Ibn al-Ash'ath - Knowledge

1309:, situated between Basra and Kufa, and the Iraqis, regardless of social status, were deprived of any real power in the governance of the region. This was coupled with a reform of the salary system by al-Hajjaj: whereas hitherto the salary had been calculated based on the role of one's ancestors in the early Muslim conquests, it now became limited to those actively participating in campaigns. As most of the army was now composed of Syrians, this measure gravely injured the interests of the Iraqis, who regarded this as another impious attack on hallowed institutions. In addition, extensive land reclamation and irrigation works were undertaken in the Sawad, but this was limited mostly to around Wasit, and the proceeds went to the Umayyads and their clients, not the Iraqi nobility. As a result, the political power of the once mighty Kufan élites was soon broken. 1125:. On the other hand, as Hawting points out, this is insufficient evidence to ascribe purely tribal motivations to the revolt: if Ibn al-Ash'ath's movement was indeed led largely by Yamanis, this simply reflects the fact that they were the dominant element in Kufa, and while al-Hajjaj himself was a northerner, his main commander was a southerner. Dixon, furthermore, interprets the same poem by A'sha Hamdan differently, and contradicts Veccia Vaglieri in insisting that "the verses show clearly that both the Ma'adites and the Yemenites (Hamdan, Madhhij and Qahtan) allied themselves against al-Hajjaj and his tribe, Thaqif", highlighting that this was "one of the rare occasions where we find the Northern and Southern Arabs standing together against a common foe". 1272:. Faced with the approach of the Syrian Umayyad troops under Umara ibn al-Tamim, however, most of Ibn al-Ash'ath's followers urged him to go to Khurasan, where they would be hopefully able to recruit more followers, evade pursuit in the vast expanse of the region, or be able to sit out the Umayyad attacks until either al-Hajjaj or Caliph Abd al-Malik died and the political situation changed. Ibn al-Ash'ath bowed to their pressure, but soon after a group of 2,000 men under Ibn Samura defected to the Umayyads. Disillusioned with the fickleness of the Iraqis, Ibn al-Ash'ath returned to Zabulistan with those who would follow him there. Most of the rebels remained in Khurasan, choosing Abd al-Rahman ibn Abbas al-Hashimi as their leader, and sacking 1214:. Again Ibn al-Ash'ath initially held the upper hand, but the Syrians prevailed in the end: shortly before the sun set, Ibn al-Ash'ath's men broke and scattered. The defeat turned into a flight, aided by al-Hajjaj's offers of pardon to rebels who surrendered themselves. Failing to rally his troops, Ibn al-Ash'ath with a handful of followers fled to Kufa, where he took farewell of his family. As Hawting commented, the contrast "between the discipline and organisation of the Umayyads and their largely Syrian support and the lack of these qualities among their opponents in spite of, or perhaps rather because of, the more righteous and religious flavour of the opposition" is a recurring pattern in the civil wars of the period. 736:. Although the Kharijites numbered just a few hundred, they benefited from Shabib's tactical skill and had defeated every Umayyad commander sent against them thus far. Advised by the general al-Jazl Uthman ibn Sa'id al-Kindi, who had been defeated by Shabib previously, Ibn al-Ash'ath pursued the Kharijites, but displayed great caution in order to avoid falling into a trap. Notably, each night he dug a trench around his camp, thus foiling Shabib's plans to launch a surprise night attack. Unable to catch Ibn al-Ash'ath unawares, Shabib instead resolved to wear down his pursuers, by retreating before them into barren and inhospitable terrain, waiting for them to catch up, and retreating again. 1091:

not have banished the spirits which he had called up. It was as if an avalanche came rushing down sweeping every thing before it". This interpretation is corroborated by the different rhetoric and actions of Ibn al-Ash'ath and his followers, as reported in the sources: the former was ready and willing to compromise with the Umayyads, and continued to fight only because he had no alternative, while the great mass of his followers, motivated by discontent against the Umayyad regime couched in religious terms, were far more uncompromising and willing to carry on the struggle until death. Al-Hajjaj himself seems to have been aware of the distinction: in suppressing the revolt, he pardoned the

619: 1222:, had captured al-Mada'in. Al-Hajjaj remained for a month in Kufa, before setting out to meet Ibn al-Ash'ath. The two armies met at Maskin, on the river Dujayl. After two weeks of skirmishing, al-Hajjaj delivered the final blow by launching a simultaneous attack on the rebel camp from two sides: while he with the main part of his army attacked from one side, a portion of his army, guided by a shepherd, crossed the marshes and launched itself on the camp from the rear. Caught by surprise, the rebel army was nearly annihilated, with many of its troops drowning in the river in their attempt to flee. 743:, Uthman ibn Qatan, wrote to al-Hajjaj criticizing Ibn al-Ash'ath's leadership as timid and ineffective. Al-Hajjaj responded by giving command to Uthman, but when the latter attacked Shabib on 20 March 696, the government army suffered a heavy defeat, losing around 900 men and fleeing to Kufa. Uthman himself was killed, while Ibn al-Ash'ath, who lost his horse, managed to escape with the help of a friend and reached Kufa. Fearing reprisals for the defeat by al-Hajjaj, he remained in hiding until the governor of Iraq granted him pardon. 897:(Hawting), coupled with existing grievances over al-Hajjaj's harsh administration, was enough to turn the troops against the governor of Iraq. The assembled army denounced al-Hajjaj, proclaiming him deposed, and swore allegiance to Ibn al-Ash'ath instead. Dixon furthermore points out that the first of the commanders to swear allegiance to Ibn al-Ash'ath are known to have been Shi'a sympathizers from Kufa, who had participated in Mukhtar's uprising. Ibn al-Ash'ath's brothers, however, as well as the governor of Khurasan, 1134: 1231: 713:(Sijistan), effectively making him a viceroy of half the Umayyad realm. The post was of particular political sensitivity due to the long history of Kharijism and political dissent in Iraq. This was particularly the case in Ibn al-Ash'ath's home town of Kufa, which contained people from almost all Arab tribes, but also many of those undesired elsewhere, such as the vanquished of the Ridda wars. Although it dominated the fertile lands of the 1182:, approached al-Hajjaj's army and set up camp at Dayr al-Jamajim. Both armies fortified their camps by digging trenches and, as before, engaged in skirmishes. Whatever the true numbers of Ibn al-Ash'ath's force, al-Hajjaj was in a difficult position: although reinforcements from Syria were constantly arriving, his army was considerably outnumbered by the rebels, and his position was difficult to resupply with provisions. 3594: 858:) with the Peacock Army. A contingent from Tabaristan are also said to have joined him. Faced with such a formidable enemy, the Zunbil made peace overtures. Ibn al-Ash'ath rejected them and—in marked contrast to his predecessor's direct assault—began a systematic campaign to first secure the lowlands surrounding the mountainous heart of the Zunbil's kingdom: he established a base of operations at 834:). Two different generals were appointed by al-Hajjaj in succession to command it, before he appointed Ibn al-Ash'ath instead. In view of their bad relations, the sources report that the appointment came as a surprise to many; an uncle of Ibn al-Ash'ath even approached al-Hajjaj and suggested that his nephew might revolt, but al-Hajjaj did not rescind his appointment. 1280:, to send an army against them, resulting in an overwhelming defeat for the rebels. Yazid released those who belonged to the Yamani tribes related to his own, and sent the rest to al-Hajjaj, who executed most of them. In the meantime, Umara quickly effected the surrender of Sistan, by offering lenient terms to the garrisons if they surrendered without struggle. 1201:, refused, and pushed for outright victory. The rebels were aware of the Syrians' supply problems, and considered the offered terms an admission of the government's weakness. With the negotiations failing, the two armies continued to skirmish—the sources report that the skirmishing lasted for 100 days with 48 engagements. The 1382:, distribution of the revenue from the Sawad, an end to distant campaigns) and to restore rule "according to the Quran and the Sunna". Once more, the Kufans deserted it at the critical moment, and the revolt was defeated by the Umayyads. Discontent with the Umayyad government continued to simmer, and during the 1018:, as opposed to al-Hajjaj's policies aimed chiefly at extracting revenue from them. Dixon furthermore draws attention to the past Shi'a affiliations of some of the key figures of Ibn al-Ash'ath's uprising, as well as the fact that in Iraq, other ethnic and religious groups joined the uprising, notably as the 652:(Arab tribal nobility) who served under Mus'ab, Ibn al-Ash'ath urged the execution of Mukhtar's followers, who had barricaded themselves in the governor's palace in Kufa. This was not only to avenge the loss of their own kinsmen during the campaign, but also because of the deeply ingrained hostility of the 1283:

Ibn al-Ash'ath remained safe under the protection of the Zunbil, but al-Hajjaj, fearing that he might raise another revolt, sent several letters to the Zunbil, mixing threats and promises, to secure his surrender. Finally, in 704 the Zunbil gave in, in exchange for lifting the annual tribute for 7 or

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Following this second defeat, Ibn al-Ash'ath fled east, towards Sistan, with a few survivors. Al-Hajjaj sent troops under Umara ibn al-Tamim al-Lakhmi to intercept them. Umara caught up with them twice, at Sus and Sabur. In the first battle, the rebels were defeated, but they prevailed in the second,

