1495:
239:
149:) was the efficient material cause of minerals found in the Earth's soil. He postulated these ideas by using the examples of moisture on the surface of the earth (a moist vapor 'potentially like water'), while the other was from the earth itself, pertaining to the attributes of hot, dry, smoky, and highly combustible ('potentially like fire'). Aristotle's metaphysical theory from times of antiquity had wide-ranging influence on similar theory found in later medieval Europe, as the historian Berthelot notes:
1580:
895:
172:
231:
378:
731:
99:
857:(ed. 4, 1887). It became a standard college text, and has been continuously revised and updated by a succession of editors including W. E. Ford (13th–14th eds., 1912–1929), Cornelius S. Hurlbut (15th–21st eds., 1941–1999), and beginning with the 22nd by Cornelis Klein. The 23rd edition is now in print under the title
537:
theory of mineralogical exhalations (noted above). By 122 BC, the
Chinese had thus formulated the theory for metamorphosis of minerals, although it is noted by historians such as Dubs that the tradition of alchemical-mineralogical Chinese doctrine stems back to the School of Naturalists headed by the
809:
found underground in the dry climate of northern China, once an enormous landslide upon the bank of a river revealed them. Shen theorized that in pre-historic times, the climate of
Yanzhou must have been very rainy and humid like southern China, where bamboos are suitable to grow.
542:(305 BC–240 BC). Within the broad categories of rocks and stones (shi) and metals and alloys (jin), by Han times the Chinese had hundreds (if not thousands) of listed types of stones and minerals, along with theories for how they were formed.
368:
that metallic and other elements could be transformed into one another. However, what was largely accurate of the ancient Greek and medieval metaphysical ideas on mineralogy was the slow chemical change in composition of the Earth's crust.
833:(1130–1200) wrote of this curious natural phenomena of fossils as well, and was known to have read the works of Shen Kuo. In comparison, the first mentioning of fossils found in the West was made nearly two centuries later with
633:, signs of ore beds, and provided description on crystal form. Similar to the ore channels formed by circulation of ground water mentioned above with the German scientist Agricola, Su Song made similar statements concerning
656:(died 1332 AD) provided a groundbreaking treatise on the conception of ore beds from the circulation of ground waters and rock fissures, two centuries before Georgius Agricola would come to similar conclusions. In his
145:) theory of Aristotle included early speculation on earth sciences including mineralogy. According to his theory, while metals were supposed to be congealed by means of moist exhalation, dry gaseous exhalation (
790:
and uplift. In an earlier work of his (circa 1080), he wrote of a curious fossil of a sea-orientated creature found far inland. It is also of interest to note that the contemporary author of the
497:
of 1760, which was the first treatise in Europe to deal with geobotanical minerals, although the
Chinese had mentioned this in earlier treatises of 1421 and 1664. In addition, the Chinese writer
222:). Although documentation of these minerals in ancient times does not fit the manner of modern scientific classification, there was nonetheless extensive written work on early mineralogy.
423:. In it (much like Ibn Sina) he heavily criticized the theories laid out by the ancient Greeks such as Aristotle. His work on mineralogy and metallurgy continued with the publication of
400:(1530) is considered to be the official establishment of mineralogy in the modern sense of its study. He wrote the treatise while working as a town physician and making observations in
130:, and in it theorized that all the known substances were composed of water, air, earth, and fire, with the properties of dryness, dampness, heat, and cold. The Greek philosopher and
457:
and makes extensive references to his discussion of minerals and mining methods. For the next two centuries this written work remained the authoritative text on mining in Europe.
533:, different types of minerals, metallurgy, and alchemy. Although the understanding of these concepts in Han times was Taoist in nature, the theories proposed were similar to the
517:
book listing twenty four of them. Chinese ideas of metaphysical mineralogy span back to at least the ancient Han dynasty (202 BC–220 AD). From the 2nd century BC text of the
292:
However, before the more definitive foundational works on mineralogy in the 16th century, the ancients recognized no more than roughly 350 minerals to list and describe.
825:(1792–1871), who was inspired to become a geologist after observing a providential landslide. In addition, Shen's description of sedimentary deposition predated that of
698:(1587–1641) wrote of mineral beds and mica schists in his treatise. However, while European literature on mineralogy became wide and varied, the writers of the Ming and
617:
of 1070. In it he created a systematic approach to listing various different minerals and their use in medicinal concoctions, such as all the variously known forms of
1375:
Povarennykh A.S. (1972) "A Short
History of Mineralogy and the Classification of Minerals". Crystal Chemical Classification of Minerals, 3–26. Springer, Boston, MA.
