History of urban planning

907: 555: 2086:

level of decision-makers through direct engagement and dialogue between stakeholders and public agencies, to solicit ideas, active involvement, and participation in the community planning process. Active public involvement can help planners achieve better outcomes by making them aware of the public's needs and preferences and by using local knowledge to inform projects. When properly administered, collaboration can result in more meaningful participation and better, more creative outcomes to persistent problems than traditional participation methods. It enables planners to make decisions that reflect community needs and values, it fosters faith in the wisdom and utility of the resulting project, and the community is given a personal stake in its success.

1232: 2793:, zoning was characterized as promoting health: 'the exclusion of buildings devoted to business, trade, etc., from residential districts, bears a rational relation to the health and safety of the community...by excluding from residential areas the confusion and danger of fire, contagion and disorder, which in greater or less degree attach to the location of stores, shops, and factories' (272 U.S. 365, 392). Yet, there was little to no epidemiologic evidence at the time suggesting that health improvements would come about by physically separating land uses, and some have suggested that zoning tended to concentrate health hazards and perpetuate disadvantages in poor urban communities (Maantay 2001)". 1702:. The damage brought on by the war provoked significant public interest in what post-war Britain would be like, which was encouraged by the government, who facilitated talk about a 'Better Britain' to boost morale. Post-war rebuilding initiatives saw new plans drafted for London, which, for the first time, addressed the issue of de-centralisation. Firstly, the County of London Plan 1943 recognised that displacement of population and employment was necessary if the city was to be rebuilt at a desirable density. Moreover, the Greater London Plan of 1944 went further by suggesting that over one million people would need to be displaced into a mixture of satellite suburbs, existing rural towns, and 1966:

unimportant, they claim; it is the total metabolism of the development that determines the environmental impact. Also, they say that the emphasis needs to shift from sustainability to resilience, and the spatial scope from the city to the whole urban region. A further criticism is that the New Urbanist project of compacting urban form is a difficult and slow process. In the new global situation, with the horizontal, low-density growth irreversibly dominant, and climate change already happening, they say it would be wiser to focus efforts on the resilience of whole city-regions, retrofitting the existing sprawl for sustainability and self-sufficiency, and investing heavily in '

934:(who had been appointed to the Office of Woods and Forests in 1806 and previously served as an adviser to the Prince Regent) and by developer James Burton. The design was adopted by an Act of Parliament in 1813, which permitted the commissioners to borrow £600,000 for building and construction. The street was intended for commercial purposes and it was expected that most of the income would come from private capital. Nash took responsibility for design and valuation of all properties Construction of the road required demolishing numerous properties, disrupting trade and polluting the air with dust. Existing tenants had first offer to purchase leases on the new properties. 903:, built in stages between 1767 and 1850. The Age of Enlightenment had arrived in Edinburgh, and the outdated city fabric did not suit the professional and merchant classes who lived there. A design competition was held in January 1766 to find a suitably modern layout for the new suburb. It was won by 26-year-old James Craig, who proposed a simple axial grid, with a principal thoroughfare along the ridge linking two garden squares. The New Town was envisaged as a mainly residential suburb with a number of professional offices of domestic layout. It had few planned retail ground floors, however it did not take long for the commercial potential of the site to be realised. 820: 449:

11th centuries, though, there appears to have been a general improvement in the political stability and economy. This made it possible for trade and craft to grow and for the monetary economy and urban culture to revive. Initially, urban culture recovered particularly in existing settlements, often in remnants of Roman towns and cities, but later on, ever more towns were created anew. Meanwhile, the population of western Europe increased rapidly and the utilised agricultural area grew with it. The agricultural areas of existing villages were extended and new villages and towns were created in uncultivated areas as cores for new reclamations.

3462:

advancing social equity. The Brundtland Commission, a United Nations entity, formulated a mission statement for sustainable development in its 1987 report that expresses the guiding spirit of sustainability: 'development that integrates environmental, economic, and social concerns and can meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.' This mission statement has launched a multitude of activities and interests focused on overcoming issues such as international trade barriers, widespread poverty, overpopulation, and climate change."

602: 473:

founded in different parts of Europe from about the 9th century on, but most of them were realised from the 12th to 14th centuries, with a peak-period at the end of the 13th. All kinds of landlords, from the highest to the lowest rank, tried to found new towns on their estates, in order to gain economical, political or military power. The settlers of the new towns generally were attracted by fiscal, economic, and juridical advantages granted by the founding lord, or were forced to move from elsewhere from his estates. Most of the new towns were to remain rather small (as for instance the

1903: 1679:. It consisted of about 40 blocks, sized around 150 metres squared. The block contained an inner small public garden, disposed into a windmill configuration of inner access roads, making it awkward for car traffic. The big blocks form a gently undulating street pattern, north–south commercial, east–west arranged to catch the sea breeze. This was a simple and efficient manner to modernise the historical fixed grid patterns. A series of shaded boulevards short cuts the system, with some public squares, accessing the sea front. The plan of the new town became a success. 1413: 1437: 440: 1498:

and at the top, an airport. Le Corbusier had the fanciful notion that commercial airliners would land between the huge skyscrapers. He segregated pedestrian circulation paths from the roadways and glorified the automobile as a means of transportation. As one moved out from the central skyscrapers, smaller low-story, zig-zag apartment blocks (set far back from the street amid green space) housed the inhabitants. Le Corbusier hoped that politically minded industrialists in France would lead the way with their efficient

1201: 580: 5508: 792:

proposals, and resented what they considered the imposition of a new, foreign, architectural style. In the actual reconstruction, the general layout of the city was conserved, but it was not identical to that before the cataclysm. Despite the necessity of rapid reconstruction and the lack of financial means, authorities did take several measures to improve traffic flow, sanitation, and the aesthetics of the city. Many streets were made as wide as possible to improve traffic flow.

6507: 1851: 465: 1217: 164: 2779:

president of the American City Planning Institute (1917), the model was found in Prussia (Germany). After the Franco-Prussian war (1870–1871), many Prussian cities experienced uncontrolled buildup of inner-city factories and housing, followed by dangerous health hazards and pollution. Citizens protested the deteriorating environmental conditions. Thereupon, Prussian city officials responded with a zone system that assigned particular land uses to designated locations."

1009: 1396:

Europe including in Brussels in 1919, Paris in 1922; Gothenburg in 1923; Amsterdam in 1924; New York in 1925, and finally Vienna in 1926. These congresses must have had a strong appeal to housing reformers and town planners with more than more than 300 for Gothenburg 1923; more than 500 for Amsterdam 1924; over 1,000 for Vienna 1926. Belgium, France, Sweden, The Netherlands and Austria all experienced the influence of the garden city movement during this period.

984:) in 1862, intended for a time frame of about 50 years. The plan not only covered the area around the cities of Berlin and Charlottenburg but also described the spatial regional planning of a large perimeter. The plan resulted in large areas of dense urban city blocks known as 'blockrand structures', with mixed-use buildings reaching to the street and offering a common-used courtyard, later often overbuilt with additional court structures to house more people. 444:

to extend and rebuild the town, and to resettle the population of the surrounding area, selling the house lots to the settlers. The highly symmetrical layout is centred on a canalised river and an intersecting street. The symmetry is disturbed, however, by the church in the eastern corner and by the pre-existing street (the only curved one in the whole town) on the northwest side. The corner bastions and the wide outer ditch were added in the late 16th century.

5902: 5349: 1342:, won the competition run by the First Garden City, Limited to plan Letchworth, an area 34 miles outside London. Unwin and Parker planned the town in the centre of the Letchworth estate with Howard's large agricultural greenbelt surrounding the town, and they shared Howard's notion that the working class deserved better and more affordable housing. However, the architects ignored Howard's symmetric design, instead replacing it with a more 'organic' design. 5892: 1405: 836: 672:'s ambitious urban reform programme transformed the old environment to emulate the "long straight streets, wide regular spaces, uniformity and repetitiveness of structures, lavish use of commemorative and ornamental elements, and maximum visibility from both linear and circular perspective." The Pope set no limit to his plans, and achieved much in his short pontificate, always carried through at top speed: the completion of the dome of 1995: 200: 796: 852: 304: 2213:

streets. Such evidence of the pervasive use of orthogonal arrangements tells of an enduring continuity of farm, village, and city. The farmer's custom of long narrow fields and right-angled boundaries carried easily to streets and squares. However, the innovative geometry of towns and cities was influenced more by the mechanics of supplying water and draining sewage than in the imposition of right-angled street corners."

5337: 2128: 1453: 5371: 1099:

That same year the U.S. Senate published guidance on city planning that contained examples of German planning legislation directly influenced by Stübben. Whilst some theorists have recognised that American planning was primarily influenced by German and British practices, the German influence has not been as widely studied as a result of geopolitical tensions in and around the World Wars.

973:(Catalan for 'extension') consisted of 550 regular blocks with chamfered corners to facilitate the movement of trams, crossed by three wider avenues. His objectives were to improve the health of the inhabitants, towards which the blocks were built around central gardens and orientated NW-SE to maximise the sunlight they received, and assist social integration. 980:. This grand boulevard was built to replace the city walls. In 1857, Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria issued the decree ordering the demolition of the city walls and moats. During the following years, a large number of opulent public and private buildings were erected. Similarly, Berlin finalized its "Bebauungsplan der Umgebungen Berlins" ( 1334:. Donors to the project collected interest on their investment if the garden city generated profits through rents or, as Fishman calls the process, 'philanthropic land speculation'. Howard tried to include working class cooperative organisations, which included over two million members, but could not win their financial support. In 1904, 1519:(The Radiant City) in 1935. Perhaps the most significant difference between the Contemporary City and the Radiant City is that the latter abandoned the class-based stratification of the former; housing was now assigned according to family size, not economic position. Le Corbusier's theories were sporadically adopted by the builders of 2403:, and he is also associated to Thurii and Rhodes. It seems that the importance of Hippodamus' ideas was not so much in the orthogonal plan, but rather in the distribution of functions and social classes across the city. (Kolb 1984, pp. 115-120; Cahill, Nicholas (2002). Household and City Organization at Olynthus. New Haven. par. 1.2) 1513:, in which he proposed to bulldoze most of central Paris north of the Seine and replace it with his sixty-story cruciform towers from the Contemporary City, placed within an orthogonal street grid and park-like green space. In the 1930s, Le Corbusier expanded and reformulated his ideas on urbanism, eventually publishing them in 1115:, in which he examined and documented the traditional, incremental approach to urbanism in Europe, with a close focus on public spaces in Italy and the Germanic countries. Sitte's work was hugely influential on European urbanism, and with five editions published between 1889 and 1922 was cited by planners from 2041:

use; less automobile use, yet better access; efficient resource use; less pollution and waste; the restoration of natural systems; good housing and living environments; a healthy social ecology; a sustainable economy; community participation and involvement; and preservation of local culture and wisdom.

2431:

Jerke, Porter & Lassar (2008), pp. 8–9: "In his view, the core qualities of good design—loosely based on principles laid down by Vitruvius in the first century B.C. and countless reconceptualizations since—generally are functionality and durability, contextual compatibility, and enduring respect

1685:

has often modeled itself on Western modernism, using the authority of the state to implement efficient urban designs produced in administrative centers. (In Russia this process was nominally decentralized after the end of the USSR, but Moscow remains the source of much of the country's urban planning

1497:

skyscrapers, steel-framed office buildings encased in huge curtain walls of glass. These skyscrapers were set within large, rectangular, park-like green spaces. At the centre was a huge transportation hub that on different levels included depots for buses and trains, as well as highway intersections,

1384:, who demonstrated that homes could be built rapidly and economically whilst maintaining satisfactory standards for gardens, family privacy and internal spaces. Unwin diverged from Howard by proposing that the new developments should be peripheral 'satellites' rather than fully-fledged garden cities. 1098:

The publication was never translated into English, but Stübben presented papers at numerous city planning conferences, including at the 1910 conference on city planning sponsored by the Royal Institute of British Architects, alongside Daniel Burnham, Ebenezer Howard, Patrick Geddes and Raymond Unwin.

1083:

was a German engineer and urban planner, the author of one of the earliest texts on urban planning Stadterweiterungen in technischer, baupolizeilicher und Wirtschaftlicher Beziehung (Town extensions: their links with technical and economic concerns and with building regulations) published in 1876. It

323:

called him "the father of city planning", and until well into the 20th century, he was indeed regarded as such. This is, however, only partly justified as Greek cities with orthogonal plans were built long before Hippodamus. The Hippodamian plan that was called after him is an orthogonal urban layout

2788:

Jason Corburn, "Reconnecting Urban Planning and Public Health"; in Weber & Crane (2012), p. 398: "Consistent with the emerging aesthetic and technocratic ideals of planning, tools to classify and segment city functions took hold and land-use zoning emerged as one such powerful tool. Local zoning

2778:

Eran Ben-Joseph, "Codes and Standards"; in Weber & Crane (2012), p. 359: "In their search for a scientific model for the American city, these newly formed experts looked overseas. According to Frederick Law Olmsted, Jr. (1870–1957), the president of the National Planning Conference and the first

2098:

financial and intellectual resources) must be manifest; participants should be given clear objectives by planning staff, who facilitate the process by providing guidance, consultancy, expert opinions, and research; and facilitators should be trained in conflict resolution and community organisation.

2085:

Collaborative planning arose in the US in response to the inadequacy of traditional public participation techniques to provide real opportunities for the public to make decisions affecting their communities. Collaborative planning is a method designed to empower stakeholders by elevating them to the

1142:

to introduce coherent systems of town planning across the country using the new principles of the 'garden city', and to ensure that all housing construction conformed to specific building standards, while similar yet more comprehensive legislation was enacted in the Netherlands under the Housing Act

1102:

Legislation enabling the laying out of urban plans by municipalities and compulsory purchase powers were set out in the German Federal Building Line Act of 1875, but the 1794 Allgemeines Landrecht already gave the local state authority, namely the police, the right to indicate Fluchtlinien, i.e. the

945:

was commissioned to remodel the Medieval street plan of the city by demolishing swathes of the old quarters and laying out wide boulevards, extending outwards beyond the old city limits. Haussmann's project encompassed all aspects of urban planning, both in the centre of Paris and in the surrounding

791:

into one of the earliest Baroque cities. With a logical street layout, straight avenues offered long, uninterrupted views flanked by buildings of a uniform size. This plan was opposed by residents and municipal authorities, who wanted a rapid reconstruction, did not have the resources for grandiose

593:

was an early model of the new urban planning, which took on a star-shaped layout adapted from the new star fort, designed to resist cannon fire. This model was widely imitated, reflecting the enormous cultural power of Florence in this age; "he Renaissance was hypnotised by one city type which for a

545:

The deep depression around the middle of the 14th century marked the end of the period of great urban expansion. Only in the parts of Europe where the process of urbanisation had started relatively late, as in eastern Europe, was it still to go on for one or two more centuries. It would not be until

472:

In the 9th to 14th centuries, many hundreds of new towns were built in Europe, and many others were enlarged with newly planned extensions. These new towns and town extensions have played a very important role in the shaping of Europe's geographical structures as they in modern times. New towns were

443:

Plan of Elburg in The Netherlands, based on the cadastral plan of 1830. Elburg was founded in 1392 by Arent toe Boecop, steward of the duke of Gelre. Arent seems to have acted as a private entrepreneur. He had bought a piece of land next to the existing town, and he obtained permission from his lord

1647:

was particularly progressive socially, politically and culturally, they are outstanding examples of the building reform movement that contributed to improving housing and living conditions for people with low incomes through innovative approaches to architecture and urban planning. The estates also

1282:

Howard's ideas, although utopian, were also highly practical and were adopted around the world in the ensuing decades. His garden cities were intended to be planned, self-contained communities surrounded by parks, containing proportionate and separate areas of residences, industry, and agriculture.

