Spanish Empire - Knowledge

3141:) in both Spain and the Indies acting as mere middlemen, reaping a slice of the profits. However, those profits did not promote a manufacturing sector in Spain's economic development, and its economy continued to be based in agriculture. The wealth of the Indies led to prosperity in northern Europe, particularly in the Netherlands and England, which were both Protestant. As Spain's power weakened in the seventeenth century, England, the Netherlands, and the French took advantage overseas by seizing islands in the Caribbean, which became bases for a burgeoning contraband trade in Spanish America. Crown officials, who were supposed to suppress contraband trade, were quite often in cahoots with the foreigners, since it was a source of personal enrichment. In Spain, the crown itself participated in collusion with foreign merchant houses, since they paid fines "meant to establish a compensation to the state for losses through fraud." It became a calculated risk for merchant houses doing business, and for the crown it gained income that would have otherwise been lost. Foreign merchants were part of the supposed monopoly system of trade. The transfer of the House of Trade from Seville to Cádiz meant foreign merchant houses had even easier access to the Spanish trade. 5395: 2370:

ravaged, with most citizens either branded on the face with the letter "G" (for guerra) and enslaved by the Spanish, or sacrificed and eaten by the Tlaxcaltecans. By the spring of 1521, Cortés had formed a new invasion force. The new emperor, Cuauhtémoc, defended Tenochtitlan with 100,000 warriors armed with slings, bows, and obsidian swords. From 21 May to 1 June, the Spanish-Tlaxcalan forces swept the lake and ravaged the countryside. The first military encounter occurred after an advance along the causeway at Tlacopan by the armies of Alvarado and Cristóbal de Olid. While fighting on the causeway, the Spanish and their allies came under attack from both sides by Aztecs firing arrows from canoes. Thirteen Spanish brigantines sank 300 out of 400 enemy war canoes sent against them. The Aztecs tried to damage the Spanish vessels by hiding spears beneath the shallow water. The attackers breached the city and engaged in fighting with the Aztec defenders in the streets.

3029:, warding off competitors and keeping wealth within the empire, specifically within the Crown of Castile. While in theory the Habsburgs were committed to maintaining a state monopoly, the reality was that the empire was a porous economic realm with widespread smuggling. In the 16th and 17th centuries under the Habsburgs, Spain's economic conditions gradually declined, especially in regards to the industrial development of its French, Dutch, and English rivals. Many of the goods being exported to the Empire originated from manufacturers in northwest Europe rather than in Spain. Illicit commercial activities became a part of the Empire's administrative structure. Supported by large flows of silver from the Americas, trade prohibited by Spanish mercantilist restrictions flourished as it provided a source of income to both crown officials and private merchants. The local administrative structure in 3545: 5339:. Some cultivars that were introduced to the Americas included grapes, wheat, barley, apples and citrous fruits; animals that were introduced to the New World were horses, donkeys, cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, and chickens. The Old World received from the Americas such things as maize, potatoes, chili peppers, tomatoes, tobacco, beans, squash, cacao (chocolate), vanilla, avocados, pineapples, chewing gum, rubber, peanuts, cashews, Brazil nuts, pecans, blueberries, strawberries, quinoa, amaranth, chia, agave and others. The result of these exchanges was to significantly improve the agricultural potential of not only in the Americas, but also that of Europe and Asia. Diseases brought by Europeans and Africans, such as smallpox, measles, typhus, and others, devastated almost all indigenous populations that had no immunity. 3229:) in 1778, whereby Spanish American ports could trade with each other, and they could trade with any port in Spain. It was aimed at revamping a closed Spanish system and outflanking the increasingly powerful British. Silver production revived in the eighteenth century, with production far surpassing the earlier output. The crown reduced the taxes on mercury, meaning that a greater volume of pure silver could be refined. Silver mining absorbed most of the available capital in Mexico and Peru, and the crown emphasized the production of precious metals, which were sent to Spain. There was some economic development in the Indies to supply food, but a diversified economy did not emerge. The economic reforms of the Bourbon era both shaped and were themselves impacted by geopolitical developments in Europe. The 2385:. In late July, the attackers resumed their assaults, resulting in the massacre of 800 Aztec civilians. By 29 July, the Spanish had reached Tlatelolco's center, raising their new flag atop the city's twin towers. Having exhausted their gunpowder, they attempted a catapult breach but failed. On 3 August, 12,000 more civilians were killed in another city section. Alvarado's destruction of the aqueducts forced the Aztecs to drink from the lake, causing disease and thousands of deaths. Another major assault occurred on 12 August, during which many thousands of non-combatants were massacred in their shelters. The following day, the city fell, and Cuauhtémoc was captured (and hanged in 1525). At least 100,000 people died, and the city was left in ruins, reduced to rubble, and completely destroyed. After the 5467: 4793: 5355: 5168: 5440: 96: 2341: 5371: 3978: 4220:, when they mixed with Indian groups, Portuguese and blacks who arrived in the region during the 18th century. The Spanish were barred by their laws from slaving of indigenous people, leaving them without a commercial interest deep in the interior of the Amazon basin. The Laws of Burgos (1512) and the New Laws (1542) had been intended to protect the interests of indigenous people. The Portuguese-Brazilian slavers, the Bandeirantes, had the advantage of access from the mouth of the Amazon River, which was on the Portuguese side of the line of Tordesillas. One famous attack upon a Spanish mission in 1628 resulted in the enslavement of about 60,000 indigenous people. 4716: 3014: 3033:, for example, was established through its oversight of both legal and illegal commerce. The crown's pursuit of wars to maintain and expand territory, defend the Catholic faith, stamp out Protestantism, and beat back the Ottoman Turkish strength outstripped its ability to pay for it all, despite the huge production of silver in Peru and New Spain. Most of that flow paid mercenary soldiers in the European religious wars of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, and paid foreign merchants for the consumer goods manufactured in northern Europe. Paradoxically, the wealth of the Indies impoverished Spain and enriched northern Europe, a course the 5501: 4931: 4463: 191: 2329: 2241: 4201: 3000: 2353:

Totonac Indian allies defeated a 20,000-strong Tlaxcalan army. Three days later, a 50,000-strong Otomi-Tlaxcalan force was defeated by Spanish arquebusier and cannon fire, and a Castilian cavalry charge. Thousands of Tlaxcalans joined the invaders against their Aztec rulers. Cortés's forces sacked the city of Cholula, massacring 6,000 inhabitants, and later entered Emperor Moctezuma II's capital, Tenochtitlan, on 8 November. Velázquez sent a force led by Pánfilo de Narváez to punish the insubordinate Cortés for his unauthorized invasion of Mexico, but they were defeated at the

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modernization and heavily relied on foreign suppliers. Nevertheless, Spain possessed abundant bullion from the Americas, which played a crucial role in both sustaining its military endeavors and meeting the needs of its civilian population. During this period, Spain displayed limited military interest in its overseas colonies. The Criollo elites and mestizo and mulatto militia provided only minimal protection, often assisted by more influential allies with vested interests in maintaining the balance of power and safeguarding the Spanish Empire from falling into enemy hands.

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stricter policies, Spain's reformed trade system led to war with Britain in 1796. In the Americas, meanwhile, economic policies enacted under the Bourbons had different impacts in different regions. On one hand, silver production in New Spain greatly increased and led to economic growth. But much of the profits of the revitalized mining sector went to mining elites and state officials, while in rural areas of New Spain conditions for rural workers deteriorated, contributing to social unrest that would impact subsequent revolts.

3722: 89: 3913: 1921:(4 September 1479), while assuring the Castilian throne to the Catholic Monarchs, reflected the Castilian naval and colonial defeat: "War with Castile broke out waged savagely in the Gulf until the Castilian fleet of thirty-five sail was defeated there in 1478. As a result of this naval victory, at the Treaty of Alcáçovas in 1479 Castile, while retaining her rights in the Canaries, recognized the Portuguese monopoly of fishing and navigation along the whole west African coast and Portugal's rights over the 1879: 2752: 5262:

confirmation of widespread authoritarianism. The colonial legacy did leave a political culture of revolt, but not always as a desperate last act. The civil unrest of the region is seen by some as a form of political involvement. While the political context of the political revolutions in Spanish America is understood to be one in which liberal elites competed to form new national political structures, so too were those elites responding to mass lower-class political mobilization and participation.