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Following this open revolt, Ibn al-Ash'ath hastily concluded an agreement with the Zunbil, whereby if he was victorious in the coming conflict with al-Hajjaj, he would accord the Zunbil generous treatment, while if he was defeated, the Zunbil would provide refuge. With his rear secure, Ibn al-Ash'ath

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in anticipation of his extradition to al-Hajjaj, and chained to his warden, but that to avoid being handed over, he threw himself from the top of the castle (along with his warden) to his death. His head was cut off and sent to al-Hajjaj in Iraq. According to al-Tabari, al-Hajjaj then sent it to Abd

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Ibn al-Ash'ath entered Basra on 13 February 701, to an enthusiastic welcome. Ibn al-Ash'ath fortified Basra, and over the next month, a series of skirmishes were fought between the forces of Ibn al-Ash'ath and al-Hajjaj, in which the former generally held the upper hand. Finally, in early March, the

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attributed these reports to the Arabic sources' tendency to "explain historical events by incidents relating to persons", rather than reflecting the actual relationship between the two men, especially given the fact that Ibn al-Ash'ath faithfully served al-Hajjaj in a number of posts, culminating in

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Ibn al-Ash'ath's pretensions irked al-Hajjaj, whose hostile remarks—such as "Look how he walks! How I should like to cut off his head!"—were conveyed to Ibn al-Ash'ath and served to deepen their hostility to outright mutual hatred. Al-Tabari suggested that al-Hajjaj relied on the fear he inspired to

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Despite this setback, relations between Ibn al-Ash'ath and al-Hajjaj were initially friendly, and al-Hajjaj's son married one of Ibn al-Ash'ath's sisters. Gradually, however, the two men became estranged. The sources attribute this to Ibn al-Ash'ath's overweening pride as one of the foremost of the

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It was not until 720 that the Iraqis rebelled once again, under Yazid ibn al-Muhallab, "the last of the old-style Iraqi champions" (Hugh Kennedy), and even then, support was ambivalent, and the revolt was defeated. Two of Ibn al-Ash'ath's nephews, Muhammad ibn Ishaq and Uthman ibn Ishaq, supported

1262:, Iyad ibn Himyan al-Sadusi, likewise his own appointee, who thus sought to win the favour of al-Hajjaj. The Zunbil, however, remained true to his word: learning of this event, he came to Bust and forced Ibn al-Ash'ath's release, taking him with him to Zabulistan and treating him with much honour. 1194:

at the head of an army to Iraq, but also carrying an offer to Ibn al-Ash'ath: the dismissal of al-Hajjaj, the appointment of Ibn al-Ash'ath as governor over one of the Iraqi towns of his choice, and a raise in the Iraqis' pay so that they received the same amount as the Syrians. Ibn al-Ash'ath was

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Informed of the revolt, al-Hajjaj went to Basra and requested reinforcements from the caliph. Realising the seriousness of the revolt, Caliph Abd al-Malik sent a stream of reinforcements to Iraq. After staying for some time in Fars, the rebel army, which is reported to have numbered 33,000 cavalry

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Indeed, although Ibn al-Ash'ath remained at the head of the uprising, Veccia Vaglieri suggested that after this point "one has the impression that the control of the revolt slipped from his hands", or that, as Wellhausen commented, "he was urged on in spite of himself, and even if he would, could

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Offended by the insinuation of cowardice, Ibn al-Ash'ath called an assembly of the army's leadership, in which he informed them of al-Hajjaj's orders for an immediate advance and his decision to refuse to obey. He then went before the assembled troops and repeated al-Hajjaj's instructions, calling

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Infuriated by this setback, al-Hajjaj raised an Iraqi army from Basra and Kufa, to be sent against the Zunbil. 20,000 strong, the army comprised many members of the most eminent families of the two garrison towns. Whether due to the splendour of their equipment, or as an allusion to what historian

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and Ibn A'tham, to apply pressure to his commanders, Ibn al-Ash'ath also fabricated a letter by al-Hajjaj ordering him to dismiss or execute some of them. As modern historians have commented, "little aggravation was needed" (Dixon). The "prospect of a long and difficult campaign so far from Iraq"

410:. In 700, al-Hajjaj's overbearing behaviour caused Ibn al-Ash'ath and the army to revolt. After patching up an agreement with the Zunbil, the army marched back to Iraq. On the way, the mutiny against al-Hajjaj developed into a full-fledged anti-Umayyad rebellion and acquired religious overtones. 1217:

Victorious, al-Hajjaj entered Kufa, where he tried and executed many rebels, but also pardoned those who submitted after admitting that through revolt they had become infidels. In the meantime, however, one of Ibn al-Ash'ath's supporters, Ubayd Allah ibn Abd al-Rahman ibn Samura al-Qurashi, had

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after a few days. Abd al-Rahman ibn Abbas too withdrew with as many Basrans as would follow him to Kufa, where Ibn al-Ash'ath's forces swelled further with the arrival of large numbers of anti-Umayyad volunteers. After taking control of Basra—and executing some 11,000 of its people, despite his

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Once al-Hajjaj received Ibn al-Ash'ath's messages informing him of the break in operations, he replied in what Veccia Vaglieri described as "a series of arrogant and offensive messages ordering him to penetrate into the heart of Zabulistan and there to fight the enemy to the death". Otherwise,

1164:, forcing Ibn al-Ash'ath to withdraw to his home town of Kufa, taking with him the Kufan troops and the élite of the Basran cavalry. At Kufa, Ibn al-Ash'ath was well received, but found the citadel occupied by Matar ibn Najiya, an officer from al-Mada'in, and was forced to take it by assault. 1265:

Once free, Ibn al-Ash'ath assumed command of some 60,000 supporters who had assembled in Sistan in the meantime, led by his lieutenants, Abd al-Rahman ibn Abbas al-Hashimi and Ubayd Allah ibn Abd al-Rahman ibn Samura al-Qurashi. With their support, he seized Zaranj, where he punished the

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were expelled from Iraq's garrison cities, while the Christian Arabs of the village of Najran near Kufa saw their tribute raised, and the Asawira of Basra saw their houses destroyed, their salaries reduced, and many were exiled. In order to punish the native Persian aristocracy of the

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found that the Zunbil had withdrawn his forces, leaving behind only elderly and the corpses of Ibn Abi Bakra's expedition. Ibn al-Ash'ath then withdrew to Bust to spend the winter of 699/700, and to allow his troops to acclimatize themselves to the unfamiliar conditions of the area.

917:, and his army set out on the return journey to Iraq, picking up more soldiers from Kufa and Basra, who were stationed as garrisons, along the way. The sources are not in agreement as to the chronology and duration of the revolt: one tradition maintains that the revolt began in 814:. The Zunbil drew the Arabs deep into his country and cut them off, so that they managed to extricate themselves only with great difficulty, after suffering many losses (particularly among the Kufan contingent), and paying a ransom and leaving hostages for their safe departure. 717:, many of the latter were assigned by the Umayyads to princes of the dynasty, while the average Kufan was given—increasingly minuscule—parcels of land as a reward for military service. Finally, the Kufans were largely left out of the spoils of conquest in the east; it was the 981:, " almost to have goaded the Iraqis into rebellion", such as the introduction of Syrian troops—the mainstay of the Umayyad dynasty—into Iraq, the use of Iraqi troops in the arduous and unrewarding campaigns against the Kharijites, and the reduction of the Iraqi troops' pay ( 881:"We will not obey the enemy of God, who like a Pharaoh coerces us to the farthest campaigns and keeps us here so that we can never see our wives and children; the gain is always his; if we are victorious, the conquered land is his; if we perish, then he is rid of us." 439:, while Ibn al-Ash'ath himself fled to Zabulistan. His fate is unclear, as some accounts hold that the Zunbil executed him after al-Hajjaj demanded his surrender, while most sources claim that he committed suicide to avoid being handed over to his enemies. 1053:

While according to Hawting the "religious polemic used by both sides is stereotyped, unspecific and to be found in other contexts", there do appear to have been specific religious grievances, notably the accusation that the Umayyads were neglecting the

977:-based regime of the Umayyads as represented by the overbearing (and notably low-born) al-Hajjaj. Historical sources are clear that al-Hajjaj quickly became unpopular among the Iraqis through a series of measures that, according to historian 929:, it had become clear that deposing al-Hajjaj could not be done without deposing Caliph Abd al-Malik as well, and the revolt evolved from a mutiny into a full-blown anti-Umayyad uprising, with the troops renewing their oath of allegiance ( 398:-based Umayyad regime aimed to reduce the Iraqis' privileges and status. Nevertheless, in 699, al-Hajjaj appointed Ibn al-Ash'ath as commander of a huge Iraqi army, the so-called "Peacock Army", to subdue the troublesome principality of 921:

81 (700/1 CE), with the invasion of Iraq in AH 82 (701 CE), and the final suppression of the revolt in AH 83 (702 CE), while another tradition moves all events a year later. Modern scholars generally favour the former interpretation.