1000:

that championed intervention on the part of the poor and disadvantaged beyond urban planning as a primarily aesthetic and technical concern as in the major urban planning programmes in European cities. Around 1900, theorists began developing urban planning models to mitigate the consequences of the

883:

boldly proposed razing entire sections of the city and "laying out new streets without restraint". This last option was chosen by the king and his minister in spite of its emphasis on commerce and industry as opposed to religious and royal structures. Keen to have a new and perfectly ordered city,

338:

was destroyed by the Persians in 494 BC, it was rebuilt in a regular form that, according to tradition, was determined by the ideas of Hippodamus of Miletus. Regular orthogonal plans particularly appear to have been laid out for new colonial cities and cities that were rebuilt in a short period of

118:

evidence suggests that many Harrapan houses were laid out to protect from noise and to enhance residential privacy; many also had their own water wells, probably both for sanitary and for ritual purposes. These ancient cities were unique in that they often had drainage systems, seemingly tied to a

2040:

However, sustainable development is a recent, controversial concept. Wheeler, in his 2004 book, defines sustainable urban development as "development that improves the long-term social and ecological health of cities and towns." He sketches a 'sustainable' city's features: compact, efficient land

1741:

to ensure the availability of affordable, high quality housing to all Swedish citizens. The program sought to construct one million new housing dwellings over a ten-year period, which it accomplished with the development of numerous new towns. France and The Netherlands undertook similar post-war

541:

in the Netherlands, dating from the end of the 14th century. (see illustration) Looking at town plans such as the one of Elburg, it clearly appears that it is impossible to maintain that the straight street and the symmetrical, orthogonal town plan were new inventions from 'the Renaissance,' and,

536:

From the evidence of the preserved towns, it appears that the formal structure of many of these towns was willfully planned. The newly founded towns often show a marked regularity in their plan form, in the sense that the streets are often straight and laid out at right angles to one another, and

448:

After the gradual disintegration and fall of the West-Roman empire in the 5th century and the devastation by the invasions of Huns, Germanic peoples, Byzantines, Moors, Magyars, and Normans in the next five centuries, little remained of urban culture in western and central Europe. In the 10th and

377:

The Romans used a consolidated scheme for city planning, developed for civil convenience. The basic plan consisted of a central forum with city services, surrounded by a compact, rectilinear grid of streets. A river sometimes flowed near or through the city, providing water, transport, and sewage

987:

Planning and architecture continued its paradigm shift at the turn of the 20th century. The industrialised cities of the 19th century had grown at a tremendous rate, with the pace and style of building often dictated by private business concerns. The evils of urban life for the working poor were

422:

The development of Greek and Roman urbanisation is relatively well-known, as there are relatively many written sources, and there has been much attention to the subject since the Romans and Greeks are generally regarded as the main ancestors of modern Western culture. It should not be forgotten,

2212:

Eran Ben-Joseph, "Codes and Standards"; in Weber & Crane (2012), p. 357: "Other excavations, such as those in the Indus Valley, at Mohenjo-Daro and at Harappa in Punjam, show that the valley had cities planned and built in rectangular blocks lined with two-story houses along broad, straight

2097:

have demonstrated that successful collaborative planning depends on a number of interrelated factors: the process must be truly inclusive, with all stakeholders and affected groups invited to the table; the community must have final decision-making authority; full government commitment (of both

1395:

In Europe, Garden Cities were also promoted by a range of organisations including the International Garden Cities and Town Planning Association, the international branch of the British Garden Cities and Town Planning Association. The International Association held a series of conferences across

1387:

In North America, the Garden City movement was also popular, and evolved into the "Neighbourhood Unit" form of development. In the early 1900s, as cars were introduced to city streets for the first time, residents became increasingly concerned with the number of pedestrians being injured by car

452:

Urban development in the early Middle Ages, characteristically focused on a fortress, a fortified abbey, or a (sometimes abandoned) Roman nucleus, occurred "like the annular rings of a tree", whether in an extended village or the centre of a larger city. Since the new centre was often on high,

3461:

Jerke, Porter & Lassar (2008), p. 11: "Recognition that the economic and social future of the planet would require maintaining the integrity of natural systems led, in the 1980s, to international efforts to promote economic development that respects the functions of national systems while

1965:

and accounts for about half of the GHG emissions/carbon footprint). They have also argued that land-use planning can do little to achieve sustainability without regulating the design and associated technology of the actual development within a zoned area. Distances and density are relatively

1274:. All these settlements decentralised the working environment from the centre of the cities, and provided a healthy living space for the factory workers. Howard generalised this achievement into a planned movement for the country as a whole. He was also influenced by the work of economist 382:, preserve the remains of these schemes, which show the very logical way the Romans designed their cities. They would lay out the streets at right angles, in the form of a square grid. All roads were equal in width and length, except for two, which were slightly wider than the others. The 1058:

legislation and other tools such as compulsory purchase and land readjustment, which enabled planners to legally demarcate sections of cities for different functions or determine the shape and depth of urban blocks, originated in Prussia, and spread to Britain, the US, and Scandinavia.

2598:"Review of Turin, 1564-1680: Urban Design, Military Culture, and the Creation of the Absolutist Capital; Military Architecture, Cartography, and the Representation of the Early Modern European City: A Checklist of Treatises on Fortification in the Newberry Library, Martha D. Pollak" 333:

From about the late 8th century on, Greek city-states started to found colonies along the coasts of the Mediterranean, which were centred on newly created towns and cities with more or less regular orthogonal plans. Gradually, the new layouts became more regular. After the city of

3249:

Cuthbert (2006), p. 56: "Rationalist architecture and urbanism reached its zenith in its coincidence with functionalist social science and the eugenic strategies of fascism, particularly with Hitler and his architect Albert Speer, and with Mussolini (Marcello Piacentini, Giuseppi

394:, running north–south, intersected in the middle to form the centre of the grid. All roads were made of carefully fitted flag stones and filled in with smaller, hard-packed rocks and pebbles. Bridges were constructed where needed. Each square marked by four roads was called an 1278:

who argued in 1884 that industry needed a supply of labour that could in theory be supplied anywhere, and that companies have an incentive to improve workers living standards as the company bears much of the cost inflicted by the unhealthy urban conditions in the big cities.

1103:

boundaries of areas which were to be reserved for streets. After the Prussian municipal reform of 1808 the Baupolizei became accountable to the municipal administration (with the important exception of Berlin), which thus also became responsible for the planning function.

2421:

Harris, W. (1989). "Invisible Cities: the Beginning of Etruscan Urbanization". Atti del Secondo Congresso Internazionale Etrusco. Roma, 1989. pp. 375-392. p. 85. The Etruscans were, in their turn, probably also influenced in this respect by Greek and Hellenic

1106:

Such tools were already widely used in France which from 1807 required settlements of over 2,000 inhabitants to prepare a compulsory easement plan setting out building lines and the width of the streets between them. In 1889, the architect and urban theorist

1392:, was the Neighbourhood Unit-style development, which oriented houses toward a common public path instead of the street. The neighbourhood is distinctively organised around a school, with the intention of providing children a safe way to walk to school. 16:

Urban planning is a technical and political process concerned with the use of land and design of the urban environment, including air, water, and the infrastructure passing into and out of urban areas such as transportation and distribution networks.

324:

with more or less square street blocks. Archaeological finds from ancient Egypt—among others—demonstrate that Hippodamus cannot truly have been the inventor of this layout. Aristotle's critique and indeed ridicule of Hippodamus, which appears in

946:

districts, with regulations imposed on building façades, public parks, sewers and water works, city facilities, and public monuments. Beyond aesthetic and sanitary considerations, the wide thoroughfares facilitated troop movement and policing.

735:

During this period, rulers often embarked on ambitious attempts at redesigning their capital cities as a showpiece for the grandeur of the nation. Disasters were often a major catalyst for planned reconstruction. An exception to this was in

1315:, 120 ft (37 m) wide, extending from the centre. The garden city would be self-sufficient and when it reached full population, another garden city would be developed nearby. Howard envisaged a cluster of several garden cities as 1961:. They say that the real problem with the unsustainable nature of modern cities is not just about cars and too much driving - it is about the entire urban metabolism of the city (of which auto-mobility is less than half of the overall 1095:, published in 1890 and again in 1907 and 1924. Stübben served as the chief city planner of Cologne between 1881 and 1898 and was influential in his advocacy for the social objectives of city planning particularly for the urban poor. 1617: 287:, planned for - and oriented around - defense. Roads were laid out to make the paths to castles longer; the castles and other buildings were often situated in order to hide the castles through densely packed surrounding buildings. 2052:

Because of political and governance structures in most jurisdictions, sustainable planning measures must be widely supported before they can affect institutions and regions. Actual implementation is often a complex compromise.

138:

had highly organized central portions, typically consisting of one or more public plazas bordered by public buildings. In contrast, the surrounding residential areas typically showed little or no signs of planning.

546:

the Industrial Revolution that the same level of expansion of urban population would be reached again, although the number of newly created settlements would remain much lower than in the 12th and 13th centuries.

3822:

Yiftachel, Oren, 1995, "The Dark Side of Modernism: Planning as Control of an Ethnic Minority," in Sophie Watson and Katherine Gibson, eds., Postmodern Cities and Spaces (Oxford and Cambridge, MA: Blackwell),

1812:

ordinance. Houston does, however, restrict development densities and mandate parking, even though specific land uses are not regulated. Also, private-sector developers in Houston use subdivision covenants and

752:, no large-scale redesigning was achieved due to the complexities of rival ownership claims. However, improvements were made in hygiene and fire safety with wider streets, stone construction and access to the 1796:

ended in most countries, such as Britain and France. Since then many have been demolished and replaced by other housing types. Rather than attempting to eliminate all disorder, planning now concentrates on

361:

also employed regular orthogonal structures on which they molded their colonies. They probably were inspired by Greek and Hellenic examples, as well as by regularly planned cities that were built by the

468:

Caernarvon (Wales). Plan by John Speed, 1611. Caernarfon castle and town were re-founded by King Edward I of England in July 1283, during his second Welsh campaign to end the Second War of Independence.

110:) lead archeologists to interpret them as the earliest known examples of deliberately planned and managed cities. The streets of many of these early cities were paved and laid out at right angles in a 1372:. The scheme's utopian ideals were that it should be open to all classes of people with free access to woods and gardens and that the housing should be of low density with wide, tree-lined roads. The 1789:

By the late 1960s and early 1970s, many planners felt that modernism's clean lines and lack of human scale sapped vitality from the community, blaming them for high crime rates and social problems.

661:, the circle, took no heed of its undulating terrain in Filarete's manuscript. This process occurred in cities, but ordinarily not in the industrial suburbs characteristic of this era (see Braudel, 926:

was one of the first planned developments of London. An ordered structure of London streets, replacing the mediaeval layout, had been planned since just after the Great Fire of London (1666) when

1307:

in 1898, commonly regarded as the most important book in the history of urban planning. His idealised garden city would house 32,000 people on a site of 6,000 acres (2,428 ha), planned on a

404:. Each insula was about 80 yards (73 m) square. As the city developed, it could eventually be filled with buildings of various shapes and sizes and criss-crossed with back roads and alleys. 67:

and walk around. Inspect the foundation platform and scrutinise the brickwork. Testify that its bricks are baked bricks, And that the Seven Counsellors must have laid its foundations. One square

75:'s temple.Three square miles and the open ground comprise Uruk. Look for the copper tablet-box, Undo its bronze lock, Open the door to its secret, Lift out the lapis lazuli tablet and read." 2460:. München: Verlag Ch. Beck. In fact, many sites where the Romans created towns, such as Paris, Vienna and Bratislava, had previously been Celtic settlements of more or less urban character. 3679:

Gunder, Michael, 2003, "Passionate Planning for the Others' Desire: An Agonistic Response to the Dark Side of Planning," Progress in Planning, Vol. 60, no. 3, October, pp. 235–319.

36:

The pre-Classical and Classical periods saw a number of cities laid out according to fixed plans, though many tended to develop organically. Designed cities were characteristic of the

2049:

model, which consists of cities that are designed with consideration of environmental impacts, such as minimising the uses of energy, water, and the outputs of waste and pollution.

3610:

Allmendinger, Phil and Michael Gunder, 2005, "Applying Lacanian Insight and a Dash of Derridean Deconstruction to Planning's 'Dark Side'," Planning Theory, vol. 4, pp. 87–112.

1667:

who understood the importance of taking the regional environment into account and the relationship between social issues and town planning, and foresaw the emergence of huge urban

2390:

Kolb, Frank (1984). Die Stadt im Altertum. München: Verlag C.H. Beck. pp. 51-141: Morris, A.E.J. (1972). History of Urban Form. Prehistory to the Renaissance. London. pp. 22-23.

867:

into a modern capital, with long, straight, wide boulevards. The planning was influenced by many factors, not the least of which was the city's history of street revolutions.

3783:

Tang, Wing-Shing, 2000, "Chinese Urban Planning at Fifty: An Assessment of the Planning Theory Literature," Journal of Planning Literature, vol. 14, no. 3, pp. 347–366.

1769:

projects. Other European countries such as France, Germany, Italy and Sweden also had some successes with new towns, especially as part of post-war reconstruction efforts.

1891:. Residents in compact urban neighbourhoods drive fewer miles and have significantly lower environmental impacts across a range of measures compared with those living in 779:

proposed using the reconstruction to completely change the layout and architectural style of the city. His plan was to transform the medieval city into a city of the new

3865:

Kemp, Roger L. and Carl J. Stephani (2011). "Cities Going Green: A Handbook of Best Practices." McFarland and Co., Inc., Jefferson, NC, USA, and London, England, UK. (

3742:

Kemp, Roger L. and Carl J. Stephani (2011). "Cities Going Green: A Handbook of Best Practices." McFarland and Co., Inc., Jefferson, NC, USA, and London, England, UK.

906: 1356:, who extended the movement to regional planning. The principles of the garden city were soon applied to the planning of city suburbs. The first such project was the 1899:

has also been introduced in Europe to promote sustainable land use patterns that strive for compact cities and a reduction of greenfield land taken by urban sprawl.

598:– was impressed upon utopian schemes: this is the star-shaped city". Radial streets extend outward from a defined centre of military, communal or spiritual power. 419:

covered the opening when the city was under siege, and additional watchtowers were constructed along the city walls. An aqueduct was built outside the city walls.

2508:

The foundation, planning and building of new towns in the 13th and 14th centuries in Europe. An architectural-historical research into urban form and its creation

3536:

Shandas, Vivek; Messer, W. Barry (2008). "Fostering Green Communities Through Civic Engagement, Community-Based Environmental Stewardship in the Portland Area".

2493:(1941) 1962, in reference to an air view (fig.8) of the medieval Italian town of Bagnocavallo. Giedion's source was Luigi Piccinati, "Urbanistica Medioevale" in 1547:

in India. Le Corbusier's thinking also had been profoundly affected by the philosophy of Futurism and Constructivism in Russia at the turn of the 20th century.

5409: 1176:

in the UK to draw up schemes for the development of land and the idea of town planning as a new and distinctive area of expertise began to be formed. In 1910,

1648:

provide exceptional examples of new urban and architectural typologies, featuring fresh design solutions, as well as technical and aesthetic innovations.

1188:

was established in 1914 with a mandate to advance the study of town-planning and civic design. The first university course in America was established at

3760:

Pløger, John, 2001, "Public Participation and the Art of Governance," Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design, vol. 28, no. 2, pp. 219–241.

1477: 5963: 2789:

ordinances were often couched as both protecting public health and benefiting private landowners. For example, in the landmark 1926 Supreme Court case

1887:. It is an approach for successfully reducing environmental impacts by altering the built environment to create and preserve smart cities that support 3826:

Yiftachel, Oren, 1998, "Planning and Social Control: Exploring the Dark Side," Journal of Planning Literature, vol. 12, no. 4, May, pp. 395–406.