3091:. There were very few Spanish settlers in the Indies in the very early period and Spain could supply sufficient goods to them. But as the Aztec and Inca empires were conquered in the early sixteenth century, and large deposits of silver found in both Mexico and Peru, Spanish immigration increased and the demand for goods rose far beyond Spain's ability to supply it. Since Spain had little capital to invest in the expanding trade and no significant commercial group, bankers and commercial houses in 3924: 3411: 4596: 3197: 5213:, which remains the main religious faith in Spanish America and the Philippines. Christian evangelization of indigenous peoples was a key responsibility of the crown and a justification for its imperial expansion. Although indigenous were considered neophytes and insufficiently mature in their faith for indigenous men to be ordained to the priesthood, the indigenous were part of the Catholic community of faith. Catholic orthodoxy was enforced by the 4398: 2318: 3836: 2009: 4878: 2094: 4121: 5068: 4486:. This conflict created a power vacuum lasting nearly a decade, followed by civil wars, transitions to a republic, and eventually the establishment of a liberal democracy. Spain lost all the colonial possessions in the first third of the century, except for Cuba, Puerto Rico and, isolated on the far side of the globe, the Philippines, Guam and nearby Pacific islands, as well as Spanish Sahara, parts of Morocco, and Spanish Guinea. 2683: 5003: 5551: 3585:) was to be for the benefit of the crown and the metropole and for the defense of its empire against foreign incursions. From the viewpoint of Spain, the structures of colonial rule under the Habsburgs were no longer functioning to the benefit of Spain, with much wealth being retained in Spanish America and going to other European powers. The presence of other European powers in the Caribbean, with the English in 1761: 4471: 5313: 5537: 6941: 1867:(1475–79) provided the Catholic Monarchs with the opportunity not only to attack the main source of the Portuguese power, but also to take possession of this lucrative commerce. The Crown officially organized this trade with Guinea: every caravel had to secure a government license and to pay a tax on one-fifth of their profits (a receiver of the customs of Guinea was established in 3751:

the 18th century, with output more than tripling between the start of the century and the 1750s. The economy and the population both grew, both centered around Mexico City. But while mine owners and the crown benefited from the flourishing silver economy, most of the population in the rural Bajío faced rising land prices, falling wages. Eviction of many from their lands resulted.

4247: 1561:. Although the Inquisition was technically a part of the Catholic church, Ferdinand and Isabella formed a separate Spanish Inquisition, which led to mass expulsion of Muslims and Jews from the peninsula. This religious court system was later adopted and transported to the Americas, though they took a less effective role there due to limited jurisdiction and large territories. 7142: 6849: 6828: 1453:, populated by peoples he named "Indians". Subsequent voyages and full-scale settlements of Spaniards followed, with gold beginning to flow into Castile's coffers. Managing the expanding empire became an administrative issue. The reign of Ferdinand and Isabella began the professionalization of the apparatus of government in Spain, which led to a demand for men of letters ( 3152:. The mines in Peru and Mexico were in the hands of a few elite mining entrepreneurs with access to capital and a stomach for the risk that mining entailed. They operated under a system of royal licensing, since the crown held the rights to subsoil wealth. Mining entrepreneurs assumed all the risk of the enterprise, while the crown gained a 20% slice of the profits, the 1557:

overseas colonies. By implementing this method of political organization, the crown was able to implement new forms of private property without completely replacing already existing systems, such as the communal use of resources. After the military and political conquest, there was an emphasis on religious conquest as well, leading to the creation of the

3160:. The crown kept the price high, thereby depressing the volume of silver production. Protecting its flow from Mexico and Peru as it transited to ports for shipment to Spain resulted early on in a convoy system (the flota) sailing twice a year. Its success can be judged by the fact that the silver fleet was captured only once, in 1628 by Dutch privateer 2186:; and the existing settlements becoming the launch point for further exploration, conquest, and settlement, followed by the establishment institutions with officials appointed by the crown. The patterns set in the Caribbean were replicated throughout the expanding Spanish sphere, so although the importance of the Caribbean quickly faded after the 3135:) to protect the conveyance of silver to Seville (later Cádiz). Produced in other European countries, Sevillian merchants conveyed consumer goods that were registered and taxed by the House of Trade, and then sent to the Indies. Other European commercial interests came to dominate supply, with Spanish merchant houses and their guilds ( 7177: 7220: 2611:. However, Cárdenas was reportedly unimpressed with the canyon, assuming the width of the Colorado River at six feet (1.8 m) and estimating 300-foot (91 m)-tall rock formations to be the size of a man. After unsuccessfully attempting to descend to the river, they left the area, defeated by the difficult terrain and torrid weather. 6933:... More important, Castile recognized Portugal as the sole proprietor of the Atlantic islands (excepting the Canaries) and of the African coast in the Treaty of Alcáçovas in 1479. This Treaty clause, secured by Portuguese naval successes off Africa during an otherwise unsuccessful war, eliminated the only serious rival. 3052: 5370: 1359:. Their dynastic alliance was important for a number of reasons, ruling jointly over a number of kingdoms and other territories, mostly in the western Mediterranean region, under their respective legal and administrative status. They successfully pursued expansion in Iberia in the Christian conquest of the Muslim 7008: 3511:(1718–20). Spain was defeated in Italy by an alliance of Britain, France, Savoy, and Austria. Following the war, the new Bourbon monarchy took a much more cautious approach to international relations, relying on a family alliance with Bourbon France, and continuing to follow a program of institutional renewal. 5257:

during and after Latin American independence movements created a legacy of authoritarianism in the region. There was no significant development of representative institutions during the colonial era, and the executive power was often made stronger than the legislative power during the national period

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to help improve governance and trade so as to quell the growing political tensions between the élites of the empire's periphery and center was suppressed by a monarchy afraid of losing control. All was to be swept away by the tumult that was to overtake Europe at the turn of the 19th century with the

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In time, there was in effect a self-funding force of occupation. By the 18th century, much of the Spanish territory was under de facto control of Portuguese-Brazil. This reality was recognized with the legal transfer of sovereignty in 1750 of most of the Amazon basin and surrounding areas to Portugal

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Spain's economic and demographic recovery had begun slowly in the last decades of the Habsburg reign, as was evident from the growth of its trading convoys and the much more rapid growth of illicit trade during the period. (This growth was slower than the growth of illicit trade by northern rivals in

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The concept of 'Early Modern Spain' as a subject of study is muddled. The composite monarchy of the Habsburgs had no official name. In the Early Modern period, as a geographical (non-political) concept and following the medieval tradition, the term 'Spain' could refer to the entire Iberian Peninsula.

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sent an order to drown any Castilian crew captured in Guinea waters. Even the Castilian navies which left to Guinea before the signature of the peace treaty had to pay the tax ("quinto") to the Portuguese crown when returned to Castile after the peace treaty. Isabella had to ask permission to Afonso

4299:(1789–1791) nearly brought Spain and Britain to war. It was a dispute over claims in the Pacific Northwest, where neither nation had established permanent settlements. The crisis could have led to war, but without French support Spain capitulated to British terms and negotiations took place with the 4263:

in northern North America and took some islands in the Caribbean. The English established colonies on the eastern seaboard of North America and in northern North America and some Caribbean islands as well. In the eighteenth century, the Spanish crown realized that its territorial claims needed to be

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sending the crown lengthy analyses in the form of "memorials, of the perceived problems and with proposed solutions." According to these thinkers, "Royal expenditure must be regulated, the sale of office halted, the growth of the church checked. The tax system must be overhauled, special concessions

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organized an expedition of 550 conquistadors and sailed for the coast of Mexico in March 1519. The Castilians defeated a 10,000-strong Chontal Mayan army at Potonchán on 24 March and emerged triumphant against a larger force of 40,000 Mayans three days later. On 2 September, 360 Castilians and 2,300

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As a Genoese with connections to Portugal, Columbus considered settlement to be on the pattern of trading forts and factories, with salaried employees to trade with locals and to identify exploitable resources. However, Spanish settlement in the New World was based on a pattern of a large, permanent

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with Portugal to protect their territory on the Spanish side of the line. The crown fairly quickly reassessed its relationship with Columbus and moved to assert more direct crown control over the territory and extinguish his privileges. With that lesson learned, the crown was far more prudent in the

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militias and colonial army decisively defeated the now reinforced British force in 1807, they promptly embarked on the path to securing their own independence, igniting independence movements across the continent. A long period of wars followed in the Americas, and the lack of Spanish troops in the

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The Spanish Bourbons' broadest intentions were to reorganize the institutions of empire to better administer it for the benefit of Spain and the crown. It sought to increase revenues and to assert greater crown control, including over the Catholic Church. Centralization of power (beginning with the

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and his fleet reached the mouth of the Colorado River, intending to provide additional supplies to Coronado's expedition. Alarcón may have sailed the Colorado as far upstream as the present-day California–Arizona border. However, Coronado never reached the Gulf of California, and Alarcón eventually