1077:, see Kraus 1942−1943, vol. II, pp. 270–303; Weisser 1980, pp. 39–72. On the dating of the writings attributed to Jābir, see Kraus 1942−1943, vol. I, pp. xvii–lxv.
908:
702:
dynasties wrote little of the subject (even compared to
Chinese of the earlier Song era). The only other works from these two eras worth mentioning were the
1411:
1021:
Jâbir ibn Hayyân: Contribution à l'histoire des idées scientifiques dans l'Islam. I. Le corpus des écrits jâbiriens. II. Jâbir et la science grecque
546:
653:
626:
468:
subsequent to the deposition of the surrounding rocks. As will be noted below, the medieval
Chinese previously had conceptions of this as well.
795:
490:
182:
Ancient Greek terminology of minerals has also stuck through the ages with widespread usage in modern times. For example, the Greek word
715:
138:, which accepted Aristotle's view, and divided minerals into two categories: those affected by heat and those affected by dampness.
707:
498:
261:
for example, as the fossilised remnant of tree resin from the observation of insects trapped in some samples. He laid the basis of
72:, 1546) which began the scientific approach to the subject. Systematic scientific studies of minerals and rocks developed in post-
1380:
1066:
872:, first published in 1837, which has consistently been updated and revised. The 6th edition (1892) being edited by his son
460:
Agricola had many various theories on mineralogy based on empirical observation, including understanding of the concept of
1354:
1442:
829:, who wrote his groundbreaking work in 1802 (considered the foundation of modern geology). The influential philosopher
722:(On Looking at Stones) in 1668. However, one figure from the Song era that is worth mentioning above all is Shen Kuo.
321:(written c. 850–950). It would remain the basis of all theories of metallic composition until the eighteenth century.
253:(77 AD) to the classification of "earths, metals, stones, and gems". He not only describes many minerals not known to
1609:
1345:
1028:
677:(1518–1593 AD) wrote of mineralogy in similar terms of Aristotle's metaphysical theory, as the latter wrote in his
304:
300:
513:
In ancient China, the oldest literary listing of minerals dates back to at least the 4th century BC, with the
1494:
687:
116:(370–285 BC) were the first in the Western tradition to write of minerals and their properties, as well as
474:
After the foundational work written by
Agricola, it is widely agreed by the scientific community that the
530:
570:
The most precious things in the world are stored in the innermost regions of all. For example, there is
257:, but discusses their applications and properties. He is the first to correctly recognise the origin of
158:
was the point of departure for later ideas on the generation of metals in the earth, which we meet with
446:
1087:
Norris, John (2006). "The
Mineral Exhalation Theory of Metallogenesis in Pre-Modern Mineral Science".
837:
in 1253 AD, who discovered fossils of marine animals (as recorded in
Joinville's records of 1309 AD).
794:
attributed the idea of particular places under the sea where serpents and crabs were petrified to one
277:. His discussion of mining methods is unrivalled in the ancient world, and includes, for example, an
44:
which not only described many different minerals but also explained many of their properties. The
876:. A 7th edition was published in 1944, and the 8th edition was published in 1997 under the title
238:
186:(meaning 'inextinguishable', or 'unquenchable'), for the unusual mineral known today containing
1435:
634:
596:
878:
Dana's New
Mineralogy: The System of Mineralogy of James Dwight Dana and Edward Salisbury Dana
1300:
873:
1016:
749:(1031–1095 AD) wrote of his land formation theory involving concepts of mineralogy. In his
798:. With Shen Kuo's writing of the discovery of fossils, he formulated a hypothesis for the
8:
1604:
799:
64:
778:. He inferred that the land was formed by erosion of the mountains and by deposition of
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1304:
1104:
834:
822:
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341:
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45:
37:
1428:
1376:
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1034:
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771:
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49:
1108:
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Perhaps the most influential mineralogy text in the 19th and 20th centuries was the
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318:
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33:
25:
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77:
54:
41:
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In addition to alchemical theory posed above, later Chinese writers such as the
578:. After another thousand years the realgar becomes transformed into yellow gold.
862:
814:
764:
678:
349:
206:. Pliny the Elder listed it as a mineral common in India, while the historian
1598:
1038:
787:
775:
760:
471:
For his works, Agricola is posthumously known as the "Father of Mineralogy".