2412:

Morris 1972, pp. 39-41, 51-60; Kolb 1984, pp. 169-238; Benevolo, Leonardo (1993). Die Geschichte der Stadt. Frankfurt am Main/New York. pp. 256-267.

5181: 6050: 5910: 3505: 2915: 5920: 4837: 4051: 3268:

Osborn, J and Whittick, A. 1977. 'New Towns: Their Origins, Achievements, and Progress'. Third Ed. Leonard Hill, London. First Pub 1963.pp56.

3259:

Osborn, J and Whittick, A. 1977. 'New Towns: Their Origins, Achievements, and Progress'. Third Ed. Leonard Hill, London. First Pub 1963.pp 55

1833: 1817:

to effect land-use restrictions resembling zoning laws. Houston voters have rejected comprehensive zoning ordinances three times since 1948.

3990: 3087: 3829:

Yiftachel, Oren, 2006, "Re-engaging Planning Theory? Towards South-Eastern Perspectives," Planning Theory, vol. 5, no. 3, pp. 211–222.

3538: 1660:

were among the leading architects of these projects which exercised considerable influence on the development of housing around the world.

3945: 1145: 586:, a foritifed town Northeast Italy, built by the Venetian Republic from 1593, that is an example of a star fort of the late Renaissance, 3857: 668:

One of the most significant programmes of urban planning in the Baroque Period was Rome. Inspired by the ideal of the Renaissance city,

5402: 1558:

and were actively involved in developing new housing projects in Frankfurt and other German cities including in Stuttgartt and Berlin.

221: 3613:

Atmospheric Environment Volume 35, Issue 10, April 2001, Pages 1717–1727. "Traffic pollution in a downtown site of Buenos Aires City"

1046:. The road is located on sites where medieval city fortifications once stood, including high walls and the broad open field ramparts ( 6093: 5128: 3399: 776: 6060: 5980: 5930: 4409: 4201: 1876:

environments with long-lasting structures, buildings and a great liveability for its inhabitants. The most clearly defined form of

757: 2809:

Magazine of Sustainable Design (Quadrimestrale on line sul progetto di città sostenibile) Edizione SCUT, Università Chieti-Pescara

6277: 5925: 3903: 1135: 3371: 2539:

International History of City Development. Vol.VII: Urban Development in East-Central Europe: Poland, Czechoslovakia and Hungary

554: 5956: 537:

that the house lots are rectangular, and originally largely of the same size. One very clear and relatively extreme example is

3227:

Robert Fishman, Urban Utopias in the Twentieth Century: Ebenezer Howard, Frank Lloyd Wright, and Le Corbusier (Cambridge, MA:

5905: 5395: 5228: 4095: 4065: 4045: 4028: 4004: 3870: 3814: 3778: 3747: 3736: 3701: 3669: 3625: 3490: 3307: 3129: 3097: 2955: 2885: 2860: 2727: 2200: 2179: 2117: 2060: 1682: 1628: 1323: 1127: 415:. Areas outside city limits were left open as farmland. At the end of each main road was a large gateway with watchtowers. A 3996: 3060: 6438: 5161: 2515: 681: 3763:

Roy, Ananya, 2008, "Post-Liberalism: On the Ethico-Politics of Planning," Planning Theory, vol. 7, no. 1, pp. 92–102.

1247:

in 1898. This was inspired by earlier planned communities built by industrial philanthropists in the countryside, such as

4480: 756:. The Great Fire did, however, stimulate thinking about urban design that influenced city planning in North America. The 4057: 3332: 6530: 5810: 4625: 3277:

Hall, P and Ward, C. 1998. 'Sociable Cities: the Legacy of Ebenezer Howard'. John Wiley and Sons, Chichester pp. 41-69.

1981:

has emerged in recent decades as guiding themes for urban planning. This term was defined and advocated in 1987 report

1943: 3240:

John Friedman, "Varieties of Planning Experience: Toward a Globalized Planning Culture?"; in Weber & Crane (2012).

1523:

in Europe and the United States. Many of his disciples became notable in their own right, including painter-architect

1084:

was used as a textbook at the first urban planning course in Germany, at the college of technology in Aachen in 1880.

957:

to fill the space beyond the city walls after they were demolished from 1854. He is credited with inventing the term '

378:

disposal. Hundreds of towns and cities were built by the Romans throughout their empire. Many European towns, such as

135: 5949: 3650: 3436: 1896: 884:

the king commissioned the construction of big squares, rectilinear, large avenues and widened streets – the new

788: 247: 953:

was based on a scientific analysis of the city and its modern requirements. It was drawn up by the Catalan engineer

229: 4231: 2223: 2107: 1624: 6398: 5674: 5374: 5238: 5006: 4877: 4432: 2379: 1738: 1715: 56: 3286:

Rachel Weber & Randall Crane, "Planning as Scholarship: Origins and Prospects"; in Weber & Crane (2012).

175: 5795: 5233: 5121: 4503: 4282: 4013: 2112: 1808:

is a large city (with a metropolitan population of 5.5 million) in a developed country without a comprehensive

1687: 1231: 768: 427:

origin. Among these, there are also cases that appear to have been newly planned, such as the Lusatian town of

261: 225: 150: 1543:

in the Czech Republic are notable plans based on his ideas, while the architect himself produced the plan for

5915: 5820: 4966: 930:

and John Evelyn drew plans for rebuilding the city on the classical formal model. The street was designed by

408: 1957:

Critics of New Urbanism have argued that its environmental aspect is too focused on transport and excessive

5418: 5116: 4582: 4475: 4437: 4194: 3788:

Man-Made America: Chaos or Control?: An Inquiry into Selected Problems of Design in the Urbanized Landscape

3754: 2827: 4152: 2227: 5825: 5457: 5197: 5176: 5151: 760:, developed in the aftermath of the Great Fire, established a template for colonial planning. The famous 3844:, Selected, Edited, and Provided with Headnotes by John W. Reps, Professor Emeritus, Cornell University. 942: 860: 819: 423:

though, that there were also other cultures with more or less urban settlements in Europe, primarily of

6083: 5790: 5442: 5202: 5171: 4602: 4485: 4460: 4226: 1923: 1608:'s aspiration to provide cheap, simple, efficient, and good-quality housing. Two buildings designed by 1303: 1209: 922:

From 1800 onwards, urban planning developed as a technical and legal occupation and in its complexity.

279:, followed classic Chinese planning principles; later, during the feudal period, a type of town called 2741: 5770: 5364: 4236: 3711:; Holden, Meg; Lewin, Mary; Neilson, Lyndsay; Oakley, Christine; Truter, Art; Wilmoth, David (2013). 2549:. New York/Cambridge (Mass.)/London; Lauret, Alain, Raymond Malebranche & Gilles Séraphin (1988) 1653: 1425: 559: 342:

Following in the tradition of Hippodamus about a century later, Alexander commissioned the architect

99: 45: 3201: 1540: 1352:

was also built on Howard's principles. His successor as chairman of the Garden City Association was

5750: 5472: 5223: 5207: 5166: 5111: 5041: 4986: 4812: 4390: 4380: 4375: 4169:"Urban Planning, 1794-1918: An International Anthology of Articles, Conference Papers, and Reports" 3908: 3890: 1919: 1463: – an example of a typical planned industrial city founded in 1938 together with a shoemaking 1177: 210: 2901: 1130:

was founded in 1899 and the first academic course on urban planning in Britain was offered by the

319:(498–408 BC) is regarded as the first town planner and 'inventor' of the orthogonal urban layout. 6181: 6176: 5972: 5585: 5477: 5452: 5432: 5353: 5315: 5300: 5156: 5046: 4655: 4542: 4470: 4452: 4442: 4187: 3841:

Urban Planning, 1794-1918: An International Anthology of Articles, Conference Papers, and Reports

2583: 2399:

Hippodamus is also reported to have played an important role in the (re-)planning of the city of

1978: 1931: 1829: 1373: 1357: 1185: 1131: 705: 673: 214: 154: 71:

is city, one square mile is orchards, one square mile is claypits, as well as the open ground of

6336: 6305: 6257: 6131: 5840: 5765: 5745: 5694: 5689: 5467: 5359: 5295: 5051: 4773: 4610: 4419: 4327: 2582:

The undulating terrace of housing makes its appearance surprisingly late: Giedion's example is

1935: 1181: 1120: 872: 453:

defensible ground, the city plan took on an organic character, following the irregularities of

2334: 601: 6226: 6171: 6156: 6141: 6025: 6003: 5610: 5605: 5600: 5562: 5462: 5270: 5081: 4887: 4827: 4722: 4168: 3980: 3766:

Santamouris, Matheos (2006). Environmental Design of Urban Buildings: An Integrated Approach.

3708: 3188: 3173:"Garden Cities to the World! The International Propagation of the Garden City Idea 1913-1926" 1988: 1888: 1828:

influenced urban planning especially in the 1960s and after, manifesting in such theories as

1499: 1134:

in 1909. The first official consideration of these new trends in Britain was embodied in the

931: 804: 729: 644: 458: 363: 316: 3753:

Oke, T. R. (1982). "The energetic basis of the urban heat island". Quarterly Journal of the

2319: 6295: 6211: 5875: 5815: 5785: 5654: 5615: 5590: 5555: 5532: 5437: 4832: 4822: 4768: 4552: 4495: 4427: 4074: 4037: 3819:

Wheeler, Stephen (2004). "Planning Sustainable and Livable Cities", Routledge; 3rd edition.

3728: 2305: 2287: 1967: 1962: 1814: 1420:("Horseshoe Estate") is a housing estate in Berlin, built in 1925–33 designed by architect 1365: 1339: 1298: 1244: 1224: 1139: 876: 856: 808: 741: 685: 325: 3450:"Urban Sustainability 2.0: Resilient regions, sustainable sprawl and green infrastructure" 1792:

Modernist planning fell into decline in the 1970s when the construction of cheap, uniform

1618:

The Architectural Work of Le Corbusier, an Outstanding Contribution to the Modern Movement

354:, where the city's regularity was facilitated by its level site near a mouth of the Nile. 8: 6458: 6355: 6186: 6073: 5447: 4852: 4789: 4763: 4572: 4557: 3957: 3799: 3396: 1958: 1939: 1926:

promotes a sustainable approach towards urban construction that appreciates and develops

1754: 1676: 1613: 1605: 1490: 1389: 1080: 911: 900: 649: 486: 396: 37: 25: 657:" in compliment to his patron; its twelve-pointed shape, circumscribable by a "perfect" 6231: 5895: 5649: 5071: 4753: 4292: 4114: 3984: 3975: 3590: 3555: 2625: 2530: 2362: 2262: 2026: 1750: 1707: 1703: 1632: 1600: 1345: 1189: 2757: 1902: 1574:

started in 1925 and completed in 1930. The project was initiated by Frankfurt's mayor

1412: 6473: 6433: 6315: 6310: 6191: 5891: 5850: 5845: 5777: 5595: 5550: 5537: 5492: 5265: 5091: 4896: 4716: 4547: 4537: 4465: 4401: 4354: 4322: 4297: 4287: 4262: 4134: 4091: 4061: 4041: 4024: 4000: 3866: 3810: 3774: 3743: 3732: 3697: 3665: 3646: 3621: 3594: 3573:

Sirianni, Carmen (2007). "Neighborhood Planning as Collaborative Democratic Design".

3486: 3449: 3375: 3303: 3125: 3093: 2951: 2881: 2856: 2761: 2723: 2617: 2566: 2511: 2486: 2475:

International History of City Development. Vol.I: Urban Development in Central-Europe

2366: 2354: 2266: 2254: 2242: 2196: 2175: 2022: 1983: 1862: 1761:. This construction effort was combined with extensive federal government grants for 1722: 1584: 1361: 997: 899:

Another significant urban plan from the Enlightenment period was that of Edinburgh's

824: 713: 595: 384: 351: 60: 3559: 954: 6262: 6206: 6161: 6121: 6068: 5855: 5830: 5719: 5570: 5497: 5290: 4976: 4687: 4640: 4587: 4338: 4124: 3676:(A standard text for many college and graduate courses in city planning in America) 3630: 3582: 3547: 3176: 2848: 2753: 2609: 2346: 2246: 2090: 2070: 2046: 1873: 1746: 1726: 1711: 1698:

Ebenezer Howard's urban planning concepts were only adopted on a large scale after

1445: 1436: 1289: 1267: 1173: 1076: 1014: 977: 927: 840: 749: 439: 3525:. University of California, Berkeley: Institute of Urban and Regional Development. 1216: 1088: 1005:, by providing citizens, especially factory workers, with healthier environments. 879:

and his ministers immediately launched efforts to rebuild the city. The architect

6418: 6388: 6146: 6078: 6040: 6008: 5998: 5714: 5701: 5679: 5664: 5575: 5487: 5320: 5280: 5026: 4981: 4911: 4635: 4630: 4073:, Susan Fainstein and Scott Campbell, Oxford, England and Malden, Massachusetts: 3880: 3795: 3479: 3403: 3336: 3329: 3069: 2945: 2656: 2170:

Davreu, Robert (1978). "Cities of Mystery: The Lost Empire of the Indus Valley".

1758: 1745:

New towns were built in the United States from the 1960s – examples include

1640: 1575: 1551: 1429: 1353: 1275: 1240: 1220: 1019: 889: 844: 828: 761: 617:

Only in ideal cities did a centrally planned structure stand at the heart, as in

4951: 3685:

Tomorrow & Tomorrow, 1899–1999: the TCPA's First Hundred Years, and the Next

1200: 6511: 6483: 6423: 6413: 6408: 6196: 6151: 6136: 6111: 6106: 5860: 5387: 5031: 5011: 4991: 4971: 4961: 4956: 4901: 4798: 4794: 4783: 4615: 4592: 4532: 4210: 3928: 3918: 2042: 2034: 2030: 1947: 1805: 1762: 1664: 1657: 1595: 1520: 1515: 1316: 1263: 1161: 1002: 880: 709: 665:), which remained disorderly and characterised by crowding and organic growth. 610: 79: 21: 4129: 4102: 3586: 3551: 3180: 2852: 1528: 1489:

presented his scheme for a "Contemporary City" for three million inhabitants (

1456: 1075:

visionaries as well as from the practical minded infrastructure engineers and

6524: 6468: 6428: 6300: 6236: 6221: 6216: 6044: 5993: 5870: 5800: 5757: 5724: 5709: 5527: 5482: 5341: 5310: 5305: 5275: 5086: 5036: 4941: 4872: 4862: 4847: 4778: 4732: 4711: 4672: 4645: 4385: 4344: 4138: 4103:"Urban spatial order: street network orientation, configuration, and entropy" 3962: 3938: 3851: 3771:

The Last Day: Wrath, Ruin & Reason in The Great Lisbon Earthquake of 1755

3172: 2765: 2621: 2358: 2250: 2132: 1998: 1798: 1766: 1560: 1381: 1369: 1349: 1335: 1331: 1259: 1116: 1108: 1060: 993: 989: 981: 923: 669: 618: 579: 564: 52: 49: 3839: 6478: 6403: 6290: 6267: 6126: 5941: 5659: 5637: 5632: 5622: 5260: 5021: 5016: 4906: 4892: 4857: 4808: 4704: 4663: 4577: 4567: 4349: 4020: 3518: 2535:

New Towns of the Middle Ages. Town Plantation in England, Wales and Gascony

2350: 2258: 2074: 2013:

Some planners argue that modern lifestyles use too many natural resources,

1951: 1927: 1914:. Traffic in Qatar is separated into two roads, one serving each direction. 1892: 1883: 1858: 1845: 1778: 1699: 1609: 1524: 1506:

strategies adopted from American industrial models to re-organise society.

1486: 1441: 1294: 1205: 1150: 1035: 958: 721: 717: 697: 477:

of southwestern France), but some of them became important cities, such as

374:

established principles of good design whose influence is still felt today.

358: 330:

2. 8, is perhaps the first known example of a criticism of urban planning.

