robert Osgood, writing in 1953, led the attack on the American decision process as a confused mix of "self-righteousness and genuine moral fervor," in the form of a "crusade" and a combination of "knight-errantry and national self- assertiveness." Osgood argued: 1552:, where the crisis was resolved. Roosevelt advised Europeans in the future the United States would probably avoid any involvement in Europe, even as a mediator, so European foreign ministers stopped including the United States as a potential factor in the European balance of power. 520:

Upon taking office, McKinley pursued the annexation of the Republic of Hawaii as one of his top foreign policy priorities. In American hands, Hawaii would serve as a base to dominate much of the Pacific, defend the Pacific Coast, and expand trade with Asia. Republican Congressman

878:, which met little resistance when it landed in July. The distance from Spain and the destruction of the Spanish navy made resupply impossible, and the Spanish government—its honor intact after losing to a much more powerful army and navy—began to look for a way to end the war. 999:

The Philippines was a major target for the progressive reformers. A report to Secretary of War Taft provided a summary of what the American civil administration had achieved. It included, in addition to the rapid building of a public school system based on English teaching:

1305:. Roosevelt threatened to destroy the German fleet unless the Germans agreed to arbitration regarding the Venezuelan debt, and Germany chose arbitration rather than war. Through American arbitration, Venezuela reached a settlement with Germany and Britain in February 1903. 340:

of the Philippines. The president confided in Taft and took his advice on many foreign policy issues. After Hay's death in 1905, Roosevelt convinced Root to return to the Cabinet as secretary of state, and Root remained in office until the final days of Roosevelt's tenure.

1059:

into law on April 12, 1900. Under the terms of the bill, all revenue collected from the tariff on Puerto Rican goods would be used for Puerto Rico, and the tariff would cease to function once the government of Puerto Rico established its own taxation system. In the 1901

1342:

to restructure the economy, and ensured a steady flow of revenue to the Dominican Republic's foreign creditors. The intervention stabilized the political and economic situation in the Dominican Republic, and the U.S. role on the island would serve as a model for Taft's

1755:

Anti-Americanism reached a shrill peak in 1911 in Canada. Taft hoped to regain momentum with a reciprocity treaty with Canada that represented a step toward free trade of the sort that had prevailed 1854–1866. The Liberal government in Ottawa under Prime Minister

720:, which disavowed any intention of annexing Cuba. European powers called on Spain to negotiate and give in; Britain supported the American position. Spain ignored the calls and fought the hopeless war alone in order to defend its honor and keep the monarchy alive. 109:

exploded and sank in Havana harbor while on a peace mission. McKinley demanded Spain soften its Cuban controls and Madrid refused. McKinley turned the issue over to Congress, which promptly declared war in April 1898. The United States quickly defeated Spain in the

1198:" around the globe in 1908–1909 to make sure all the naval powers understood the United States was now a major player. Though Roosevelt's fleet did not match the overall strength of the British fleet, it became the dominant naval force in the Western Hemisphere. 1670:

protested U.S. involvement in European affairs, but Secretary of State Root and administration allies like Senator Lodge helped defeat Bacon's resolution condemning U.S. participation in the Algeciras Conference. The conference was held in the city of

752:

uncontrollable outburst of jingoism, and diverted the attention of U.S. policymakers from historic happenings in China. Neither spineless nor bellicose, McKinley demanded what seemed to him morally unavoidable and essential to American interests.

1776:

American farm and fisheries interests, and paper mills, objected because they would lose tariff protection. Nonetheless, Taft reached an agreement with Canadian officials in early 1911, and Congress approved it in late July, 1911. However, the

1700:, whom Taft knew and disliked from his visits to Europe. White's ousting caused other career State Department employees to fear that their jobs might be lost to politics. Taft also wanted to replace the Roosevelt-appointed ambassador in London, 1174:

as well as the general staff. Root also changed the procedures for promotions, organized schools for the special branches of the service, devised the principle of rotating officers from staff to line, and increased the Army's connections to the

1765:

result as Canada reoriented away from Britain, which was losing economic status, and be pulled toward the huge economy to the South. Quebec Catholics were warned the Church would be disestablished if Canada became part of the United States.

1232:. Roosevelt sought a continuation of close relations with Britain in order to ensure peaceful, shared hegemony over the Western hemisphere. With the British acceptance of the Monroe Doctrine and American acceptance of the British control of 756:

Nick Kapur says that McKinley's actions were based on his values of arbitrationism, pacifism, humanitarianism, and manly self-restraint, and not on external pressures. Along similar lines Joseph Fry summarizes the new scholarly appraisals:

1731:

great issues had to be decided by warfare. The Rooseveltian approach had a near-mystical faith in the ennobling nature of war. It endorsed jingoistic nationalism as opposed to the businessmen's calculation of profit and national interest.

1675:, Spain, and 13 nations attended. The key issue was control of the police forces in the Moroccan cities, and Germany, with a weak diplomatic delegation, found itself in a decided minority. Hoping to avoid an expansion of German power in 1381:, which the two nations had signed in 1850, prohibited either from establishing exclusive control over a canal there. The Spanish–American War had exposed the difficulty of maintaining a two-ocean navy without a connection closer than 1333:

became the first test case for the Roosevelt Corollary. Deeply in debt, the nation struggled to repay its European creditors. Fearing another intervention by Germany and Britain, Roosevelt reached an agreement with Dominican President

1033:

of the United States. Roosevelt won congressional approval for a reciprocity agreement with Cuba in December 1902, thereby lowering tariffs on trade between the two countries. In 1906, an insurrection erupted against Cuban President

976:

to establish a civilian government, and McKinley later appointed Taft as the civilian governor of the Philippines. The Filipino insurgency subsided with the capture of Aguinaldo in March 1901, and largely ended with the capture of

1227:

began with American support for Britain in the Boer War and British support of the United States during the Spanish–American War. It continued as Britain withdrew its fleet from the Caribbean in favor of focusing on the rising

1971:

did not want to anger Japan by passing legislation to bar Japanese immigration to the U.S., as had previously been done for Chinese immigration. Instead the two countries, led by Secretary Root and Japanese Foreign Minister

181:

under President McKinley and Secretary of State John Hay guided U.S. policy towards China, as they sought to keep open trade equal trade opportunities in China for all countries. Roosevelt mediated the peace that ended the

1979:. Japan agreed to stop the emigration of unskilled Japanese laborers to the U.S. and Hawaii. The segregation order of the San Francisco School Board was cancelled. The agreement remained in effect until the passage of the 1320:

Though Roosevelt would not tolerate European territorial ambitions in Latin America, he also believed that Latin American countries should pay the debts they owed to European credits. In late 1904, Roosevelt announced his

102:

against Spain broke out in 1895, and many Americans were angry with Spain's cruelty and demanded Washington work to stop it. The business community and top GOP leaders held back. The issue took highest priority when the

387:

in the Americas. The defense of the Panama Canal, which was still under construction throughout Taft's term (it opened in 1914), guided policy in the Caribbean and Central America. However they differed on the Far East.

1962:. The discussion clarified exactly what position each nation took. Japan stated that it had no interest in the Philippines, while the U.S. stated that it considered Korea to be part of the Japanese sphere of influence. 1326:

debts. Roosevelt's pronouncement was especially meant as a warning to Germany, and had the result of promoting peace in the region, as the Germans decided to not intervene directly in Venezuela and in other countries.

1107:

by the face of its greatness into relations with the other nations of the earth, and we must behave as beseems a people with such responsibilities." Roosevelt believed that the United States had a duty to uphold a

169:

was completed in 1914, greatly reducing transport time between the Atlantic and the Pacific oceans. Roosevelt's well publicized actions were widely applauded. President Taft acted quietly, and pursued a policy of

1459:, as a corrupt and irresponsible autocrat, and he believed that the Colombians had acted in bad faith by reaching and then rejecting the treaty. After an insurrection broke out in Panama, Roosevelt dispatched the 402:

Previous administrations had made efforts to promote American business interests overseas, but Taft went a step further and used the web of American diplomats and consuls abroad to further trade. it was called

1835:. The U.S. had Nicaragua accept a loan, and sent officials to ensure it was repaid from government revenues. The country remained unstable, and after another coup in 1911 and more disturbances in 1912, Taft 1523:, who saw construction through to its completion. Roosevelt traveled to Panama in November 1906 to inspect progress on the canal, becoming the first sitting president to travel outside of the United States. 874:, the largest naval battle of the war. Shafter laid siege to the city of Santiago, which surrendered on July 17, placing Cuba under effective American control. McKinley and Miles also ordered an invasion of 141:

President Roosevelt was determined to continue the expansion of U.S. influence, and he placed an emphasis on modernizing the small Army and greatly expanding the large Navy. Roosevelt presided over a

1772:

A 1911 Conservative campaign poster warns that the big American companies ("trusts") will hog all the benefits of reciprocity as proposed by Liberals, leaving little left over for Canadian interests.

1338:

to take temporary control of the Dominican economy, much as the U.S. had done on a permanent basis in Puerto Rico. The U.S. took control of the Dominican customs house, brought in economists such as

525:

stated that "the Hawaiian Islands will be the key that will unlock to us the commerce of the Orient." McKinley stated, "we need Hawaii just as much and a good deal more than we did California. It is

6446:

Miller III, John W. "President McKinley and American Imperialism: A Study on United States Foreign and Domestic Policy in the Philippines 1898-1900" (by Defense Technical Information Center, 1998)

5906: 747:

reversed the older interpretation. Robert L. Beisner summed up the new views of McKinley as a strong leader. He said McKinley called for war—not because he was bellicose, but because he wanted:

2123:

in December 1912, Taft indicated that he was moving towards recognition once the republic was fully established, but by then he had been defeated for re-election and he did not follow through.

1987:

Gentlemen's Agreement of 1907. There was objection on the West Coast when the treaty was submitted to the Senate, but Taft informed politicians that there was no change in immigration policy.

533:

says that in the mid-1890s, "unmistakably, the sentiment at home was maturing with immense force for the United States to join the great powers of the world in a quest for overseas colonies."

960:. The fighting in the Philippines engendered increasingly vocal criticism from the domestic anti-imperialist movement, as did the continued deployment of volunteer regiments. Under General 2447: 126:. Because of Democratic opposition in the Senate McKinley could not get a 2/3 majority to ratify a treaty to annex Hawaii, so he accomplished the same result by a majority vote on the 1182:

Upon taking office, Roosevelt made naval expansion a priority, and his tenure saw an increase in the number of ships, officers, and enlisted men in the Navy. With the publication of

1064:, the Supreme Court upheld the McKinley administration's policies in the territories acquired in the Spanish–American War, including the establishment of Puerto Rico's government. 1068:

to the rest of Latin America. Prevailing racist attitudes made Puerto Rican statehood unlikely, so the U.S. carved out a new political status for the island. The Foraker Act and

1436:. Following the passage of the Spooner Act, the Roosevelt administration began negotiations with the Colombian government regarding the construction of a canal through Panama. 913:. Spain ultimately agreed to a ceasefire on those terms on August 12, and treaty negotiations began in Paris in September 1898. The talks continued until December 18, when the 383:

There was broad agreement between Taft and Knox on major foreign policy goals; the U.S. would not interfere in European affairs, and would use force if necessary to uphold the

6777: 332:, had been a Roosevelt confidante for years, and he continued to serve as President Roosevelt's close ally. Root returned to the private sector in 1904 and was replaced by 6589: 6148: 2179: 423: 6658: 6144:

Auxier, George W. "The Cuban question as reflected in the editorial columns of Middle Western newspapers (1895–1898)” (PhD dissertation, Ohio State University, 1938)

6668: 2165:

As the Americans grew mightily in economic power, and forged closer ties with Britain, the French increasingly talked about an Anglo-Saxon threat to their culture.

1999:

Even before peace negotiations began with Spain, Hay had the president ask Congress to set up a commission to examine trade opportunities in Asia and espoused an "

1277:, Roosevelt won the Senate's consent to the Hay–Herbert Treaty in February 1903. The tribunal consisted of three American delegates, two Canadian delegates, and 6634: 5676: 1093: 992:, but elsewhere the insurgents came to accept American rule. Roosevelt continued the McKinley policies of removing the Catholic friars (with compensation to the 294: 6703: 6678: 1816:

protectorates of the United States. Dollar Diplomacy also faced opposition in the U.S. Senate, as many senators believed the U.S. should not interfere abroad.

455:

including the United States. The American high tariff policy was based on protecting growing American industry, and protecting high American wages. Indeed the

1463:

to prevent the Colombian government from landing soldiers in Panama, and Colombia was unable to re-establish control over the province. Shortly after Panama

380:

Western Europe. The department's first in-service training program was established, and appointees spent a month in Washington before going to their posts.