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There were also cultural influences, which can be seen in everything from architecture to food, music, art and law, from southern Argentina and Chile to the United States of America together with the Philippines. The complex origins and contacts of different peoples resulted in cultural influences

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declared independence in 1821 and merged with the Republic of Gran Colombia (from 1821 to 1903). Over the course of nine years, 20,000 Spanish soldiers were sent to reinforce the Spanish American Royalists in northern South America. However, disease and combat claimed the lives of 16,000–17,000 of

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helped Spain secure its dominance of its possessions in the Americas until the 19th century. But different regions fared differently under Bourbon rule, and even while New Spain was particularly prosperous, it was also marked by steep wealth inequality. Silver production boomed in New Spain during

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to Spanish America. The provision undermined the possibility of a revamped Spanish monopoly system. The merchants also used the opportunity to engage in contraband trade of their manufactured goods. Crown policy sought to make legal trade more appealing than contraband by instituting free commerce

2217:; it was later destroyed by the Taínos and the Spanish garrison was wiped out. The colonists, many of whom were criminals banished from Spain, quickly grew disillusioned due to the hardships, disease, and poverty they experienced. Frictions arose both among themselves and with the local tribesmen. 4826:, on the basis of the old outpost of Santa Cruz de la Mar Pequeña, thought to be Sidi Ifni. The following decades of Franco-Spanish collaboration resulted in the establishment and extension of Spanish protectorates south of the city, and Spanish influence obtained international recognition in the 4647:

were counted as American victories, although the Spanish Army inflicted higher casualties during these engagements. The U.S. Army failed to capture the heavily fortified city of Santiago on 1 July, but two days later an American fleet that included five battleships destroyed the Spanish Caribbean

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consumed 189 pounds of meat per person per year, in comparison to 163 pounds consumed by the inhabitants of Paris, the Mexicans also consumed almost the same amount of bread as any European city, with 363 kilograms of bread per person per year in comparison to the 377 kilograms consumed in Paris.

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arose out of the War of the Spanish Succession. In turn, the crown's attempt to tighten its control over its colonial markets in the Americas led to further conflict with other European powers who were vying for access to them. After a sparking a series of skirmishes throughout the 1700s over its

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During the Bourbon era, economic reforms sought to reverse the pattern that left Spain impoverished with no manufacturing sector and its colonies' need for manufactured goods supplied by other nations. It attempted to establish a closed trading system, but it was hampered by the terms of the 1713

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Following the settlement of Hispaniola, Europeans began searching elsewhere to begin new settlements, since there was little apparent wealth and the numbers of indigenous were declining. Those from the less prosperous Hispaniola were eager to search for new success in a new settlement. From there

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The pattern in the Caribbean that played out over the larger Spanish Indies was exploration of an unknown area and claim of sovereignty for the crown; conquest of indigenous peoples or assumption of control without direct violence; settlement by Spaniards who were awarded the labour of indigenous

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attracting tourists. The tangible heritage includes universities, forts, cities, cathedrals, schools, hospitals, missions, government buildings and colonial residences, many of which still stand today. A number of present-day roads, canals, ports or bridges sit where Spanish engineers built them

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Agricultural productivity remained low despite efforts to introduce new techniques to what was for the most part an uninterested, exploited peasant and laboring groups. Governments were inconsistent in their policies. Though there were substantial improvements by the late 18th century, Spain was

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the empire's markets.) However, this recovery was not then translated into institutional improvement, rather the "proximate solutions to permanent problems." This legacy of neglect was reflected in the early years of Bourbon rule in which the military was ill-advisedly pitched into battle in the

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This has led to a popular misconception that the colonial legacy has caused the region to have an extremely oppressed proletariat. Revolts and riots are often seen as evidence of this supposed extreme oppression. However, the culture of revolting against an unpopular government is not simply a

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On 8 July 1520, at Otumba, the Castilians and their allies, without artillery or arquebusiers, repelled 100,000 Aztecs armed with obsidian-bladed swords. In August, 500 Castilians and 40,000 Tlaxcalans conquered the hilltop town of Tepeaca, an Aztec ally. The town and its surrounding area were

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was a method of land control and distribution based upon vassalic ties. Land would be granted to a noble family, who were then responsible for farming and defending it. This eventually led to a large land based aristocracy, a separate ruling class that the crown later tried to eliminate in its

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supplied both investment capital and goods in a supposedly closed system. Even in the sixteenth century, Spain recognized that the idealized closed system did not function in reality. Since the crown did not alter its restrictive structure or advocate fiscal prudence, despite the pleas of the

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By the mid-17th century, Spain's global empire burdened its economic, administrative, and military resources. Over the preceding century, Spanish troops had fought in France, Germany, and the Netherlands, suffering heavy casualties. Despite its vast holdings, Spain's military lacked essential

1274:) served as middlemen in the trade. The crown's trade monopoly was broken early in the 17th century, with the crown colluding with the merchant guild for fiscal reasons in circumventing the supposedly closed system. Spain was largely able to defend its territories in the Americas, with the 2173:, including exploration, settlement, political power, and revenues, with sovereignty reserved to the Crown. The first voyage established sovereignty for the crown, and the crown acted on the assumption that Columbus's grandiose assessment of what he found was true, so Spain negotiated the 5252:

Politically, the colonial era has strongly influenced modern Spanish America. The territorial divisions of the empire in Spanish America became the basis for boundaries between new republics after independence and for state divisions within countries. It is often argued that the rise of

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encroachment in the archipelago of Maluku. The Spanish presence lasted until 1663, when the settlers and military were moved back to the Philippines. Part of the Ternatean population chose to leave with the Spanish, settling near Manila in what later became the municipality of Ternate.

4588:. After 17 years of independence, in 1861, Santo Domingo was again made a Spanish colony due to Haitian aggression, marking the only instance of a Spanish colonial possession returning to Spain after gaining independence. However Santo Domingo regained independence in 1865 through the 6797: 3860:

and scientific observations remain important sources for the history of Spanish America. Humboldt's expedition was authorized by the crown, but was self-funded from his personal fortune. The Bourbon crown promoted state-funded scientific work prior to the famous Humboldt expedition.

2150: 3762:(1756–63), reflecting in part the success of the Bourbons in bringing illicit trade under control. With the loosening of trade controls after the Seven Years' War, shipping trade within the empire once again began to expand, reaching an extraordinary rate of growth in the 1780s. 3193:, only on the basis that this labor was absolutely necessary to provide the country with important resources. This condition became laxer as the years went on, and various enterprises had repartimiento laborers who would work in dangerous conditions for long hours and low wages. 5466: 180: 2635:

and immediately saw the natural crossing of the Colorado River from Mexico to California by land, as an ideal spot for a city, as the Colorado River narrows to slightly under 1000 feet wide in one small point. Later military expedition that crossed the Colorado River at the

2113:, dated on 7 June 1494, in which the world was split into two dividing Spanish and Portuguese claims. These actions gave Spain exclusive rights to establish colonies in all of the New World from north to south (later with the exception of Brazil, which Portuguese commander 6856:, book XXXII, chapter III: in 1478 a Portuguese fleet intercepted the armada of 25 navies sent by Ferdinand to conquer Gran Canary—capturing 5 of its navies plus 200 Castilians—and forced it to fled hastily and definitively from the Canary waters. This victory allowed 7056: 6952: 2623:

reached the delta in the same year, intending to establish contact with Alarcón, but the latter was already gone by the time of Díaz's arrival. Díaz named the Colorado River Rio del Tizon, while the name Colorado ("Red River") was first applied to a tributary of the

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were wealthier than any Russian or German peasant in Europe. According to Humboldt, despite the fact that Indian farmers were poor, under Spanish rule they were free and slavery was non-existent, their conditions were much better than any other peasant or farmer in

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in the same fleet which led him to France, he preferred to leave the square. As a consequence, this was the end of the attempted settlement of Gibraltar by converts from Judaism ... which D. Enrique de Guzmán had allowed in 1474, since he blamed them for the

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be made to agricultural laborers, rivers be made navigable and dry lands irrigated. In this way alone could Castile's productivity increase, its commerce restored, and its humiliating dependence on foreigners, on the Dutch and the Genoese, be brought to an end."