114:, with a hierarchy of streets from major boulevards to residential alleys. 95: 5507: 3859:

Missing Middle Housing: Responding to the Demand for Walkable Urban Living

1801:

and diversity in society and the economy; this is the post-modernist era.

992:

style of government management of the economy, in fashion for most of the

464: 280: 6367: 6030: 6018: 5627: 5522: 5076: 5001: 4882: 4867: 4842: 4692: 4682: 3950: 2928: 2471:

The Making of Europe. Conquest, Colonization and Cultural Change 950-1350

2006: 1877: 1850: 1825: 1793: 1765:, improved and increased housing and road construction and comprehensive 1668: 1510: 1377: 1256: 1008: 745: 568: 522: 284: 272: 131: 127:

could have been an outgrowth of agriculture based on rectangular fields.

115: 41: 3437:"From planning sustainable cities to designing resilient urban regions " 2832:. MIT Roch Library. pp. Forward - Emily Talen and Julia Koschinsky. 1532: 163: 28:, as planning is in evidence at some of the earliest known urban sites. 6463: 6362: 6320: 6116: 6035: 5669: 5542: 4996: 4677: 4252: 3802:, strictly America; a time capsule of photography and design approach.) 3519:"Public Participation in Planning: New Strategies for the 21st Century" 3330:"Growing Cooler - the Evidence on Urban Development and Climate Change" 2805:"Toronto's Waterfront: Hybrid Landscapes and Infrastructures of Desire" 2804: 1649: 1544: 1421: 1327: 1308: 1252: 1079:

combining to produce new design templates for political consideration.

1071:

Urban planning became professionalised at this period, with input from

893: 800: 658: 518: 454: 416: 401: 367: 347: 343: 120: 2681: 2629: 2597: 2519: 1686:

expertise.) Germany under national socialism also undertook grandiose

976:

Proposals were also developed at the same time from 1857 for Vienna's

744:

when, despite many radical rebuilding schemes from architects such as

6345: 6166: 5285: 4915: 4758: 3791: 3725:

Urban Design and the Bottom Line: Optimizing the Return on Perception

3717:

Institutional and Social Innovation for Sustainable Urban Development

3228: 2845:

Die Verwertung von synthetischen Fettsäureestern als Kunstspeisefette

2300: 2018: 2014: 2002: 1854: 1582:

as a general manager of many communal departments. In Stuttgart, the

1579: 1571: 1494: 1493:) in 1922. The centrepiece of this plan was the group of sixty-story 1482: 1472: 1467:

in which practically all adult inhabitants of the city were employed.

1312: 1165: 1157: 1031: 950: 772: 637:(1493–95), resembles a closed space instead, surrounded by arcading. 583: 572: 490: 371: 320: 276: 124: 111: 91: 1994: 1527:, who absorbed Le Corbusier's ideas into his own aesthetics theory. 1404: 502: 199: 59:). The first recorded description of urban planning appears in the 6393: 6332: 6285: 6101: 5644: 4737: 4727: 4699: 4667: 4620: 4359: 4277: 4272: 4119: 3712: 2613: 1672: 1460: 970: 795: 775:, in which a large part of the city centre was destroyed, Governor 689: 654: 640: 634: 590: 530: 428: 412: 107: 4036:, Daniel J. Monti Jr., Oxford, England and Malden, Massachusetts: 3635:

Myths from Mesopotamia: Creation, the Flood, Gilgamesh, and Others

1866: 1475:

began to surface in urban planning, in particular promoted by the

988:

becoming increasingly evident as a matter for public concern. The

851: 835: 498: 350:, the grandest example of idealised urban planning of the ancient 6453: 6201: 5988: 4817: 4179: 4088:

Planning for the Unplanned: Recovering from Crises in Megacities

2400: 2094: 1555: 1503: 1464: 1284: 1271: 1248: 1043: 807:

pombalina" (pombaline cage), developed for the reconstruction of

780: 701: 693: 478: 474: 335: 83: 4019:"The City Shaped: Urban Patterns and Meanings Through History", 3692:

Hoch, Charles, Linda C. Dalton and Frank S. So, editors (2000).

2971: 2541:. New York/Londen; Lavedan, Pierre & Jeanne Hugueney (1974) 1536: 814: 629:) of 1504. As built, the unique example of a rationally planned 303: 6493: 6252: 4920: 4803: 4267: 4156: 3041: 3017: 3005: 1809: 1734: 1644: 1636: 1550:

Concurrently to the work of Le Corbusier, in Germany under the

1452: 1223:'s influential 1902 diagram, illustrating urban growth through 1169: 1072: 1055: 1047: 1039: 764:

for Savannah (1733) was in part influenced by the Grand Model.

753: 737: 677: 538: 526: 510: 506: 494: 87: 72: 4161: 3971:, Charles Abrams, Harper & Row Publishing, New York, 1965. 3723:

Jerke, Dennis; Douglas R. Porter; and Terry J. Lassar (2008).

3364: 2288:"Jo-Bo System of Heian-kyo - City Planning in Classical Japan" 2080: 6488: 6443: 6372: 6350: 4562: 3349: 2943: 1973: 1911: 1338:, a noted architect and town planner, along with his partner 1319:

of a central city of 50,000 people, linked by road and rail.

938: 864: 784: 725: 575:

suggest the value of military victory and mass entertainment.

549: 482: 424: 390: 379: 308: 292: 268: 103: 3406:. American Institute of Architects. Retrieved on 2014-03-23. 1066: 6448: 6013: 4257: 3416: 3414: 3412: 3342: 2473:. London/New York. pp. 5-60, 106-197; Gutkind, A.E. (1964) 1907: 1239:

The first major urban planning theorist in Britain was Sir

514: 68: 64: 2547:

Florentine New Towns. Urban Design in the late Middle Ages

2446:. Morris H. Morgan (translator). Harvard University Press. 2174:. (second edition). Sydney: Reader's Digest. pp. 121-129. 1180:

was appointed as the first Town Planning Inspector at the

2791:

Village of Euclid, Ohio, et al. v. Ambler Reality Company

1872:

Various current movements in urban design seek to create

937:

An even more ambitious reconstruction was carried out in

288: 3713:"Managing Metropolises by Negotiating Mega-Urban Growth" 3409: 3618:

The Form of Cities: Political Economy and Urban Design.

3472: 3470: 3468: 3397:

Issue Brief: Smart-Growth: Building Livable Communities

2005:

in 1837. The layout of the city is referred to as the "

1376:

that recommended the building of housing estates after

1063:

was cited as a rationale for keeping cities organized.

917: 3372:"Beauty, Humanism, Continuity between Past and Future" 1311:

pattern with open spaces, public parks and six radial

3992:

What Do Planners Do?: Power, Politics, and Persuasion

2195:. (Illustrated edition). New York: Springer. p. 229. 2059:

Often an integral party of sustainable cities is the

708:; the opening of six streets; the restoration of the 4090:, by Aseem Inam (published by Routledge USA, 2005). 3465: 3294: 3292: 1733:) was a large public housing program implemented in 3146:

The American garden city and the new towns movement

1777:Urban planning has grown in prominence with rising 1671:. In 1927, he was commissioned to plan the city of 871:In contrast to the Great Fire of London, after the 4012:, Christopher Silver and Mary Corbin Sies (Eds.), 3637:, Oxford World's Classics, London, pp. 39–136 3478: 3029: 2993: 2602:Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 2069:sustainability in city planning can include large 3786:Tunnard, Christopher and Boris Pushkarev (1963). 3696:, Intl City County Management Assn; 3rd edition. 3640: 3289: 3159:Garden Cities for America: The Radburn Experience 3047: 3023: 3011: 2829:City Building (Der Stadtebau) - English Translate 2742:"Land readjustment: A tool for urban development" 2222: 1030:) is a circular grand boulevard that serves as a 6522: 5417: 4034:The American City: A Social and Cultural History 3687:. London: Town and Country Planning Association. 3374:. Traditional Architecture Group. Archived from 2720:Barcelona, the urban evolution of a compact city 1604:exhibition. It was an international showcase of 982:Binding Land-Use Plan for the Environs of Berlin 571:ideals of urban planning. The Roman archway and 3862:by Daniel Parolek of Opticos Design, Inc., 2012 3216:Le Corbusier: The Machine and the Grand Design. 1989:World Commission on Environment and Development 1050:), criss-crossed by paths that lay before them. 3848:City Planning According to Artistic Principles 3662:The American City: What Works and What Doesn't 3506:Oregon Ballot Measures 37 (2004) and 49 (2007) 2335:"The two professions of Hippodamus of Miletus" 1570:) was an affordable public housing program in 1440:House 15 at the Weißenhofsiedlung designed by 1432:and Neukölln gardens director Ottokar Wagler. 1408:Model of Le Corbusier's Plan Voisin from 1925. 1113:City Planning According to Artistic Principles 5957: 5403: 4195: 3641:Fainstein, Susan S.; Campbell, Scott (2003). 3535: 1834:crime prevention through environmental design 1784: 1478:Congrès Internationaux d'Architecture Moderne 815:Enlightenment, Europe and America (1700–1800) 434: 5971: 4053:Urban Development: The Logic Of Making Plans 4010:Planning the Twentieth-Century American City 3575:Journal of the American Planning Association 3539:Journal of the American Planning Association 3218:George Braziller, Pub: New York, 1969 (p.7). 3092:. University Press of America. p. 176. 2228:"City Size in Late Post-Classic Mesoamerica" 1380:incorporated the ideas of Howard's disciple 1184:, and began meeting with practitioners. The 4023:, 2nd Edition, Thames and Hudson Ltd, 1999 3946:The Death and Life of Great American Cities 3516: 2972:"To-morrow: A Peaceful Path to Real Reform" 2081:Collaborative planning in the United States 2033:. Many urban planners, therefore, advocate 1946:architecture, as well as opposing solitary 1554:, a group of theorists group up around the 1424:, municipal planning head and co-architect 1326:in 1899 to create the first garden city at 228:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 5964: 5950: 5410: 5396: 4202: 4188: 2510:. Phd. thesis Universiteit van Amsterdam. 1974:Sustainable development and sustainability 1857:in Sweden, started in the late 1990s as a 550:Renaissance and Baroque Europe (1400–1750) 4128: 4118: 3805:Weber, Rachel, and Randall Crane (2012). 3715:. In Harald Mieg and Klaus Töpfer (ed.). 3694:The Practice of Local Government Planning 3420: 2441: 2166: 2164: 1172:and others began working together within 1067:Urban planning profession and legislation 605:The ideal centrally planned urban space: 248:Learn how and when to remove this message 4410:Regional Planning Association of America 3999:, American Planning Association, 1994. 3877:Tomorrow: A Peaceful Path to Real Reform 3572: 2185: 1993: 1901: 1849: 1451: 1435: 1411: 1403: 1230: 1215: 1199: 1007: 905: 850: 834: 818: 794: 758:Grand Model for the Province of Carolina 600: 578: 553: 463: 438: 302: 3904:The Principles of Scientific Management 3481:Planning Sustainable and Livable Cities 3476: 3170: 2984: 2825: 2739: 2595: 2551:Bastides, villes nouvelles du moyen-age 2545:. Geneva/Paris; Friedman, David (1988) 1737:between 1965 and 1974 by the governing 1195: 961:' and his approach was codified in his 407:The city may have been surrounded by a 6523: 4162:International Planning History Society 4100: 3300:British Town Planning and Urban Design 3085: 3079: 2944:Peter Hall, Mark Tewdwr-Jones (2010). 2842: 2802: 2193:Encyclopedic Dictionary of Archaeology 2161: 1804:Minimally planned cities still exist. 1716:New Towns being constructed in Britain 1639:. Dating mainly from the years of the 594:century and a half – from Filarete to 542:therefore, typical of 'modern times.' 298: 5945: 5391: 4183: 3807:The Oxford Handbook of Urban Planning 3682: 3517:Innes, Judith; Booher, David (2000). 2999: 2332: 2118:Urban planning in communist countries 2061:Incorporation of nature within a city 1683:Urban planning in communist countries 1388:traffic. The response, seen first in 1136:Housing and Town Planning Act of 1909 1128:Town and Country Planning Association 787:, which from 1600 was transformed by 315:Traditionally, the Greek philosopher 5370: 4166: 3119: 3035: 2875: 2555:Storia dell'urbanistica. Il Duecento 2477:. New York / London. pp. 13-20, 63. 1954:. Both trends started in the 1980s. 1509:In 1925, Le Corbusier exhibited his 1212:model and the "linear city movement" 918:Modern urban planning (1800–onwards) 843:for Washington, D.C., as revised by 682:Basilica di San Giovanni in Laterano 226:adding citations to reliable sources 193: 158: 4481:Professional transportation planner 3887:The Improvement of Towns and Cities 2553:. Toulouse; Guidoni, Enrico (1992) 2444:The Ten Books on Architecture, Bk I 1663:Another important theorist was Sir 896:protected constructions in Europe. 411:to protect it from invaders and to 400:, the Roman equivalent of a modern 311:, showing the grid plan of the city 295:, is one example of a castle town. 13: 4209: 4167:Reps, John W. (27 November 2002). 3833: 3620:Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing. 2495:Urbanistica deal Antichità ad Oggi 1906:A road crossing at UNCTAD XIII in 910:Craig's 1768 Plan for Edinburgh's 892:buildings were among the earliest 803:protective wooden structure, the " 14: 6542: 4146: 3423:New Directions in Planning Theory 3124:. Oxford: Blackwell. p. 74. 3089:Geographical excursions in London 2876:Hall, Thomas (16 December 2003). 1897:Circular flow land use management 963:Teoría General de la Urbanización 863:transformed the medieval city of 789:Charles Emmanuel I, Duke of Savoy 457:like the shapes that result from 6505: 5901: 5900: 5890: 5506: 5369: 5348: 5347: 5335: 4082:Urban Planning Theory since 1945 2878:Planning Europe's Capital Cities 2740:Larsson, Gerhard (1 June 1997). 2682:"Old and New Towns of Edinburgh" 2333:Paden, Roger (1 February 2001). 2126: 2108:Index of urban planning articles 1625:Berlin Modernism Housing Estates 1156:. Following Britain's 1909 Act, 996:, was starting to give way to a 684:; the chapel of the Praesepe in 264:dating back thousands of years. 198: 162: 55:of the third millennium BC (see 6399:Residential cluster development 5675:Science, technology and society 4878:Transferable development rights 4433:Environmental impact assessment 3616:Cuthbert, Alexander R. (2006). 3604: 3566: 3529: 3510: 3499: 3455: 3442: 3429: 3390: 3322: 3313: 3280: 3271: 3262: 3253: 3243: 3234: 3221: 3208: 3164: 3161:(Temple University Press, 1982) 3151: 3138: 3113: 3053: 2978: 2964: 2937: 2922: 2908: 2894: 2869: 2836: 2819: 2796: 2782: 2772: 2733: 2712: 2699: 2674: 2649: 2636: 2589: 2576: 2560: 2537:. London; Gutkind, E.A. (1972) 2524: 2500: 2480: 2463: 2450: 2435: 2425: 2415: 2406: 2393: 2384: 2380:Urban planning in ancient Egypt 2373: 1839: 1772: 1739:Swedish Social Democratic Party 663:The Structures of Everyday Life 57:Urban planning in ancient Egypt 6051:Shopping streets and districts 4504:Community economic development 4283:Planning and zoning commission 4014:Johns Hopkins University Press 2586:, 1794; Giedion 1962, fig. 83. 2326: 2312: 2294: 2280: 2216: 2206: 2152: 2113:Urban planning in Nazi Germany 1820: 1643:(1919–1933), when the city of 967:General Theory of Urbanisation 700:palaces; the erection of four 688:; additions or repairs to the 151:Ancient Chinese urban planning 119:well-developed ideal of urban 82:from remains of the cities of 1: 3350:"Charter of the New Urbanism" 3319:Cuthbert (2006), pp. 102–104. 3048:Fainstein & Campbell 2003 3024:Fainstein & Campbell 2003 3012:Fainstein & Campbell 2003 2987:Dictionary of Human Geography 2758:10.1016/S0197-3975(96)00059-8 2730:, Harvard University, p. 122. 2141: 771:by the French troops of King 388:, running east–west, and the 31: 6177:Model dwellings for the poor 5419:Environmental social science 5117:Planning Accreditation Board 4476:Transit-oriented development 4438:Recreation resource planning 3755:Royal Meteorological Society 3645:(2nd ed.). John Wiley. 2934:. Retrieved 17 January 2013 2916:"The birth of town planning" 2843:Franck, H. Heinrich (1921). 2686:UNESCO World Heritage Centre 2661:UNESCO World Heritage Centre 2571:Space, Time and Architecture 2491:Space, Time and Architecture 2191:Kipfer, Barbara Ann (2000). 2146: 1718:over the following decades. 1693: 1399: 1301:, Howard published his book 949:A concurrent plan to extend 567:, c. 1480–1484) exemplifies 144: 102:(in modern-day northwestern 78:Distinct characteristics of 7: 5458:Environmental communication 4153:Urban and Regional Planning 4071:Readings in Planning Theory 3809:. Oxford University Press. 3643:Readings in planning theory 3452:. Retrieved on: 2014-12-06. 3439:. Retrieved on: 2014-12-06. 3421:Fainstein, Susan S (2000). 3339:. Retrieved on: 2009-03-16. 2947:Urban and Regional Planning 2320:"Hippodamian Plan - Livius" 2101: 1535:and the industrial city of 1481:from 1928. The influential 1471:In the 1920s, the ideas of 720:"); the integration of the 643:'s ideal city, building on 346:to lay out his new city of 262:tradition of urban planning 63:: "Go up on to the wall of 10: 6547: 5443:Environmental anthropology 5129:Professional organizations 4486:Urban freight distribution 4461:Transportation forecasting 3798:Press. (This book won the 3660:Garvin, Alexander (2002). 2880:. Routledge. p. 389. 2456:Demandt, Alexander (1998) 2339:Philosophy & Geography 2172:The World's Last Mysteries 1924:New Classical Architecture 1843: 1785:Reaction against modernism 1714:. c. 68) resulted in many 1688:schemes for urban redesign 1631:, comprising six separate 1629:UNESCO World Heritage Site 1578:, who hired the architect 1304:Garden Cities of To-morrow 1087:Similarly influential was 435:Medieval Europe (500–1400) 148: 6531:History of urban planning 6502: 6381: 6331: 6276: 6245: 6092: 6059: 5979: 5886: 5735: 5515: 5504: 5425: 5365:List of planning journals 5329: 5251: 5216: 5190: 5144: 5137: 5104: 5064: 4940: 4933: 4746: 4654: 4601: 4525: 4516: 4494: 4451: 4418: 4400: 4368: 4334:History of urban planning 4315: 4306: 4245: 4217: 4130:10.1007/s41109-019-0189-1 3897:Town Planning in practice 3664:. New York: McGraw Hill. 3587:10.1080/01944360708978519 3552:10.1080/01944360802291265 3477:Wheeler, Stephen (2004). 3181:10.13140/RG.2.1.1850.6728 2853:10.1007/978-3-663-07056-6 2241:(4). Beverley Hills, CA: 1938:. This is in contrast to 1922:, the recent movement of 1880:urbanism is known as the 1038:(Inner Town) district of 633:new city centre, that of 123:. Cities laid out on the 100:Indus Valley civilisation 5973:Real estate developments 5473:Environmental psychology 5301:Marine spatial planning 4813:Healthy community design 4391:Village design statement 4381:Preservation development 4376:Conservation development 3969:The City is the Frontier 3909:Frederick Winslow Taylor 3891:Charles Mulford Robinson 3402:19 November 2018 at the 3335:24 December 2010 at the 3171:Geertse, Michel (2008). 2803:Sliwka, Ryszard (2011). 2543:L'Urbanisme au Moyen Age 2469:Bartlett, Robert (1993) 2251:10.1177/0096144204274396 2235:Journal of Urban History 1920:sustainable construction 1895:suburbs. The concept of 943:Georges-Eugène Haussmann 339:time after destruction. 6182:Multifamily residential 5478:Environmental sociology 5453:Environmental economics 5433:Ecological anthropology 5316:Real estate development 5047:List of urban theorists 4543:City Beautiful movement 4471:Rational planning model 4453:Transportation planning 4443:Sustainable development 4107:Applied Network Science 4080:Taylor, Nigel, (2007), 3523:Working Paper 2000-2007 3485:. New York: Routledge. 3144:Carol Ann Christensen, 3086:Gayler, Hih J. (1996). 2826:Stubben, Josef (2008). 2709:, 1985, London, p. 285. 2596:Klaiber, Susan (1993). 2584:Lansdown Crescent, Bath 1979:Sustainable development 1932:architectural tradition 1374:Tudor Walters Committee 1358:Hampstead Garden Suburb 1324:First Garden City, Ltd. 1235:Hampstead Garden Suburb 1186:Town Planning Institute 1132:University of Liverpool 769:bombardment of Brussels 271:, some cities, such as 155:Urban planning in China 136:late Postclassic period 6132:Conservation community 5468:Environmental politics 5360:List of planned cities 5296:Landscape architecture 5052:List of urban planners 4774:Conservation community 4611:Collaborative planning 4420:Environmental planning 4328:Comprehensive planning 4101:Boeing, Geoff (2019). 