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was due to a number of reasons: as Iraqis, they shared the grievances against al-Hajjaj, but as religious purists, they also suspected al-Hajjaj of being disinterested in religion, and espoused a more egalitarian treatment of the

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The suppression of Ibn al-Ash'ath's revolt signalled the end of the power of the tribal nobility of Iraq, which henceforth came under the direct control of the Umayyad regime's staunchly loyal Syrian troops. Later revolts, under

1058:. It seems that the revolt began as a simple mutiny against an overbearing governor who made impossible demands of the troops, but, at least by the time the army reached Fars, a religious element had emerged, represented by the 1112:

in celebration of the rebellion shows a tribal motivation of the rebel troops: al-Hajjaj is denounced as an apostate and a "friend of the devil", while Ibn al-Ash'ath is portrayed as the champion of the Yamani Qahtani and

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pledge of pardon—al-Hajjaj marched on Kufa. His army was harassed by Ibn al-Ash'ath's cavalry under Abd al-Rahman ibn Abbas, but reached the environs of the city and set up camp at Dayr Qarra, on the right bank of the

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as well, while A. A. Dixon highlights that Ibn al-Ash'ath was a "suitable leader" around whom the Iraqis could rally to express their opposition to al-Hajjaj, and their disaffection with the oppressive Umayyad regime.

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of error, to fight against those who regard as licit". Initially directed chiefly against the person of al-Hajjaj, the uprising had by then morphed into a "revolt against the caliph and the Umayyad rule in general".

417:. Nevertheless, the rebels seized Kufa, where supporters started flocking. The revolt gained widespread support among those who were discontented with the Umayyad regime, especially the religious zealots known as 1185:

In the meantime, Ibn al-Ash'ath's progress had sufficiently alarmed the Umayyad court that they sought a negotiated settlement, despite the contrary advice of al-Hajjaj. Caliph Abd al-Malik sent his brother

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Ibn al-Ash'ath left Abd al-Rahman ibn Abbas al-Hashimi as his commander in Basra. Abd al-Rahman ibn Abbas tried but was unable to hold the city, as the populace opened the gates in exchange for a

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s, while the foundation of Wasit on the eastern side of the Tigris hastened the decline of the older settlements. As late as 712, al-Hajjaj is recorded as executing Sa'id ibn Jubayr, one of the

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keep Ibn al-Ash'ath in check. Modern scholarship on the other hand holds that the portrayal of the great personal animosity between the two men is likely to be exaggerated. Thus the historian

435:, the rebel army was decisively defeated by al-Hajjaj's Syrian troops. Al-Hajjaj pursued the survivors, who under Ibn al-Ash'ath fled east. Most of the rebels were captured by the governor of 431:

tried to negotiate terms, including the dismissal of al-Hajjaj, but the hardliners among the rebel leadership pressured Ibn al-Ash'ath into rejecting the Caliph's terms. In the subsequent

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Both Veccia Vaglieri and Hawting emphasize that Wellhausen's analysis ignores the evident religious dimension of the revolt, especially the participation of the militant zealots known as

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The reasons for the rebellion have been the source of much discussion and theories among modern scholars. Moving away from the personal relationship between al-Hajjaj and Ibn al-Ash'ath,

640:, the young Ibn al-Ash'ath accompanied his father and participated in his political activities: in 680 he helped arrest Muslim ibn Aqil. In 686/7, he fought under the Umayyad governor 544:

to abandon his military advantage and submit to an arbitration that ultimately undermined his position. The real events remain unclear, but although al-Ash'ath was also close to Ali's

849:, according to which Ibn al-Ash'ath and the Peacock Army suppressed al-Sadusi's mutiny on their way to the east, may be preferable, as it appears to reconcile the divergent reports. 862:, and slowly and methodically began to capture villages and fortresses one by one, installing garrisons in them and linking them with messengers. A foray by his brother up the 1207:

particularly distinguished themselves for their bravery in this period, until their leader, Jabala ibn Zahr ibn Qays al-Ju'fi, was killed, after which they began to disperse.

1176:, so as to secure his lines of communication with Syria. In response, Ibn al-Ash'ath left Kufa in mid-April 701, and with an army reportedly 200,000 strong, half of whom were 1074:

in Fars. While in the first Ibn al-Ash'ath declared as his intention to "depose al-Hajjaj, the enemy of God", in the latter, he exhorted his men to " the Book of God and the

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to secure equal rights with the Arab Muslims, a movement that had already resulted in a major uprising under Mukhtar. This view was also held by von Kremer's contemporaries,

159: 1297:, the governor of Egypt. One tradition holds that Ibn al-Ash'ath's head was buried there, while another that it was then taken to Hadramawt and thrown into a well. 837:

It is unclear whether Ibn al-Ash'ath himself had joined the army from the outset or whether, according to an alternative tradition, he had originally been sent to

1386:, Iraq rose up in support of the rebellion. Kufa overthrew Umayyad rule and welcomed the Abbasid army in October 749, followed immediately by the proclamation of 152: 3007:

The History of al-Ṭabarī, Volume XXIII: The Zenith of the Marwānid House: The Last Years of ʿAbd al-Malik and the Caliphate of al-Walīd, A.D. 700–715/A.H. 81–95

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and the eastern provinces of the Caliphate in 694, relations between al-Hajjaj and the Iraqi tribal nobility quickly became strained, as the policies of the

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The failure of Ibn al-Ash'ath's revolt led to the tightening of Umayyad control over Iraq. Al-Hajjaj founded a permanent garrison for the Syrian troops at

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between the northern Arab and southern Arab ("Yamani") tribal groups prevalent at the time. Thus, according to Veccia Vaglieri, a poem by the famous poet

1064:. Given the close intertwining of religion and politics at the time, the religious element quickly became dominant, as seen by the difference between the 1256:

Abdallah ibn Amir al-Ba'ar al-Tamimi, whom Ibn al-Ash'ath had himself appointed over the city. Moving to Bust, Ibn al-Ash'ath was arrested by the local

3253: 3666: 1150:. At the news of this defeat, al-Hajjaj withdrew to Basra and then, as he could not possibly hold the city, left it as well for nearby al-Zawiya. 677:

in October 691, he, like other followers of Mus'ab, went over to the Umayyads. In early 692, he participated in a campaign against the Azariqa

768:('Helper of the Faithful'), an implicit challenge to the Umayyads, who were implied to be false believers. In addition, he claimed to be the 3383: 1312:

Al-Hajjaj also retaliated against individuals and entire communities, whom he suspected of having supported Ibn al-Ash'ath's uprising. The

845:. A different account suggests that he had been sent to fight the Kharijites. Historian A. A. Dixon opined that the 9th-century account of 610:. Ibn al-Ash'ath had four brothers, Ishaq, Qasim, Sabbah, and Isma'il, of whom the first three also fought in the campaigns in Tabaristan. 987:) to a level below that of the Syrian troops. The reaction against al-Hajjaj as the main driving factor behind the revolt was espoused by 3474: 548:

rivals—two of his daughters married into the Umayyad house—he nevertheless remained loyal to Ali, and another daughter married Ali's son

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al-Hajjaj threatened to give command to Ibn al-Ash'ath's brother, and reduce Ibn al-Ash'ath himself to the rank of an ordinary soldier.

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against Mukhtar, in the campaign in which his father was killed. After Mukhtar was killed during the fight, along with the other Kufan

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the rebellion, but most remained quiescent and content with their role as local dignitaries. A few held posts in Kufa under the early

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and 120,000 infantry, began advancing towards Iraq. On 24 or 25 January 701, Ibn al-Ash'ath overwhelmed al-Hajjaj's advance guard at

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10 years. Accounts of Ibn al-Ash'ath's end differ: one version holds that he was executed by the Zunbil himself, or that he died of

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Ibn al-Ash'ath disappears from the record during the next few years, but after Mus'ab was defeated and killed by the Umayyad caliph

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allowing Ibn al-Ash'ath and his men to reach Kirman and thence move to Sistan. There they were refused entry into Zaranj by the

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two armies met for a pitched battle. Ibn al-Ash'ath initially prevailed, but in the end al-Hajjaj's Syrians, under the general

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rejected this view as the main reason for the revolt, interpreting it instead as a reaction of the Iraqis in general and the

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upon them to decide what should be done. According to another version of events, transmitted by the 9th-century historians

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In late 695, al-Hajjaj entrusted Ibn al-Ash'ath with 6,000 horsemen and the campaign against the Kharijite rebels under

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After taking up the leadership of the army in 699, Ibn al-Ash'ath led it to Sistan, where he united the local troops (

3239: 2948: 2825: 702: 391: 304: 3631: 3621: 3539: 685:, at the head of 5,000 Kufan troops. After the Kharijites were defeated, he went on to take up the governorship of 266: 299: 3084: 3393: 3378: 3061: 516:'s sister, Umm Farwa, who became his chief wife. He went on to participate in the crucial battles of the early 956: 413:

Al-Hajjaj initially retreated before the rebels' superior numbers, but quickly defeated and drove them out of

666:), who had formed the bulk of Mukhtar's supporters. As a result, some 6,000 of Mukhtar's men were executed. 3671: 3448: 3388: 1155: 733: 607: 580: 133: 101: 95: 3616: 841:

to punish a local leader, Himyan ibn Adi al-Sadusi, who had refused to help the governors of Sistan and

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The History of al-Ṭabarī, Volume XIX: The Caliphate of Yazīd ibn Muʿāwiyah, A.D. 680–683/A.H. 60–64

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Apart from religious motivations, modern scholars have seen in the uprising a manifestation of the

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who secured the lion's share, taking over far more extensive and richer territory like Khurasan or

567:(a son of Umm Farwa) was less distinguished, serving an unsuccessful tenure as Umayyad governor of 2753:

The End of the Jihâd State: The Reign of Hishām ibn ʻAbd al-Malik and the Collapse of the Umayyads

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The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates: The Islamic Near East from the 6th to the 11th Century

670: 641: 587:. Like his father at Siffin, he is denigrated by pro-Shi'a sources for his ambiguous role in the 428: 3641: 3557: 3499: 3428: 1294: 1105: 1070:

sworn at the beginning of the revolt and that exchanged between the army and Ibn al-Ash'ath at

780:

figure in South Arab ("Yamani") tribal tradition who was expected to raise them to domination.