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of 1819, ceding its rights there to the United States, allowing the U.S. to purchase Florida, and establishing a boundary between New Spain and the U.S. When the negotiations between the two nations were taking place, Spain's resources were stretched due to the

176: 165: 172: 6927:... For four years the Castilians traded and fought; but the Portuguese were the stronger. They defeated a large Spanish fleet off Guinea in 1478, besides gaining other victories. The war ended in 1479 by Ferdinand resigning his claims to Guinea ... 175: 174: 5439: 6992:... the Treaty of Alcáçovas was an important step in defining the expansion areas of each kingdom ... The Portuguese triumph in this agreement is evident, and in addition deserved. Efforts and perseverance developed over the last four decades by 3778:. This isolated pocket of advanced economic development stood in stark contrast to the relative backwardness of most of the country. Most of the improvements were in and around some major coastal cities and the major islands such as Cuba, with its tobacco 4189:. Many Spanish expeditions explored large parts of this vast region, especially those close to Spanish settlements. During the 16th and 17th centuries, Spanish soldiers, missionaries and adventurers also established pioneering communities, primarily in 2357:

on 29 May 1520. Narváez was wounded and captured and 17 of his troops were killed; the rest joined Cortés. The conquistadors now totaled 1,500 Spaniards, 90 horses, and 30 cannons. Meanwhile, Pedro de Alvarado triggered a Mexica uprising following the

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Cover of the English translation of the Asiento contract signed by Britain and Spain in 1713 as part of the Utrecht treaty that ended the War of Spanish Succession. The contract broke the monopoly of Spanish slave traders to sell slaves in Spanish

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settlements with the entire complex of institutions and material life to replicate Castilian life in a different venue. Columbus's second voyage in 1493 had a large contingent of settlers and goods to accomplish that. On Hispaniola, the city of

5206:. Many indigenous languages throughout the empire were often lost either as indigenous populations were decimated by war and disease, or as indigenous people mixed with colonists, and the Spanish language was taught and spread over time. 2303:, and led the first European expedition to see the Pacific Ocean from the West coast of the New World. In an action with enduring historical import, Balboa claimed the Pacific Ocean and all the lands adjoining it for the Spanish Crown. 3184:

The men who worked as repartimiento laborers were not always resistant to the practice. Some were drawn to the labor as a way to supplement the wages they earned cultivating fields so as to support their families and, of course, pay

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However, this experience would prove to be profitable for future Spanish overseas expansion, because as the Spaniards were excluded from the lands discovered or to be discovered from the Canaries southward—and consequently from the

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consumed seven times more meat per person than in Paris. Von Humboldt also said that the average income in that period was four times the European income and also that the cities of New Spain were richer than many European cities.

5354: 3173:. This was a rotational forced labor system where indigenous pueblos were obligated to send laborers to work in Spanish mines and plantations for a set number of days out of the year. Repartimiento was not implemented to replace 1395:, already mentioned in 1597) would also become common to refer to the composite monarchy. The official titles of the monarchs made no mention to monarchies nor crowns, but focused on the inherited kingdoms and other possessions. 5930: 4258:

Spain claimed all of North America in the Age of Discovery, but claims were not translated into occupation until a major resource was discovered and Spanish settlement and crown rule put in place. The French had established an

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by the Spanish Army and Navy with a small collaboration of an allied French contingent put an end to the Rif War. It is considered the first successful amphibious landing in history supported by seaborne air power and tanks.

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on behalf of Habsburg interests, and declared moratoriums (bankruptcies) on their debt payments several times. These burdens led to a number of revolts across the Spanish Habsburg's domains, including their Spanish kingdoms.

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The crown program to enact reforms that promoted administrative control and efficiency in the metropole to the detriment of interests in the colonies, undermined creole elites' loyalty to the crown. When French forces of

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Spanish Empire in 1790. In North America, Spain claimed lands west of the Mississippi River and the Pacific coast from California to Alaska, but it did not control them on the ground. The crown constructed missions and

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produced a huge body of information on Spain's overseas empire via scientific expeditions. The most famous traveler in Spanish America was Prussian scientist Alexander von Humboldt, whose travel writings, especially

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This was a decisive battle because after it, in spite of the Catholic Monarchs' attempts, they were unable to send new fleets to Guinea, Canary or to any part of the Portuguese empire until the end of the war. The

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The Treaty of Tordesillas and the treaty of Cintra (18 September 1509) established the limits of the Kingdom of Fez for Portugal, and the Castilian expansion was allowed outside these limits, beginning with the

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as a guide in search of the fabled Seven Cities of Cibola, preceding Coronado. When the others were struck ill, Estevanico continued alone, opening up what is now New Mexico and Arizona. He was killed at the

2362:, during which 400 Mexica nobles and 2,000 onlookers were hacked and bludgeoned to death. The Castilians were driven out of the Aztec capital, suffering 450 dead, and losing all of their gold and guns during 3765:

The end of Cádiz's monopoly of trade with the American colonies brought about very important changes, particularly a rebirth of Spanish manufactures. Most notable of those changes were both the beginning of

7185: 5903:

crossed the Strait with five thousand men to conquer Ceuta, managing to occupy part of the urban area on the first thrust, but knowing that the Portuguese King was coming with reinforcements to the besieged

3899:

Much of the research done in the eighteenth century was never published or otherwise disseminated, in part due to budgetary constraints on the crown. Starting in the late twentieth century, research on the

3741:

The 18th century was a century of prosperity for the overseas Spanish Empire as trade within grew steadily, particularly in the second half of the century, under the Bourbon reforms. Spain's victory in the

4671:, and the Philippines to the United States, receiving US$ 20 million in compensation for the Philippines. The following year, Spain then sold its remaining Pacific Ocean possessions to Germany in the 6629: 2714:, resulting in the massacre of 142 French Huguenots. The surviving French colonists fled on ships, which wrecked in a storm at the Matanzas River. The Spanish captured them, killing 210 Huguenots in the 2413:

During the 1500s, the Spanish began to explore and colonize North America. They were looking for gold in native kingdoms. By 1511 there were rumours of undiscovered lands to the northwest of Hispaniola.

3612:

At the beginning of his reign, the first Spanish Bourbon, King Philip V, reorganized the government to strengthen the executive power of the monarch as was done in France, in place of the deliberative,

1631:, and it was retained until 1525 with the consent of the Treaty of Cintra (1509). The Ottoman Turks expelled the Spaniards from their coastal possessions, including Algiers in 1529, replacing them with 3904:

in Spain and the Spanish empire has blossomed, with primary sources being published in scholarly editions or reissued, as well the publication of a considerable number of important scholarly studies.

3449:. He retained the Spanish overseas empire in the Americas and the Philippines. The settlement gave spoils to those who had backed a Habsburg for the Spanish monarchy, ceding European territory of the 2389:, Cortés directed the burning of Aztec books and records, destroyed monuments, removed idols from temples, and purged the sites of sacrificial remnants to prepare the locations for Catholic worship. 4264:

defended, particularly in the wake of its visible weakness during the Seven Years' War when Britain captured the important Spanish ports of Havana and Manila. Another important factor was that the

2512:

with 242 men. They believed they were near other Spaniards in Mexico, but there was in fact 1500 miles of coast between them. They followed the coast westward, until they reached the mouth of the

3774:, and the rapidly growing textile industry of Catalonia which by the mid-1780s saw the first signs of industrialization. This saw the emergence of a small, politically active commercial class in 5940: 3063:

Since the early days of the Caribbean and conquest era, the crown attempted to control trade between Spain and the Indies with restrictive policies enforced by the House of Trade (est. 1503) in

5423: 6975: 3289:, after whom the Philippines had earlier been named by Villalobos. Legazpi established settlements in the East Indies and the Pacific Islands in 1565. He was the first governor-general of the 6936: 1658:

The Catholic Monarchs had developed a strategy of marriages for their children to isolate their long-time enemy: France. The Spanish princesses married the heirs of Portugal, England and the

162: 4592:. Spanish losses against the Dominican rebels amounted to 10,888 soldiers killed or wounded in action, with the majority of the remaining approximately 30,000 troops succumbing to disease. 3695:

was created in 1776. The contraband trade that was the lifeblood of the Habsburg empire declined in proportion to registered shipping (a shipping registry having been established in 1735).

8750: 4280:. Great Britain was also expanding into areas that Spain claimed as its territory on the Pacific coast. Taking steps to shore up its fragile claims to California, Spain began planning 3758:

ideas based on a centralized state, put into effect in the Americas slowly at first but with increasing momentum during the century. Shipping grew rapidly from the mid-1740s until the

2599:

Francisco Vásquez de Coronado's 1540–42 expedition began as a search for the fabled Cities of Gold, but after learning from natives in New Mexico of a large river to the west, he sent

8810: 3373:

in Japan returning to Acapulco in the year of 1614. In 1608, he was sent to search for two mythical islands called Rico de Oro (island of gold) and Rico de Plata (island of silver).