6673: 6663: 5090: 6416: 1996:

public opinion did not want deeper involvement in Asia. So their efforts to find a naval port, or to build railroads, or increased trade, came to naught.

320:

in international relations. Anxious to ensure a smooth transition, Roosevelt convinced the members of McKinley's cabinet, most notably Secretary of State

6713: 6646: 3288: 742:

propaganda and the lurid distortions and imaginative lies pervade by the “yellow sheets” of Hearst and Pulitzer at the combined rate of 2 million a day.

580:. However, the anti-imperialists could not stop the even more energetic forces of imperialism. They were led by Secretary of State Hay, naval strategist 459:

that hundreds of thousands of skilled workers emigrated from Britain and Germany to become foreman, skilled workers, and craftsmen in the United States.

5957: 1026:, which stipulated conditions for U.S. withdrawal from the island; the conditions allowed for a strong American role despite the promise of withdrawal. 6698: 6683: 905:. McKinley ultimately decided he had no choice but to annex the Philippines, because he believed Japan would take control of them if the U.S. did not. 609:

Wayne Morgan notes, "McKinley was the guiding spirit behind the annexation of Hawaii, showing ... a firmness in pursuing it". Congress passed the

6199:

Collin, Richard H. "Symbiosis versus Hegemony: New Directions in the Foreign Relations Historiography of Theodore Roosevelt and William Howard Taft."

6723: 6718: 6708: 6693: 2603: 1098:

Victory in the war made the United States a power in both the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. McKinley ran on his foreign policy achievement and scored

6688: 1687: 1906:

sent 20,000 American troops up to the Mexican border to protect American citizens and financial investments in Mexico. He told his military aide,

1710:, had backed Taft during the campaign, and both William and Nellie Taft enjoyed his gossipy reports. Reid remained in place until his 1912 death. 1377:

Under McKinley, Secretary of State Hay engaged in negotiations with Britain over the possible construction of a canal across Central America. The

6582: 1073: 789:

to a former Confederate General. His ideal was a unity with Northerner and Southerner, white and black, fighting together for the United States.

700:

exploded and sank with 266 men killed. Public opinion was disgusted with Spain for losing control of the situation, but McKinley insisted that a

237:. Sherman's mental incapacity became increasingly apparent after he took office. He was often bypassed by his first assistant, McKinley's friend 6280:

Fry, Joseph A. "William McKinley and the coming of the Spanish–American War: A study of the besmirching and redemption of an historical image."

3275:

Joseph A. Fry, "William McKinley and the coming of the Spanish–American War: A study of the besmirching and redemption of an historical image."

497:

Hawaii had long been targeted by expansionists as a potential addition to the United States, and a reciprocity treaty in the 1870s had made the

6728: 6166:

Burns, Adam David. "Imperial vision: William Howard Taft and the Philippines, 1900-1921.". (PhD dissertation, University of Edinburgh, 2010)

3321:

Joseph A. Fry, "William McKinley and the Coming of the Spanish–American War: A Study of the Besmirching and Redemption of an Historical Image"

584:, Senator Henry Cabot Lodge, Secretary of War Root, and Theodore Roosevelt. These expansionists had vigorous support from newspaper publishers 6641: 6624: 6619: 6614: 6609: 5452: 5344:

Yoneyuki Sugita, "The Rise of an American Principle in China: A Reinterpretation of the First Open Door Notes toward China." in Sugita, ed.,

1929:

The American annexation of Hawaii in 1898 was stimulated in part by fear that otherwise Japan would acquire the Hawaiian Republic as part of

708:

was accidental. Negotiations with Spain continued as the court of inquiry considered the evidence, but on March 20, the court ruled that the

65: 53: 2072: 1163: 809: 190:

limiting Japanese immigration. Roosevelt and Taft sought to mediate and arbitrate other disputes, and in 1906 Roosevelt helped resolve the

3794:

Stephen Wertheim, "Reluctant Liberator: Theodore Roosevelt's Philosophy of Self-Government and Preparation for Philippine Independence,"

1499:, supervised by Secretary of War Taft, was established to govern the zone and oversee the construction of the canal. Roosevelt appointed 838:"Well, I hardly know which to take first!" exclaims Uncle Sam in this May 18, 1898, editorial cartoon celebrating the spoils of victory. 6792: 6575: 1108: 943: 4154:

Stephen G. Rabe, "Theodore Roosevelt, the Panama Canal, and the Roosevelt Corollary: Sphere of Influence Diplomacy," in Ricard, ed.,

3596:

Ephraim K. Smith, "'A Question from Which We Could Not Escape': William McKinley and the Decision to Acquire the Philippine Islands."

1248:, in which the British consented to U.S. construction of the canal. Roosevelt won Senate ratification of the treaty in December 1901. 6787: 4255:

John A. Munro, "English-Canadianism and the Demand for Canadian Autonomy: Ontario's Response to the Alaska Boundary Decision, 1903."

564:". The anti-imperialist league argued that such activity would necessitate the abandonment of American ideals of self-government and 2083:. Knox did not listen to Calhoun on policy, and there were often conflicts. Taft and Knox tried unsuccessfully to extend John Hay's 6167: 1278: 1131:. Given this fear, Roosevelt pursued closer relations with Britain, a rival of Germany, and responded skeptically to German Kaiser 1099: 368: 226: 2907: 367:

Roosevelt did not seek re-election in 1908, but instead gave vigorous support to his secretary of war William Howard Taft. In the

6782: 6746: 6598: 1390: 1194:

United States had the fifth largest navy in the world, and by 1907, it had the third largest. Roosevelt sent what he dubbed the "

1184: 569: 6528:

Smith, Ephraim K. "William McKinley's Enduring Legacy: The Historiographical Debate on the Taking of the Philippine Islands" in

776:. Bypassing Miles and Secretary of War Alger, the president looked for strategic advice first from Miles's predecessor, General 667:

had waged an intermittent campaign for freedom from Spanish colonial rule for decades. By 1895, the conflict had expanded to a

202:

broke out in 1910, and the handling of unrest at the border would test the Taft administration before escalating under Wilson.

6145: 2643:

Michael O. West, "The Tuskegee model of development in Africa: another dimension of the African/African-American connection."

1127:

as the biggest potential threat to the United States, and he feared that the Germans would attempt to establish a base in the

438:. However, Taft did express support for the creation of an international arbitration tribunal and called for an international 6756: 5967: 5916: 5813: 5753: 5662: 2174: 1836: 4816: 4130: 2087:

to Manchuria. In 1909, a British-led consortium began negotiations to finance the "Hukuang Loan" to finance a railroad from

2795: 2020: 1869:, who was backed by a sizeable proportion of the population, and was also confronted with serious social unrest sparked by 250: 2068: 2035:

were besieged and, in cooperation with seven other powers, McKinley ordered 5,000 troops to the city in June 1900 in the

337: 37: 1043:. U.S. forces restored peace to the island, and the occupation ceased shortly before the end of Roosevelt's presidency. 6134:

Auxier, George W. "The propaganda activities of the Cuban Junta in precipitating the Spanish–American War, 1895–1898."

6002: 5843: 5772: 5730: 3025:

George W. Auxier, "The propaganda activities of the Cuban Junta in precipitating the Spanish–American War, 1895–1898."

1535: 1464: 1298: 1269: 6437: 83:, the permanent annexation of Hawaii, the temporary annexation of the Philippines, the annexation of Puerto Rico, the 6107: 5939: 5707: 4521: 3119: 2986: 2841: 2698: 2486: 2112: 1949:

Roosevelt saw Japan as the rising power in Asia, in terms of military strength and economic modernization. He viewed

1919: 1261: 738:

democracy.... No one could doubt it if he believed – and skepticism was not popular – the exaggerations of the Cuban

506: 350: 49: 6359: 273:, a former general who had also served as governor. Competent enough in peacetime, Alger proved inadequate once the 6651: 4887:

Baker, W. M. (1970). "A Case Study of Anti-Americanism in English-Speaking Canada: The Election Campaign of 1911".

1976: 902: 858:. In an intense day-long battle, the American force was victorious, although both sides suffered heavy casualties. 537: 298: 187: 45: 1593:. The Treaty of Portsmouth resulted in the removal of Russian troops from Manchuria, and it gave Japan control of 1539:

amount inadequate, and the matter was not settled under the Taft administration. The canal was completed in 1914.

621:, who had served as the president of the Republic of Hawaii from 1894 to 1898, as the first territorial governor. 2056: 1878: 1853:

No foreign affairs controversy tested Taft's statesmanship and commitment to peace more than the collapse of the

1761: 278: 258: 6371:

Holbo, Paul S. "Presidential leadership in foreign affairs: William McKinley and the Turpie-Foraker Amendment."

5788: 5102: 1751:

Toronto cartoonist Newton McConnell shows Canadian suspicions that Americans were only interested in prosperity.

1721:

The arbitration issue opens a window on a bitter dispute among progressives. Many progressives looked to legal

1713:

Taft was the leader in settling international disputes by arbitration. In 1911 Taft and his Secretary of State,

257:, an old colleague of McKinley's . Although McKinley was initially inclined to allow Long to choose his own the 6413: 5371:

The Boxer Rebellion: The Dramatic story of China's war on foreigners that shook the world in the summer of 1900

4549: 2148: 1782: 1171: 1167: 266: 216: 41: 3769:

Federico V. Magdalena, "Moro-American Relations in the Philippines." Philippine Studies 44.3 (1996): 427-438.

5973: 6462:

Offner, John. "United States Politics and the 1898 War over Cuba." in Angel Smith and Emma Davilla-Cox eds.

1823:, American diplomats quietly favored rebel forces under Juan J. Estrada against the government of President 1268:. Washington argued that the treaty had given Alaska sovereignty over disputed coastline. Meanwhile, the 161:, Roosevelt supported the secession of Panama and subsequently signed a treaty with Panama establishing the 5476:

Sin-Kiong Wong, "Die for the boycott and nation: Martyrdom and the 1905 anti-American movement in China."

1480: 1229: 1176: 785: 57: 6398:

Kapur, Nick. "William McKinley's Values and the Origins of the Spanish‐American War: A Reinterpretation."

3264:

Ideals and self-interest in America's foreign relations: The great transformation of the twentieth century

2598:

Benjamin O. Fordham, "Protectionist empire: trade, tariffs, and United States foreign policy, 1890–1914."

536:

The drive for expansion was opposed by a vigorous nationwide anti-expansionist movement, organized as the

509:

by the business community, which requested annexation by the United States and eventually established the

5567: 3304:

Nick Kapur, "William McKinley's Values and the Origins of the Spanish‐American War: A Reinterpretation."

1356: 957: 514: 416: 123: 6245:

Belligerents, Brinkmanship, and the Big Stick: A Historical Encyclopedia of American Diplomatic Concepts

6159:

Burns, Adam D. "Adapting to Empire: William H. Taft, Theodore Roosevelt, and the Philippines, 1900–08."

4724:

Stuart E. Knee, "The Diplomacy of Neutrality: Theodore Roosevelt and the Russian Pogroms of 1903-1906,"

4141:

Carl Cavanagh Hodge, "The Global Strategist: The Navy as the Nation's Big Stick," in Serge Ricard, ed.,

1548:

Berlin asked Roosevelt to serve as an intermediary, and he helped arrange a multinational conference at

2076: 1959: 1691:

President Taft in 1911 broke ground for the Panama Pacific International Exposition--it opened in 1915.

1520: 1456: 1135:'s efforts to curry favor with the United States. Roosevelt also attempted to expand U.S. influence in 1132: 1052: 871: 645: 6322: 6302: 2833:

Grover Cleveland: The American Presidents Series: The 22nd and 24th President, 1885–1889 and 1893–1897

6211:

Theodore Roosevelt's Caribbean: The Panama Canal, the Monroe Doctrine, and the Latin American Context

5682:

Bloodworth, Jeffrey (2009). "For Love or for Money?: William Mckinley and the Spanish–American War".

1635: 1611: 1582: 1496: 1424:

since 1898, and a previous attempt to build a canal across Panama had failed under the leadership of

1394: 1378: 1245: 1040: 834: 668: 99: 6551:

Missionaries, Chinese and Diplomats: The American Protestant Missionary Movement in China, 1890-1952

174:", emphasizing the use of U.S. financial power in Asia and Latin America. Taft had little success. 6514:

Russell, Greg. "Theodore Roosevelt's diplomacy and the quest for great power equilibrium in Asia."