517: 483: 407: 352: 334: 223: 126: 3167: 618: 3418: 3155: 3140:. SUNY Series in Near Eastern Studies. Albany, New York: State University of New York Press. 3010:. SUNY Series in Near Eastern Studies. Albany, New York: State University of New York Press. 2964:. SUNY Series in Near Eastern Studies. Albany, New York: State University of New York Press. 2862:. SUNY Series in Near Eastern Studies. Albany, New York: State University of New York Press. 1285: 1277: 846: 785: 444: 213: 30: 3646: 3547: 3423: 3337: 2859:

The History of al-Ṭabarī, Volume XXI: The Victory of the Marwānids, A.D. 685–693/A.H. 66–73

1027: 705:. In 697, his remit was expanded to cover the entirety of the eastern Caliphate, including 218: 1095:, the Syrians, and many of the other Arab clans, but executed tens of thousands among the 8: 3636: 3509: 1288:. The more widespread account, however, holds that he was confined to a remote castle at 1187: 1047: 698: 525: 360: 3214: 3443: 2893: 1383: 1118: 584: 452: 359:, most notable for leading a failed rebellion against the Umayyad viceroy of the east, 294: 289: 251: 3262: 3220: 3210: 3198: 3194: 3141: 3131: 3119: 3115: 3057: 3049: 3035: 3011: 2987: 2979: 2965: 2944: 2920: 2916: 2863: 2842: 2821: 2799: 2783: 2757: 1138: 964: 960: 946: 600: 588: 521: 356: 144: 75: 2795: 3567: 3190: 3159: 3111: 3072: 2912: 2881: 2791: 674: 606:

Ibn al-Ash'ath's mother, Umm Amr, was the daughter of the South Arab tribal leader

549: 533: 261: 2779: 2775: 468:

Abd al-Rahman ibn Muhammad ibn al-Ash'ath was a member of a noble family from the

3469: 3135: 3029: 3025: 3005: 2959: 2938: 2857: 2836: 2815: 2751: 1109: 978: 863: 838: 592: 545: 325: 277: 1333:, al-Hajjaj deliberately did not repair the breaches in the canal system around 3656: 3562: 3552: 3287: 3175: 3171: 3096: 3088: 2897: 2885: 2811: 988: 309: 234: 348: 3610: 3433: 3277: 3224: 3202: 3163: 3123: 3092: 3076: 2934: 2877: 2803: 974: 926: 819: 759: 740: 596: 576: 469: 395: 379: 367: 228: 3373: 3231: 3001: 1373: 1369: 1357:. Perhaps the most famous of the family's later members is the philosopher 1242: 1168: 918: 828:

who composed it", this army became known in history as the "Peacock Army" (

623: 572: 448: 383: 271: 244: 198: 1230: 1195:

inclined to accept, but the more radical of his followers, especially the

3574: 3438: 3363: 3327: 1114: 1019: 529: 239: 193: 3219:. Translated by Margaret Graham Weir. Calcutta: University of Calcutta. 1577: 3517: 3302: 2984:

In God's Path: The Arab Conquests and the Creation of an Islamic Empire

1035: 859: 807: 777: 678: 568: 509: 399: 188: 1337:

on the west bank of the Tigris. This ruined the economic basis of the

1327:

s, which had survived from pre-Islamic times and allied with the Arab

3342: 3332: 1387: 1173: 932: 893: 771: 722: 686: 637: 480:. His grandfather, Ma'dikarib ibn Qays, better known by his nickname 473: 387: 208: 886:

Reply of the soldiers to Ibn al-Ash'ath regarding al-Hajjaj's orders

512:. Defeated, al-Ash'ath was nevertheless pardoned and married Caliph 3494: 3317: 3292: 2590: 1358: 1354: 1289: 1218:

recaptured Basra, to where Ibn al-Ash'ath now headed; and another,

706: 682: 537: 513: 505: 436: 65: 2373: 2371: 2369: 2307: 2165: 1860: 1858: 1856: 1854: 1852: 1850: 1815: 355:, was a prominent Arab nobleman and military commander during the 3312: 3282: 2367: 2365: 2363: 2361: 2359: 2357: 2355: 2353: 2351: 2349: 1848: 1846: 1844: 1842: 1840: 1838: 1836: 1834: 1832: 1830: 1736: 1734: 1732: 1730: 1728: 1726: 1724: 1463: 1461: 1459: 1457: 1334: 1122: 1092: 1071: 1031: 1455: 1453: 1451: 1449: 1447: 1445: 1443: 1441: 1439: 1437: 1158:, carried off a victory. Many rebels fell, especially among the 949:

suggested that the rebellion was linked with the efforts of the

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calls the "proud and haughty manner of the Kufan soldiers and

3504: 3484: 3479: 2566: 2500: 2434: 2295: 2242: 2045: 1972: 1960: 1924: 1758: 1434: 1376:. Zayd also promised to right injustices (restoration of the 1306: 1273: 1055: 1039: 1002: 908: 726: 718: 714: 553: 477: 451:

in 740, also failed, and it was not until the success of the

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The First Dynasty of Islam: The Umayyad Caliphate AD 661–750

2529: 2527: 2463: 2461: 2412: 2410: 2324: 2322: 2087: 2006: 2004: 2002: 1661: 1649: 1473: 806:, suffered a severe defeat by the semi-independent ruler of 536:

has led to his widespread condemnation in later, mainly pro-

528:, and held governorships in the newly conquered province of 1673: 1601: 1589: 1081: 1023: 940: 557: 375: 2713: 2689: 2617: 1625: 2838:

The Umayyad Caliphate, 65–86/684–705: (A Political Study)

2641: 2607: 2605: 2554: 2524: 2458: 2407: 2319: 2283: 2062: 2060: 1999: 1790: 1788: 1613: 1541: 1424: 1422: 1420: 1418: 1416: 1414: 541: 2756:. Albany, New York: State University of New York Press. 2578: 2512: 2473: 2422: 2395: 2334: 2254: 2206: 2196: 2194: 2192: 2102: 1948: 1936: 1900: 1805: 1803: 1746: 1553: 1502: 1490: 1399: 692: 2544: 2542: 2490: 2488: 2273: 2271: 2269: 2119: 2117: 2077: 2075: 2035: 2033: 2031: 1989: 1987: 1890: 1888: 1875: 1873: 1775: 1773: 1709: 1685: 1529: 697:

In 694, Abd al-Malik appointed the trusted and capable

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This went on until late July 701, when the two armies

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his appointment to lead a major campaign into Sistan.

729:

and central Persia as their city's sole dependencies.

174: 3056:. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. 2817:

Slaves on Horses: The Evolution of the Islamic Polity

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Ibn al-Ash'ath was a scion of a noble family of the