8981: 6599: 5183:

questioned, "Has heaven reserved, in pity to the poor,/No pathless waste or undiscovered shore,/No secret island in the boundless main,/No peaceful desert yet unclaimed by Spain?"

4482:

maneuvered to place the Spanish king under his control, effectively seizing power without facing resistance. This action sparked resistance from the Spanish people, leading to the

164: 1168:". At its greatest extent in the late 1700s and early 1800s, the Spanish Empire covered over 13 million square kilometres (5 million square miles), making it one of the 5103:. Under the Basic Law of December 1963, limited autonomy was authorized under a joint legislative body for the territory's two provinces. The name of the country was changed to 3794:

trading arrangements it had difficulty in providing the goods being demanded by the strongly growing markets of its empire, and providing adequate outlets for the return trade.

6017:, to find precious metals and stones and/or to capture Indians for slavery. This expedition alone was responsible for the destruction of most of the Jesuit missions of Spanish 4307:. Nevertheless, the outcome of the crisis was a humiliation for Spain and a triumph for Britain, as Spain had practically renounced all sovereignty on the North Pacific coast. 3059:. In 1735, its expansion, in the same port, meant an increase in construction capacity. This shipyard in the 18th century developed the most complete dockyard in the New World. 8560:

In one short year the unfortunate Spaniards saw their armies beaten in Portugal, Cuba and Manila torn from their grasp, their commerce destroyed, and their fleets annihilated.

4987:

Spain lacked the wealth and the interest to develop an extensive economic infrastructure in its African colonies during the first half of the 20th century. However, through a

3801:

traveled extensively throughout the Spanish Americas, exploring and describing it for the first time from a modern scientific point of view between 1799 and 1804. In his work

5500: 2933:. The natural resource abundance provoked a decline in entrepreneurship as profits from resource extraction are less risky. The wealthy preferred to invest their fortunes in 6914: 5959: 3675:). Individual sailings at regular intervals were slow to displace the traditional armed convoys, but by the 1760s there were regular ships plying the Atlantic from Cádiz to 13139: 4212:

exploits, these isolated Spanish groups were eventually integrated into Brazilian society. Only some Castilians who were displaced from the disputed areas of the Pampas of

3156:("quinto real"). Further adding to the crown's revenues in mining was that it held a monopoly on the mercury supply, used for separating pure silver from silver ore in the 1379:, already mentioned in a 1494 papal bull) was common during the reign of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, insofar as the regime strived towards the realization of the idea of 4580:

likewise declared independence in 1821 and began negotiating for inclusion in Bolivar's Republic of Gran Colombia, but was quickly occupied by the former French colony of

3025:

from its overseas possessions with their large, exploitable indigenous populations and rich mining areas. Thus the crown attempted to create and maintain a classic closed

2923:"I learnt a proverb here", said a French traveler in 1603: "Everything is dear in Spain except silver". The problems caused by inflation were discussed by scholars at the 3285:, Luis de Velasco, to explore the Maluku Islands where Magellan and Ruy López de Villalobos had landed in 1521 and 1543, respectively. The expedition was ordered by King 1055: 10449:

Marichal, Carlos; Mantecón, Matilde Souto (1994). "Silver and Situados: New Spain and the Financing of the Spanish Empire in the Caribbean in the Eighteenth Century".

8728: 4570:

these soldiers. Even within the Viceroyalty of Peru, the center of Spanish power in South America, the majority of the Royalist army consisted of Americans. After the

1104: 1090: 1076: 1062: 1048: 1034: 1020: 1006: 992: 978: 964: 950: 936: 922: 908: 894: 880: 866: 852: 838: 824: 810: 785: 2730: 2071:

and that he might discover thenceforth; thereby, it was the first document to establish an administrative organization in the Indies. Columbus' discoveries began the

6875: 5162: 4446:

of 1803. Napoleon's sale of the Louisiana Territory to the United States in 1803 caused border disputes between the United States and Spain that, with rebellions in

7137: 5225:

of other faiths. Observances of Catholic holidays often have strong regional expressions and remain important in many parts of Spanish America. Observances include

2532:, Mexico, over a period of roughly eight years. They spent years enslaved by the Ananarivo of the Louisiana Gulf Islands. Later they were enslaved by the Hans, the 1426:(1402) and retook territory from the Moors in 1462. The Christian rivals Castile and Portugal came to formal agreements over the division of new territories in the 10823: 4410:

The growth of trade and wealth in the colonies caused increasing political tensions as frustration grew with the improving but still restrictive trade with Spain.

1302: 6621: 5175:

Although the Spanish Empire declined from its apogee in the late seventeenth century, it remained a wonder for other Europeans for its sheer geographical span.

15368: 12269: 7166:... With an eye to the Treaty of Alcáçovas which only permitted westerly expansion by Castile, the Crown accepted the proposals of the Italian adventurer 8432:

De Vos, Paula S. (June 2006). "Research, Development, and Empire: State Support of Science in Spain and Spanish America, Sixteenth to Eighteenth Centuries".

6846: 6842: ...). Palencia wrote that the conquest of Gran Canary was a secondary goal to facilitate the expeditions to Guinea (the real goal), a means to an end. 6825: 5615: 5265:

Hundreds of towns and cities in the Americas were founded during the Spanish rule, with the colonial centers and buildings of many of them now designated as

8520: 6277: 2718:. St. Augustine quickly became a strategic defensive base for the Spanish ships full of gold and silver being sent to Spain from its New World dominions. 15363: 11278: 4506: 3145: 190: 7723: 7212:

Superpowers Spain and Portugal struggled for global control and in the 1494 Treaty of Tordesillas the Pope divided the non-Christian world between them.

15398: 12289: 11204: 8963: 8780: 5270:

centuries ago. The oldest universities in the Americas were founded by Spanish scholars and Catholic missionaries. The Spanish Empire also left a vast

1959:

instead. Thus, the limitations imposed by the Alcáçovas treaty were overcome and a new and more balanced division of the world would be reached in the

1948: 7804:

Moutoukias, Zacarias (1988). "Power, Corruption, and Commerce: The Making of the Local Administrative Structure in Seventeenth-Century Buenos Aires".

5107:. In March 1968, under pressure from Equatoguinean nationalists and the United Nations, Spain announced that it would grant the country independence. 13207: 9982:

El día que España derrotó a Inglaterra : de cómo Blas de Lezo, tuerto, manco y cojo, venció en Cartagena de Indias a la otra "Armada Invencible"

7215: 6970: 5888: 5099:

exercising military and civilian powers. The first local elections were held in 1959, and the first Equatoguinean representatives were seated in the

2271:

Columbus encountered the mainland in 1498, and the Catholic Monarchs learned of his discovery in May 1499. The first settlement on the mainland was

7003: 6696: 1494: 7172: 5900: 4284:

in 1769. Spain also began a series of voyages to the Pacific Northwest, where Russia and Great Britain were encroaching on claimed territory. The

12754: 3873: 2040:

that created a relationship between the Crown of Aragon and Castile, each with their own administrations, but ruled jointly by the two monarchs.

1776:

that acknowledged Portuguese control over the discovered territories, but Castile also obtained from the Pope the safeguard of its rights to the

1449:

mariner, obtained the support of Isabella of Castile, sailing west in 1492, seeking a route to the Indies. Columbus unexpectedly encountered the

1013: 12249: 9337: 8754: 2949:

Philip II of Spain (r. 1556–98) conquered the Philippines in 1565, making him ruler of the first true globe-spanning empire. His victory in the

1583:

With the Christian reconquest completed in the Iberian peninsula, Spain began trying to take territory in Muslim North Africa. It had conquered

10498: 10418: 10395: 10281: 10225: 9853: 5191: 4919: 3214:, with a victory for the Bourbon French candidate for the throne, had a provision for British merchants to legally sell slaves with a license ( 13654: 9007: 3544: 1910:

lost men and ships to the Portuguese who expelled the attack, and a large Castilian armada—full of gold—was entirely captured in the decisive

1587:

in 1497, and further expansionism policy in North Africa was developed during the regency of Ferdinand the Catholic in Castile, stimulated by

15393: 13212: 12299: 6346: 5715: 2994: 1570: 1485:, the two highest bodies in metropolitan Spain for the government of the empire in the New World, as well as royal government in the Indies. 8579: 7118:... Castile accepted a Portuguese monopoly on new discoveries in the Atlantic from the Canaries southward and toward the African coast. 5887:(Morocco) between Portugal and Castile instead of the Portuguese monopoly recognized by the treaty of Alcáçovas. See Coca Castañer (2004), " 4181:

The majority of the territory of today's Brazil had been claimed as Spanish when exploration began with the navigation of the length of the

3817:

Humboldt also published a comparative analysis of bread and meat consumption in New Spain compared to other cities in Europe such as Paris.