4060:, Island Press, 2001. 3683:Hardy, Dennis (1999). 3196:Cite journal requires 3068:, TCPA, archived from 2506:Boerefijn, Wim (2010) 2351:10.1080/10903770124644 2010: 1915: 1869: 1826:Behaviorist psychology 1541:František Lydie Gahura 1468: 1449: 1433: 1409: 1236: 1228: 1213: 1182:Local Government Board 1051: 914: 873:1755 Lisbon earthquake 868: 848: 832: 811: 614: 587: 576: 469: 459:agricultural terracing 445: 370:.) The Roman engineer 312: 6227:Single-room occupancy 6172:Mixed-use development 6157:Intentional community 6142:Golf course community 6004:Mixed-use development 5563:Ecological humanities 5463:Environmental history 5271:Development economics 5122:Real estate education 5082:James Howard Kunstler 5007:Konstantinos Doxiadis 4888:Urban growth boundary 4828:Mixed-use development 4723:Intentional community 4040:, 1999. 391 pp. 3981:Christopher Alexander 3935:The Concise Townscape 3925:The Image of the City 3899:, Raymond Unwin, 1909 3310:, Longman, Singapore. 2746:Habitat International 1997: 1905: 1889:sustainable transport 1853: 1455: 1439: 1415: 1407: 1234: 1219: 1203: 1011: 909: 854: 838: 822: 798: 645:Leon Battista Alberti 604: 582: 557: 467: 442: 306: 24:runs parallel to the 6296:Garden city movement 6212:Retirement community 5655:Integrated geography 5533:Behavioral geography 5438:Ecological economics 4823:Leapfrog development 4769:Complete Communities 4626:Intelligent urbanism 4553:Garden city movement 4496:Economic development 4428:Environmental design 4075:Blackwell Publishers 4038:Blackwell Publishers 3983:, Sara Ishikawa and 3729:Urban Land Institute 3298:Smith Morris et al. 3120:Hall, Peter (2002). 2045:are now promoting a 1968:green infrastructure 1963:ecological footprint 1340:Richard Barry Parker 1299:Progress and Poverty 1245:garden city movement 1243:, who initiated the 1196:Garden city movement 1091:'s 1890 publication 1034:around the historic 928:Sir Christopher Wren 877:Joseph I of Portugal 857:Second French Empire 809:Pombaline Lower Town 706:Saint Peter's Square 704:, including that in 686:Santa Maria Maggiore 413:mark the city limits 283:emerged. Those were 222:improve this section 6459:Planning permission 6202:Residential airpark 6187:Penthouse apartment 6074:Industrial district 5926:Research institutes 5448:Environmental crime 5229:Communist countries 4853:Planning Permission 4790:Filtering (housing) 4764:Cluster development 4573:Settlement movement 4558:Indigenous planning 3958:The City in History 3915:Cities in Evolution 3800:National Book Award 2985:Goodall, B (1987), 2158:Dalley 1989, p.120. 1987:, published by the 1959:individual mobility 1755:Jonathan, Minnesota 1742:growth programmes. 1677:Mandatory Palestine 1616:in 2016 as part of 1614:World Heritage Site 1606:modern architecture 1598:built for the 1927 1491:Ville Contemporaine 1428:, garden architect 1390:Radburn, New Jersey 1354:Sir Frederic Osborn 1143:1901, known as the 1081:Reinhard Baumeister 783:style, modelled on 767:Following the 1695 650:De re aedificatoria 299:Greco-Roman culture 26:history of the city 6512:Housing portal 6084:Technology centers 5896:Environment portal 5650:Industrial ecology 5112:Planning education 5072:Elizabeth Farrelly 4916:High-rise urbanism 4754:Affordable housing 4293:World Urbanism Day 3985:Murray Silverstein 3976:A Pattern Language 3769:Shrady, Nicholas, 3727:. Washington, DC: 3704:(The "Green Book") 3122:Cities of Tomorrow 2657:"Pombaline Lisbon" 2531:Beresford, Maurice 2442:Vitrivius (1914). 2027:urban heat islands 2011: 1916: 1870: 1751:Columbia, Maryland 1708:New Towns Act 1946 1633:subsidized housing 1612:were designated a 1601:Deutscher Werkbund 1469: 1450: 1434: 1410: 1346:Welwyn Garden City 1237: 1229: 1214: 1190:Harvard University 1052: 915: 869: 849: 833: 812: 742:Great Fire of 1666 659:Pythagorean figure 615: 588: 577: 470: 455:elevation contours 446: 313: 174:. You can help by 6518: 6517: 6474:Regional planning 6434:Land-use planning 6316:Urban green space 6311:Planned community 6246:Science/education 6192:Private community 5939: 5938: 5778:Green criminology 5538:Community studies 5493:Political ecology 5385: 5384: 5342:Cities portal 5266:Civil engineering 5247: 5246: 5100: 5099: 4929: 4928: 4897:Peri-urbanisation 4717:Planned community 4548:Dark-sky movement 4538:Car-free movement 4512: 4511: 4466:Trip distribution 4402:Regional planning 4355:Urban green space 4323:Land-use planning 4298:Labor market area 4288:Growth management 4263:Metropolitan area 4096:978-0-415-95130-2 4066:978-1-55963-853-1 4046:978-1-55786-918-0 4029:978-0-500-28099-7 4005:978-0-918286-91-8 3871:978-0-7864-5968-1 3823:pp. 216–240. 3815:978-0-19-537499-5 3779:978-0-14-311460-4 3773:, Penguin, 2008, 3748:978-0-7864-5968-1 3737:978-0-87420-996-9 3702:978-0-87326-171-5 3671:978-0-07-137367-8 3631:Dalley, Stephanie 3626:978-1-4051-1639-8 3492:978-0-415-27173-8 3308:978-0-582-23496-3 3157:Daniel Schaffer, 3131:978-0-631-23252-0 3099:978-0-7618-0328-7 3062:History 1899–1999 2989:, London: Penguin 2957:978-0-203-86142-4 2887:978-0-203-44956-1 2862:978-3-663-06143-4 2728:978-88-8447-204-5 2707:Cities and People 2573:(1941) 1962 p 43. 2567:Siegfried Giedion 2487:Siegfried Giedion 2243:SAGE Publications 2224:Smith, Michael E. 2201:978-0-3064-6158-3 2180:978-0-909486-61-7 2135: 2133:Cities portal 2023:social inequality 1984:Our Common Future 1874:sustainable urban 1815:deed restrictions 1723:Million Programme 1712:9 & 10 Geo. 6 1591:Weißenhofsiedlung 1585:Weissenhof Estate 1516:La Ville radieuse 1362:Henrietta Barnett 1140:local authorities 1077:local councillors 969:, 1867). Cerdà's 825:Savannah, Georgia 714:Septimius Severus 680:of Sixtus in the 352:Hellenistic world 258: 257: 250: 192: 191: 61:Epic of Gilgamesh 6538: 6510: 6509: 6508: 6263:Satellite campus 6207:Residential area 6162:Luxury apartment 6122:Closed community 6069:Business cluster 5966: 5959: 5952: 5943: 5942: 5904: 5903: 5894: 5826:natural resource 5510: 5498:Regional science 5412: 5405: 5398: 5389: 5388: 5373: 5372: 5351: 5350: 5340: 5339: 5338: 5291:Land development 5142: 5141: 4977:Donald Appleyard 4938: 4937: 4688:Mining community 4641:Radical planning 4588:Transition towns 4523: 4522: 4339:Spatial planning 4313: 4312: 4204: 4197: 4190: 4181: 4180: 4176: 4142: 4132: 4122: 4058:Lewis D. Hopkins 3720: 3688: 3675: 3656: 3599: 3598: 3570: 3564: 3563: 3533: 3527: 3526: 3514: 3508: 3503: 3497: 3496: 3484: 3474: 3463: 3459: 3453: 3446: 3440: 3433: 3427: 3426: 3418: 3407: 3394: 3388: 3387: 3385: 3383: 3368: 3362: 3361: 3359: 3357: 3346: 3340: 3326: 3320: 3317: 3311: 3296: 3287: 3284: 3278: 3275: 3269: 3266: 3260: 3257: 3251: 3247: 3241: 3238: 3232: 3225: 3219: 3214:Evenson, Norma. 3212: 3206: 3205: 3199: 3194: 3192: 3184: 3168: 3162: 3155: 3149: 3142: 3136: 3135: 3117: 3111: 3110: 3108: 3106: 3083: 3077: 3076: 3074: 3067: 3057: 3051: 3045: 3039: 3033: 3027: 3021: 3015: 3009: 3003: 2997: 2991: 2990: 2982: 2976: 2975: 2968: 2962: 2961: 2941: 2935: 2926: 2920: 2919: 2912: 2906: 2905: 2902:"urban planning" 2898: 2892: 2891: 2873: 2867: 2866: 2840: 2834: 2833: 2823: 2817: 2816: 2800: 2794: 2786: 2780: 2776: 2770: 2769: 2737: 2731: 2716: 2710: 2705:Girouard, Mark, 2703: 2697: 2696: 2694: 2692: 2678: 2672: 2671: 2669: 2667: 2653: 2647: 2640: 2634: 2633: 2593: 2587: 2580: 2574: 2564: 2558: 2528: 2522: 2516:978-90-9025157-8 2504: 2498: 2497:(Florence 1943). 2484: 2478: 2467: 2461: 2454: 2448: 2447: 2439: 2433: 2429: 2423: 2419: 2413: 2410: 2404: 2397: 2391: 2388: 2382: 2377: 2371: 2370: 2330: 2324: 2323: 2316: 2310: 2298: 2292: 2291: 2284: 2278: 2277: 2275: 2273: 2232: 2220: 2214: 2210: 2204: 2189: 2183: 2168: 2159: 2156: 2131: 2130: 2129: 2124: 2073:or be a totally 2071:pedestrian zones 2057:Nature in cities 2047:sustainable city 1944:globally uniform 1942:and short-lived 1936:classical design 1830:defensible space 1747:Reston, Virginia 1731:Miljonprogrammet 1531:'s city plan of 1446:Pierre Jeanerret 1418:Hufeisensiedlung 1290:Looking Backward 1283:Inspired by the 1174:local government 1154: 1126:In Britain, the 1015:Vienna Ring Road 823:Illustration of 750:Christopher Wren 487:'s-Hertogenbosch 253: 246: 242: 239: 233: 202: 194: 187: 184: 166: 159: 6546: 6545: 6541: 6540: 6539: 6537: 6536: 6535: 6521: 6520: 6519: 6514: 6506: 6504: 6498: 6419:Greenfield land 6389:Brownfield land 6377: 6327: 6272: 6241: 6147:Gated community 6088: 6079:Industrial park 6055: 6041:Shopping center 6009:Office building 5999:Commercial area 5975: 5970: 5940: 5935: 5882: 5731: 5702:Systems ecology 5686:Sustainability 5680:science studies 5665:Rural sociology 5511: 5502: 5488:Human geography 5421: 5416: 5386: 5381: 5336: 5334: 5325: 5321:Social sciences 5281:Urban economics 5253: 5243: 5212: 5186: 5133: 5096: 5060: 5027:Peter Calthorpe 4982:Ebenezer Howard 4943: 4925: 4912:Verticalization 4742: 4650: 4636:Market urbanism 4631:Livable streets 4597: 4518: 4508: 4490: 4447: 4414: 4396: 4364: 4308: 4302: 4241: 4213: 4208: 4173:Research Guides 4149: 4084:, London, Sage. 3881:Ebenezer Howard 3836: 3834:Further reading 3796:Yale University 3707: 3672: 3659: 3653: 3607: 3602: 3571: 3567: 3534: 3530: 3515: 3511: 3504: 3500: 3493: 3475: 3466: 3460: 3456: 3447: 3443: 3434: 3430: 3419: 3410: 3404:Wayback Machine 3395: 3391: 3381: 3379: 3378:on 5 March 2018 3370: 3369: 3365: 3355: 3353: 3348: 3347: 3343: 3337:Wayback Machine 3327: 3323: 3318: 3314: 3297: 3290: 3285: 3281: 3276: 3272: 3267: 3263: 3258: 3254: 3248: 3244: 3239: 3235: 3226: 3222: 3213: 3209: 3197: 3195: 3186: 3185: 3169: 3165: 3156: 3152: 3143: 3139: 3132: 3118: 3114: 3104: 3102: 3100: 3084: 3080: 3075:on 27 July 2011 3072: 3065: 3059: 3058: 3054: 3046: 3042: 3034: 3030: 3022: 3018: 3010: 3006: 2998: 2994: 2983: 2979: 2970: 2969: 2965: 2958: 2942: 2938: 2927: 2923: 2914: 2913: 2909: 2900: 2899: 2895: 2888: 2874: 2870: 2863: 2841: 2837: 2824: 2820: 2801: 2797: 2787: 2783: 2777: 2773: 2738: 2734: 2718:Busquets, Joan 2717: 2713: 2704: 2700: 2690: 2688: 2680: 2679: 2675: 2665: 2663: 2655: 2654: 2650: 2641: 2637: 2594: 2590: 2581: 2577: 2565: 2561: 2529: 2525: 2505: 2501: 2485: 2481: 2468: 2464: 2455: 2451: 2440: 2436: 2430: 2426: 2420: 2416: 2411: 2407: 2398: 2394: 2389: 2385: 2378: 2374: 2331: 2327: 2318: 2317: 2313: 2299: 2295: 2286: 2285: 2281: 2271: 2269: 2230: 2221: 2217: 2211: 2207: 2190: 2186: 2169: 2162: 2157: 2153: 2149: 2144: 2127: 2125: 2104: 2089:Experiences in 2083: 1976: 1952:suburban sprawl 1948:housing estates 1930:, walkability, 1848: 1842: 1823: 1787: 1775: 1759:Riverside Plaza 1696: 1641:Weimar Republic 1623:Similarly, the 1576:Ludwig Landmann 1567:Neues Frankfurt 1552:Weimar Republic 1430:Leberecht Migge 1402: 1364:and planned by 1276:Alfred Marshall 1241:Ebenezer Howard 1221:Ebenezer Howard 1204:The concept of 1198: 1162:civil engineers 1148: 1138:that compelled 1069: 920: 888:of Lisbon. The 845:Andrew Ellicott 829:Oglethorpe Plan 817: 762:Oglethorpe Plan 724:in Rome as XIV 552: 437: 366:in Italy. (See 301: 254: 243: 237: 234: 219: 203: 188: 182: 179: 172:needs expansion 157: 149:Main articles: 147: 34: 20:The history of 12: 11: 5: 6544: 6534: 6533: 6516: 6515: 6503: 6500: 6499: 6497: 6496: 6491: 6486: 6484:Urban planning 6481: 6476: 6471: 6466: 6461: 6456: 6451: 6446: 6441: 6436: 6431: 6426: 6424:Greyfield land 6421: 6416: 6414:Eminent domain 6411: 6409:Context theory 6406: 6401: 6396: 6391: 6385: 6383: 6379: 6378: 6376: 6375: 6370: 6365: 6360: 6359: 6358: 6348: 6342: 6340: 6329: 6328: 6326: 6325: 6324: 6323: 6313: 6308: 6306:Planned cities 6303: 6298: 6293: 6288: 6282: 6280: 6274: 6273: 6271: 6270: 6265: 6260: 6255: 6249: 6247: 6243: 6242: 6240: 6239: 6234: 6229: 6224: 6219: 6214: 6209: 6204: 6199: 6197:Public housing 6194: 6189: 6184: 6179: 6174: 6169: 6164: 6159: 6154: 6152:Housing estate 6149: 6144: 6139: 6137:Executive home 6134: 6129: 6124: 6119: 6114: 6112:Bungalow court 6109: 6107:Boarding house 6104: 6098: 6096: 6090: 6089: 6087: 6086: 6081: 6076: 6071: 6065: 6063: 6057: 6056: 6054: 6053: 6048: 6038: 6033: 6028: 6023: 6022: 6021: 6011: 6006: 6001: 5996: 5991: 5985: 5983: 5977: 5976: 5969: 5968: 5961: 5954: 5946: 5937: 5936: 5934: 5933: 5928: 5923: 5918: 5913: 5908: 5898: 5887: 5884: 5883: 5881: 5880: 5879: 5878: 5873: 5865: 5864: 5863: 5858: 5853: 5848: 5843: 5835: 5834: 5833: 5828: 5823: 5818: 5813: 5805: 5804: 5803: 5798: 5793: 5788: 5780: 5775: 5774: 5773: 5768: 5760: 5755: 5754: 5753: 5748: 5739: 5737: 5733: 5732: 5730: 5729: 5728: 5727: 5722: 5717: 5712: 5704: 5699: 5698: 5697: 5692: 5684: 5683: 5682: 5672: 5667: 5662: 5657: 5652: 5647: 5642: 5641: 5640: 5635: 5630: 5620: 5619: 5618: 5613: 5608: 5603: 5598: 5593: 5588: 5582:Environmental 5580: 5579: 5578: 5573: 5565: 5560: 5559: 5558: 5553: 5545: 5540: 5535: 5530: 5525: 5519: 5517: 5513: 5512: 5505: 5503: 5501: 5500: 5495: 5490: 5485: 5480: 5475: 5470: 5465: 5460: 5455: 5450: 5445: 5440: 5435: 5429: 5427: 5423: 5422: 5415: 5414: 5407: 5400: 5392: 5383: 5382: 5380: 5379: 5367: 5362: 5357: 5345: 5330: 5327: 5326: 5324: 5323: 5318: 5313: 5308: 5303: 5298: 5293: 5288: 5283: 5278: 5273: 5268: 5263: 5257: 5255: 5249: 5248: 5245: 5244: 5242: 5241: 5236: 5231: 5226: 5220: 5218: 5214: 5213: 5211: 5210: 5205: 5200: 5194: 5192: 5188: 5187: 5185: 5184: 5182:United Kingdom 5179: 5174: 5169: 5164: 