339: 2943:(Second ed.). London and New York: Routledge. 2016: 1514: 725:, while the Kufans were left with the mountains of 591:in 680, being held responsible for the arrests of 552:. Al-Ash'ath later led the Kindite quarter in the 622:The Umayyads and their rival factions during the 3608: 2986:. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. 3154: 2377: 2313: 2183: 2171: 1864: 1821: 1740: 1467: 504:), was an important chieftain who submitted to 455:that the Syrian dominance of Iraq was broken. 3627:7th-century people from the Umayyad Caliphate 3247: 1293:al-Malik, who in turn sent it to his brother 1101:and the Zutt, who had sided with the rebels. 1042:Kharijites is recorded, as well as the early 160: 3261: 1128: 829: 50: 16:Umayyad noble, general, and rebel (died 704) 2770: 2746: 1655: 1428: 489: 3254: 3240: 3209: 3181:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition 3102:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition 3070: 2903:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition 2572: 2533: 2506: 2467: 2440: 2416: 2328: 2301: 2289: 2248: 2051: 2010: 1978: 1930: 1764: 1484: 1405: 1034:, and the Turkic Sayabija, clients of the 802:In 698/9, the Umayyad governor of Sistan, 583:that overthrew the pro-Shi'a rebel leader 341:ʿAbd al-Raḥmān ibn Muḥammad ibn al-Ashʿath 167: 153: 3189:. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 715–719. 3110:. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 696–697. 2911:. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 400–401. 2820:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1245:82 (701 CE) in the name of Ibn al-Ash'ath 870: 746: 575:as a supporter of the anti-Umayyad rebel 386:(680–692) and then served as governor of 322:Abd al-Rahman ibn Muhammad ibn al-Ash'ath 3667:Rebellions against the Umayyad Caliphate 2855: 1607: 1595: 1583: 1229: 1225: 1132: 941:Motives and driving forces of the revolt 636:According to the 10th-century historian 617: 390:. After the appointment of al-Hajjaj as 3024: 2978: 2933: 2876: 2731: 2719: 2695: 2623: 2611: 2428: 2200: 2096: 2066: 1954: 1809: 1794: 1643: 1631: 1547: 1535: 1508: 1496: 658:to the non-Arab converts to Islam (the 29:. For the 10th-century physician, see 3609: 3130: 3048: 2957: 2683: 2671: 2659: 2647: 2635: 2159: 1715: 1691: 1679: 1667: 1571: 1038:tribe. Even the participation of some 532:. His role in the negotiations at the 25:. For the early Abbasid general, see 3235: 3000: 2834: 2810: 2707: 2596: 2584: 2560: 2548: 2518: 2494: 2479: 2452: 2401: 2389: 2340: 2277: 2260: 2236: 2224: 2212: 2147: 2135: 2123: 2108: 2081: 2039: 2022: 1993: 1966: 1942: 1918: 1906: 1894: 1879: 1779: 1752: 1703: 1619: 1559: 1523: 762:records that he adopted the title of 758:, and his aspirations to leadership: 693:Expedition against Shabib al-Shaybani 599:, prominent supporters of Ali's son, 148: 3034:(Second ed.). Harlow: Longman. 463: 1390:as the first Abbasid caliph there. 370:tribe that had settled in the Arab 329: 51: 13: 1276:. This forced the local governor, 797: 27:Muhammad ibn al-Ash'ath al-Khuza'i 14: 3688: 3677:Generals of the Umayyad Caliphate 1368:–873). Another uprising, that of 1117:tribes against the northern Arab 901:, refused to join the rebellion. 3652:Iraq under the Umayyad Caliphate 3592: 3195:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0317 3116:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_0782 2917:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_5348 2782:; Matringe, Denis; Nawas, John; 1586:, pp. 99–100, 106–108, 116. 1220:Muhammad ibn Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas 1212:met in battle at Dayr al-Jamajim 1005:readers'). The adherence of the 382:. He played a minor role in the 257:Revolt of Muhammad the Pure Soul 23:Muhammad ibn al-Ash'ath al-Kindi 2856:Fishbein, Michael, ed. (1990). 2796:10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_COM_23009 613: 579:, being killed in 686/7 in the 571:, and becoming involved in the 344:; died 704), commonly known as 3419:Revolt of Yazid b. al-Muhallab 3404:Second siege of Constantinople 3394:Muslim conquest of Transoxiana 3379:Muslim conquest of the Maghreb 3054:Iraq after the Muslim Conquest 2958:Howard, I. K. A., ed. (1990). 2790:(3rd ed.). Brill Online. 1078:of His Prophet, to depose the 214:Revolt of Yazid b. al-Muhallab 1: 3369:First siege of Constantinople 3216:The Arab Kingdom and Its Fall 2835:Dixon, 'Abd al-Ameer (1971). 2599:, p. 80 (esp. note 307). 1393: 1362: 1141:) in the early Islamic period 925:By the time the army reached 739:As a result, the governor of 627: 458: 305:Kharijite Rebellion (866–896) 3449:Umayyad rule in North Africa 3389:Umayyad conquest of Hispania 2882:"Muḥammad b. al-As̲h̲ʿat̲h̲" 1156:Sufyan ibn al-Abrad al-Kalbi 734:Shabib ibn Yazid al-Shaybani 499:He with the dishevelled hair 330:عبد الرحمن بن محمد بن الأشعث 102:Shabib ibn Yazid al-Shaybani 52:عبد الرحمن بن محمد بن الأشعث 7: 1378: 1372:, a great-grandson of Ali, 1345: 1339: 1329: 1321: 1314: 1268: 1258: 1252: 1203: 1197: 1178: 1160: 1106:intense tribal factionalism 1097: 1080: 1066: 1060: 1014: 1007: 997: 983: 969: 951: 931: 907: 854: 824: 770: 764: 754: 660: 654: 646: 482: 419: 340: 96:Campaign against al-Mukhtar 10: 3693: 3424:Revolt of Harith b. Surayj 3399:Umayyad campaigns in India 2740: 973:in particular against the 508:, but rebelled during the 219:Revolt of Harith b. Surayj 100:Umayyad campaigns against 20: 3590: 3580:Painting of the Six Kings 3538: 3457: 3351: 3270: 2772:Blankinship, Khalid Yahya 2748:Blankinship, Khalid Yahya 2150:, p. 167 (note 108). 1349:, who had fled to Mecca. 1300: 1129:Fight for control of Iraq 899:al-Muhallab ibn Abi Sufra 804:Ubayd Allah ibn Abi Bakra 792: 608:Sa'id ibn Qays al-Hamdani 563:Ibn al-Ash'ath's father, 433:Battle of Dayr al-Jamajim 184: 134:Sa'id ibn Qays al-Hamdani 113: 89: 81: 71: 59: 45: 38: 3563:Great Mosque of Damascus 3409:Umayyad invasion of Gaul 3384:Revolt of Ibn al-Ash'ath 2734:, pp. 114–115, 127. 2674:, pp. 158, 205–206. 1969:, pp. 155–156, 166. 560:, where he died in 661. 540:sources, for persuading 267:Qays–Yaman war (793–796) 204:Revolt of Ibn al-Ash'ath 49: 3632:8th-century Arab people 3622:7th-century Arab people 3071:Reckendorf, H. (1960). 671:Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan 121:Muhammad ibn al-Ash'ath 3558:Great Mosque of Aleppo 3414:Second Arab–Khazar War 2788:Encyclopaedia of Islam 1670:, pp. xii, 32–81. 1246: 1241:, minted in Sistan in 1142: 883: 871:Outbreak of the revolt 830: 747:Rivalry with al-Hajjaj 633: 406:, vigorously resisted 3528:Arab–Sasanian coinage 3429:Revolt of Zayd b. Ali 2099:, pp. 68, 69–70. 