1930: 1626:, they organize protest meetings, issued publicity, and met with President Roosevelt and Secretary 1335: 630: 274: 111: 80: 4660:

Greg Russell, "Theodore Roosevelt's Diplomacy and the Quest for Great Power Equilibrium in Asia,"

2923: 1831:, were unable to put down the rebellion, and in August 1910, Estrada's forces took the capital of 1451: 808:, destroying Spanish naval power in the Pacific. The next month, McKinley increased the number of 122:. In the aftermath of the war, Cuba became a de facto U.S. protectorate and the U.S. put down the 6312: 6224: 3807:

Ellen H. Palanca, "Chinese business families in the Philippines since the 1890s." in R.S. Brown,

2036: 1980: 1667: 1516: 1500: 1237: 1079: 953: 855: 804:

to launch an attack on the Philippines. On May 1, Dewey's force defeated the Spanish navy at the

781: 679: 585: 561: 142: 1861:. When Taft entered office, Mexico was increasingly restless under the longtime dictatorship of 917:

was signed. The United States acquired Puerto Rico and the Philippines as well as the island of

6186:

edited by Gerald K. Haines and Samuel J. Walker, 91-114. (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1981).

6073: 6040:

Osborne, Thomas J. (August 1981). "Trade or War? America's Annexation of Hawaii Reconsidered".

5988: 5147:

William Michael Morgan, "The anti-Japanese origins of the Hawaiian Annexation treaty of 1897."

3408:

David P. Barrows, "The Governor-General of the Philippines Under Spain and the United States."

1697: 1581:

in January 1905. In mid-1905, Roosevelt persuaded the parties to meet in a peace conference in

1476: 1120: 1103: 914: 891: 851: 701: 372: 222: 3424:

Paolo E. Coletta, "McKinley, the Peace Negotiations, and the Acquisition of the Philippines."

3109: 2976: 2831: 1035: 5251:

Raymond Leslie Buell, "The Development of the Anti-Japanese Agitation in the United States,"

4513: 2476: 2202: 2190: 1655: 1647: 1439: 1421: 1373:

Roosevelt at the controls of a steam shovel excavating Culebra Cut for the Panama Canal, 1906

843: 549: 517:, and from some Democrats who opposed acquiring an island with a large non-white population. 191: 5778: 4185: 2690: 1824: 1578: 827:

Meanwhile, in the Caribbean theater, a large force of regulars and volunteers gathered near

6408:

McCartney, Paul T. "Religion, the Spanish-American War, and the idea of American mission."

4109:

Peter Karsten, "The Nature of 'Influence': Roosevelt, Mahan and the Concept of Sea Power."

3905:

Ralph Eldin Minger, "William H. Taft and the United States intervention in Cuba in 1906."

2031:

of 1,900 menaced foreigners and their property in China. Americans and other westerners in

1778: 1651: 1586: 1574: 1549: 1504: 1460: 1425: 1313: 886: 805: 610: 195: 135: 6567: 6366:

Power and the People: Executive Management of Public Opinion in Foreign Affairs, 1897–1921

2627:

James M. McCutcheon, “The Missionary and Diplomat in China: The Social Culture Response.”

281:

plagued by scandal, Alger resigned at McKinley's request in mid-1899 and was succeeded by

8: 6356:

Theodore Roosevelt's Naval Diplomacy: The U.S. Navy and the Birth of the American Century

6319:

By more than providence: Grand strategy and American power in the Asia Pacific since 1783

5950:

William Howard Taft and United States Foreign Policy: The Apprenticeship Years, 1900-1908

5447:

Jane Leung Larson, "The 1905 anti-American boycott as a transnational Chinese movement."

5179:

By More Than Providence: Grand Strategy and American Power in the Asia Pacific Since 1783

5094: 2328:

William Howard Taft and United States Foreign Policy: The Apprenticeship Years, 1900-1908

2144: 2060: 1890: 1866: 1739:

that also involved Japan, and a similar disagreement regarding fishing off Newfoundland.

1623: 1585:, starting on August 5. His persistent and effective mediation led to the signing of the 1322: 1224: 1190: 973: 961: 652:(the U.S. government) is blind to the crisis and will not use its powerful guns to help. 614: 605: 597: 581: 565: 333: 146: 127: 84: 3224: 1361: 1251:

The boundary between Alaska and Canada had become an issue in the late 1890s due to the

1150:

Roosevelt placed an emphasis on expanding and reforming the United States military. The

796:

if war broke out between the United States and Spain. On April 24, McKinley ordered the

6554: 6491: 6481: 6275: 6265: 6085: 6057: 6028: 5890: 5873:

Lafeber, Walter (1986). "The 'Lion in the Path': The U.S. Emergence as a World Power".

5798: 5742: 5719: 5651: 5562: 4939: 4904: 2812: 2560: 2152: 2131: 2120: 2080: 1902: 1894: 1858: 1848: 1569: 1512: 1330: 1273:

American, British, and Canadian delegates, to set the border. With the help of Senator

1252: 1151: 1083:

McKinley won reelection in 1900 by stressing his foreign policy and economic successes.

867: 577: 552:, and many older reformers from the Civil War era. The anti-imperialists believed that 510: 490: 308: 262: 199: 183: 76: 2614:

Joseph L. Grabill, "The Invisible Missionary: A Study in American Foreign Relations."

1799: 1455:

appealed to the United States for military aid. Roosevelt saw the leader of Columbia,

1400:

Roosevelt sought the creation of a canal through Central America which would link the

862:

and Theodore Roosevelt, who had resigned as assistant secretary of the Navy, led the "

303: 6509: 6386: 6285: 6255: 6114: 6103: 6024: 5998: 5963: 5935: 5928: 5912: 5861: 5839: 5809: 5768: 5749: 5726: 5703: 5658: 4908: 4711:

Alan J. Ward, "Immigrant minority 'diplomacy': American Jews and Russia, 1901–1912."

4685:

Taylor Stults, "Roosevelt, Russian Persecution of Jews, and American Public Opinion"

4517: 3964:

Thomas A. Bailey, "Was the Presidential Election of 1900 a Mandate on Imperialism?."

3580:

Fred H. Harrington, "The Anti-Imperialist Movement in the United States, 1898–1900,"

3115: 2982: 2856:

Fred H. Harrington, "The Anti-Imperialist Movement in the United States, 1898–1900."

2837: 2694: 2683: 2482: 2159: 2136: 1727: 1714: 1590: 1492: 1484: 1413: 1274: 1195: 965: 730: 431: 376: 375:. Root wanted to return to his law practice and Taft agreed to his recommendation of 162: 158: 92: 6182:

Coletta, Paolo E. “The Diplomacy of Theodore Roosevelt and William Howard Taft.” In

4506: 6457: 6403: 6331:(1966) pp 239–66 on "The breakdown of neutrality: McKinley goes to war with Spain." 6069: 6049: 6020: 5902: 5882: 5833: 4931: 4922:

Clements, Kendrick A. (1973). "Manifest Destiny and Canadian Reciprocity in 1911".

4896: 2872:

Fred Harvey Harrington, "Literary Aspects of American Anti-Imperialism 1898–1902,"

2804: 2790: 2184: 2084: 2027:

American missionaries were threatened and trade with China became imperiled as the

2011: 2000: 1934: 1910:, that "I am going to sit on the lid and it will take a great deal to pry me off". 1812: 1794: 1706: 1659: 1619: 1469: 1344: 1155: 949: 847: 797: 717: 690: 653: 601: 526: 505:

announced plans to issue a new constitution designed to restore her power, she was

498: 464: 435: 412: 404: 397: 270: 178: 171: 105: 1901:

arms against the government. This unrest resulted in both the ousting of Díaz and

1886: 1862: 1804: 678:

In January 1898, Spain promised some concessions to the rebels, but when American

502: 328:, to remain in office. Another holdover from McKinley's cabinet, Secretary of War 6471:

Choosing War: Presidential Decisions in the Maine, Lusitania, and Panay Incidents

6420: 6152: 5695: 5259:

and Buell, "The Development of Anti-Japanese Agitation in the United States II,"

4958: 2920:

Pacific Gibraltar: U.S.-Japanese Rivalry Over the Annexation of Hawaii, 1885–1898

2587:

Working-Class Life: The "American Standard" in Comparative Perspective, 1899–1913

2096: 2028: 1938: 1870: 1757: 1722: 1631: 1565: 1386: 1339: 1265: 1241: 1159: 1140: 1116: 1023: 969: 773: 618: 589: 573: 541: 384: 254: 24: 6339: 6329:

Politics, Strategy, and American Diplomacy: Studies in Foreign Policy, 1873–1917

5992: 5195:. Horizon Productions. pp. 24, 37, 55–56, 64n11, 198–202, 237, 358, 384n11. 2158:

All during this period, the relationship remained friendly—as symbolized by the

1955: 1589:

on September 5, ending the war. For his efforts, Roosevelt was awarded the 1906

5853: 5235:

Ralph Eldin Minger, "Taft's Missions to Japan: A Study in Personal Diplomacy."

1972: 1907: 1882: 1508: 1401: 1144: 1005: 989: 828: 813: 777: 522: 238: 6544:

Great Power Rising: Theodore Roosevelt and the Politics of U.S. Foreign Policy

6505: 6478:

Expansionists of 1898 : the acquisition of Hawaii and the Spanish islands

6441: 6309:

An Uncertain Tradition: American Secretaries of State in the Twentieth Century

6177: 3567:

John Offner, "The United States and France: Ending the Spanish–American War."

3107: 1828: 1491:—and insured the construction of an Atlantic to Pacific ship canal across the 233:

as secretary of state in order to open a Senate seat for his campaign manager

229:. McKinley's most unfortunate cabinet appointment was that of elderly Senator 6771: 6447: 4841:

E. James Hindman, "The General Arbitration Treaties of William Howard Taft."

4180:

William H. Harbaugh, "Roosevelt, Theodore (27 October 1858–06 January 1919)"

2196: 1701: 1515:, who built a railroad in the canal zone and initiated the construction of a 1405: 1236:, only two potential major issues remained between the U.S. and Britain: the 1128: 1124: 1069: 1061: 978: 557: 456: 427: 325: 242: 131: 4242:

Thomas A. Bailey, "Theodore Roosevelt and the Alaska Boundary Settlement,"

2773:

Thomas J. Osborne, "The Main Reason for Hawaiian Annexation in July, 1898,"

2529:

Christopher Endy, "Travel and world power: Americans in Europe, 1890-1917,"

933:

The United States and its colonial possessions when Roosevelt entered office

6383:

Theodore Roosevelt and world order: Police power in international relations

5346:

Trans-Pacific relations: America, Europe, and Asia in the twentieth century

4857:

John P. Campbell, "Taft, Roosevelt, and the Arbitration Treaties of 1911,"

2793:(1937). "Was the Presidential Election of 1900 a Mandate on Imperialism?". 2446:

Mary Thornton, "U.S. Backs China's Move to Reopen 1911 Railroad Bond Case"

2116: 2107:

After the Chinese Revolution broke out in 1911, the revolt's leaders chose

1874: 1676: 1615: 1433: 1397:

was drafted and approved, but not before McKinley's assassination in 1901.

1302: 1030: 910: 898: 863: 859: 801: 682: 439: 230: 166: 88: 5865: 5160:

James K. Eyre Jr, "Japan and the American Annexation of the Philippines."

4900: 4828:

Robert J. Fischer, "Henry Cabot Lodge and the Taft Arbitration Treaties."

2902:

Warren Zimmermann, "Jingoes, Goo-Goos, and the Rise of America's Empire."

1215: 485: 5098: 3242:

The War of 1898: The United States and Cuba in History and Historiography

2108: 1954:

planned takeover of Korea. In mid-1905, Taft and Japanese Prime Minister

1877:

in the north. In October 1909, Taft and Díaz exchanged visits across the

1511:

of the canal project. When Wallace resigned in 1905, Roosevelt appointed

1488: 1472:

in the U.S. raged against Roosevelt's aid to the Panamanian separatists.

1429: 1112: 1056: 1009: 985: 964:, U.S. forces destroyed the rebel Filipino army, but Aguinaldo turned to 875: 793: 553: 530: 317: 150: 119: 115: 72: 61: 6204: 6032: 4846: 4811:

John E. Noyes, "William Howard Taft and the Taft Arbitration Treaties."

3770: 3309: 2778: 1365:

Roosevelt regarded the Panama Canal as one of his greatest achievements.

445: 6376: 6214: 6194: 6139: 6061: 6011:

Offner, John L. (March 2004). "McKinley and the Spanish–American War".

5894: 5423:

International students in American colleges and universities: A history

5264: 5256: 5240: 5223: 5165: 4943: 4862: 4114: 4070:

An Army for Empire: The United States Army and the Spanish–American War

3969: 3910: 3585: 3413: 3083: 3030: 2861: 2816: 2632: 1736: 854:

on June 24, Shafter's army engaged the Spanish forces on July 2 in the

713: 648:(the American people) reaches out to help oppressed Cuba in 1897 while 545: 411:

international railway loan. The loan was finally made by the so-called

329: 282: 234: 75:

that was active even outside of its traditional area of concern in the

6349: 4737:

Ann E. Healy, "Tsarist Anti-Semitism and Russian-American Relations."