3698:

Two upheavals registered unease within Spanish America and at the same time demonstrated the renewed resiliency of the reformed system: the

15418: 11904: 11262: 8802: 4914:

was a major military defeat suffered by the Spanish army against Moroccan insurgents. A leading Spanish politician emphatically declared: "

4285: 4241: 3885: 2359: 2520:. Later they were enslaved for a few years by various Native American tribes of the upper Gulf Coast. They continued through Coahuila and 14797: 8977: 7420: 7342: 6591: 5925:

but the landing forces were decimated by a Portuguese counter-attack because the rowers panicked and fled with the boats. See chronicler

2977:. Philip also became embroiled in conflicts with the Ottoman Empire, and in 1571, his galley fleet achieved a significant victory at the 1402:

controlling the choke points of the overland trade from Asia and the Middle East, both Spain and Portugal sought alternative routes. The

7551: 7381: 7097: 6792: 6100: 2067:, dated on 17 April 1492, Christopher Columbus obtained from the Catholic Monarchs his appointment as viceroy and governor in the lands 1293:

Spain experienced its greatest territorial losses during the early 19th century, when its colonies in the Americas began fighting their

7169:

because if, contrary to all expectation, he were to prove successful, a great opportunity would arise to outmanoeuvre Portugal ...

5600: 5377: 4303:. Spain and Great Britain agreed to not establish settlements and allowed free access to Nootka Sound on the west coast of what is now 4894:

in 1893, Morocco paid war reparations of 20 million pesetas and Spain expanded its influence south from Melilla. In 1912, Morocco was

901: 13251: 5979:

V so that this tax could be paid in Castilian harbors. Naturally all this caused a grudge against the Catholic Monarchs in Andalusia.

5283: 5110:

In 1969, under international pressure, Spain returned Sidi Ifni to Morocco. Spanish control of Spanish Sahara endured until the 1975

4903: 4796: 4656: 3877: 3358:

missionary and Portuguese traders, Spain was interested in Japan. In this first group of Jesuit missionaries were included Spaniards

999: 9040: 1552:

in 1492, they implemented policies to maintain control of the territory. To do so, the monarchy implemented a system of encomienda.

15408: 15383: 13119: 12223: 10901: 5620: 2536:

and others. In 1534 they escaped into the American interior, contacting other Native American tribes along the way. Only four men,

6972:

Reflections Upon Some Navigational and Hydrographic Problems Of The XVth Century Related To The Voyage Of Bartolomeu Dias, 1487–88

6902: 5095:

was established with a status similar to the provinces of metropolitan Spain. As the Spanish Equatorial Region, it was ruled by a

1686:

in European battlefields, the forces of the kings of Spain acquired a reputation for invincibility that would last until the 1643

12203: 10734: 6659: 5198:" —from Iberia to Spanish America, later expanded by the governments of successor independent republics. In the Philippines, the 3881: 2836:

inherited the Castilian empire in the Americas and the possessions of the Crown of Aragon in the Mediterranean (including all of

1242:

rule, Castile was unable to supply the Indies with sufficient consumer goods to meet demand. This allowed foreign merchants from

10507: 8704: 8340:

Codding, Mitchell A. (1994). "Perfecting the geography of New Spain: Alzate and the Cartographic legacy of Sigüenza y Góngora".

1297:. By 1900, Spain had also lost its colonies in the Caribbean and Pacific, and it was left with only its African possessions. In 10828: 6735: 3561: 2272: 1856:

in such way that everybody tried to go there". Worthless trinkets, Moorish textiles, and above all, shells from the Canary and

1422:(1427–1452); it also began voyages down the west coast of Africa in the fifteenth century. Its rival Castile laid claim to the 1165: 11341: 2722: 15403: 14607: 13989: 12977: 11088: 10059: 6304: 5670: 5648: 5361: 4328: 3862: 3703: 3671:, where foreign merchant houses had easier access to the Indies trade. Cádiz became the one port for all Indies trading (see 3527: 1662:. Following the same strategy, the Catholic Monarchs decided to support the Aragonese house of the Kingdom of Naples against 1294: 697: 11939: 11808: 11435: 11431: 10557:

The Army of Flanders and the Spanish Road, 1567–1659; the logistics of Spanish victory and defeat in the Low Countries' Wars

8725: 8623: 8255: 4950:, a status that would last until 1959. In 1931, following the fall of the monarchy, the African colonies became part of the 3692: 1701:

would have been split from Castile, which was inherited by Charles, Ferdinand and Isabella's grandson. Ferdinand joined the

1693:

After the death of Queen Isabella in 1504, and her exclusion of Ferdinand from a further role in Castile, Ferdinand married

13072: 13067: 12435: 11841: 11484: 10937: 8912:

Hamnett, Brian R. (1997). "Process and Pattern: A Re-Examination of the Ibero-American Independence Movements, 1808–1826".

7232: 7063:, vol. III (In Spanish), Universidad de Salamanca, Instituto de Investigaciones Antropológicas de Castilla y León, p. 118, 6429: 5695: 5685: 5633: 4490: 2725:

explored New Mexico in 1581–82. They explored a part of the route visited by Coronado in New Mexico and other parts in the

2312: 2187: 2072: 1371:. Ferdinand of Aragon was particularly concerned with expansion in France and Italy, as well as conquests in North Africa. 606: 579: 14513: 6425: 4866:

became a protectorate in 1885 and a colony in 1900. Conflicting claims to the Guinea mainland were settled in 1900 by the

3548:

Representation of the two powers, church and state, symbolized by the altar and the throne, with the presence of the king

3189:. At first, a Spaniard could get repartimiento laborers to work for them with permission from a crown official, such as a 15312: 13134: 12254: 5992:

observed "The sun shines for me as for others and I should very much like to see the clause in Adam's will that excludes

5680: 5595: 4958:, Spanish troops led by General Osvaldo Capaz landed in Sidi Ifni and carried out the occupation of the territory, ceded 4792: 4466:

The Americas towards the year 1800, the colored territories were considered provinces in some maps of the Spanish Empire.

4049: 3569: 3369:

In 1611, Sebastián Vizcaíno surveyed the east coast of Japan and from the year of 1611 to 1614 he was ambassador of King

2191: 2105:

Since the Portuguese wanted to keep the line of demarcation of Alcaçovas running east and west along a latitude south of

645: 593: 11123: 4731: 4322:, but his unexpected death in 1807 ended any treaty hopes. Spain gave up its claims in the West of North America in the 2197:

The first permanent European settlements in the New World were established in the Caribbean, initially on the island of

1596: 15166: 14659: 13659: 12901: 12218: 12154: 11876: 11856: 11331: 11063: 11026: 10856: 10797: 10765: 10746: 10724: 10705: 10647: 10624: 10602: 10583: 10564: 10545: 10526: 10439: 10370: 10355: 10337: 10318: 10188: 10165: 10146: 10116: 10097: 10078: 9989: 9961: 9940: 9921: 9900: 9870: 9837: 9818: 9771: 9750: 9729: 9703: 9682: 9661: 9640: 9608: 9569: 9548: 9527: 9508: 9458: 9435: 9394: 9375: 9347: 9326: 9305: 9286: 9254: 9228: 9206: 9185: 9161: 9138: 9119: 9098: 8862: 8553: 8249: 8195: 8056: 8008: 7666: 7545: 7452: 7414: 7375: 7336: 7285: 7154: 7091: 6750: 6340: 6255: 6212: 6179: 5690: 5675: 5665: 4434:, which had few European settlers. It stretched north to Canada and was ceded by France in 1763 under the terms of the 4225: 2954: 2953:

led to the annexation of Portugal in 1580, effectively integrating its overseas empire—encompassing coastal Brazil and

2576:, commissioned several expeditions to explore and establish settlements in the northern lands of New Spain in 1540–42. 1262:

to take advantage of the trade, with silver from the mines of Peru and New Spain flowing to other parts of Europe. The

13266: 12370: 8619:

Spanish Institutions of the Southwest Issue 10 of Johns Hopkins University studies in historical and political science

4497:

estuary in 1806. The viceroy retreated hastily to the hills when defeated by a small British force. However, when the

2537: 2473: 13303: 12967: 12876: 12274: 11818: 11371: 11001: 9590: 5167: 5114:

prompted a withdrawal, under Moroccan military pressure. The future of this former Spanish colony remains uncertain.