1682:, pp. 53–63, 81. 1278:Yazid ibn al-Muhallab 1233: 1226:Flight east and death 1136: 937:) to Ibn al-Ash'ath. 879: 786:Laura Veccia Vaglieri 621: 445:Yazid ibn al-Muhallab 224:Revolt of Zayd b. Ali 82:Years of service 3548:Umayyad architecture 3160:"Ibn al-As̲h̲ʿat̲h̲" 2776:"al-Ashʿath b. Qays" 2563:, pp. 154, 163. 2378:Veccia Vaglieri 1971 2314:Veccia Vaglieri 1971 2184:Veccia Vaglieri 1971 2172:Veccia Vaglieri 1971 1865:Veccia Vaglieri 1971 1822:Veccia Vaglieri 1971 1741:Veccia Vaglieri 1971 1622:, pp. 176, 181. 1468:Veccia Vaglieri 1971 1028:Mesopotamian Marshes 642:Mus'ab ibn al-Zubayr 178:the early Caliphates 21:For his father, see 3672:Suicides by jumping 3510:al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf 3156:Veccia Vaglieri, L. 2722:, pp. 111–112. 2698:, pp. 107–108. 2650:, pp. 113–114. 2626:, pp. 102–103. 2587:, pp. 163–164. 2575:, pp. 240–241. 2521:, pp. 162–163. 2509:, pp. 239–240. 2482:, pp. 161–162. 2443:, pp. 238–239. 2404:, pp. 160–161. 2343:, pp. 159–160. 2316:, pp. 716–717. 2304:, pp. 236–237. 2263:, pp. 158–159. 2251:, pp. 235–236. 2215:, pp. 156–157. 2174:, pp. 718–719. 2111:, pp. 166–167. 2054:, pp. 243–249. 1981:, pp. 234–235. 1945:, pp. 155–156. 1933:, pp. 233–234. 1909:, pp. 154–155. 1824:, pp. 715–716. 1767:, pp. 231–232. 1755:, pp. 151–152. 1634:, pp. 100–101. 1610:, pp. 203–204. 1598:, pp. 115–117. 1562:, pp. 110–111. 1550:, pp. 400–401. 1487:, pp. 696–697. 699:al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf 402:, whose ruler, the 361:al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf 209:Revolt of al-Ashdaq 127:al-Ash'ath ibn Qays 3617:7th-century births 3500:Qays–Yaman rivalry 3444:Abbasid Revolution 3211:Wellhausen, Julius 3132:Rowson, Everett K. 3085:Lévi-Provençal, E. 3050:Morony, Michael G. 2980:Hoyland, Robert G. 2935:Hawting, Gerald R. 2878:Hawting, Gerald R. 2778:. In Fleet, Kate; 1511:, pp. 67, 73. 1499:, pp. 54, 56. 1384:Abbasid Revolution 1247: 1143: 634: 585:Mukhtar al-Thaqafi 453:Abbasid Revolution 427:readers'). Caliph 295:Anarchy at Samarra 290:Bashmurian revolts 252:Abbasid Revolution 31:Ibn Abi al-Ashʿath 3604: 3603: 3263:Umayyad Caliphate 3147:978-0-88706-975-8 3041:978-0-582-40525-7 3017:978-0-88706-721-1 2971:978-0-7914-0040-1 2926:978-90-04-09419-2 2869:978-0-7914-0221-4 2841:. London: Luzac. 2763:978-0-7914-1827-7 2431:, pp. 68–69. 1957:, pp. 67–68. 1718:, pp. 84–90. 1694:, pp. 81–84. 1658:, pp. 57–67. 1538:, pp. 77–79. 1139:Lower Mesopotamia 965:Julius Wellhausen 961:Gerlof van Vloten 947:Alfred von Kremer 765:nasir al-mu'minin 589:Battle of Karbala 464:Origin and family 357:Umayyad Caliphate 338: 318: 317: 143: 142: 76:Umayyad Caliphate 3684: 3662:People from Kufa 3596: 3568:Dome of the Rock 3514:Umayyad coinage 3256: 3249: 3242: 3233: 3232: 3228: 3206: 3151: 3127: 3073:"al-As̲h̲ʿat̲h̲" 3067: 3045: 3021: 2997: 2975: 2954: 2930: 2894:Heinrichs, W. P. 2873: 2852: 2831: 2807: 2767: 2735: 2729: 2723: 2717: 2711: 2705: 2699: 2693: 2687: 2681: 2675: 2669: 2663: 2657: 2651: 2645: 2639: 2633: 2627: 2621: 2615: 2609: 2600: 2594: 2588: 2582: 2576: 2570: 2564: 2558: 2552: 2546: 2537: 2531: 2522: 2516: 2510: 2504: 2498: 2492: 2483: 2477: 2471: 2465: 2456: 2450: 2444: 2438: 2432: 2426: 2420: 2414: 2405: 2399: 2393: 2387: 2381: 2375: 2344: 2338: 2332: 2326: 2317: 2311: 2305: 2299: 2293: 2287: 2281: 2275: 2264: 2258: 2252: 2246: 2240: 2234: 2228: 2222: 2216: 2210: 2204: 2198: 2187: 2181: 2175: 2169: 2163: 2157: 2151: 2145: 2139: 2133: 2127: 2121: 2112: 2106: 2100: 2094: 2085: 2079: 2070: 2064: 2055: 2049: 2043: 2037: 2026: 2020: 2014: 2008: 1997: 1991: 1982: 1976: 1970: 1964: 1958: 1952: 1946: 1940: 1934: 1928: 1922: 1916: 1910: 1904: 1898: 1892: 1883: 1877: 1868: 1862: 1825: 1819: 1813: 1807: 1798: 1792: 1783: 1777: 1768: 1762: 1756: 1750: 1744: 1738: 1719: 1713: 1707: 1701: 1695: 1689: 1683: 1677: 1671: 1665: 1659: 1656:Blankinship 1994 1653: 1647: 1641: 1635: 1629: 1623: 1617: 1611: 1605: 1599: 1593: 1587: 1581: 1575: 1569: 1563: 1557: 1551: 1545: 1539: 1533: 1527: 1521: 1512: 1506: 1500: 1494: 1488: 1482: 1471: 1465: 1432: 1429:Blankinship 2009 1426: 1409: 1403: 1381: 1374:broke out in 740 1367: 1364: 1348: 1342: 1332: 1326: 1317: 1271: 1261: 1255: 1206: 1200: 1181: 1163: 1100: 1085: 1069: 1063: 1048:Ma'bad al-Juhani 1017: 1010: 1000: 986: 972: 954: 936: 912: 905:left governors ( 887: 857: 833: 831:jaysh al-tawawis 827: 775: 767: 757: 703:governor of Iraq 675:Battle of Maskin 665: 657: 651: 632: 629: 534:Battle of Siffin 518:Muslim conquests 503: 500: 497: 494: 491: 487: 422: 392:governor of Iraq 343: 333: 331: 262:Battle of Fakhkh 179: 169: 162: 155: 146: 145: 54: 53: 36: 35: 3692: 3691: 3687: 3686: 3685: 3683: 3682: 3681: 3607: 3606: 3605: 3600: 3586: 3534: 3470:Umayyad dynasty 3453: 3347: 3266: 3260: 3148: 3064: 3042: 3018: 2994: 2972: 2951: 2927: 2886:Bosworth, C. E. 2870: 2849: 2828: 2812:Crone, Patricia 2784:Rowson, Everett 2764: 2743: 2738: 2730: 2726: 2718: 2714: 2706: 2702: 2694: 2690: 2682: 2678: 2670: 2666: 2658: 2654: 2646: 2642: 2634: 2630: 2622: 2618: 2610: 2603: 2595: 2591: 2583: 2579: 2573:Wellhausen 1927 2571: 2567: 2559: 2555: 2547: 2540: 2534:Wellhausen 1927 2532: 2525: 2517: 2513: 2507:Wellhausen 1927 2505: 2501: 2493: 2486: 2478: 2474: 2468:Wellhausen 1927 2466: 2459: 2451: 2447: 2441:Wellhausen 1927 2439: 2435: 2427: 2423: 2417:Wellhausen 1927 2415: 2408: 2400: 2396: 2388: 2384: 2376: 2347: 2339: 2335: 2329:Wellhausen 1927 2327: 2320: 2312: 2308: 2302:Wellhausen 1927 2300: 2296: 2290:Wellhausen 1927 2288: 2284: 2276: 2267: 2259: 2255: 2249:Wellhausen 1927 2247: 2243: 2235: 2231: 2223: 2219: 2211: 2207: 2199: 2190: 2182: 2178: 2170: 2166: 2158: 2154: 2146: 2142: 2134: 2130: 2122: 2115: 2107: 2103: 2095: 2088: 2080: 2073: 2065: 2058: 2052:Wellhausen 1927 2050: 2046: 2038: 2029: 2021: 2017: 2011:Wellhausen 1927 2009: 2000: 1992: 1985: 1979:Wellhausen 1927 1977: 1973: 1965: 1961: 1953: 1949: 1941: 1937: 1931:Wellhausen 1927 1929: 1925: 1917: 1913: 1905: 1901: 1893: 1886: 1878: 1871: 1863: 1828: 1820: 1816: 1808: 1801: 1793: 1786: 1778: 1771: 1765:Wellhausen 1927 1763: 1759: 1751: 1747: 1739: 1722: 1714: 1710: 1702: 1698: 1690: 1686: 1678: 1674: 1666: 1662: 1654: 1650: 1642: 1638: 1630: 1626: 1618: 1614: 1606: 1602: 1594: 1590: 1582: 1578: 1570: 1566: 1558: 1554: 1546: 1542: 1534: 1530: 1522: 1515: 1507: 1503: 1495: 1491: 1485:Reckendorf 1960 1483: 1474: 1466: 1435: 1427: 1412: 1406:Wellhausen 1927 1404: 1400: 1396: 1365: 1303: 1228: 1131: 943: 889: 885: 873: 864:Arghandab River 810:, known as the 800: 798:Sistan campaign 795: 749: 695: 630: 616: 593:Muslim ibn Aqil 501: 498: 495: 492: 466: 461: 319: 314: 180: 177: 175: 173: 139: 64: 55: 41: 34: 17: 12: 11: 5: 3690: 3680: 3679: 3674: 3669: 3664: 3659: 3654: 3649: 3644: 3639: 3634: 3629: 3624: 3619: 3602: 3601: 3591: 3588: 3587: 3585: 3584: 3583: 3582: 3572: 3571: 3570: 3565: 3560: 3555: 3553:Desert castles 3544: 3542: 3536: 3535: 3533: 3532: 3531: 3530: 3525: 3520: 3512: 3507: 3502: 3497: 3492: 3487: 3482: 3477: 3472: 3467: 3461: 3459: 3455: 3454: 3452: 3451: 3446: 3441: 3436: 3431: 3426: 3421: 3416: 3411: 3406: 3401: 3396: 3391: 3386: 3381: 3376: 3371: 3366: 3361: 3355: 3353: 3349: 3348: 3346: 3345: 3340: 3335: 3330: 3325: 3320: 3315: 3310: 3305: 3300: 3295: 3290: 3285: 3280: 3274: 3272: 3268: 3267: 3259: 3258: 3251: 3244: 3236: 3230: 3229: 3207: 3152: 3146: 3134:, ed. (1989). 