4508:

The Path Between the Seas: The Creation of the Panama Canal, 1870–1914

4127:

The Ambiguous Relationship: Theodore Roosevelt and Alfred Thayer Mahan

4083:

From Root to McNamara: Army Organization and Administration, 1900-1963

2877: 1308: 6537:

All the Great Prizes: The Life of John Hay, from Lincoln to Roosevelt

5908:

The Path Between the Seas: The Creation of the Panama Canal 1870–1914

5748:. American Presidency. Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas. 1820: 1672: 1561: 1446:

agrees with Roosevelt in rejecting Colombia's demands for more money.

1412:, which was eager to reach an agreement, but Roosevelt preferred the 1409: 1382: 1294: 1136: 649: 6393:

Crucible of Power: A History of American Foreign Relations from 1897

6231:

America's Ascent: The United States becomes a great power, 1880-1914

6053: 5886: 5806:

The Secret War in El Paso: Mexican Revolutionary Intrigue, 1906–1920

5091:"The Taft-Diaz meeting: the first U.S. Presidential visit to Mexico" 4935: 2808: 2474: 2151:, the small American population, led by the U.S. Minister to France 1479:, who represented the Panamanian government, quickly negotiated the 1389:, agreed to negotiate a new treaty. Hay and the British ambassador, 1264:, and the United States had assumed Russian claims through the 1867 1201:

In summarizing Roosevelt's foreign policy, William Harbaugh argues:

929: 261:, there was considerable pressure on the president-elect to appoint 5607:

France and the United States: Their Diplomatic Relations, 1789–1914

5531: 5218:

Raymond A. Esthus, "The Taft-Katsura Agreement - Reality or Myth?"

3526:

Manila and Santiago: The New Steel Navy in the Spanish–American War

3463:

Bullets and Bacilli: The Spanish–American War and Military Medicine

3078:

Julius W. Pratt, "American business and the Spanish–American War."

2557:

Industry comes of age: Business, labor, and public policy 1860-1897

2226: 1768: 1627: 1598: 1531: 1417: 1290: 540:. The anti-imperialists listened to Bryan as well as industrialist 321: 265:, the head of the New York City Police Commission. The position of 246: 154: 5653:

William Howard Taft: A Conservative's Conception of the Presidency

5193:

The Art of Peace: an illustrated biography on U.S. Japan relations

1839:; though most were soon withdrawn, some remained as late as 1933. 1646:

In 1906, at the request of Kaiser Wilhelm II, Roosevelt convinced

1408:. Most members of Congress preferred that the canal cross through 1369: 355: 56:

and began with the inauguration of McKinley in 1897. It ends with

22:"Columbia's Easter bonnet". The bonnet is labelled "World Power". 5507: 5465:

In Search of Justice: The 1905-1906 Chinese Anti-American Boycott

4781: 4198:

The Great Rapprochement: England and the United States, 1895-1914

3108:

Donald H. Dyal; Brian B. Carpenter; Mark A. Thomas, eds. (1996).

2092: 2032: 2016: 1832: 1747: 1663: 1111:

in international relations and seek to reduce tensions among the

821: 644:

Editorial cartoon calling for humanitarian intervention in Cuba.

640: 408: 6488:

Challenge and Rejection: America and World Leadership, 1900-1921

6223:(1934); Secretary of State; Pulitzer Prize scholarly biography; 2978:

American Foreign Relations Since 1600: A Guide to the Literature

948:

McKinley refused to recognize the native Filipino government of

784:

Henry Clarke Corbin. McKinley presided over an expansion of the

723: 6274:(1951), volume 7 of The Economic History of the United States. 5483: 4450:

The Canal Builders: Making America's Empire at the Panama Canal

2088: 1854: 1527: 1233: 696:

to Havana to demonstrate American concern. On February 15, the

686: 6344:

Healy, David. "Ro [ugh Rider and Big Stick in the Caribbean."

6252:

Prelude to world power: American diplomatic history, 1860-1900

6189:

Coletta, Paolo E. "Bryan, McKinley, and the Treaty of Paris."

2278: 689:, McKinley obtained Spanish permission to send the battleship 359:

Monroe_doctrine: Europe keep out, 1912 editorial cartoon from

28:(New York), 6 April 1901 by Ehrhart after sketch by Dalrymple. 18: 6523:

Concord and Conflict: The United States and Russia, 1867-1914

6238:

Reticent Expansionism: The Foreign Policy of William McKinley

5519: 4991: 4979: 4550:"This Day In History: 1906-Teddy Roosevelt travels to Panama" 3642: 3089: 2416: 1950: 1662:

with Britain, France had sought to assert its dominance over

1594: 1534:, and the United States to resolve disputes arising from the 1256: 1219:

Varying claims in Southeast Alaska before arbitration in 1903

817: 5825:

From Colony to Superpower: U.S. Foreign Relations Since 1776

5574: 5313: 5284:

Carl R. Weinberg, "The 'Gentlemen's Agreement' of 1907–08,"

5056: 5054: 5027: 4967: 4868: 4568: 4093: 4091: 1432:

of 1902, which granted Roosevelt $ 170 million to build the

1312:

TR used his navy to dominate the Caribbean; 1904 cartoon by

1284: 1244:. Under McKinley, Secretary of State Hay had negotiated the 596:

measure. With McKinley's support, Democratic Representative

6597: 5808:. Albuquerque, New Mexico: University of New Mexico Press. 4378: 4376: 4374: 2428: 1610:

Washington to support the cause of Jews in Russia. Led by

993: 988:

resisted American rule in an ongoing conflict known as the

918: 664: 6174:

Admirals, Generals, and American Foreign Policy, 1898-1914

5633:

The American Enemy: The History of French Anti-Americanism

5101:: Roosevelt Institute for American Studies. Archived from 4601:

Theodore Roosevelt and the Rise of America to World Power

4203: 4015: 4013: 3152: 2502:

Sprout, Harold Hance; Sprout, Margaret (8 December 2015).

1889:. Their meetings were the first ever between a U.S. and a 1260:

Canada had been reached by Britain and Russia in the 1825

371:, Taft easily defeated the leader of the Democratic Party 311:

personally directed U.S. foreign policy from 1901 to 1909.

87:

regarding oversight of Latin America, the building of the

6452:

Offner, John L. "McKinley and the Spanish‐American War."

6311:(1961) ch 1-3 cover Hay, Root and Knox, pp. 22–78. 5673:

Theodore Roosevelt and the Rise of America to World Power

5436:

Theodore Roosevelt and the Rise of America to World Power

5207:

Theodore Roosevelt and the Rise of America to World Power

5051: 5039: 5003: 4960:

Reciprocity, 1911: a study in Canadian-American relations

4793: 4744: 4667: 4642: 4630: 4485: 4473: 4350: 4088: 4037: 3986: 2366: 1742: 134:. The McKinley administration thus established the first 5495: 5015: 4713:

Bulletin of the British Association for American Studies

4371: 3500:

San Juan Hill 1898: America's emergence as a world power

3225:

William McKinley “First Annual Message” December 6, 1897

3200:

European Perceptions of the Spanish–American War of 1898

2891:

Twelve Against Empire: The Anti-Imperialists, 1898–1900

1811:

Taft and Secretary of State Knox instituted a policy of

1573:

war, but the Japanese gained a decisive advantage after

924: 501:

a "virtual satellite" of the United States. After Queen

6336:

The new world power: American foreign policy, 1898-1917

6184:

American Foreign Relations: A Historiographical Review,

4618: 4606: 4412: 4328: 4326: 4280: 4224: 4025: 4010: 3998: 3974: 2404: 2342: 2180:

International relations of the Great Powers (1814–1919)

1094:

Foreign policy of the Theodore Roosevelt administration

1029:

Cuba gained independence in 1902 but became a de facto

295:

Foreign policy of the Theodore Roosevelt administration

157:

rejected a treaty granting the U.S. a lease across the

6562:

The Challenges of Power: American Diplomacy, 1900-1921

6161:

Comparative American Studies: An International Journal

6087:

The Life and Times of William Howard Taft: A Biography

6075:

The Life and Times of William Howard Taft: A Biography

5381: 5379: 5129: 5117: 5066: 3783:

Bound to Empire: The United States and the Philippines

3730: 3608: 3606: 3551: 3549: 3536: 3534: 2929: 2743: 2731: 2662: 2650: 2354: 568:—ideals expressed in the Declaration of Independence, 288: 130:

in 1898. The result was a major strategic base in the

95:

that showed the world the powerful rebuilt U.S. Navy.

6778:

History of the foreign relations of the United States

6434:

President McKinley: Architect of the American Century

5962:(revised ed.). The Kent State University Press. 4756: 4530: 4512:. New York, New York: Simon & Schuster. pp. 4338: 3925: 3851: 3839: 3827: 3742: 3718: 3706: 3694: 3682: 3670: 3658: 3630: 2290: 2147:

helped improve Franco–American relations. During the

446:

Economic cultural and social connections to the world

249:, a veteran diplomat and scholar. Leadership of the 210: 114:, taking control of the Spanish possessions of Cuba, 5391: 5351: 4323: 3822:

A History of the English-Speaking Peoples Since 1900

3618: 3443: 3431: 3352: 2958: 2956: 2266: 5376: 4700:

A Time for Building: The Third Migration, 1880-1920

4309:

Velvet on Iron: The Diplomacy of Theodore Roosevelt

3603: 3546: 3531: 3480: 3340: 3205: 3140: 2995: 2242: 1503:as the first governor of the Panama Canal Zone and 1210: 6286:https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7709.1979.tb00302.x 5927: 5741: 5718: 5650: 4776:Theodore Roosevelt and the International Rivalries 4505: 4169:Theodore Roosevelt and the Rise of the Modern Navy 3468: 3390: 3372:Race and Reunion: The Civil War in American Memory 3328: 3180: 3168: 3128: 3060: 3048: 3036: 2941: 2719: 2707: 2682: 1990: 1913: 1483:. Signed on November 18, 1903, it established the 1004:steel and concrete wharves at the newly renovated 463:ranks of the American working class. According to 6327:Grenville, John A. S. and George Berkeley Young. 5804:Harris, Charles H. III; Sadler, Louis R. (2009). 5403: 3937: 3385:Up from History: The Life of Booker T. Washington 3111:Historical Dictionary of the Spanish American War 2974: 2953: 2755: 2214: 1781:deadlocked over the issue, and Canada called the 1604: 1158:for planning. Overcoming opposition from General 812:and granted the force's commander, Major General 344: 6769: 6458:https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-5705.2004.00034.x 6404:https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-5705.2010.03829.x 5835:A Godly Hero: The Life of William Jennings Bryan 5421:Teresa Brawner Bevis, and Christopher J. Lucas, 1123:in the Western Hemisphere. Roosevelt viewed the 1051:After Puerto Rico was devastated by the massive 604:that provided for the annexation of Hawaii. The 71:During this era, the United States emerged as a 34:history of U.S. foreign policy from 1897 to 1913 6299:The Spanish–American War and President McKinley 6100:The Foreign Policies of the Taft Administration 6097: 5537: 5513: 5489: 4787: 3007: 2589:(U of Pittsburgh Press, 1982) pp. 5–7, 222, 224 2506:. Princeton University Press. pp. 286–288. 2475:John Martin Carroll; George C. Herring (1996). 2463:The Foreign Policies of the Taft Administration 2422: 846:, sailed from Florida on June 20, landing near 792:Since 1895, the Navy had planned to attack the 4956: 3240:(Dec. 2006), p 889. See more detail in Perez, 2829: 2254: 2143:The removal of Napoleon III in 1870 after the 1865:. Díaz faced strong political opposition from 6583: 6508:; 2nd edition 1956 is updated and shortened. 6466:(Palgrave Macmillan UK, 1999) pp. 18–44. 6098:Scholes, Walter V; Scholes, Marie V. (1970). 2546:(2nd ed. 1988), pp 314-332, 372-382, 405-418. 2079:because he neglected trade issues, and named 1487:—over which the United States would exercise 724:Historical interpretations of McKinley's role 556:violated the fundamental principle that just 221:McKinley took office in 1897 after defeating 5767:(2nd ed.), University Press of Kansas, 3293:From the Old Diplomacy to the New, 1865–1900 2680: 2501: 2481:. Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 18–19. 2111:as provisional president of what became the 1542: 1164:Commanding General of the United States Army 663:By the time McKinley took office, rebels in 6427:From imperialism to isolationism, 1898-1919 5795:The Far Eastern Policy of the United States 5551:The Far Eastern Policy of the United States 5299:The Far Eastern Policy of the United States 4215: 2461:Walter Vinton Scholes and Marie V.Scholes, 1475:Secretary of State Hay and French diplomat 6742: 6590: 6576: 5681: 4588:From Imperialism to Isolationism 1898-1919 4503: 3095: 1965: 1638:becoming Secretary of Commerce and Labor. 1560:Russia had occupied the Chinese region of 1347:in the years after Roosevelt left office. 1255:, as American and Canadian prospectors in 6083: 6068: 5700:William Howard Taft, Confident Peacemaker 5675:(Johns Hopkins University Press, 1956). 5648: 5525: 5449:Chinese America: History and Perspectives 5060: 4985: 2600:Studies in American Political Development 2410: 2348: 1285:Venezuelan crisis and Roosevelt Corollary 1087: 54:History of U.S. foreign policy, 1861–1897 6532:ed. James C. Bradford. (1993) pp 205–49. 6262:America's rise to world power, 1898-1954 5716: 5580: 5501: 5319: 5085: 5083: 5081: 5033: 5021: 4997: 4973: 4921: 4874: 4574: 3798:, Sept 2009, Vol. 39 Issue 3, pp 494–518 2434: 2372: 2360: 2130: 2126: 2055: 2010: 1798: 1767: 1746: 1686: 1438: 1368: 1360: 1307: 1214: 1078: 928: 885: 850:two days later. Following a skirmish at 833: 639: 484: 415:in 1911, and helped spark a widespread " 354: 302: 17: 6599:History of United States foreign policy 6497: 6272:The decline of laissez-faire: 1897-1917 5694: 5594:The Greater Journey, Americans in Paris 5135: 5072: 5045: 5009: 4799: 3198:Sylvia L. Hilton and Steve Ickringill, 2574:The Decline of Laissez-faire: 1897-1917 2042: 2006: 1641: 1519:canal. Stevens was replaced in 1907 by 1185:The Influence of Sea Power upon History 1115:. He was also adamant in upholding the 704:determine whether the explosion of the 624: 480: 6770: 5987: 5925: 5901: 5803: 5467:(Harvard East Asian Monographs, 2002). 5123: 4356: 4209: 2789: 2685:Grover Cleveland: A Study in Character 1743:Canada rejects reciprocal trade treaty 944:History of the Philippines (1898–1946) 842:The combat army, led by Major General 6571: 6080:, covers the start of his presidency 5762: 5721:The Presidency of William Howard Taft 5078: 4886: 4762: 4750: 4673: 4648: 4636: 4624: 4612: 4536: 4491: 4479: 4418: 4286: 4230: 4097: 4057:The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers 4043: 4031: 4019: 4004: 3992: 3980: 2296: 2015:American soldiers scale the walls of 1857:regime and subsequent turmoil of the 1842: 1788: 1555: 1206:foster legitimate American interests. 1072:established Puerto Rico as the first 984:In remote Southern areas, the Muslim 925:Aftermath of the Spanish–American War 6301:(University Press of Kansas, 1982). 6213:(1990), a defense of TR's policies. 5765:The Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt 5190: 3966:Mississippi Valley Historical Review 3582:Mississippi Valley Historical Review 3114:. Bloomsbury Academic. p. 114. 2858:Mississippi Valley Historical Review 2796:Mississippi Valley Historical Review 1654:as part of an effort to resolve the 766: 570:George Washington's Farewell Address 6136:Hispanic American Historical Review 6092:vol 2 covers most of the presidency 6039: 5872: 5822: 5702:. Saint Joseph's University Press. 5618:Barry Rubin and Judith Colp Rubin, 5385: 3907:Hispanic American Historical Review 3809:Chinese business enterprise in Asia 3080:Hispanic American Historical Review 3027:Hispanic American Historical Review 2935: 2749: 2737: 2668: 2656: 1240:and construction of a canal across 897:On July 22, the Spanish authorized 391: 336:, who had previously served as the 289:Roosevelt administration, 1901–1909 38:foreign policy of the United States 13: 6368:(U of North Carolina Press, 1981). 6292:The William Howard Taft Presidency 6128: 6010: 5955: 5785:The William Howard Taft Presidency 5744:The Presidency of William McKinley 5451:(2007): 191-98, Quoting page 191, 3652: 3211: 3001: 2962: 2761: 2272: 2232: 2102: 1944: 1682: 1420:. Colombia had been engulfed in a 1289:In December 1902, an Anglo-German 1147:exercised considerable authority. 1119:, the American policy of opposing 870:'s North Atlantic Squadron in the 253:went to Massachusetts Congressman 211:McKinley administration, 1897–1901 60:in 1913, and the 1914 outbreak of 14: 6804: 6793:Presidency of William Howard Taft 6338:(U of Pennsylvania Press, 2013). 5860:. New York: Harper and Brothers. 5852: 5831: 5739: 5409: 5397: 5357: 4344: 4332: 4156:A Companion to Theodore Roosevelt 4143:A Companion to Theodore Roosevelt 3943: 3931: 3857: 3845: 3833: 3748: 3736: 3724: 3712: 3700: 3688: 3676: 3664: 3648: 3636: 3624: 3612: 3555: 3540: 3486: 3474: 3449: 3437: 3396: 3358: 3346: 3334: 3186: 3174: 3162: 3158: 3146: 3134: 3066: 3054: 3042: 3013: 2947: 2725: 2713: 2284: 2260: 2248: 2236: 2220: 2175:East Asia–United States relations 2051: 2021:civilians trapped there by Boxers 1450:The U.S. and Colombia signed the 1100:a landslide in the 1900 election. 351:Presidency of William Howard Taft 145:with Britain and promulgated the 50:Presidency of William Howard Taft 6788:Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt 6752: 6751: 6741: 6221:John Hay From Poetry To Politics 6102:. University of Missouri Press. 6025:10.1111/j.1741-5705.2004.00034.x 5959:William McKinley and His America 5625: 5612: 5599: 5586: 5556: 5543: 5470: 5457: 5441: 5428: 5415: 5363: 5338: 5325: 5304: 5291: 5278: 5269: 5245: 5229: 5212: 5199: 5184: 5171: 5154: 5141: 4950: 4915: 4880: 4851: 4835: 4822: 4805: 4768: 4731: 4718: 4705: 4692: 4679: 4654: 4593: 4580: 4542: 4497: 4464: 4455: 4442: 4433: 4424: 4403: 4394: 4385: 4362: 4314: 4301: 4292: 4271: 4262: 4249: 4236: 4190: 4174: 4161: 4148: 4135: 4119: 4103: 4075: 4062: 4049: 3958: 3949: 3916: 3899: 3890: 3881: 3872: 3863: 3814: 3801: 3788: 3775: 3763: 3754: 3236:Louis A. Perez, Jr., review, in 1211:Rapprochement with Great Britain 903:American Anti-Imperialist League 538:American Anti-Imperialist League 299:Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt 46:Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt 6546:(Oxford University Press, 2019) 6348:19#3 (1991), pp. 402–407. 3590: 3574: 3561: 3518: 3505: 3492: 3455: 3418: 3402: 3377: 3364: 3315: 3298: 3282: 3269: 3256: 3247: 3230: 3217: 3192: 3101: 3072: 3019: 2975:Robert L. Beisner, ed. (2003). 2968: 2912: 2896: 2883: 2866: 2850: 2823: 2783: 2767: 2674: 2637: 2629:Journal of Presbyterian History 2621: 2608: 2592: 2579: 2566: 2549: 2536: 2523: 2510: 2495: 2468: 2455: 2440: 2391: 2378: 2333: 2320: 1991:Relations with China, 1897–1913 1914:Relations with Japan, 1897–1913 1350: 1297:began an incident known as the 1039:Platt Amendment, beginning the 881: 800:under the command of Commodore 635: 285:, who proved highly competent. 259:assistant secretary of the navy 241:, and by the second secretary, 6783:Presidency of William McKinley 6516:Presidential Studies Quarterly 6454:Presidential Studies Quarterly 6400:Presidential Studies Quarterly 6013:Presidential Studies Quarterly 5725:. 