266:
126:
1100:
210:(239–265 AD) of China listed this 'fireproof cloth' as a product of ancient
198:(23–79 AD) both wrote of asbestos, its qualities, and its origins, with the
1416:
translated from Latin by Mark Bandy; Original title: "De Natura Fossilium".
1350:
1047:
Das "Buch über das Geheimnis der Schöpfung" von Pseudo-Apollonios von Tyana
853:, Yale professor, first published in 1848. The fourth edition was entitled
826:
783:
742:
699:
668:
649:
610:
606:
464:
channels that were formed by the circulation of ground waters ('succi') in
333:
329:
254:
113:
102:
1058:
171:
1534:
1514:
759:, 1088), Shen formulated a hypothesis for the process of land formation (
661:
526:
337:
282:
278:
199:
163:
117:
81:
73:
21:
16:
Early writing on mineralogy, especially on gemstones, comes from ancient
401:
76:
Europe. The modern study of mineralogy was founded on the principles of
1519:
1477:
1050:
692:
674:
592:
409:
270:
242:
85:
1338:
Historical Perspectives on East Asian Science, Technology and Medicine
1509:
803:
671:
660:, he applies this theory in describing the deposition of minerals by
622:
584:
486:
is the first definitive work of modern mineralogy. The German mining
442:
419:, which is considered to be the foundational work of modern physical
203:
176:
109:
17:
377:
1539:
1412:
Georg Agricola's "Textbook on Mineralogy" on gemstones and minerals
746:
734:
695:
630:
599:
588:
571:
438:
412:
353:
183:
131:
29:
1336:
Chan, Alan Kam-leung and Gregory K. Clancey, Hui-Chieh Loy (2002).
1529:
1465:
1451:
642:
602:
575:
539:
501:
made clear references to weathering and erosion processes in his
487:
465:
420:
389:
361:
325:
274:
207:
187:
159:
583:
In ancient and medieval China, mineralogy became firmly tied to
340:, providing a basis for metaphysical ideas on mineralogy in the
230:
98:
1549:
1544:
830:
806:
767:
522:
483:
434:
405:
307:, a theory that is first found in pseudo-Apollonius of Tyana's
215:
191:
1406:
433:
of 1556. It was an impressive work outlining applications of
286:
258:
219:
372:
1524:
1420:
779:
730:
618:
249:
For example, Pliny devoted five entire volumes of his work
211:
967:
965:
664:
of (or precipitation from) ground waters in ore channels.
289:, an account which is fully confirmed by modern research.
461:
1387:
Encyclopedia Americana: International Edition: Volume 19
909:
Timeline of the discovery and classification of minerals
441:
metals, alongside discussions on geology of ore bodies,
1268:
1266:
1264:
1227:
1225:
1188:
1186:
1176:
1174:
1164:
1162:
1143:
1141:
1122:
1120:
1118:
1073:
p. 199. On the dating and historical background of the
962:
317:, c. 750–850) and in the Arabic writings attributed to
1002:
1000:
981:
979:
977:
943:
941:
931:
929:
927:
925:
923:
691:, 1596). Another figure from the Ming era, the famous
1299:
427:
in 1546, and culminated in his best known works, the
1396:. Brookfield, Vermont: VARIORUM, Ashgate Publishing.
1261:
1252:
1222:
1213:
1204:
1195:
1183:
1171:
1159:
1150:
1138:
1129:
1115:
1023:. Cairo: Institut Français d'Archéologie Orientale.
890:
997:
974:
938:
920:
415:industries. In 1544, he published his written work
356:(ابوعلى سينا/پورسينا) (980–1037 AD), also known as
388:In the early 16th century AD, the writings of the
84:study of rock sections with the invention of the
1596:
859:Manual of Mineral Science (Manual of Mineralogy)
621:that could be used to cure various ills through
1243:
505:of 1133, long before Agricola's work of 1546.
1436:
1329:Bandy, Mark Chance and Jean A. Bandy (1955).
1306:The system of mineralogy of James Dwight Dana
802:throughout time. This was due to hundreds of
91:
1333:. New York: George Banta Publishing Company.
1234:
1407:Virtual Museum of the History of Mineralogy
1370:Science and Civilization in China: Volume 3
1309:(2 ed.). New York: J. Wiley & Sons
1045:Weisser, Ursula (1980). Spies, Otto (ed.).