3128: 3081:Kramers, J. H. 3077:Gibb, H. A. R. 3068: 3062: 3046: 3040: 3022: 3016: 3004:, ed. (1990). 2998: 2993:978-0199916368 2992: 2976: 2970: 2955: 2949: 2931: 2925: 2890:van Donzel, E. 2874: 2868: 2853: 2848:978-0718901493 2847: 2832: 2826: 2808: 2780:Krämer, Gudrun 2768: 2762: 2742: 2739: 2737: 2736: 2724: 2712: 2710:, p. 111. 2700: 2688: 2686:, p. 467. 2676: 2664: 2662:, p. 208. 2652: 2640: 2638:, p. 177. 2628: 2616: 2614:, p. 102. 2601: 2589: 2577: 2565: 2553: 2551:, p. 163. 2538: 2536:, p. 240. 2523: 2511: 2499: 2497:, p. 162. 2484: 2472: 2470:, p. 239. 2457: 2455:, p. 161. 2445: 2433: 2421: 2419:, p. 238. 2406: 2394: 2392:, p. 160. 2382: 2380:, p. 717. 2345: 2333: 2331:, p. 237. 2318: 2306: 2294: 2292:, p. 236. 2282: 2280:, p. 159. 2265: 2253: 2241: 2239:, p. 158. 2229: 2227:, p. 157. 2217: 2205: 2188: 2186:, p. 719. 2176: 2164: 2162:, p. 483. 2152: 2140: 2138:, p. 167. 2128: 2126:, p. 166. 2113: 2101: 2086: 2084:, p. 165. 2071: 2069:, p. 101. 2056: 2044: 2042:, p. 164. 2027: 2015: 2013:, p. 234. 1998: 1996:, p. 156. 1983: 1971: 1959: 1947: 1935: 1923: 1921:, p. 155. 1911: 1899: 1897:, p. 154. 1884: 1882:, p. 153. 1869: 1867:, p. 716. 1826: 1814: 1799: 1797:, p. 152. 1784: 1782:, p. 152. 1769: 1757: 1745: 1743:, p. 718. 1720: 1708: 1706:, p. 186. 1696: 1684: 1672: 1660: 1648: 1636: 1624: 1612: 1600: 1588: 1576: 1564: 1552: 1540: 1528: 1526:, p. 110. 1513: 1501: 1489: 1472: 1470:, p. 715. 1433: 1410: 1408:, p. 233. 1397: 1395: 1392: 1302: 1299: 1236:Sasanian-style 1227: 1224: 1130: 1127: 989:C. E. Bosworth 942: 939: 913:) at Bust and 878: 872: 869: 799: 796: 794: 791: 748: 745: 694: 691: 615: 612: 465: 462: 460: 457: 408:Arab expansion 363:, in 700–703. 346:Ibn al-Ash'ath 316: 315: 313: 312: 310:Zanj Rebellion 307: 302: 297: 292: 287: 282: 281: 280: 269: 264: 259: 254: 249: 248: 247: 237: 235:Yahya ibn Zayd 231: 226: 221: 216: 211: 206: 201: 196: 191: 185: 182: 181: 176:Civil wars of 172: 171: 164: 157: 149: 141: 140: 138: 137: 130: 124: 117: 115: 111: 110: 109: 108: 98: 91: 87: 86: 83: 79: 78: 73: 69: 68: 61: 57: 56: 47: 43: 42: 40:Ibn al-Ash'ath 39: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 3689: 3678: 3675: 3673: 3670: 3668: 3665: 3663: 3660: 3658: 3655: 3653: 3650: 3648: 3645: 3643: 3642:Arab generals 3640: 3638: 3635: 3633: 3630: 3628: 3625: 3623: 3620: 3618: 3615: 3614: 3612: 3599: 3595: 3589: 3581: 3578: 3577: 3576: 3573: 3569: 3566: 3564: 3561: 3559: 3556: 3554: 3551: 3550: 3549: 3546: 3545: 3543: 3541: 3537: 3529: 3526: 3524: 3521: 3519: 3516: 3515: 3513: 3511: 3508: 3506: 3503: 3501: 3498: 3496: 3493: 3491: 3488: 3486: 3483: 3481: 3478: 3476: 3473: 3471: 3468: 3466: 3463: 3462: 3460: 3456: 3450: 3447: 3445: 3442: 3440: 3437: 3435: 3434:Berber Revolt 3432: 3430: 3427: 3425: 3422: 3420: 3417: 3415: 3412: 3410: 3407: 3405: 3402: 3400: 3397: 3395: 3392: 3390: 3387: 3385: 3382: 3380: 3377: 3375: 3372: 3370: 3367: 3365: 3362: 3360: 3357: 3356: 3354: 3350: 3344: 3341: 3339: 3336: 3334: 3331: 3329: 3326: 3324: 3321: 3319: 3316: 3314: 3311: 3309: 3306: 3304: 3301: 3299: 3296: 3294: 3291: 3289: 3286: 3284: 3281: 3279: 3276: 3275: 3273: 3269: 3264: 3257: 3252: 3250: 3245: 3243: 3238: 3237: 3234: 3226: 3222: 3218: 3217: 3212: 3208: 3204: 3200: 3196: 3192: 3188: 3184: 3182: 3177: 3173: 3169: 3168:Ménage, V. L. 3165: 3161: 3157: 3153: 3149: 3143: 3139: 3138: 3133: 3129: 3125: 3121: 3117: 3113: 3109: 3105: 3103: 3098: 3094: 3090: 3086: 3082: 3078: 3074: 3069: 3065: 3059: 3055: 3051: 3047: 3043: 3037: 3033: 3032: 3027: 3026:Kennedy, Hugh 3023: 3019: 3013: 3009: 3008: 3003: 3002:Hinds, Martin 2999: 2995: 2989: 2985: 2981: 2977: 2973: 2967: 2963: 2962: 2956: 2952: 2950:0-415-24072-7 2946: 2942: 2941: 2936: 2932: 2928: 2922: 2918: 2914: 2910: 2906: 2904: 2899: 2895: 2891: 2887: 2883: 2879: 2875: 2871: 2865: 2861: 2860: 2854: 2850: 2844: 2840: 2839: 2833: 2829: 2827:0-521-52940-9 2823: 2819: 2818: 2813: 2809: 2805: 2801: 2797: 2793: 2789: 2785: 2781: 2777: 2773: 2769: 2765: 2759: 2755: 2754: 2749: 2745: 2744: 2733: 2728: 2721: 2716: 2709: 2704: 2697: 2692: 2685: 2680: 2673: 2668: 2661: 2656: 2649: 2644: 2637: 2632: 2625: 2620: 2613: 2608: 2606: 2598: 2593: 2586: 2581: 2574: 2569: 2562: 2557: 2550: 2545: 2543: 2535: 2530: 2528: 2520: 2515: 2508: 2503: 2496: 2491: 2489: 2481: 2476: 2469: 2464: 2462: 2454: 2449: 2442: 2437: 2430: 2425: 2418: 2413: 2411: 2403: 2398: 2391: 2386: 2379: 2374: 2372: 2370: 2368: 2366: 2364: 2362: 2360: 2358: 2356: 2354: 2352: 2350: 2342: 2337: 2330: 2325: 2323: 2315: 2310: 2303: 2298: 2291: 2286: 2279: 2274: 2272: 2270: 2262: 2257: 2250: 2245: 2238: 2233: 2226: 2221: 2214: 2209: 2203:, p. 69. 2202: 2197: 2195: 2193: 2185: 2180: 2173: 2168: 2161: 2156: 2149: 2144: 2137: 2132: 2125: 2120: 2118: 2110: 2105: 2098: 2093: 2091: 2083: 2078: 2076: 2068: 2063: 2061: 2053: 2048: 2041: 2036: 2034: 2032: 2025:, p. 15. 2024: 2019: 2012: 2007: 2005: 2003: 1995: 1990: 1988: 1980: 1975: 1968: 1963: 1956: 1951: 1944: 1939: 1932: 1927: 1920: 1915: 1908: 1903: 1896: 1891: 1889: 1881: 1876: 1874: 1866: 1861: 1859: 1857: 1855: 1853: 1851: 1849: 1847: 1845: 1843: 1841: 1839: 1837: 1835: 1833: 1831: 1823: 1818: 1812:, p. 67. 1811: 1806: 1804: 1796: 1791: 1789: 1781: 1776: 1774: 1766: 1761: 1754: 1749: 1742: 1737: 1735: 1733: 1731: 1729: 1727: 1725: 1717: 1712: 1705: 1700: 1693: 1688: 1681: 1676: 1669: 1664: 1657: 1652: 1646:, p. 66. 1645: 1640: 1633: 1628: 1621: 1616: 1609: 1608:Fishbein 1990 1604: 1597: 1596:Fishbein 1990 1592: 1585: 1584:Fishbein 1990 1580: 1574:, p. 21. 