4611:, with approximately 200,000 civilian deaths attributed to diseases and famine caused by Spanish concentration camps. 4168: 2966: 2703: 1671: 1647: 1430:(1479), as well as securing the crown of Castile for Isabella whose accession was challenged militarily by Portugal. 4150: 3164:. That loss resulted in the bankruptcy of the Spanish crown and an extended period of economic depression in Spain. 1826:(1494–1496) were subjugated. By 1504, more than 90 percent of the indigenous Canarians had been killed or enslaved. 15413: 15297: 14892: 13167: 11851: 11335: 11113: 6569: 5327:

One of the features of this trade was the exchange of a great array of domesticated plants and animals between the

5238: 5221:

and Protestants. Not until after their independence in the nineteenth century did Spanish American republics allow

4672: 4038: 4034: 3401: 2950: 2382: 1470: 1216: 12543: 12478: 10836: 3620:

Philip's government set up a ministry of the Navy and the Indies (1714) and established commercial companies, the

2600: 2577: 1985: 1725:, which had effectively been a Spanish protectorate following a series of treaties in 1488, 1491, 1493, and 1495. 1588: 15322: 14925: 14790: 14285: 13104: 12896: 12683: 12483: 12032: 11967: 11553: 11455: 10014: 7200: 6075: 5700: 5186:

The Spanish Empire left a huge linguistic, religious, political, cultural, and urban architectural legacy in the

4943: 4755: 4710: 4142: 3916: 2853: 2261: 2222: 2144: 2101:

promulgated bulls that invested the Spanish monarchs with ecclesiastical power in the newly found lands overseas.

1864: 504: 493: 13447: 13022: 12538: 11982: 11866: 10846: 8516: 8109: 3112:, the Indies trade remained nominally in the hands of Spain, but in fact enriched the other European countries. 2377:

on 30 June 1521. Following their victory, 53 Spanish prisoners were paraded to the tops of Tlatelolco's highest

1624: 15109: 14942: 14880: 13124: 13062: 12861: 12279: 11992: 11972: 11944: 11861: 11836: 11696: 11504: 11411: 11351: 11318: 7907: 7780: 7068: 7020: 6809: 6237: 6021:

and the enslavement of 60,000 indigenous people. In response the missions that followed were heavily fortified.

5214: 5202:(1898) brought the islands under U.S. jurisdiction, with English being imposed in schools and Spanish becoming 4435: 4281: 4146: 4002: 3852: 1906:. The turning point of the war came in 1478, however, when a Castilian fleet sent by King Ferdinand to conquer 1791: 658: 619: 17: 13087: 12916: 12673: 7032:... Castile undertakes not to allow any his subject navigate waters reserved to the Portuguese. From the 5297:, which created a markedly different society than the European colonies of North America. In concert with the 4009:

in North America. The British, also occupied with France, were unable to capture Spanish convoys, and Spanish

3363: 3006:, discovered in 1545, the rich, sole source of silver from Peru, worked by compulsory indigenous labor called 2541: 2340: 1951:

around Africa—they sponsored the voyage of Columbus towards the west (1492) in search of Asia to trade in its

15317: 15226: 14723: 13239: 13217: 13172: 13114: 13092: 12906: 12678: 12360: 12149: 12134: 11219: 11083: 11036: 5705: 5565: 5158: 4585: 4439: 3967: 3959: 3927: 3743: 3734: 3508: 3430: 3211: 2833: 2695: 2545: 1992:

discoveries. Western façade of monument. Isabella at the center, Columbus on the left, a cross on her right.

12468: 8776: 7746: 5449: 1810:

under a feudal agreement with the crown. The conquest was completed with the campaigns of the armies of the

1749: 1445:(1494), which gave Portugal Africa and Asia, and the Western Hemisphere to Spain. The voyage of Columbus, a 1305:, Catholicism the main religion, and political traditions of representative government can be traced to the 14718: 14602: 13109: 13077: 12608: 12473: 11909: 11289: 11098: 10894: 5857: 5580: 5384:

is one of the oldest clocks in Americas and the oldest still working in the world. It was brought from the

5203: 5176: 3990: 3947: 3797:

From an opposing point of view according to the "backwardness" mentioned above the naturalist and explorer

2942: 2852:, starting the rule of the Spanish Habsburgs. The Austrian hereditary Habsburg domains were transferred to 2117:

encountered in 1500), as well as the easternmost parts of Asia. The Treaty of Tordesillas was confirmed by

1702: 1306: 1279: 632: 88: 13097: 12430: 10038: 6788: 5955: 4689:

at war's end, was pulled out, effectively ending around 300 years of Spanish hegemony in the archipelago.

4292:

and others sailing for Spain, came too late for Spain to assert its sovereignty in the Pacific Northwest.

3609:

had broken the integrity of the closed Spanish mercantile system and established thriving sugar colonies.

3293:. After obtaining peace with various indigenous tribes, López de Legazpi made Manila the capital in 1571. 2430:, or "Cibola", rumoured to have been built by Native Americans somewhere in the desert Southwest. In 1536 15423: 15276: 15271: 14887: 14728: 13765: 13082: 12982: 12613: 12065: 11997: 10966: 10717:

A Nation upon the Ocean Sea: Portugal's Atlantic Diaspora and the Crisis of the Spanish Empire, 1492–1640

5773: 5266: 4807: 4715: 4042: 3977: 3526:

on the Spanish throne. There was a crisis of legitimacy of crown rule in Spanish America, leading to the

3243: 3013: 2809: 1679: 12533: 12440: 5301:, the Spanish Empire laid the foundations of a truly global trade by opening up the great trans-oceanic 3181:

It was, however, a way for the Spanish to procure cheap labor, thus boosting the mining-driven economy.

15332: 15327: 14783: 13017: 12380: 12027: 11914: 11826: 11798: 11425: 11395: 11200: 11031: 10233: 9800: 9034: 8877:

Chiaramonte, José Carlos (1 August 2010). "The "Ancient Constitution" after Independence (1808–1852)".

7005:

España y Portugal ante los otros: derecho, religión y política en el descubrimiento medieval de América

5521: 4939: 4895: 4870:, because of which Spain was left with a mere 26,000 km out of the 300,000 stretching east to the 4649: 4608: 4089: 4022: 3971: 3710: 2726: 2715: 2296: 1224: 790: 523: 95: 31: 12400: 12355: 10028: 8845:

Hamel, Rainer Enrique (1995), "Indigenous education in Latin America: policies and legal frameworks",

5935:(in Portuguese), Edição do Instituto Cultural de Ponta Delgada, volume 6, chapter I, p. 10. See also 3328: 3278: 3255: 3067:. Shipping was through particular ports in Castile: Seville, and subsequently Cádiz, Spanish America: 2856:, the Emperor's brother, whereas Spain and the remaining possessions were inherited by Charles's son, 2589: 2508:. After several months of fighting native inhabitants through wilderness and swamp, the party reached 15388: 15373: 15302: 15056: 15017: 14686: 13834: 13398: 12936: 12886: 12744: 12643: 12139: 12012: 11977: 11929: 11831: 11443: 11327: 11016: 10986: 10981: 9653:

Political essay on the kingdom of New Spain containing researches relative to the geography of Mexico

8748:

Ed. J. D. Fage, A. D. Roberts, & Roland Anthony Oliver. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press>

5643: 5638: 4778: 4589: 4420: 3974:

also failed. The British suffered 25,000 dead or wounded and lost nearly 5,000 ships during the war.

3934:

Bourbon institutional reforms under Philip V bore fruit militarily when Spanish forces easily retook

3803:

Political essay on the kingdom of New Spain containing researches relative to the geography of Mexico

3771: 3633: 3377: 2974: 2879: 2651:

became the first explorer to cross the Mississippi River. During this expedition, the Spanish fought

2552:, survived and escaped to reach Mexico City. In 1539, Estevanico was one of four men who accompanied 2245: 2162: 2064: 1721:. In 1516, France agreed to a truce that left Milan in its control and recognized Spanish control of 1710: 1620: 1041: 11561: 8030: 6006: 5988:

Other European powers did not see the treaty between Castile and Portugal as binding on themselves.

5883:

A dominated Ceuta by the Castilians would certainly have forced a share of the right to conquer the

4930: 4250:

Spanish territorial claims on the West Coast of North America in the 18th century, contested by the

2063:

with Portugal to reach the Far East by sea when Columbus made his bold proposal to Isabella. In the

1238:

monarchs. Although the Crown of Castile attempted to keep its empire a closed economic system under

14644: 14619: 14469: 14128: 14123: 12881: 12764: 12724: 12663: 12658: 12598: 12017: 12007: 11793: 11496: 11407: 11108: 9003: 8469: 7978:

In The Mexican Heartland: How Communities Shaped Capitalism, a Nation, and World History, 1500–2000

7045: 5710: 5477: 5199: 4624: 4406:

in coastal California and sent maritime expeditions to the Pacific Northwest to assert sovereignty.