988:
141:The metaphysical emanation and exhalation (
1443:
1429:
1015:
348:expanded upon this as well, including the
955:
953:
574:. After a thousand years it changes into
508:
373:Georgius Agricola, 'Father of Mineralogy'
1340:. Singapore: Singapore University Press
729:
398:Bermannus, sive de re metallica dialogus
376:
237:
229:
170:
97:
1284:
1275:
1044:
725:
1597:
1086:
950:
861:(2007), revised by Cornelis Klein and
770:shells in a geological stratum in the
609:(960–1279 AD) wrote of mineralogy and
1424:
295:
36:. Books on the subject included the
245:amber necklace with trapped insects
162:, and which reigned throughout the
13:
1389:. New York: Americana Corporation.
855:Manual of Mineralogy and Lithology
587:observations in pharmaceutics and
557:(circa 444 AD, from the lost book
225:
190:structure. The ancient historians
14:
1621:
1400:
800:shifting of geographical climates
1578:
1493:
893:
817:likened Shen's account with the
813:In a similar way, the historian
417:De ortu et causis subterraneorum
392:scientist Georg Bauer, pen-name
202:belief that it was of a type of
1359:Journal of Geological Education
1355:Mineralogy: A historical review
1293:
868:Equally influential was Dana's
763:); based on his observation of
521:, the Chinese used ideological
305:sulfur-mercury theory of metals
1080:
1009:
545:In the 5th century AD, Prince
425:De veteribus et novis metallis
404:, which was then a center for
1:
1323:
1450:
688:Compendium of Materia Medica
625:. Su Song also wrote of the
563:Management of all Techniques
476:Gemmarum et Lapidum Historia
24:world, ancient and medieval
7:
1385:Ramsdell, Lewis S. (1963).
1372:. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd.
971:Needham, Volume 3, 636–637.
886:
774:hundreds of miles from the
234:Octahedral shape of diamond
120:explanations for them. The
10:
1626:
840:
591:. For example, the famous
553:wrote in the encyclopedia
364:and the earlier notion of
324:With philosophers such as
108:The ancient Greek writers
92:Europe and the Middle East
1574:
1558:
1502:
1491:
1458:
880:, edited by R. V. Gaines
706:(Hierarchy of Stones) of
445:, mine construction, and
1610:History of Earth science
1394:Science in Ancient China
1368:Needham, Joseph (1986).
914:
745:statesman and scientist
453:for his pioneering work
1272:Needham, Volume 3, 614.
1258:Needham, Volume 3, 618.
1231:Needham, Volume 3, 645.
1219:Needham, Volume 3, 650.
1210:Needham, Volume 3, 648.
1201:Needham, Volume 3, 638.
1192:Needham, Volume 3, 651.
1180:Needham, Volume 3, 641.
1168:Needham, Volume 3, 640.
1156:Needham, Volume 3, 643.
1135:Needham, Volume 3, 678.
1126:Needham, Volume 3, 649.
1101:10.1179/174582306X93183
1043:vol. II, p. 1, note 1;
1006:Needham, Volume 3, 646.
985:Needham, Volume 3, 656.
947:Needham, Volume 3, 636.
935:Needham, Volume 3, 637.
396:(1494–1555 AD), in his
134:Theophrastus wrote his
1392:Sivin, Nathan (1995).
1147:Needham, Volume 3, 604
738:
641:of 970 AD with copper
605:(1020–1101 AD) of the
581:
509:China and the Far East
385:
344:as well. The medieval
315:The Secret of Creation
246:
235:
179:
169:
105:
70:On the Nature of Rocks
1301:Edward Salisbury Dana
1059:10.1515/9783110866933
874:Edward Salisbury Dana
741:The medieval Chinese
733:
637:, as did the earlier
567:
380:
241:
233:
174:
156:theory of exhalations
151:
101:
88:in the 17th century.
870:System of Mineralogy
847:Manual of Mineralogy
726:Theories of Shen Kuo
381:Agricola, author of
342:medieval Middle East
175:Fibrous asbestos on
124:Aristotle wrote his
52:wrote works such as
1585:Minerals portal
1331:De Natura Fossilium
959:Bandy, i (Forward).
714:(Strange Rocks) of
629:fracture of native
332:also spread to the
65:De Natura Fossilium
1566:Industrial mineral
1249:Sivin, III, 23–24.