1573: 1568: 1561: 1556: 1549: 1544: 1537: 1532: 1525: 1520: 1518: 1510: 1505: 1498: 1493: 1486: 1481: 1479: 1477: 1469: 1464: 1462: 1460: 1458: 1456: 1454: 1452: 1450: 1448: 1446: 1444: 1442: 1440: 1438: 1430: 1425: 1423: 1421: 1419: 1417: 1415: 1407: 1402: 1398: 1391: 1389: 1385: 1380: 1375: 1371: 1360: 1356: 1350: 1347: 1341: 1336: 1331: 1325: 1324: 1316: 1310: 1308: 1298: 1296: 1291: 1287: 1281: 1279: 1275: 1270: 1263: 1260: 1254: 1244: 1240: 1237: 1232: 1223: 1221: 1215: 1213: 1208: 1205: 1199: 1193: 1189: 1183: 1180: 1175: 1170: 1165: 1162: 1157: 1151: 1149: 1140: 1137:Map of Iraq ( 1135: 1126: 1124: 1120: 1116: 1111: 1107: 1102: 1099: 1094: 1088: 1084: 1083: 1077: 1073: 1068: 1062: 1057: 1056:ritual prayer 1051: 1049: 1045: 1041: 1037: 1033: 1029: 1025: 1021: 1016: 1009: 1004: 999: 993: 990: 985: 980: 976: 971: 966: 962: 958: 957:August Müller 953: 948: 938: 935: 934: 928: 923: 920: 916: 911: 910: 902: 900: 895: 888: 882: 877: 868: 865: 861: 856: 850: 848: 844: 840: 835: 832: 826: 821: 820:G. R. Hawting 815: 813: 809: 805: 790: 787: 781: 779: 774: 773: 766: 761: 756: 744: 742: 737: 735: 730: 728: 724: 720: 716: 712: 708: 704: 700: 690: 688: 684: 680: 676: 672: 667: 664: 663: 656: 650: 649: 643: 639: 625: 620: 611: 609: 604: 602: 598: 597:Hani ibn Urwa 594: 590: 586: 582: 578: 577:Ibn al-Zubayr 574: 570: 566: 561: 559: 555: 554:garrison town 551: 547: 543: 539: 535: 531: 527: 523: 519: 515: 511: 507: 486: 485: 479: 475: 472:tribe in the 471: 456: 454: 450: 446: 440: 438: 434: 430: 426: 421: 416: 411: 409: 405: 401: 397: 393: 389: 385: 381: 377: 373: 372:garrison town 369: 364: 362: 358: 354: 350: 347: 342: 336: 327: 323: 311: 308: 306: 303: 301: 298: 296: 293: 291: 288: 286: 283: 279: 275: 274: 273: 270: 268: 265: 263: 260: 258: 255: 253: 250: 246: 243: 242: 241: 238: 236: 232: 230: 229:Berber Revolt 227: 225: 222: 220: 217: 215: 212: 210: 207: 205: 202: 200: 197: 195: 192: 190: 187: 186: 183: 170: 165: 163: 158: 156: 151: 150: 147: 135: 132:Umm Amr bint 131: 129:(grandfather) 128: 125: 122: 119: 118: 116: 112: 107: 103: 99: 97: 94: 93: 92: 88: 84: 80: 77: 74: 70: 67: 62: 58: 48: 44: 37: 32: 28: 24: 19: 3374:Second Fitna 3298:Abd al-Malik 3215: 3186: 3179: 3136: 3107: 3100: 3053: 3030: 3006: 2983: 2960: 2939: 2908: 2901: 2858: 2837: 2816: 2787: 2752: 2732:Kennedy 2004 2727: 2720:Kennedy 2004 2715: 2703: 2696:Kennedy 2004 2691: 2679: 2667: 2655: 2643: 2631: 2624:Kennedy 2004 2619: 2612:Kennedy 2004 2592: 2580: 2568: 2556: 2514: 2502: 2475: 2448: 2436: 2429:Hawting 2000 2424: 2397: 2385: 2336: 2309: 2297: 2285: 2256: 2244: 2232: 2220: 2208: 2201:Hawting 2000 2179: 2167: 2155: 2143: 2131: 2104: 2097:Hawting 2000 2067:Kennedy 2004 2047: 2018: 1974: 1962: 1955:Hawting 2000 1950: 1938: 1926: 1914: 1902: 1817: 1810:Hawting 2000 1795:Hoyland 2015 1760: 1748: 1711: 1699: 1687: 1675: 1663: 1651: 1644:Hawting 2000 1639: 1632:Kennedy 2004 1627: 1615: 1603: 1591: 1579: 1567: 1555: 1548:Hawting 1993 1543: 1536:Kennedy 2004 1531: 1509:Kennedy 2004 1504: 1497:Kennedy 2004 1492: 1401: 1370:Zayd ibn Ali 1351: 1311: 1304: 1282: 1264: 1248: 1216: 1209: 1184: 1166: 1152: 1144: 1110:A'sha Hamdan 1103: 1089: 1052: 994: 979:Hugh Kennedy 944: 924: 903: 890: 884: 880: 874: 851: 836: 816: 801: 782: 750: 738: 731: 696: 668: 635: 624:Second Fitna 614:Early career 605: 573:Second Fitna 562: 467: 449:Zayd ibn Ali 441: 429:Abd al-Malik 412: 384:Second Fitna 365: 345: 321: 320: 278:Abu'l-Saraya 272:Fourth Fitna 245:Ibadi revolt 203: 199:Second Fitna 90:Battles/wars 18: 3647:Arab rebels 3575:Umayyad art 3439:Third Fitna 3364:First Fitna 3328:Al-Walid II 3288:Mu'awiya II 3185:Volume III: 3176:Schacht, J. 3172:Pellat, Ch. 3097:Pellat, Ch. 3089:Schacht, J. 2907:Volume VII: 2898:Pellat, Ch. 2684:Morony 1984 2672:Morony 1984 2660:Morony 1984 2648:Morony 1984 2636:Morony 1984 2160:Morony 1984 1716:Rowson 1989 1692:Rowson 1989 1680:Rowson 1989 1668:Rowson 1989 1572:Howard 1990 1295:Abd al-Aziz 1286:consumption 701:as the new 530:Adharbayjan 476:in eastern 447:in 720 and 353:grandfather 300:Fifth Fitna 285:East Africa 240:Third Fitna 194:First Fitna 46:Native name 3637:704 deaths 3611:Categories 3518:Gold dinar 3458:Government 3303:Al-Walid I 3278:Mu'awiya I 3063:0691053952 2708:Crone 1980 2597:Hinds 1990 2585:Dixon 1971 2561:Dixon 1971 2549:Dixon 1971 2519:Dixon 1971 2495:Dixon 1971 2480:Dixon 1971 2453:Dixon 1971 2402:Dixon 1971 2390:Dixon 1971 2341:Dixon 1971 2278:Dixon 1971 2261:Dixon 1971 2237:Dixon 1971 2225:Dixon 1971 2213:Dixon 1971 2148:Dixon 1971 2136:Dixon 1971 2124:Dixon 1971 2109:Dixon 1971 2082:Dixon 1971 2040:Dixon 1971 2023:Dixon 1971 1994:Dixon 1971 1967:Dixon 1971 1943:Dixon 1971 1919:Dixon 1971 1907:Dixon 1971 1895:Dixon 1971 1880:Dixon 1971 1780:Dixon 1971 1753:Dixon 1971 1704:Dixon 1971 1620:Dixon 1971 1560:Crone 1980 1524:Crone 1980 1394:References 1366: 801 1036:Banu Tamim 847:Ibn A'tham 808:Zabulistan 760:al-Mas'udi 741:al-Mada'in 679:Kharijites 631: 686 569:Tabaristan 510:Ridda wars 484:al-Ash'ath 459:Early life 400:Zabulistan 276:Revolt of 233:Revolt of 189:Ridda Wars 72:Allegiance 3475:Governors 3343:Marwan II 3333:Yazid III 3225:752790641 3203:495469525 3164:Lewis, B. 3124:495469456 3106:Volume I: 3093:Lewis, B. 2804:1873-9830 1388:al-Saffah 1174:Euphrates 894:Baladhuri 778:messianic 638:al-Tabari 601:al-Husayn 526:Qadisiyya 474:Hadramawt 335:romanized 114:Relations 3495:al-Haras 3318:Yazid II 3308:Sulayman 3293:Marwan I 3213:(1927). 3178:(eds.). 3158:(1971). 3099:(eds.). 3052:(1984). 3028:(2004). 2982:(2015). 2937:(2000). 2900:(eds.). 2880:(1993). 2814:(1980). 2786:(eds.). 2774:(2009). 2750:(1994). 1359:al-Kindi 1355:Abbasids 1290:Rukhkhaj 1192:Abdallah 1190:and son 1188:Muhammad 1123:Thaqafis 1020:Murji'ah 855:muqatila 707:Khurasan 683:al-Ahwaz 581:campaign 565:Muhammad 550:al-Hasan 514:Abu Bakr 506:Muhammad 437:Khurasan 136:(mother) 123:(father) 104:and the 66:Rukhkhaj 3540:Culture 3352:History 3338:Ibrahim 3313:Umar II 3283:Yazid I 3271:Caliphs 2909:Mif–Naz 2741:Sources 1335:Kashkar 1234:Silver 1119:Ma'adis 1115:Hamdani 1093:Quraysh 1072:Istakhr 1046:leader 1032:Asawira 1026:of the 772:Qahtani 719:Basrans 673:at the 546:Umayyad 522:Yarmouk 493: 337:: 85:680–700 3523:Dirham 3505:Mawali 3490:Shurta 3465:Caliph 3359:Uthman 3323:Hisham 3265:topics 3223: 3201: 3187:H–Iram 3174:& 3144: 3122: 3095:& 3060: 3038: 3014: 2990: 2968: 2947: 2923: 2896:& 2866: 2845: 2824: 2802: 2760: 1340:dihqan 1330:ashraf 1323:dihqan 1315:mawali 1301:Legacy 1239:dirham 1179:mawali 1169:pardon 1161:Qurra' 1148:Tustar 1098:mawali 1067:bay'ah 1044:Qadari 1030:, the 1022:, the 1015:mawali 970:ashraf 952:mawali 933:bay'ah 915:Zaranj 843:Makran 839:Kirman 825:ashraf 812:Zunbil 793:Revolt 755:ashraf 711:Sistan 662:mawali 655:ashraf 648:ashraf 404:Zunbil 326:Arabic 106:Zunbil 3657:Kinda 3598:Media 3485:Barid 3480:Diwan 3162:. In 3075:. In 2884:. 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