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Major events included the 64:, which marked the start of 7: 6539:(Simon and Schuster, 2013). 6346:Reviews in American History 6121:The Search for Modern China 5934:, William Morrow & Co, 5875:Political Science Quarterly 5571:(1990) pp 253-254, 262-264. 5568:The Search for Modern China 5261:Political Science Quarterly 5253:Political Science Quarterly 4859:Journal of American History 4702:(1995) pp 200–206, 302–303. 4368:Morris (2001) pp. 26, 67–68 4182:American National Biography 3238:Journal of American History 2775:Oregon Historical Quarterly 2616:Journal of Church and State 2168: 1879:Mexico–United States border 1477:Philippe-Jean Bunau-Varilla 1357:History of the Panama Canal 1139:and the Pacific, where the 956:, marking the start of the 417:Railway Protection Movement 10: 6809: 6502:(full scholarly biography) 6373:American Historical Review 6294:(U Press of Kansas, 2009). 6084:Pringle, Henry F. (1939). 5930:Theodore Roosevelt: A Life 5827:. Oxford University Press. 5717:Coletta, Paolo E. (1973). 4889:Canadian Historical Review 4504:McCullough, David (1977). 4244:Canadian Historical Review 3410:American Historical Review 2876:, 10#4 (1937), pp 650–67. 2836:. Macmillan. p. 121. 2121:annual message to Congress 2097:Chinese Revolution of 1911 1917: 1846: 1792: 1577:the Russian naval base at 1521:George Washington Goethals 1354: 1262:Treaty of Saint Petersburg 1091: 1053:1899 San Ciriaco hurricane 941: 872:Battle of Santiago de Cuba 628: 613:in 1900, establishing the 395: 369:1908 presidential election 348: 292: 227:1896 presidential election 214: 6737: 6605: 6498:Pringle, Henry F (1931), 6191:Pacific Historical Review 6042:Pacific Historical Review 5956:Morgan, H. Wayne (2003). 5620:Hating America: A History 5310:Morris (2001) pp. 493–494 5301:(1938). pp 354–60, 372–79 5275:Morris (2001) pp. 482–483 5237:Pacific Historical Review 5220:Journal of Modern History 5162:Pacific Historical Review 4924:Pacific Historical Review 4832:78 (Spring 1979): 244-58. 4470:Morris (2001) pp. 320–321 4439:Morris (2001) pp. 293–298 4430:Morris (2001) pp. 282–283 4409:Morris (2001) pp. 276–278 4400:Morris (2001) pp. 262–263 4391:Morris (2001) pp. 115–116 4382:Morris (2001) pp. 201–202 4277:Morris (2001) pp. 187–191 4268:Morris (2001) pp. 176–182 4167:Gordon Carpenter O'Gara, 3896:Morris (2001) pp. 456–457 3426:Pacific Historical Review 3295:(New York, 1975), p. 114 2981:. ABC-CLIO. p. 414. 2544:American Economic History 2518:From colony to superpower 2478:Modern American Diplomacy 2339:Morris (2001) pp. 394-395 1924: 1704:, but Reid, owner of the 1597:and the southern half of 1583:Portsmouth, New Hampshire 1543:Arbitration and mediation 1497:Isthmian Canal Commission 1465:declared its independence 1041:Second Occupation of Cuba 968:tactics. McKinley sent a 824:might seize the islands. 100:Cuban War of Independence 6375:72.4 (1967): 1321–1335. 5911:. New York: Touchstone. 5823:Herring, George (2008). 5740:Gould, Lewis L. (1980). 5255:(1922) 37#4 pp. 605–638 4861:(1966) 53#2 pp: 279-298 4830:South Atlantic Quarterly 4307:Frederick W. Marks III, 4246:(1937) 18#2 pp: 123-130. 3869:Morris (2001) pp 105–106 3760:Morris (2001) pp 100-101 3262:Robert Endicott Osgood, 2918:William Michael Morgan, 2235:, pp. 194–95, 285; 2187:1904, Britain and France 1481:Hay–Bunau-Varilla Treaty 1074:unincorporated territory 440:arms reduction agreement 6395:(2nd ed. 2008) pp 1–52. 6364:Hilderbrand, Robert C. 5926:Miller, Nathan (1992), 5858:In the Days of McKinley 5832:Kazin, Michael (2006). 5793:Griswold, A. Whitney. 5763:Gould, Lewis L (2011), 5286:OAH Magazine of History 5263:(1923) 38#1 pp. 57–81 4957:Lewis E. Ellis (1968). 4728:(1989), 19#1 pp. 71-78. 3584:(1935) 22#2 pp. 211–30 2860:22#2 (1935): 211–230. 2830:Henry F. Graff (2002). 2037:China Relief Expedition 1981:Immigration Act of 1924 1975:, reached the informal 1966:Anti-Japanese Agitation 1668:Augustus Octavius Bacon 1501:George Whitefield Davis 1238:Alaska boundary dispute 1016: 958:Philippine–American War 856:Battle of San Juan Hill 600:of Nevada introduced a 586:William Randolph Hearst 562:consent of the governed 124:Philippine Insurrection 52:. This period followed 6469:Peifer, Douglas Carl. 6412:54.2 (2012): 257-278. 6307:Graebner, Norman, ed. 6203:19.3 (1995): 473–497. 6178:online at many schools 6172:Challener, Richard D. 6138:19.3 (1939): 286–305. 5191:Katz, Stan S. (2019). 4221:Morris (2001) pp 25–26 4113:23#4 (1971): 585-600. 3412:21.2 (1916): 288–311. 3253:Perez (1998) pp 46–47. 3082:14#2 (1934): 163–201. 2602:31.2 (2017): 170-192. 2317:Morris (2001) pp 22-23 2197:Second Moroccan Crisis 2140: 2064: 2024: 1960:Taft–Katsura agreement 1939:Prince Tokugawa Iesato 1935:Baron Shibusawa Eiichi 1808: 1773: 1752: 1692: 1447: 1374: 1366: 1317: 1220: 1104:William Jennings Bryan 1088:Roosevelt as president 1084: 934: 894: 839: 660: 494: 474: 373:William Jennings Bryan 364: 312: 223:William Jennings Bryan 91:and the voyage of the 29: 6553:(Princeton UP, 1958) 6518:38.3 (2008): 433-455. 6321:(Columbia UP, 2017). 6260:Dulles, Foster Rhea. 6250:Dulles, Foster Rhea. 6163:11.4 (2013): 418-433. 6119:Spence, Jonathan D. 5948:Minger, Ralph Eldin. 5799:online free to borrow 5787:(UP of Kansas, 2009) 5549:A. Whitney Griswold, 5480:35.3 (2001): 565-588. 5297:A. Whitney Griswold, 5288:(2009) 23#4 pp 36–36. 4901:10.3138/chr-051-04-04 4741:42.3 (1983): 408-425. 4689:(1971) 33#3 pp 13-22. 4687:Jewish Social Studies 3029:19.3 (1939): 286–305 2922:(2011) pp 200–1; see 2874:New England Quarterly 2689:. Macmillan. p. 2681:Alyn Brodsky (2000). 2647:16.3 (1992): 371-387. 2631:41#4 (1963): 224–36. 2308:Morris (2001) pp 9-10 2203:Causes of World War I 2191:First Moroccan Crisis 2149:German Siege of Paris 2134: 2127:Relations with France 2067:Having served as the 2059: 2014: 1958:jointly produced the 1918:Further information: 1887:Ciudad Juárez, Mexico 1847:Further information: 1802: 1771: 1760:happily negotiated a 1750: 1690: 1656:First Moroccan Crisis 1457:José Manuel Marroquín 1442: 1379:Clayton–Bulwer Treaty 1372: 1364: 1355:Further information: 1336:Carlos Felipe Morales 1311: 1246:Hay–Pauncefote Treaty 1218: 1172:U.S. Army War College 1170:and establishing the 1082: 932: 889: 844:William Rufus Shafter 837: 643: 617:. McKinley appointed 558:republican government 550:William Graham Sumner 488: 469: 358: 349:Further information: 306: 293:Further information: 215:Further information: 192:First Moroccan Crisis 138:in American history. 21: 6456:34.1 (2004): 50–61. 6402:41.1 (2011): 18–38. 6334:Hannigan, Robert E. 6270:Faulkner, Harold U. 6146:complete text online 5478:Modern Asian Studies 5105:on November 21, 2018 5000:, pp. 185, 190. 4845:36.1 (1973): 52-65. 4813:Villanova Law Review 4320:Herring, pp. 371–372 4298:Morris (2001) p. 201 4259:(1965) 57#4: 189-203 4081:James E. Hewes, Jr. 3968:24.1 (1937): 43-52. 3955:Herring, pp. 364-365 3922:Morris (2001) p. 554 3887:Morris (2001) p. 299 3878:Morris (2001) p. 456 3739:, pp. 186, 236. 3461:Vincent J. Cirillo, 3428:30.4 (1961): 341–50. 2904:The Wilson Quarterly 2572:Harold U. Faulkner, 2555:Edward C. Kirkland, 2326:Ralph Eldin Minger, 2135:Construction of the 2043:1905 Chinese boycott 2007:Boxer rebellion 1900 1873:in the south and by 1658:. After signing the 1652:Algeciras Conference 1642:Algeciras Conference 1587:Treaty of Portsmouth 1505:John Findley Wallace 1426:Ferdinand de Lesseps 1314:William Allen Rogers 1121:European colonialism 806:Battle of Manila Bay 669:war for independence 631:Spanish–American War 625:Spanish–American War 611:Hawaiian Organic Act 481:Annexation of Hawaii 424:international events 275:Spanish–American War 196:Algeciras Conference 112:Spanish–American War 81:Spanish–American War 6530:Crucible of Empire, 6510:1956 edition online 6429:(1964) 90pp survey. 6209:Collin, Richard H. 5684:White House Studies 5583:, pp. 198–199. 5540:, pp. 124–147. 5538:Scholes and Scholes 5528:, pp. 250–255. 5514:Scholes and Scholes 5490:Scholes and Scholes 5373:(Bloomsbury, 2000). 5322:, pp. 199–200. 5164:11.1 (1942): 55-71 5036:, pp. 187–190. 4988:, pp. 593–595. 4976:, pp. 141–152. 4877:, pp. 168–169. 4788:Scholes and Scholes 4774:Raymond A. 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Sampson 840: 685:reported riots in 661: 578:Gettysburg Address 560:must derive from " 511:Republic of Hawaii 495: 491:Republic of Hawaii 489:Annexation of the 457:wages were so high 365: 313: 309:Theodore Roosevelt 263:Theodore Roosevelt 200:Mexican Revolution 184:Russo-Japanese War 77:Western Hemisphere 30: 6765: 6764: 6560:Wells, Samuel F. 6486:Pratt, Julius W. 6476:Pratt, Julius W. 6432:Merry, Robert W. 6381:Holmes, James R. 6193:(1957): 131–146. 6070:Pringle, Henry F. 5969:978-0-87338-765-1 5918:978-0-671-24409-5 5903:McCullough, David 5815:978-0-8263-4652-0 5755:978-0-7006-0206-3 5671:Beale, Howard K. 5664:978-0-8014-0786-4 5635:(2005) pp 172-76. 5553:(1938) pp 160-65. 5516:, pp. 21–23. 5438:(1955) pp 212–252 5434:Howard K. Beale, 5239:(1961): 279-294. 5205:Howard K. Beale, 5181:(2019) pp 78–113. 5048:, pp. 67–69. 5012:, pp. 66–67. 4802:, pp. 82–83. 4790:, pp. 19–21. 4627:, pp. 84–85. 4615:, pp. 82–84. 4603:(1955) pp 355-89. 4599:Howard K. 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Knox 1591:Nobel Peace Prize 1493:Isthmus of Panama 1485:Panama Canal Zone 1470:anti-imperialists 1452:Hay–Herrán Treaty 1414:isthmus of Panama 1391:Julian Pauncefote 1299:Venezuelan Crisis 1275:Henry Cabot Lodge 1196:Great White Fleet 1189:in 1890, Captain 780:, and later from 767:Course of the war 731:yellow journalism 432:Italo-Turkish War 377:Philander C. Knox 194:by attending the 163:Panama Canal Zone 159:isthmus of Panama 93:Great White Fleet 6800: 6755: 6754: 6745: 6744: 6592: 6585: 6578: 6569: 6568: 6521:Saul, Norman E. 6503: 6297:Gould, Lewis L. 6243:Dobson, John M. 6236:Dobson, John M. 6219:Dennett, Tyler. 