835:Louis IX of France
823:Roderick Murchison
739:
525:terms to describe
455:Naturalis Historia
386:
346:Islamic scientists
301:Islamic alchemists
296:Jabir and Avicenna
251:Naturalis Historia
247:
236:
194:(63 BC–19 AD) and
180:
106:
46:German Renaissance
38:Naturalis Historia
1592:
1591:
1381:978-1-4684-1743-2
1068:978-3-11-007333-1
851:James Dwight Dana
772:Taihang Mountains
756:Dream Pool Essays
737:(沈括) (1031–1095))
718:in 1665, and the
495:Flora Saturnisans
480:Anselmus de Boodt
394:Georgius Agricola
366:Greek metaphysics
269:, especially the
122:Greek philosopher
112:(384–322 BC) and
50:Georgius Agricola
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1583:
1582:
1581:
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1351:Hazen, Robert M.
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635:copper carbonate
551:Liu Song dynasty
437:, refining, and
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319:Jābir ibn Ḥayyān
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1503:Common minerals
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555:Tai-ping Yu Lan
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482:(1550–1632) of
451:Pliny the Elder
430:De re metallica
383:De re metallica
375:
360:, who rejected
310:Sirr al-khalīqa
298:
263:crystallography
228:
226:Pliny the Elder
196:Pliny the Elder
147:pneumatodestera
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78:crystallography
55:De re metallica
42:Pliny the Elder
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784:soil erosion
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719:
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611:pharmacology
607:Song dynasty
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569:
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538:philosopher
535:Aristotelian
518:
514:
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475:
473:
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397:
387:
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330:Neoplatonism
323:
314:
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285:in northern
255:Theophrastus
248:
181:
155:
153:
152:
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142:
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114:Theophrastus
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1535:Plagioclase
1515:Bridgmanite
1017:Kraus, Paul
720:Guan Shi Lu
712:Guai Shi Lu
662:evaporation
527:meteorology
519:Huai Nan Zi
447:ventilation
410:metallurgic
338:Middle Ages
336:during the
283:gold mining
281:account of
279:eye-witness
200:Hellenistic
164:middle ages
82:microscopic
74:Renaissance
48:specialist
32:texts from
22:Greco-Roman
1605:Mineralogy
1599:Categories
1520:K-feldspar
1478:Mineralogy
1324:References
1313:2009-07-06
1051:De Gruyter
1049:. Berlin:
821:scientist
693:geographer
675:Li Shizhen
652:scientist
597:mechanical
593:horologist
493:wrote his
352:scientist
271:octahedral
218:(Chinese:
86:microscope
1510:Amphibole
1353:(1984). "
1290:Chan, 14.
1281:Chan, 15.
1039:468740510
804:petrified
681:treatise
672:physician
623:digestion
585:empirical
443:surveying
273:shape of
204:vegetable
177:muscovite
110:Aristotle
60:On Metals
18:Babylonia
1540:Pyroxene
1459:Overview
1452:Minerals
1303:(1911).
1109:97109455
887:See also
819:Scottish
747:Shen Kuo
735:Shen Kuo
716:Song Luo
696:Xu Xiake
631:cinnabar
600:engineer
589:medicine
572:orpiment
559:Dian Shu
515:Ji Ni Zi
466:fissures
439:smelting
413:smelting
358:Avicenna
354:Ibn Sina
184:asbestos
132:botanist
30:Sanskrit
1559:Related
1530:Olivine
1483:History
1466:Mineral
841:America
807:bamboos
753:(梦溪笔谈;
704:Shi Pin
685:(本草綱目,
643:sulfate
613:in his
603:Su Song
576:realgar
549:of the
540:Zou Yan
488:chemist
421:geology
362:alchemy
350:Persian
326:Proclus
275:diamond
208:Yu Huan
188:fibrous
160:Proclus
1550:Spinel
1545:Quartz
1379:
1344:
1107:
1065:
1037:
1027:
882:et al.
831:Zhu Xi
768:fossil
765:marine
708:Yu Jun
523:Taoist
499:Du Wan
484:Bruges
435:mining
406:mining
390:German
243:Baltic
216:Arabia
192:Strabo
28:, and
1105:S2CID
1089:Ambix
915:Notes
561:, or
287:Spain
259:amber
220:Daqin
26:China
1525:Mica
1471:List
1377:ISBN
1342:ISBN
1063:ISBN
1035:OCLC
1025:ISBN
780:silt
700:Qing
648:The
619:mica
595:and
408:and
212:Rome
154:The
80:and
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1097:doi
1055:doi
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478:of
462:ore
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