5162:Czech Republic 5159: 5154: 5148: 5146: 5139: 5135: 5134: 5132: 5131: 5126: 5125: 5124: 5119: 5108: 5106: 5102: 5101: 5098: 5097: 5095: 5094: 5092:Randal O'Toole 5089: 5084: 5079: 5074: 5068: 5066: 5062: 5061: 5059: 5058: 5055: 5054: 5049: 5044: 5039: 5034: 5032:Patrick Geddes 5029: 5024: 5019: 5014: 5012:Kevin A. Lynch 5009: 5004: 4999: 4994: 4992:Guy Benveniste 4989: 4984: 4979: 4974: 4972:Daniel Burnham 4969: 4967:Colin Buchanan 4964: 4962:Clarence Stein 4959: 4957:Clarence Perry 4954: 4948: 4946: 4935: 4931: 4930: 4927: 4926: 4924: 4923: 4918: 4909: 4904: 4902:Urban vitality 4899: 4890: 4885: 4880: 4875: 4870: 4865: 4860: 4855: 4850: 4845: 4840: 4835: 4830: 4825: 4820: 4815: 4809:Healthy cities 4806: 4801: 4799:Brusselization 4795:Gentrification 4792: 4787: 4784:Eminent domain 4781: 4776: 4771: 4766: 4761: 4756: 4750: 4748: 4744: 4743: 4741: 4740: 4735: 4730: 4725: 4720: 4714: 4709: 4708: 4707: 4697: 4696: 4695: 4685: 4680: 4675: 4670: 4660: 4658: 4656:Cities by type 4652: 4651: 4649: 4648: 4643: 4638: 4633: 4628: 4623: 4618: 4616:Context theory 4613: 4607: 4605: 4599: 4598: 4596: 4595: 4590: 4585: 4580: 4575: 4570: 4565: 4560: 4555: 4550: 4545: 4540: 4535: 4533:Athens Charter 4529: 4527: 4520: 4514: 4513: 4510: 4509: 4507: 4506: 4500: 4498: 4492: 4491: 4489: 4488: 4483: 4478: 4473: 4468: 4463: 4457: 4455: 4449: 4448: 4446: 4445: 4440: 4435: 4430: 4424: 4422: 4416: 4415: 4413: 4412: 4406: 4404: 4398: 4397: 4395: 4394: 4388: 4383: 4378: 4372: 4370: 4366: 4365: 4363: 4362: 4357: 4352: 4347: 4342: 4336: 4331: 4325: 4319: 4317: 4310: 4304: 4303: 4301: 4300: 4295: 4290: 4285: 4280: 4275: 4270: 4265: 4260: 4255: 4249: 4247: 4243: 4242: 4240: 4239: 4234: 4229: 4224: 4218: 4215: 4214: 4211:Urban planning 4207: 4206: 4199: 4192: 4184: 4178: 4177: 4164: 4159: 4148: 4147:External links 4145: 4144: 4143: 4098: 4085: 4078: 4068: 4049: 4031: 4017: 4007: 3988: 3972: 3966: 3954: 3942: 3932: 3922: 3919:Patrick Geddes 3912: 3900: 3894: 3884: 3874: 3863: 3855: 3845: 3835: 3832: 3831: 3830: 3827: 3824: 3820: 3817: 3803: 3784: 3781: 3767: 3764: 3761: 3758: 3751: 3740: 3721: 3705: 3690: 3680: 3677: 3670: 3657: 3651: 3638: 3628: 3614: 3611: 3606: 3603: 3601: 3600: 3581:(4): 373–387. 3565: 3546:(4): 408–418. 3528: 3509: 3498: 3491: 3464: 3454: 3448:Bogunovich, D 3441: 3435:Bogunovich, D 3428: 3408: 3389: 3363: 3341: 3321: 3312: 3288: 3279: 3270: 3261: 3252: 3242: 3233: 3220: 3207: 3198:|journal= 3163: 3150: 3137: 3130: 3112: 3098: 3078: 3052: 3040: 3028: 3016: 3004: 2992: 2977: 2963: 2956: 2936: 2931:About the RTPI 2921: 2907: 2893: 2886: 2868: 2861: 2835: 2818: 2795: 2781: 2771: 2752:(2): 141–152. 2732: 2711: 2698: 2673: 2648: 2635: 2614:10.2307/990765 2608:(1): 101–103. 2588: 2575: 2559: 2523: 2499: 2479: 2462: 2449: 2434: 2424: 2414: 2405: 2392: 2383: 2372: 2325: 2311: 2293: 2279: 2215: 2205: 2184: 2160: 2150: 2148: 2145: 2143: 2140: 2139: 2138: 2120: 2115: 2110: 2103: 2100: 2082: 2079: 2043:Urban planners 2031:climate change 2029:, and causing 2017:or destroying 1975: 1972: 1844:Main article: 1841: 1838: 1822: 1819: 1786: 1783: 1774: 1771: 1763:slum clearance 1721:In Sweden the 1695: 1692: 1665:Patrick Geddes 1658:Walter Gropius 1596:housing estate 1521:public housing 1401: 1398: 1264:George Pullman 1197: 1194: 1068: 1065: 1003:industrial age 998:New Liberalism 955:Ildefons Cerdà 919: 916: 881:Manuel da Maia 816: 813: 611:Raphael Sanzio 560:The Ideal City 551: 548: 436: 433: 359:ancient Romans 300: 297: 256: 255: 206: 204: 197: 190: 189: 169: 167: 146: 143: 134:cities in the 116:Archaeological 80:urban planning 33: 30: 22:urban planning 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6543: 6532: 6529: 6528: 6526: 6513: 6501: 6495: 6492: 6490: 6487: 6485: 6482: 6480: 6477: 6475: 6472: 6470: 6469:Redevelopment 6467: 6465: 6462: 6460: 6457: 6455: 6452: 6450: 6447: 6445: 6442: 6440: 6437: 6435: 6432: 6430: 6429:Groundscraper 6427: 6425: 6422: 6420: 6417: 6415: 6412: 6410: 6407: 6405: 6402: 6400: 6397: 6395: 6392: 6390: 6387: 6386: 6384: 6382:Miscellaneous 6380: 6374: 6371: 6369: 6366: 6364: 6361: 6357: 6354: 6353: 6352: 6349: 6347: 6344: 6343: 6341: 6338: 6334: 6330: 6322: 6319: 6318: 6317: 6314: 6312: 6309: 6307: 6304: 6302: 6301:Model village 6299: 6297: 6294: 6292: 6289: 6287: 6284: 6283: 6281: 6279: 6275: 6269: 6266: 6264: 6261: 6259: 6258:Research park 6256: 6254: 6251: 6250: 6248: 6244: 6238: 6237:Tract housing 6235: 6233: 6230: 6228: 6225: 6223: 6222:Rooming house 6220: 6218: 6217:Revenue house 6215: 6213: 6210: 6208: 6205: 6203: 6200: 6198: 6195: 6193: 6190: 6188: 6185: 6183: 6180: 6178: 6175: 6173: 6170: 6168: 6165: 6163: 6160: 6158: 6155: 6153: 6150: 6148: 6145: 6143: 6140: 6138: 6135: 6133: 6130: 6128: 6125: 6123: 6120: 6118: 6115: 6113: 6110: 6108: 6105: 6103: 6100: 6099: 6097: 6095: 6091: 6085: 6082: 6080: 6077: 6075: 6072: 6070: 6067: 6066: 6064: 6062: 6058: 6052: 6049: 6046: 6045:Shopping mall 6042: 6039: 6037: 6034: 6032: 6029: 6027: 6024: 6020: 6017: 6016: 6015: 6012: 6010: 6007: 6005: 6002: 6000: 5997: 5995: 5994:Business park 5992: 5990: 5987: 5986: 5984: 5982: 5978: 5974: 5967: 5962: 5960: 5955: 5953: 5948: 5947: 5944: 5932: 5929: 5927: 5924: 5922: 5919: 5917: 5914: 5912: 5909: 5907: 5899: 5897: 5893: 5889: 5888: 5885: 5877: 5876:environmental 5874: 5872: 5869: 5868: 5866: 5862: 5859: 5857: 5854: 5852: 5849: 5847: 5844: 5842: 5841:environmental 5839: 5838: 5836: 5832: 5829: 5827: 5824: 5822: 5819: 5817: 5814: 5812: 5811:environmental 5809: 5808: 5806: 5802: 5799: 5797: 5794: 5792: 5789: 5787: 5786:environmental 5784: 5783: 5781: 5779: 5776: 5772: 5771:environmental 5769: 5767: 5764: 5763: 5761: 5759: 5758:Ecopsychology 5756: 5752: 5749: 5747: 5744: 5743: 5742:Architecture 5741: 5740: 5738: 5734: 5726: 5723: 5721: 5718: 5716: 5713: 5711: 5708: 5707: 5705: 5703: 5700: 5696: 5693: 5691: 5688: 5687: 5685: 5681: 5678: 5677: 5676: 5673: 5671: 5668: 5666: 5663: 5661: 5658: 5656: 5653: 5651: 5648: 5646: 5643: 5639: 5636: 5634: 5631: 5629: 5626: 5625: 5624: 5621: 5617: 5614: 5612: 5609: 5607: 5604: 5602: 5599: 5597: 5594: 5592: 5589: 5587: 5584: 5583: 5581: 5577: 5574: 5572: 5569: 5568: 5566: 5564: 5561: 5557: 5556:environmental 5554: 5552: 5549: 5548: 5546: 5544: 5541: 5539: 5536: 5534: 5531: 5529: 5528:Anthrozoology 5526: 5524: 5521: 5520: 5518: 5514: 5509: 5499: 5496: 5494: 5491: 5489: 5486: 5484: 5483:Human ecology 5481: 5479: 5476: 5474: 5471: 5469: 5466: 5464: 5461: 5459: 5456: 5454: 5451: 5449: 5446: 5444: 5441: 5439: 5436: 5434: 5431: 5430: 5428: 5424: 5420: 5413: 5408: 5406: 5401: 5399: 5394: 5393: 5390: 5378: 5377: 5368: 5366: 5363: 5361: 5358: 5356: 5355: 5346: 5344: 5343: 5332: 5331: 5328: 5322: 5319: 5317: 5314: 5312: 5311:Public policy 5309: 5307: 5306:Public health 5304: 5302: 5299: 5297: 5294: 5292: 5289: 5287: 5284: 5282: 5279: 5277: 5276:Urban ecology 5274: 5272: 5269: 5267: 5264: 5262: 5259: 5258: 5256: 5250: 5240: 5239:Ancient Egypt 5237: 5235: 5232: 5230: 5227: 5225: 5222: 5221: 5219: 5215: 5209: 5206: 5204: 5201: 5199: 5196: 5195: 5193: 5189: 5183: 5180: 5178: 5175: 5173: 5170: 5168: 5165: 5163: 5160: 5158: 5155: 5153: 5150: 5149: 5147: 5143: 5140: 5136: 5130: 5127: 5123: 5120: 5118: 5115: 5114: 5113: 5110: 5109: 5107: 5103: 5093: 5090: 5088: 5087:Lewis Mumford 5085: 5083: 5080: 5078: 5075: 5073: 5070: 5069: 5067: 5063: 5057: 5056: 5053: 5050: 5048: 5045: 5043: 5040: 5038: 5037:Raymond Unwin 5035: 5033: 5030: 5028: 5025: 5023: 5020: 5018: 5015: 5013: 5010: 5008: 5005: 5003: 5000: 4998: 4995: 4993: 4990: 4988: 4985: 4983: 4980: 4978: 4975: 4973: 4970: 4968: 4965: 4963: 4960: 4958: 4955: 4953: 4950: 4949: 4947: 4945: 4944:practitioners 4939: 4936: 4932: 4922: 4919: 4917: 4913: 4910: 4908: 4905: 4903: 4900: 4898: 4894: 4891: 4889: 4886: 4884: 4881: 4879: 4876: 4874: 4873:Tract housing 4871: 4869: 4866: 4864: 4863:Temporary use 4861: 4859: 4856: 4854: 4851: 4849: 4848:Planning gain 4846: 4844: 4841: 4839: 4836: 4834: 4831: 4829: 4826: 4824: 4821: 4819: 4816: 4814: 4810: 4807: 4805: 4802: 4800: 4796: 4793: 4791: 4788: 4785: 4782: 4780: 4779:Creative city 4777: 4775: 4772: 4770: 4767: 4765: 4762: 4760: 4757: 4755: 4752: 4751: 4749: 4745: 4739: 4736: 4734: 4733:Urban village 4731: 4729: 4726: 4724: 4721: 4718: 4715: 4713: 4712:Model village 4710: 4706: 4703: 4702: 4701: 4698: 4694: 4691: 4690: 4689: 4686: 4684: 4681: 4679: 4676: 4674: 4673:Commuter town 4671: 4669: 4665: 4662: 4661: 4659: 4657: 4653: 4647: 4646:Urban renewal 4644: 4642: 4639: 4637: 4634: 4632: 4629: 4627: 4624: 4622: 4619: 4617: 4614: 4612: 4609: 4608: 4606: 4604: 4600: 4594: 4591: 4589: 4586: 4584: 4583:Structuralism 4581: 4579: 4576: 4574: 4571: 4569: 4566: 4564: 4561: 4559: 4556: 4554: 4551: 4549: 4546: 4544: 4541: 4539: 4536: 4534: 4531: 4530: 4528: 4524: 4521: 4515: 4505: 4502: 4501: 4499: 4497: 4493: 4487: 4484: 4482: 4479: 4477: 4474: 4472: 4469: 4467: 4464: 4462: 4459: 4458: 4456: 4454: 4450: 4444: 4441: 4439: 4436: 4434: 4431: 4429: 4426: 4425: 4423: 4421: 4417: 4411: 4408: 4407: 4405: 4403: 4399: 4392: 4389: 4387: 4386:Rural housing 4384: 4382: 4379: 4377: 4374: 4373: 4371: 4367: 4361: 4358: 4356: 4353: 4351: 4348: 4346: 4345:Redevelopment 4343: 4340: 4337: 4335: 4332: 4329: 4326: 4324: 4321: 4320: 4318: 4314: 4311: 4305: 4299: 4296: 4294: 4291: 4289: 4286: 4284: 4281: 4279: 4276: 4274: 4271: 4269: 4266: 4264: 4261: 4259: 4256: 4254: 4251: 4250: 4248: 4244: 4238: 4235: 4233: 4230: 4228: 4225: 4223: 4220: 4219: 4216: 4212: 4205: 4200: 4198: 4193: 4191: 4186: 4185: 4182: 4174: 4170: 4165: 4163: 4160: 4158: 4154: 4151: 4150: 4140: 4136: 4131: 4126: 4121: 4116: 4112: 4108: 4104: 4099: 4097: 4093: 4089: 4086: 4083: 4079: 4076: 4072: 4069: 4067: 4063: 4059: 4055: 4054: 4050: 4047: 4043: 4039: 4035: 4032: 4030: 4026: 4022: 4018: 4015: 4011: 4008: 4006: 4002: 3998: 3994: 3993: 3989: 3986: 3982: 3978: 3977: 3973: 3970: 3967: 3964: 3963:Lewis Mumford 3960: 3959: 3955: 3952: 3948: 3947: 3943: 3940: 3939:Gordon Cullen 3936: 3933: 3930: 3926: 3923: 3920: 3916: 3913: 3910: 3906: 3905: 3901: 3898: 3895: 3892: 3888: 3885: 3882: 3878: 3875: 3872: 3868: 3864: 3861: 3860: 3856: 3853: 3852:Camillo Sitte 3849: 3846: 3843: 3842: 3838: 3837: 3828: 3825: 3821: 3818: 3816: 3812: 3808: 3804: 3801: 3797: 3793: 3789: 3785: 3782: 3780: 3776: 3772: 3768: 3765: 3762: 3759: 3756: 3752: 3749: 3745: 3741: 3738: 3734: 3730: 3726: 3722: 3718: 3714: 3710: 3706: 3703: 3699: 3695: 3691: 3686: 3681: 3678: 3673: 3667: 3663: 3658: 3654: 3652:9780631223474 3648: 3644: 3639: 3636: 3632: 3629: 3627: 3623: 3619: 3615: 3612: 3609: 3608: 3596: 3592: 3588: 3584: 3580: 3576: 3569: 3561: 3557: 3553: 3549: 3545: 3541: 3540: 3532: 3524: 3520: 3513: 3507: 3502: 3494: 3488: 3483: 3482: 3473: 3471: 3469: 3458: 3451: 3445: 3438: 3432: 3424: 3417: 3415: 3413: 3405: 3401: 3398: 3393: 3377: 3373: 3367: 3351: 3345: 3338: 3334: 3331: 3325: 3316: 3309: 3305: 3301: 3295: 3293: 3283: 3274: 3265: 3256: 3246: 3237: 3231:, 1982), 231. 3230: 3224: 3217: 3211: 3203: 3190: 3182: 3178: 3174: 3167: 3160: 3154: 3147: 3141: 3133: 3127: 3123: 3116: 3101: 3095: 3091: 3090: 3082: 3071: 3064: 3063: 3056: 3050:, p. 48. 3049: 3044: 3038:, p. 68. 3037: 3032: 3026:, p. 46. 3025: 3020: 3014:, p. 43. 3013: 3008: 3001: 2996: 2988: 2981: 2973: 2967: 2959: 2953: 2950:. Routledge. 2949: 2948: 2940: 2933: 2932: 2929:RTPI.org.uk, 2925: 2917: 2911: 2903: 2897: 2889: 2883: 2879: 2872: 2864: 2858: 2854: 2850: 2846: 2839: 2831: 2830: 2822: 2814: 2810: 2806: 2799: 2792: 2785: 2775: 2767: 2763: 2759: 2755: 2751: 2747: 2743: 2736: 2729: 2725: 2721: 2715: 2708: 2702: 2687: 2683: 2677: 2662: 2658: 2652: 2645: 2639: 2631: 2627: 2623: 2619: 2615: 2611: 2607: 2603: 2599: 2592: 2585: 2579: 2572: 2568: 2563: 2556: 2552: 2548: 2544: 2540: 2536: 2532: 2527: 2520: 2517: 2513: 2509: 2503: 2496: 2492: 2488: 2483: 2476: 2472: 2466: 2459: 2453: 2445: 2438: 2428: 2418: 2409: 2402: 2396: 2387: 2381: 2376: 2368: 2364: 2360: 2356: 2352: 2348: 2344: 2340: 2336: 2329: 2321: 2315: 2308: 2307: 2302: 2297: 2289: 2283: 2268: 2264: 2260: 2256: 2252: 2248: 2244: 2240: 2236: 2229: 2225: 2219: 2209: 2202: 2198: 2194: 2188: 2181: 2177: 2173: 2167: 2165: 2155: 2151: 2137: 2136: 2134: 2121: 2119: 2116: 2114: 2111: 2109: 2106: 2105: 2099: 2096: 2092: 2087: 2078: 2076: 2072: 2068: 2064: 2062: 2058: 2054: 2050: 2048: 2044: 2038: 2036: 2032: 2028: 2024: 2021:, increasing 2020: 2016: 2008: 2004: 2001:'s survey of 2000: 1999:Robert Hoddle 1996: 1992: 1990: 1986: 1985: 1980: 1971: 1969: 1964: 1960: 1955: 1953: 1949: 1945: 1941: 1937: 1933: 1929: 1925: 1921: 1913: 1909: 1904: 1900: 1898: 1894: 1890: 1886: 1885: 1879: 1875: 1868: 1864: 1861:eco-friendly 1860: 1856: 1852: 1847: 1837: 1835: 1831: 1827: 1818: 1816: 1811: 1807: 1802: 1800: 1799:individualism 1795: 1790: 1782: 1780: 1770: 1768: 1767:urban renewal 1764: 1760: 1756: 1752: 1748: 1743: 1740: 1736: 1732: 1728: 1724: 1719: 1717: 1713: 1709: 1705: 1701: 1691: 1689: 1684: 1680: 1678: 1674: 1670: 1666: 1661: 1659: 1655: 1654:Martin Wagner 1651: 1646: 1642: 1638: 1634: 1630: 1626: 1621: 1619: 1615: 1611: 1607: 1603: 1602: 1597: 1593: 1592: 1587: 1586: 1581: 1577: 1573: 1569: 1568: 1563: 1562: 1561:New Frankfurt 1557: 1553: 1548: 1546: 1542: 1538: 1534: 1530: 1526: 1522: 1518: 1517: 1512: 1507: 1505: 1501: 1496: 1492: 1488: 1484: 1480: 1479: 1474: 1466: 1462: 1458: 1454: 1447: 1443: 1438: 1431: 1427: 1426:Martin Wagner 1423: 1419: 1414: 1406: 1397: 1393: 1391: 