6113: 6091: 6079: 6065: 6036: 6007: 5997:, Random House, 5984: 5982: 5981: 5972:. Archived from 5944: 5933: 5922: 5898: 5869: 5849: 5828: 5819: 5783:Gould, Louis L. 5777: 5759: 5747: 5736: 5724: 5713: 5696:Burton, David H. 5691: 5668: 5656: 5636: 5631:Philippe Roger, 5629: 5623: 5616: 5610: 5603: 5597: 5590: 5584: 5578: 5572: 5560: 5554: 5547: 5541: 5535: 5529: 5523: 5517: 5511: 5505: 5499: 5493: 5487: 5481: 5474: 5468: 5461: 5455: 5445: 5439: 5432: 5426: 5419: 5413: 5407: 5401: 5395: 5389: 5383: 5374: 5367: 5361: 5355: 5349: 5342: 5336: 5329: 5323: 5317: 5311: 5308: 5302: 5295: 5289: 5282: 5276: 5273: 5267: 5249: 5243: 5233: 5227: 5216: 5210: 5203: 5197: 5196: 5188: 5182: 5175: 5169: 5158: 5152: 5145: 5139: 5133: 5127: 5121: 5115: 5114: 5112: 5110: 5087: 5076: 5070: 5064: 5058: 5049: 5043: 5037: 5031: 5025: 5019: 5013: 5007: 5001: 4995: 4989: 4983: 4977: 4971: 4965: 4964: 4954: 4948: 4947: 4919: 4913: 4912: 4884: 4878: 4872: 4866: 4855: 4849: 4839: 4833: 4826: 4820: 4815:56 (2011): 535+ 4809: 4803: 4797: 4791: 4785: 4779: 4778:(1970) pp 66–111 4772: 4766: 4760: 4754: 4748: 4742: 4735: 4729: 4722: 4716: 4709: 4703: 4696: 4690: 4683: 4677: 4671: 4665: 4658: 4652: 4646: 4640: 4634: 4628: 4622: 4616: 4610: 4604: 4597: 4591: 4590:(1964) pp 29-30. 4584: 4578: 4572: 4566: 4565: 4563: 4561: 4546: 4540: 4534: 4528: 4527: 4511: 4501: 4495: 4489: 4483: 4477: 4471: 4468: 4462: 4459: 4453: 4446: 4440: 4437: 4431: 4428: 4422: 4416: 4410: 4407: 4401: 4398: 4392: 4389: 4383: 4380: 4369: 4366: 4360: 4354: 4348: 4342: 4336: 4330: 4321: 4318: 4312: 4305: 4299: 4296: 4290: 4284: 4278: 4275: 4269: 4266: 4260: 4253: 4247: 4240: 4234: 4228: 4222: 4219: 4213: 4207: 4201: 4194: 4188: 4178: 4172: 4165: 4159: 4152: 4146: 4139: 4133: 4123: 4117: 4107: 4101: 4095: 4086: 4079: 4073: 4066: 4060: 4053: 4047: 4041: 4035: 4029: 4023: 4017: 4008: 4002: 3996: 3990: 3984: 3978: 3972: 3962: 3956: 3953: 3947: 3941: 3935: 3929: 3923: 3920: 3914: 3903: 3897: 3894: 3888: 3885: 3879: 3876: 3870: 3867: 3861: 3855: 3849: 3843: 3837: 3831: 3825: 3820:Andrew Roberts, 3818: 3812: 3805: 3799: 3792: 3786: 3779: 3773: 3767: 3761: 3758: 3752: 3746: 3740: 3734: 3728: 3722: 3716: 3710: 3704: 3698: 3692: 3686: 3680: 3674: 3668: 3662: 3656: 3646: 3640: 3634: 3628: 3622: 3616: 3610: 3601: 3594: 3588: 3578: 3572: 3565: 3559: 3553: 3544: 3538: 3529: 3522: 3516: 3509: 3503: 3496: 3490: 3484: 3478: 3472: 3466: 3459: 3453: 3447: 3441: 3435: 3429: 3422: 3416: 3406: 3400: 3394: 3388: 3381: 3375: 3368: 3362: 3356: 3350: 3344: 3338: 3332: 3326: 3319: 3313: 3302: 3296: 3286: 3280: 3273: 3267: 3260: 3254: 3251: 3245: 3244:(1998) pp 23–56. 3234: 3228: 3221: 3215: 3214:, p. 58–59. 3209: 3203: 3196: 3190: 3184: 3178: 3172: 3166: 3156: 3150: 3144: 3138: 3137:, p. 71–74. 3132: 3126: 3125: 3105: 3099: 3093: 3087: 3076: 3070: 3064: 3058: 3052: 3046: 3040: 3034: 3023: 3017: 3011: 3005: 2999: 2993: 2992: 2972: 2966: 2960: 2951: 2945: 2939: 2933: 2927: 2916: 2910: 2900: 2894: 2887: 2881: 2870: 2864: 2854: 2848: 2847: 2827: 2821: 2820: 2787: 2781: 2771: 2765: 2759: 2753: 2747: 2741: 2735: 2729: 2723: 2717: 2711: 2705: 2704: 2688: 2678: 2672: 2666: 2660: 2654: 2648: 2641: 2635: 2625: 2619: 2612: 2606: 2596: 2590: 2583: 2577: 2576:(1951) pp 52-67. 2570: 2564: 2553: 2547: 2542:Robert C. Puth, 2540: 2534: 2527: 2521: 2516:George Herring, 2514: 2508: 2507: 2499: 2493: 2492: 2472: 2466: 2459: 2453: 2451:August 19, 1983. 2444: 2438: 2432: 2426: 2420: 2414: 2408: 2402: 2395: 2389: 2382: 2376: 2370: 2364: 2358: 2352: 2346: 2340: 2337: 2331: 2324: 2318: 2315: 2309: 2306: 2300: 2294: 2288: 2282: 2276: 2270: 2264: 2258: 2252: 2246: 2240: 2230: 2224: 2218: 2185:Entente Cordiale 2085:Open Door Policy 2001:Open Door Policy 1867:Francisco Madero 1813:Dollar Diplomacy 1795:Dollar diplomacy 1789:Dollar Diplomacy 1707:New-York Tribune 1660:Entente Cordiale 1620:Mayer Sulzberger 1345:dollar diplomacy 1329:A crisis in the 1270:Venezuela Crisis 1109:balance of power 954:Battle of Manila 950:Emilio Aguinaldo 848:Santiago de Cuba 798:Asiatic Squadron 782:Adjutant General 718:Teller Amendment 702:court of inquiry 602:joint resolution 566:non-intervention 527:manifest destiny 499:Hawaiian Kingdom 436:First Balkan War 413:China Consortium 405:Dollar Diplomacy 398:Dollar diplomacy 392:Dollar diplomacy 338:governor-general 277:began. With the 271:Russell A. Alger 267:secretary of war 186:and reached the 179:Open Door Policy 172:Dollar Diplomacy 6808: 6807: 6803: 6802: 6801: 6799: 6798: 6797: 6768: 6767: 6766: 6761: 6733: 6659:F. D. Roosevelt 6601: 6596: 6425:May, Ernest R. 6421:Wayback Machine 6391:Jones, Howard. 6153:Wayback Machine 6131: 6129:Further reading 6126: 6110: 6054:10.2307/3639601 6005: 5979: 5977: 5970: 5942: 5919: 5887:10.2307/2150973 5854:Leech, Margaret 5846: 5816: 5775: 5756: 5733: 5710: 5665: 5644: 5639: 5630: 5626: 5617: 5613: 5604: 5600: 5591: 5587: 5579: 5575: 5561: 5557: 5548: 5544: 5536: 5532: 5524: 5520: 5512: 5508: 5500: 5496: 5488: 5484: 5475: 5471: 5462: 5458: 5446: 5442: 5433: 5429: 5420: 5416: 5408: 5404: 5396: 5392: 5384: 5377: 5369:Diana Preston, 5368: 5364: 5356: 5352: 5343: 5339: 5331:Tyler Dennett, 5330: 5326: 5318: 5314: 5309: 5305: 5296: 5292: 5283: 5279: 5274: 5270: 5265:Part 2 in JSTOR 5257:part 1 in JSTOR 5250: 5246: 5234: 5230: 5217: 5213: 5204: 5200: 5189: 5185: 5176: 5172: 5159: 5155: 5146: 5142: 5134: 5130: 5126:, pp. 1–2. 5122: 5118: 5108: 5106: 5089: 5088: 5079: 5071: 5067: 5059: 5052: 5044: 5040: 5032: 5028: 5020: 5016: 5008: 5004: 4996: 4992: 4984: 4980: 4972: 4968: 4955: 4951: 4936:10.2307/3637741 4920: 4916: 4885: 4881: 4873: 4869: 4856: 4852: 4840: 4836: 4827: 4823: 4810: 4806: 4798: 4794: 4786: 4782: 4773: 4769: 4761: 4757: 4749: 4745: 4736: 4732: 4723: 4719: 4715:9 (1964): 7-23. 4710: 4706: 4697: 4693: 4684: 4680: 4672: 4668: 4659: 4655: 4647: 4643: 4635: 4631: 4623: 4619: 4611: 4607: 4598: 4594: 4586:Ernest R. May, 4585: 4581: 4573: 4569: 4559: 4557: 4548: 4547: 4543: 4535: 4531: 4524: 4502: 4498: 4490: 4486: 4478: 4474: 4469: 4465: 4460: 4456: 4447: 4443: 4438: 4434: 4429: 4425: 4417: 4413: 4408: 4404: 4399: 4395: 4390: 4386: 4381: 4372: 4367: 4363: 4355: 4351: 4343: 4339: 4331: 4324: 4319: 4315: 4306: 4302: 4297: 4293: 4285: 4281: 4276: 4272: 4267: 4263: 4257:Ontario History 4254: 4250: 4241: 4237: 4229: 4225: 4220: 4216: 4208: 4204: 4195: 4191: 4179: 4175: 4166: 4162: 4153: 4149: 4140: 4136: 4124: 4120: 4108: 4104: 4096: 4089: 4080: 4076: 4067: 4063: 4054: 4050: 4042: 4038: 4030: 4026: 4018: 4011: 4003: 3999: 3991: 3987: 3979: 3975: 3963: 3959: 3954: 3950: 3942: 3938: 3930: 3926: 3921: 3917: 3904: 3900: 3895: 3891: 3886: 3882: 3877: 3873: 3868: 3864: 3856: 3852: 3844: 3840: 3832: 3828: 3819: 3815: 3806: 3802: 3793: 3789: 3785:. (1992) p. 84. 3780: 3776: 3768: 3764: 3759: 3755: 3747: 3743: 3735: 3731: 3723: 3719: 3711: 3707: 3699: 3695: 3687: 3683: 3675: 3671: 3663: 3659: 3647: 3643: 3635: 3631: 3623: 3619: 3611: 3604: 3595: 3591: 3579: 3575: 3566: 3562: 3554: 3547: 3539: 3532: 3523: 3519: 3511:Edmund Morris, 3510: 3506: 3498:Angus Konstam, 3497: 3493: 3485: 3481: 3473: 3469: 3460: 3456: 3448: 3444: 3436: 3432: 3423: 3419: 3407: 3403: 3395: 3391: 3382: 3378: 3370:David W BUght, 3369: 3365: 3357: 3353: 3345: 3341: 3333: 3329: 3325:(1979) 3#1 p 96 3320: 3316: 3303: 3299: 3287: 3283: 3274: 3270: 3261: 3257: 3252: 3248: 3235: 3231: 3222: 3218: 3210: 3206: 3197: 3193: 3185: 3181: 3173: 3169: 3161:, p. 173; 3157: 3153: 3145: 3141: 3133: 3129: 3122: 3106: 3102: 3096:Bloodworth 2009 3094: 3090: 3077: 3073: 3065: 3061: 3053: 3049: 3041: 3037: 3024: 3020: 3012: 3008: 3000: 2996: 2989: 2973: 2969: 2961: 2954: 2946: 2942: 2934: 2930: 2917: 2913: 2901: 2897: 2888: 2884: 2871: 2867: 2855: 2851: 2844: 2828: 2824: 2809:10.2307/1891336 2788: 2784: 2772: 2768: 2760: 2756: 2748: 2744: 2736: 2732: 2724: 2720: 2712: 2708: 2701: 2679: 2675: 2667: 2663: 2655: 2651: 2642: 2638: 2626: 2622: 2613: 2609: 2597: 2593: 2584: 2580: 2571: 2567: 2554: 2550: 2541: 2537: 2528: 2524: 2515: 2511: 2500: 2496: 2489: 2473: 2469: 2460: 2456: 2449:Washington Post 2445: 2441: 2433: 2429: 2421: 2417: 2409: 2405: 2396: 2392: 2383: 2379: 2371: 2367: 2359: 2355: 2347: 2343: 2338: 2334: 2325: 2321: 2316: 2312: 2307: 2303: 2295: 2291: 2283: 2279: 2271: 2267: 2259: 2255: 2247: 2243: 2231: 2227: 2219: 2215: 2211: 2171: 2129: 2105: 2103:Revolution 1911 2054: 2045: 2029:Boxer Rebellion 2019:to relieve the 2009: 1993: 1968: 1947: 1945:Status of Korea 1927: 1922: 1916: 1871:Emiliano Zapata 1851: 1845: 1797: 1791: 1758:Wilfrid Laurier 1745: 1685: 1683:Taft's policies 1644: 1632:Kishinev pogrom 1607: 1599:Sakhalin Island 1566:Boxer Rebellion 1558: 1545: 1526:Treaties among 1444:Harper's Weekly 1387:Second Boer War 1359: 1353: 1340:Jacob Hollander 1287: 1279:Lord Alverstone 1266:Alaska Purchase 1242:Central America 1213: 1160:Nelson A. Miles 1141:Empire of Japan 1117:Monroe Doctrine 1096: 1090: 1049: 1024:Platt Amendment 1019: 1008:; dredging the 946: 940: 927: 915:Treaty of Paris 892:Treaty of Paris 890:Signing of the 884: 774:Nelson A. Miles 769: 726: 714:underwater mine 638: 633: 627: 619:Sanford B. Dole 590:Joseph Pulitzer 582:Alfred T. Mahan 574:Abraham Lincoln 542:Andrew Carnegie 483: 448: 400: 394: 385:Monroe Doctrine 353: 347: 301: 291: 255:John Davis Long 251:Navy Department 219: 213: 208: 136:overseas empire 12: 11: 5: 6806: 6796: 6795: 6790: 6785: 6780: 6763: 6762: 6760: 6759: 6749: 6738: 6735: 6734: 6732: 6731: 6726: 6721: 6716: 6711: 6706: 6701: 6696: 6691: 6686: 6681: 6676: 6671: 6666: 6661: 6656: 6655: 6654: 6649: 6639: 6638: 6637: 6627: 6622: 6617: 6612: 6606: 6603: 6602: 6595: 6594: 6587: 6580: 6572: 6566: 6565: 6558: 6547: 6540: 6533: 6526: 6519: 6512: 6495: 6484: 6474: 6467: 6460: 6450: 6444: 6430: 6423: 6406: 6396: 6389: 6379: 6369: 6362: 6352: 6342: 6332: 6325: 6315: 6305: 6295: 6290:Gould, Lewis. 6288: 6278: 6268: 6258: 6248: 6241: 6234: 6229:Dobson, John. 6227: 6217: 6207: 6197: 6187: 6180: 6170: 6164: 6157: 6156: 6155: 6130: 6127: 6125: 6124: 6117: 6108: 6095: 6094: 6093: 6090:. Vol. 2. 