1385: 1383: 1382:Raymond Unwin 1379: 1375: 1371: 1367: 1363: 1359: 1355: 1351: 1350:Hertfordshire 1347: 1343: 1341: 1337: 1336:Raymond Unwin 1333: 1332:Hertfordshire 1329: 1325: 1320: 1318: 1314: 1310: 1306: 1305: 1300: 1296: 1292: 1291: 1286: 1280: 1277: 1273: 1269: 1266:'s eponymous 1265: 1261: 1260:Port Sunlight 1258: 1254: 1250: 1246: 1242: 1233: 1226: 1222: 1218: 1211: 1207: 1202: 1193: 1191: 1187: 1183: 1179: 1175: 1171: 1167: 1163: 1159: 1155: 1152: 1147: 1141: 1137: 1133: 1129: 1124: 1122: 1118: 1117:Raymond Unwin 1114: 1110: 1109:Camillo Sitte 1104: 1100: 1096: 1094: 1093:Der Stadtebau 1090: 1089:Josef Stübben 1085: 1082: 1078: 1074: 1064: 1062: 1061:Public health 1057: 1049: 1045: 1041: 1037: 1033: 1029: 1025: 1021: 1017: 1016: 1010: 1006: 1004: 999: 995: 994:Victorian era 991: 990:laissez-faire 985: 983: 979: 974: 972: 968: 964: 960: 956: 952: 947: 944: 940: 935: 933: 929: 925: 924:Regent Street 913: 908: 904: 902: 897: 895: 891: 887: 882: 878: 874: 866: 862: 858: 853: 846: 842: 841:L'Enfant Plan 837: 830: 826: 821: 810: 806: 802: 799:Model of the 797: 793: 790: 786: 782: 778: 774: 770: 765: 763: 759: 755: 751: 747: 743: 739: 733: 731: 727: 723: 719: 715: 711: 707: 703: 699: 695: 691: 687: 683: 679: 675: 671: 670:Pope Sixtus V 666: 664: 660: 656: 653:, was named " 652: 651: 646: 642: 638: 636: 632: 628: 624: 620: 612: 608: 603: 599: 597: 592: 585: 581: 574: 570: 566: 565:Fra Carnevale 563:(probably by 562: 561: 556: 547: 543: 540: 534: 532: 528: 524: 520: 516: 512: 508: 504: 500: 496: 492: 488: 484: 480: 476: 466: 462: 460: 456: 450: 441: 432: 430: 426: 420: 418: 414: 410: 405: 403: 399: 398: 393: 392: 387: 386: 381: 375: 373: 369: 365: 360: 355: 353: 349: 345: 340: 337: 331: 329: 328: 322: 318: 310: 305: 296: 294: 290: 286: 282: 278: 274: 270: 265: 263: 252: 249: 241: 231: 227: 223: 217: 216: 212: 207:This section 205: 201: 196: 195: 186: 177: 173: 170:This section 168: 165: 161: 160: 156: 152: 142: 140: 137: 133: 128: 126: 122: 117: 113: 109: 105: 101: 97: 93: 89: 85: 81: 76: 74: 70: 66: 62: 58: 54: 53:civilisations 51: 47: 43: 39: 29: 27: 23: 18: 6479:Urban design 6404:Construction 6291:Civic center 6268:Science park 6127:Company town 6026:Power center 5796:occupational 5791:epidemiology 5762:Engineering 5660:Permaculture 5623:Ethnobiology 5375: 5352: 5333: 5261:Architecture 5234:Nazi Germany 5042:Thomas Adams 5022:Loretta Lees 5017:Le Corbusier 4987:Edmund Bacon 4952:Andrés Duany 4907:Urbanization 4893:Urban sprawl 4858:Rural flight 4838:Permeability 4833:Model cities 4705:Logging camp 4664:Company town 4578:Smart growth 4568:New Urbanism 4350:Urban design 4333: 4221: 4172: 4110: 4106: 4087: 4081: 4070: 4052: 4033: 4021:Spiro Kostof 4009: 3997:Charles Hoch 3991: 3974: 3968: 3956: 3944: 3934: 3924: 3914: 3902: 3896: 3886: 3876: 3858: 3847: 3840: 3806: 3787: 3770: 3724: 3719:. Routledge. 3716: 3693: 3684: 3661: 3642: 3634: 3617: 3605:Bibliography 3578: 3574: 3568: 3543: 3537: 3531: 3522: 3512: 3501: 3480: 3457: 3444: 3431: 3422: 3392: 3380:. Retrieved 3376:the original 3366: 3354:. Retrieved 3344: 3324: 3315: 3299: 3282: 3273: 3264: 3255: 3245: 3236: 3223: 3215: 3210: 3189:cite journal 3166: 3158: 3153: 3145: 3140: 3121: 3115: 3103:. Retrieved 3088: 3081: 3070:the original 3061: 3055: 3043: 3031: 3019: 3007: 3002:, p. 4. 2995: 2986: 2980: 2966: 2946: 2939: 2930: 2924: 2910: 2896: 2877: 2871: 2844: 2838: 2828: 2821: 2812: 2808: 2798: 2790: 2784: 2774: 2749: 2745: 2735: 2719: 2714: 2706: 2701: 2689:. Retrieved 2685: 2676: 2664:. Retrieved 2660: 2651: 2646:pp. 152–155. 2644:The Last Day 2643: 2638: 2605: 2601: 2591: 2578: 2570: 2562: 2557:. Roma/Bari. 2554: 2550: 2546: 2542: 2538: 2534: 2526: 2507: 2502: 2494: 2490: 2482: 2474: 2470: 2465: 2457: 2452: 2443: 2437: 2427: 2417: 2408: 2395: 2386: 2375: 2345:(1): 25–48. 2342: 2338: 2328: 2314: 2304: 2296: 2282: 2270:. Retrieved 2238: 2234: 2226:(May 2005). 2218: 2208: 2192: 2187: 2171: 2154: 2123: 2122: 2088: 2084: 2066: 2065: 2056: 2055: 2051: 2039: 2012: 1982: 1977: 1956: 1928:smart growth 1917: 1884:New Urbanism 1881: 1871: 1859:new urbanist 1846:New Urbanism 1840:New Urbanism 1824: 1803: 1794:tower blocks 1791: 1788: 1779:urbanization 1776: 1773:Contemporary 1744: 1730: 1720: 1700:World War II 1697: 1681: 1669:conurbations 1662: 1622: 1610:Le Corbusier 1599: 1590: 1589: 1583: 1566: 1565: 1559: 1549: 1525:Nadir Afonso 1514: 1508: 1487:Le Corbusier 1476: 1470: 1442:Le Corbusier 1417: 1394: 1386: 1344: 1321: 1302: 1295:Henry George 1288: 1281: 1238: 1227:"off-shoots" 1206:Arturo Soria 1178:Thomas Adams 1144: 1125: 1112: 1105: 1101: 1097: 1092: 1086: 1070: 1053: 1036:Innere Stadt 1027: 1023: 1013: 986: 975: 966: 962: 959:urbanisation 948: 936: 921: 898: 885: 870: 766: 734: 722:Leonine City 718:Acqua Felice 667: 662: 648: 639: 631:quattrocento 630: 627:Illustration 626: 622: 616: 606: 589: 558: 544: 535: 471: 451: 447: 421: 406: 395: 389: 383: 376: 356: 341: 332: 326: 314: 285:castle towns 266: 260:China has a 259: 244: 235: 220:Please help 208: 183:January 2024 180: 176:adding to it 171: 141: 132:Mesoamerican 129: 112:grid pattern 96:Mohenjo-daro 77: 42:Mesopotamian 35: 19: 15: 6439:Nonbuilding 6368:Tower block 6232:Subdivision 6094:Residential 6031:Retail park 5807:Management 5751:sustainable 5523:Agroecology 5254:disciplines 5077:Jane Jacobs 5002:James Rouse 4883:Urban decay 4868:Third place 4843:Placemaking 4693:Pit village 4683:Global city 4113:(1): 1–19. 3951:Jane Jacobs 3929:Kevin Lynch 3709:James, Paul 3250:Terragni)." 2432:and value." 2245:: 403–434. 2035:sustainable 2025:, creating 2007:Hoddle Grid 1882:Charter of 1821:Behaviorism 1635:estates in 1539:planned by 1529:Lúcio Costa 1511:Plan Voisin 1457:Partizánske 1378:World War I 1360:founded by 1322:He founded 1225:garden city 1210:linear city 1149: [ 978:Ringstrasse 941:. In 1852, 894:seismically 855:During the 801:seismically 777:Max Emanuel 746:John Evelyn 674:St. Peter's 569:Renaissance 523:Alessandria 431:in Poland. 6464:Playground 6363:Skyscraper 6117:City block 6061:Industrial 6036:Riverfront 5981:Commercial 5766:ecological 5720:metabolism 5670:Sexecology 5567:Economics 5551:ecological 5543:Demography 4997:Ian McHarg 4942:Theorists/ 4719:(New town) 4678:Ghost town 4517:Concepts/ 4253:Urban area 4120:1808.00600 3757:108: 1–24. 3000:Hardy 1999 2691:26 October 2666:26 October 2458:Die Kelten 2272:1 February 2142:References 2019:ecosystems 1675:, then in 1650:Bruno Taut 1545:Chandigarh 1485:architect 1422:Bruno Taut 1348:, also in 1328:Letchworth 1317:satellites 1313:boulevards 1309:concentric 1253:Bournville 1208:'s of the 1166:architects 1111:published 1024:Ringstraße 740:after the 623:Sposalizio 607:Sposalizio 519:Klagenfurt 417:portcullis 402:city block 368:Marzabotto 348:Alexandria 344:Dinocrates 317:Hippodamus 238:March 2022 121:sanitation 32:Prehistory 6346:Apartment 6333:Buildings 6278:Municipal 6167:McMansion 5837:Planning 5816:fisheries 5746:landscape 5715:geography 5586:education 5286:Geography 5198:Barcelona 5177:Singapore 5152:Australia 5145:Countries 4759:Cityscape 4526:Movements 4139:2364-8228 3792:New Haven 3595:154320789 3356:11 August 3352:. Cnu.org 3328:Ewing, R 3229:MIT Press 3105:24 August 3036:Hall 2002 2766:0197-3975 2622:0037-9808 2367:144920561 2359:1090-3771 2301:Aristotle 2267:145452272 2147:Citations 2015:polluting 2003:Melbourne 1940:modernist 1893:sprawling 1855:Jakriborg 1704:new towns 1694:New Towns 1588:(German: 1580:Ernst May 1572:Frankfurt 1564:(German: 1500:Taylorist 1495:cruciform 1483:modernist 1473:modernism 1400:Modernism 1192:in 1924. 1158:surveyors 1146:Woningwet 1032:ring road 1028:ring road 951:Barcelona 932:John Nash 890:Pombaline 861:Haussmann 773:Louis XIV 655:Sforzinda 584:Palmanova 573:colosseum 491:Montauban 385:decumanus 372:Vitruvius 364:Etruscans 321:Aristotle 281:Jōkamachi 277:Heian-kyo 209:does not 145:East Asia 125:grid plan 92:Dholavira 6525:Category 6394:Cemetery 6286:Arcology 6102:Agrihood 5931:Scholars 5921:Journals 5911:Concepts 5906:Category 5851:regional 5846:land use 5645:Forestry 5354:Category 5203:Shanghai 5105:Training 4747:Concepts 4738:Boomtown 4728:Arcology 4700:Man camp 4668:Monotown 4621:Ekistics 4603:Theories 4519:theories 4360:Urbanism 4309:branches 4278:Planning 4273:Land use 4227:Theories 3633:, 1989, 3560:56276489 3400:Archived 3382:23 March 3333:Archived 3302:, 1997, 2722:, 2005, 2642:Shrady, 2422:culture. 2306:Politics 2102:See also 2091:Portland 2075:Car free 2067:Car free 2037:cities. 1878:walkable 1863:new town 1673:Tel Aviv 1627:, now a 1533:Brasília 1461:Slovakia 1448:in 1928. 1297:'s work 1249:Cadburys 971:Eixample 912:New Town 901:New Town 831:in 1734. 710:aqueduct 702:obelisks 690:Quirinal 641:Filarete 635:Vigevano 596:Scamozzi 591:Florence 531:Sarajevo 475:bastides 429:Biskupin 327:Politics 291:, later 108:Pakistan 50:Egyptian 46:Harrapan 6454:Parking 5989:Airport 5916:Degrees 5867:Policy 5856:spatial 5782:Health 5736:Applied 5725:studies 5710:ecology 5695:studies 5690:science 5638:zoology 5633:ecology 5611:justice 5606:studies 5601:science 5547:Design 5516:Related 5376:Commons 5252:Related 5065:Critics 4818:LEED-ND 4316:General 4246:General 4237:Outline 4222:History 4077:, 2003. 3148:(1986). 2533:(1967) 2401:Piraeus 2259:1798556 2095:Seattle 1806:Houston 1727:Swedish 1594:) is a 1556:Bauhaus 1504:Fordist 1465:factory 1285:Utopian 1272:Chicago 1268:Pullman 1257:Lever's 1170:lawyers 1121:Berlage 1073:utopian 1054:Modern 1044:Austria 1026:, lit. 875:, King 847:in 1792 827:on the 781:Baroque 698:Vatican 694:Lateran 619:Raphael 479:Cardiff 336:Miletus 307:Map of 230:removed 215:sources 98:in the 84:Harappa 6494:Zoning 6253:Campus 6019:inland 5871:energy 5821:forest 5801:public 5706:Urban 5628:botany 5616:racism 5591:ethics 5576:thermo 5571:energy 5426:Fields 5224:Africa 5208:Sydney 5191:Cities 5172:Serbia 5167:Russia 5138:Places 4934:People 4921:Zoning 4804:Infill 4268:Suburb 4157:Curlie 4137: 4094: 4064: 4044: 4027: 4016:, 1996 4003: 3987:, 1977 3965:, 1961 3953:, 1961 3941:, 1961 3931:, 1960 3921:, 1915 3911:, 1911 3893:, 1901 3883:, 1898 3869: 3854:, 1889 3813: 3777: 3746: 3735: 3700: 3668: 3649: 3624: 3593: 3558: 3489: 3306: 3128: 3096: 2954: 2884: 2859: 2764: 2726: 2630:990765 2628: 2620: 2514: 2365: 2357: 2265: 2257: 2199: 2178: 1934:, and 1810:zoning 1735:Sweden 1706:. The 1645:Berlin 1637:Berlin 1366:Parker 1287:novel 1056:zoning 1048:glacis 1040:Vienna 1020:German 886:mottos 805:gaiola 738:London 678:loggia 676:; the 613:, 1504 539:Elburg 527:Warsaw 511:Berlin 507:Munich 503:Lübeck 495:Bilbao 425:Celtic 397:insula 94:, and 88:Lothal 73:Ishtar 48:, and 38:Minoan 6489:YIMBY 6444:NIMBY 6373:Villa 6356:types 6351:House 6337:types 6321:parks 5861:urban 5831:waste 5217:Other 5157:China 4593:YIMBY 4563:NIMBY 4369:Rural 4341:(Eur) 4307:Major 4232:Index 4115:arXiv 3591:S2CID 3556:S2CID 3073:(PDF) 3066:(PDF) 2626:JSTOR 2363:S2CID 2263:S2CID 2231:(PDF) 1912:Qatar 1867:Malmö 1865:near 1370:Unwin 1153:] 939:Paris 865:Paris 785:Turin 754:river 730:Borgo 726:Rione 499:Malmö 483:Leeds 391:cardo 380:Turin 309:Pella 293:Tokyo 269:Japan 130:Most 104:India 6449:Park 6014:Port 4786:(US) 4393:(UK) 4330:(US) 4258:City 4135:ISSN 4092:ISBN 4062:ISBN 4042:ISBN 4025:ISBN 4001:ISBN 3867:ISBN 3811:ISBN 3775:ISBN 3744:ISBN 3733:ISBN 3698:ISBN 3666:ISBN 3647:ISBN 3622:ISBN 3487:ISBN 3384:2014 3358:2014 3304:ISBN 3202:help 3126:ISBN 3107:2011 3094:ISBN 2952:ISBN 2882:ISBN 2857:ISBN 2762:ISSN 2724:ISBN 2693:2021 2668:2021 2618:ISSN 2512:ISBN 2355:ISSN 2274:2008 2255:OCLC 2197:ISBN 2176:ISBN 2093:and 1950:and 1908:Doha 1832:and 1757:and 1656:and 1537:Zlín 1502:and 1444:and 1416:The 1368:and 1293:and 1262:and 1012:The 839:The 748:and 696:and 529:and 515:Bern 409:wall 357:The 275:and 273:Nara 213:any 211:cite 153:and 106:and 69:mile 65:Uruk 5596:law 4155:at 4125:doi 3583:doi 3548:doi 3177:doi 2849:doi 2754:doi 2610:doi 2347:doi 2247:doi 1970:'. 1918:In 1459:in 1270:in 1119:to 732:). 712:of 647:'s 621:'s 609:by 289:Edo 267:In 224:by 178:. 6527:: 4914:/ 4895:/ 4811:/ 4797:/ 4666:/ 4171:. 4133:. 4123:. 4109:. 4105:. 4056:, 3995:, 3979:, 3961:, 3949:, 3937:, 3927:, 3917:, 3907:, 3889:, 3879:, 3873:). 3850:, 3794:: 3790:, 3731:. 3589:. 3579:73 3577:. 3554:. 3544:74 3542:. 3521:. 3467:^ 3411:^ 3291:^ 3193:: 3191:}} 3187:{{ 3175:. 2855:. 2847:. 2811:. 2807:. 2760:. 2750:21 2748:. 2744:. 2684:. 2659:. 2624:. 2616:. 2606:52 2604:. 2600:. 2569:, 2521:). 2489:, 2361:. 2353:. 2341:. 2337:. 2309:II 2303:, 2261:. 2253:. 2239:31 2237:. 2233:. 2163:^ 2077:. 2063:. 2009:". 1991:. 1910:, 1836:. 1781:. 1753:; 1749:; 1729:: 1690:. 1652:, 1620:. 1330:, 1255:, 1251:' 1168:, 1164:, 1160:, 1151:nl 1123:. 1042:, 1022:: 859:, 716:(" 692:, 533:. 525:, 521:, 517:, 513:, 509:, 505:, 501:, 497:, 493:, 489:, 485:, 481:, 461:. 90:, 86:, 44:, 40:, 6339:) 6335:( 6047:) 6043:( 5965:e 5958:t 5951:v 5411:e 5404:t 5397:v 4203:e 4196:t 4189:v 4175:. 4141:. 4127:: 4117:: 4111:4 4048:. 3750:. 3739:. 3689:. 3674:. 3655:. 3597:. 3585:: 3562:. 3550:: 3495:. 3425:. 3386:. 3360:. 3204:) 3200:( 3183:. 3179:: 3134:. 3109:. 2974:. 2960:. 2918:. 2904:. 2890:. 2865:. 2851:: 2815:. 2813:7 2768:. 2756:: 2695:. 2670:. 2632:. 2612:: 2518:( 2369:. 2349:: 2343:4 2322:. 2290:. 2276:. 2249:: 2203:. 2182:. 1725:( 1710:( 1018:( 965:( 728:( 625:( 251:) 245:( 240:) 236:( 232:. 218:. 185:) 181:(

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.