6078:. Vol. 1. 6066: 6048:(3): 285–307. 6037: 6008: 6004:978-0394555096 6003: 5989:Morris, Edmund 5985: 5968: 5953: 5946: 5940: 5923: 5917: 5899: 5881:(5): 705–718. 5870: 5850: 5845:978-0375411359 5844: 5829: 5820: 5814: 5801: 5791: 5781: 5774:978-0700617746 5773: 5760: 5754: 5737: 5732:978-0700600960 5731: 5714: 5708: 5692: 5679: 5669: 5663: 5645: 5643: 5640: 5638: 5637: 5624: 5611: 5598: 5596:(2011) p. 328. 5585: 5573: 5555: 5542: 5530: 5518: 5506: 5504:, p. 197. 5494: 5492:, p. 109. 5482: 5469: 5463:Guanhua Wang, 5456: 5440: 5427: 5414: 5412:, p. 233. 5402: 5390: 5388:, p. 714. 5375: 5362: 5350: 5337: 5324: 5312: 5303: 5290: 5277: 5268: 5244: 5228: 5211: 5198: 5183: 5170: 5153: 5140: 5128: 5116: 5077: 5065: 5063:, p. 271. 5050: 5038: 5026: 5024:, p. 188. 5014: 5002: 4990: 4978: 4966: 4949: 4914: 4895:(4): 426–449. 4879: 4867: 4850: 4834: 4821: 4804: 4792: 4780: 4767: 4765:, p. 185. 4755: 4743: 4730: 4717: 4704: 4698:Gerald Sorin, 4691: 4678: 4666: 4653: 4641: 4629: 4617: 4605: 4592: 4579: 4567: 4556:. A+E Networks 4541: 4539:, p. 203. 4529: 4522: 4496: 4484: 4472: 4463: 4454: 4448:Julie Greene, 4441: 4432: 4423: 4411: 4402: 4393: 4384: 4370: 4361: 4349: 4337: 4322: 4313: 4311:(1979), p. 140 4300: 4291: 4279: 4270: 4261: 4248: 4235: 4223: 4214: 4202: 4189: 4173: 4160: 4147: 4134: 4118: 4102: 4087: 4074: 4061: 4055:Paul Kennedy, 4048: 4036: 4024: 4009: 3997: 3985: 3973: 3957: 3948: 3946:, p. 248. 3936: 3924: 3915: 3898: 3889: 3880: 3871: 3862: 3850: 3838: 3826: 3813: 3800: 3787: 3781:H. W. Brands, 3774: 3762: 3753: 3741: 3729: 3717: 3705: 3693: 3681: 3669: 3657: 3655:, p. 320. 3641: 3629: 3617: 3602: 3589: 3573: 3560: 3545: 3530: 3517: 3504: 3491: 3479: 3467: 3454: 3442: 3430: 3417: 3401: 3389: 3376: 3363: 3351: 3339: 3327: 3314: 3297: 3281: 3268: 3255: 3246: 3229: 3216: 3204: 3191: 3179: 3167: 3151: 3139: 3127: 3120: 3100: 3088: 3071: 3059: 3047: 3035: 3018: 3006: 2994: 2987: 2967: 2965:, p. 223. 2952: 2940: 2928: 2911: 2895: 2882: 2865: 2849: 2842: 2822: 2782: 2766: 2764:, p. 225. 2754: 2742: 2730: 2718: 2706: 2699: 2673: 2661: 2649: 2636: 2620: 2607: 2591: 2578: 2565: 2548: 2535: 2522: 2520:(2008) p. 341. 2509: 2494: 2487: 2467: 2454: 2439: 2427: 2415: 2403: 2390: 2377: 2365: 2353: 2341: 2332: 2319: 2310: 2301: 2289: 2277: 2265: 2253: 2241: 2225: 2212: 2210: 2207: 2206: 2205: 2200: 2194: 2188: 2182: 2177: 2170: 2167: 2128: 2125: 2117:Manchu Dynasty 2104: 2101: 2053: 2052:President Taft 2050: 2044: 2041: 2023:, August 1900. 2008: 2005: 1992: 1989: 1973:Hayashi Tadasu 1967: 1964: 1946: 1943: 1926: 1923: 1915: 1912: 1908:Archibald Butt 1883:El Paso, Texas 1844: 1841: 1790: 1787: 1744: 1741: 1684: 1681: 1650:to attend the 1643: 1640: 1606: 1603: 1557: 1554: 1544: 1541: 1509:Chief Engineer 1402:Atlantic Ocean 1352: 1349: 1286: 1283: 1212: 1209: 1208: 1207: 1177:National Guard 1145:Russian Empire 1092:Main article: 1089: 1086: 1048: 1045: 1018: 1015: 1014: 1013: 1006:Port of Manila 990:Moro Rebellion 939: 936: 926: 923: 883: 880: 829:Tampa, Florida 814:Wesley Merritt 778:John Schofield 768: 765: 764: 763: 754: 753: 744: 743: 725: 722: 637: 634: 629:Main article: 626: 623: 548:, sociologist 523:William Sulzer 515:Hawaiian sugar 482: 479: 447: 444: 396:Main article: 393: 390: 346: 343: 290: 287: 279:War Department 239:William R. Day 212: 209: 207: 204: 58:Woodrow Wilson 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6805: 6794: 6791: 6789: 6786: 6784: 6781: 6779: 6776: 6775: 6773: 6758: 6750: 6748: 6740: 6739: 6736: 6730: 6727: 6725: 6722: 6720: 6717: 6715: 6712: 6710: 6707: 6705: 6704:G. H. W. Bush 6702: 6700: 6697: 6695: 6692: 6690: 6687: 6685: 6682: 6680: 6677: 6675: 6672: 6670: 6667: 6665: 6662: 6660: 6657: 6653: 6650: 6648: 6645: 6644: 6643: 6640: 6636: 6633: 6632: 6631: 6628: 6626: 6623: 6621: 6618: 6616: 6613: 6611: 6608: 6607: 6604: 6600: 6593: 6588: 6586: 6581: 6579: 6574: 6573: 6570: 6563: 6559: 6556: 6552: 6548: 6545: 6541: 6538: 6534: 6531: 6527: 6524: 6520: 6517: 6513: 6511: 6507: 6501: 6496: 6493: 6489: 6485: 6483: 6479: 6475: 6472: 6468: 6465: 6461: 6459: 6455: 6451: 6449: 6445: 6443: 6442:online review 6439: 6435: 6431: 6428: 6424: 6422: 6418: 6415: 6411: 6407: 6405: 6401: 6397: 6394: 6390: 6388: 6387:online review 6384: 6380: 6378: 6374: 6370: 6367: 6363: 6361: 6357: 6353: 6351: 6347: 6343: 6341: 6337: 6333: 6330: 6326: 6324: 6320: 6316: 6314: 6310: 6306: 6304: 6300: 6296: 6293: 6289: 6287: 6283: 6279: 6277: 6273: 6269: 6267: 6263: 6259: 6257: 6253: 6249: 6246: 6242: 6239: 6235: 6232: 6228: 6226: 6222: 6218: 6216: 6215:online review 6212: 6208: 6206: 6202: 6198: 6196: 6192: 6188: 6185: 6181: 6179: 6175: 6171: 6169: 6165: 6162: 6158: 6154: 6150: 6147: 6143: 6142: 6141: 6137: 6133: 6132: 6122: 6118: 6116: 6111: 6109:0-8262-0094-X 6105: 6101: 6096: 6089: 6088: 6082: 6081: 6077: 6076: 6071: 6067: 6063: 6059: 6055: 6051: 6047: 6043: 6038: 6034: 6030: 6026: 6022: 6018: 6014: 6009: 6006: 6000: 5996: 5995: 5990: 5986: 5976:on 2016-12-20 5975: 5971: 5965: 5961: 5960: 5954: 5951: 5947: 5943: 5941:9780688067847 5937: 5932: 5931: 5924: 5920: 5914: 5910: 5909: 5904: 5900: 5896: 5892: 5888: 5884: 5880: 5876: 5871: 5867: 5863: 5859: 5855: 5851: 5847: 5841: 5837: 5836: 5830: 5826: 5821: 5817: 5811: 5807: 5802: 5800: 5796: 5792: 5790: 5786: 5782: 5780: 5776: 5770: 5766: 5761: 5757: 5751: 5746: 5745: 5738: 5734: 5728: 5723: 5722: 5715: 5711: 5709:0-916101-51-7 5705: 5701: 5697: 5693: 5690:(2): 135–157. 5689: 5685: 5680: 5678: 5674: 5670: 5666: 5660: 5655: 5654: 5647: 5646: 5634: 5628: 5622:(2005) p 133. 5621: 5615: 5608: 5602: 5595: 5589: 5582: 5577: 5570: 5569: 5564: 5559: 5552: 5546: 5539: 5534: 5527: 5526:Anderson 1973 5522: 5515: 5510: 5503: 5498: 5491: 5486: 5479: 5473: 5466: 5460: 5454: 5450: 5444: 5437: 5431: 5424: 5418: 5411: 5406: 5399: 5394: 5387: 5382: 5380: 5372: 5366: 5359: 5354: 5348:(2003): 3–20. 5347: 5341: 5334: 5328: 5321: 5316: 5307: 5300: 5294: 5287: 5281: 5272: 5266: 5262: 5258: 5254: 5248: 5242: 5238: 5232: 5225: 5221: 5215: 5208: 5202: 5194: 5187: 5180: 5174: 5167: 5163: 5157: 5150: 5144: 5138:, p. 72. 5137: 5132: 5125: 5120: 5104: 5100: 5096: 5092: 5086: 5084: 5082: 5075:, p. 70. 5074: 5069: 5062: 5061:Anderson 1973 5057: 5055: 5047: 5042: 5035: 5030: 5023: 5018: 5011: 5006: 4999: 4994: 4987: 4986:Pringle vol 2 4982: 4975: 4970: 4962: 4961: 4953: 4945: 4941: 4937: 4933: 4929: 4925: 4918: 4910: 4906: 4902: 4898: 4894: 4890: 4883: 4876: 4871: 4864: 4860: 4854: 4848: 4844: 4838: 4831: 4825: 4818: 4814: 4808: 4801: 4796: 4789: 4784: 4777: 4771: 4764: 4759: 4752: 4747: 4740: 4739:Slavic Review 4734: 4727: 4721: 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W. Bush 6679:L. Johnson 6669:Eisenhower 5980:2019-07-17 5095:Middelburg 4763:Gould 2011 4751:Gould 2011 4674:Gould 2011 4649:Gould 2011 4637:Gould 2011 4625:Gould 2011 4613:Gould 2011 4537:Gould 2011 4492:Gould 2011 4480:Gould 2011 4419:Gould 2011 4357:McCullough 4287:Gould 2011 4231:Gould 2011 4098:Gould 2011 4044:Gould 2011 4032:Gould 2011 4020:Gould 2011 4005:Gould 2011 3993:Gould 2011 3981:Gould 2011 2297:Gould 2011 2209:References 1793:See also: 1737:Bering Sea 1168:West Point 1133:Wilhelm II 970:commission 942:See also: 546:Mark Twain 507:overthrown 434:, and the 330:Elihu Root 307:President 283:Elihu Root 235:Mark Hanna 206:Leadership 118:, and the 6642:1913–1933 6630:1897–1913 6625:1861–1897 6620:1829–1861 6615:1801–1829 6610:1776–1801 5838:. Knopf. 4909:161614104 4843:Historian 2401:1:384-85. 2397:Pringle, 1821:Nicaragua 1803:Taft and 1673:Algeciras 1575:capturing 1562:Manchuria 1422:civil war 1410:Nicaragua 1383:Cape Horn 1295:Venezuela 1137:East Asia 981:in 1902. 966:guerrilla 772:general, 650:Uncle Sam 544:, author 106:USS Maine 6757:Category 6417:Archived 6385:(2006). 6377:in JSTOR 6195:in JSTOR 6176:(1973). 6149:Archived 6072:(1939). 6033:27552563 5991:(2001), 5905:(1977). 5856:(1959). 5797:(1938). 5698:(2004). 5333:John Hay 5224:in JSTOR 4863:in JSTOR 4115:in JSTOR 3586:in JSTOR 3084:in JSTOR 3031:in JSTOR 2779:in JSTOR 2169:See also 2139:in Paris 2093:Szechuan 2069:governor 1628:John Hay 1532:Colombia 1418:Colombia 1404:and the 1291:blockade 1143:and the 657:magazine 646:Columbia 322:John Hay 269:went to 247:John Hay 155:Colombia 153:. After 6709:Clinton 6674:Kennedy 6525:(1996). 6490:(1967) 6480:(1936) 6440:; also 6438:excerpt 6360:excerpt 6358:(2009) 6340:excerpt 6264:(1963) 6254:(1965) 6123:(1990). 6062:3639601 5895:2150973 5789:excerpt 5453:Excerpt 5386:Lafeber 4944:3637741 4200:(1968). 4184:(1999) 4129:(1987) 3811:(1995). 2936:Herring 2893:(1968). 2817:1891336 2750:Osborne 2738:Osborne 2669:Herring 2657:Herring 2384:Gould, 2330:(1975). 2071:of the 2063:in 1909 2017:Beijing 1855:Mexican 1833:Managua 1664:Morocco 1507:as the 972:led by 822:Germany 740:Junta’s 493:in 1898 409:Hukuang 225:in the 6699:Reagan 6694:Carter 6664:Truman 6652:Hoover 6647:Wilson 6555:online 6506:online 6492:online 6482:online 6448:online 6414:online 6350:online 6323:online 6303:online 6276:online 6266:online 6256:online 6240:(1988) 6233:(1978) 6225:online 6205:online 6168:online 6140:online 6115:online 6106: 6060: 6031: 6001: 5966: 5938: 5915: 5893: 5866:456809 5864: 5842: 5812: 5779:online 5771: 5752: 5729: 5706: 5677:online 5661: 5335:p 403. 5241:online 5209:(1956) 5166:online 5097:, The 4942: 4907: 4847:online 4817:online 4520: 4516:–508. 4452:(2009) 4186:online 4171:(1970) 4131:online 4085:(1975) 4072:(1971) 3970:online 3911:online 3771:online 3653:Morgan 3414:online 3310:online 3212:Offner 3118: 3002:Offner 2985: 2963:Morgan 2908:Online 2878:online 2862:online 2840: 2815: 2762:Morgan 2697: 2633:online 2604:Online 2561:online 2485: 2273:Morgan 2233:Morgan 2089:Hankow 2033:Peking 1925:Hawaii 1885:, and 1648:France 1528:Panama 1234:Canada 1162:, the 687:Havana 680:consul 430:, the 198:. 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History of U.S. foreign policy, 1897–1913

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