4336: 4319: 4315: 4131: 3806: 3486: 3056: 2981:, but the Ottomans quickly rebuilt their Mediterranean fleet and forced a truce on Philip in 1578. 2687: 2333: 1918: 1835: 1508: 1466: 1027: 426: 13261: 12340: 11573: 11093: 9651: 6324: 4781:). In the 19th century, some Spanish explorers and missionaries would cross this zone, among them 4037:, and warfare in northern Italy remained indecisive throughout the period up to 1746. By the 1748 2961:

coastal enclaves—into Spain's domain. His reign was marked by additional conflicts, including the

15378: 15358: 15307: 14965: 14711: 14592: 14133: 14086: 14029: 13728: 13672: 13420: 12931: 12789: 12633: 12573: 12523: 12425: 12022: 11987: 11934: 11569: 11439: 11403: 11133: 11006: 10991: 10887: 6130: 5610: 4951: 4747: 4644: 4530: 4135: 4057: 3963: 3844: 3339:, lost from the expedition led by Sebastián Vizcaíno, explored the Pacific coast as far north as 3332: 3128: 2484:, Florida on 15 April 1528, they marched through Florida. Traveling mostly on foot, they crossed 2374: 2240: 1514: 1462: 1263: 1169: 469: 273: 12124: 8683:

Warfare and Armed Conflicts: A Statistical Encyclopedia of Casualty and Other Figures, 1492–2015

6542:"Reflections on Gold: On the Late Medieval Background of the Spanish "Enterprise of the Indies"" 5871: 5430: 5234: 3866: 3653: 2328: 2114: 1872: 1591:. Several towns and outposts in the North African coast were conquered and occupied by Castile: 1482: 1474: 1160:, as well as territory in other parts of Europe. It was one of the most powerful empires of the 15131: 14960: 14733: 14634: 14629: 14317: 14265: 14185: 14118: 14022: 14007: 13900: 13667: 13621: 13462: 13349: 13222: 12794: 12729: 12233: 12119: 12002: 11962: 11606: 11399: 11058: 11048: 10478: 7277: 6997: 6380: 6152:

Hugh Thomas, 'World Without End: The Global Empire of Philip II', Penguin; first edition (2015)

5575: 5364:, it is one of the largest cathedrals in Americas, built on the ruins of the Aztec main square. 5275: 4969: 4867: 4636: 4600: 4462: 3994: 3951: 3861:

Eighteenth-century clerics contributed to the expansion of scientific knowledge. These include

3840: 3798: 3660: 3405: 2897: 2699: 2123: 2021: 1697:

in 1505, cementing an alliance with France. Had that couple had a surviving heir, probably the

1663: 1336: 1283: 971: 481: 475: 324: 12365: 10869: 9742:

The rise and fall of the great powers: economic change and military conflict from 1500 to 2000

9196: 9171: 8543: 8277:

Schmitt, Karl (April 1959). "The Clergy and the Enlightenment in Latin America: An Analysis".

7442: 7404: 7326: 5481: 5132: 5052:). In 1958, Spain ceded Tarfaya to Mohammed V and joined the previously separate districts of 5040:

was interested in these territories and unsuccessfully invaded Spanish Sahara in 1957, in the

4254:

and the British. Most of what Spain claimed in Nootka was not directly occupied or controlled.

4200: 2999: 2615: 2194:, many of those participating in those conquests had started their exploits in the Caribbean. 1807: 1427: 1356: 1347:

that most scholars view as the foundation of the Spanish monarchy. The union of the Crowns of

404: 15211: 15076: 14664: 14624: 14437: 14312: 13376: 13366: 13325: 13296: 12668: 12078: 11899: 11788: 11727: 11655: 11565: 11266: 10946: 10482: 9951: 9468: 8957: 8572: 8185: 7724:"History Lessons: Institutions, Factor Endowments, and Paths of Development in the New World" 7535: 7365: 7081: 6067: 5628: 5320: 5142: 5037: 4675:, retaining only its African territories. On 2 June 1899, the second expeditionary battalion 4431: 4392: 4277: 4186: 4064:(1756–63), but it promptly recovered these losses and Spanish forces seized British forts in 3389: 3161: 2893: 2800: 2641: 2378: 2174: 2110: 2025: 1976: 1960: 1841: 1546: 1478: 1442: 1340: 1275: 943: 14552: 13202: 12603: 12390: 12350: 12309: 11283: 9579:

Guerrero, Milagros; Custodio, Teresa Ma.; Dalisay, Jose Y. (1998), "Reform and Revolution",

3982: 3884:(1787–1803); which scholars are now examining afresh. Although the crown funded a number of 2477: 2415: 2402: 2253: 15266: 15261: 15201: 15136: 15041: 14757: 14587: 14557: 14432: 14363: 14334: 14253: 13587: 13425: 13415: 13177: 12846: 12809: 12799: 12739: 12638: 12618: 12513: 12325: 12144: 11021: 11011: 10848:

Fronteras, identidad, conflicto e interacción. Los Presidios Españoles en el Norte Africano

10001:

Wars of the Americas: A Chronology of Armed Conflict in the New World, 1492 to the Present

7709:

Wars of the Age of Louis XIV, 1650–1715: An Encyclopedia of Global Warfare and Civilization

6171: 5850: 5570: 5222: 4855: 4632: 4411: 4289: 4065: 4006: 3889: 3578: 3565: 3557: 3549: 3490: 3221: 3178: 2962: 2664: 2427: 2386: 2226: 2170: 2048: 1926: 1799: 1477:. These lawyer-bureaucrats staffed the various councils of state, eventually including the 1434: 1176: 929: 915: 859: 562: 14537: 12703: 12493: 12415: 10212:

Commercial Relations Between Spain and Spanish America in the Era of Free Trade, 1778–1796

7134:... This boundary line cut off Castile from the route to India around Africa ... 6889:"How the Portuguese fleet defeated the Castilian fleet which had come to the Mine of Gold" 6018: 6014: 4800: 4574:, the captured Royalist army consisted of 1,512 Spanish Americans and only 751 Spaniards. 3336: 1993: 1643: 1504: 8: 15231: 15161: 15104: 15021: 14847: 14449: 14329: 14295: 14197: 14017: 14012: 13824: 13543: 13479: 13354: 13339: 13246: 13002: 12987: 12871: 12851: 12804: 12784: 12588: 12583: 12528: 12498: 12264: 11889: 11846: 11803: 11732: 11701: 11472: 11451: 11417: 11323: 11293: 11224: 11068: 11041: 10941: 10873: 9029: 8697:"Avalon Project – Treaty of Peace Between the United States and Spain; December 10, 1898" 8425:

Visible Empire: Botanical Expeditions & Visible Culture in the Hispanic Enlightenment

7689:

The Age of Wars of Religion 1000–1650: An Encyclopedia of Global Warfare and Civilization

6993: 6877:

Crónica de los señores reyes católicos Don Fernando y Doña Isabel de Castilla y de Aragon

6871: 6857: 6821: 6772: 5989: 5973: 5658: 5653: 5453: 5316: 5246: 5121:

and Spanish cities in the African mainland are considered an equal part of Spain and the

5010: 4777:

rivers were ceded to Spain by the Portuguese in exchange for territory in South America (

4759: 4702: 4061: 3759: 3747: 3726: 3625: 3621: 3614: 3462: 3450: 3434: 3426: 3370: 3290: 3076: 2924: 2782: 2132: 1849: 1741: 1675: 1651: 1558: 1403: 1204: 1196: 1161: 671: 314: 303: 243: 14165: 14155: 12992: 12693: 5936: 5918: 3123:, natively called Peso, was the main coin of the Spanish Empire, this coin is from 1739. 3115: 2000: 1903: 1732:

against France, which concluded in 1559, Spain emerged with control over half of Italy (

15337: 15241: 15025: 14977: 14972: 14875: 14865: 14822: 14814: 14562: 14542: 14525: 14476: 14341: 14150: 14101: 14034: 13952: 13893: 13888: 13883: 13839: 13809: 13701: 13599: 13467: 13442: 13007: 12997: 12972: 12926: 12891: 12749: 12458: 12335: 12208: 11706: 11686: 11346: 11234: 10961: 10777: 10666: 10636: 10492: 10466: 10412: 10389: 10289: 10275: 10219: 9847: 9804: 9447: 9275: 9243: 8945: 8937: 8735:

Cerezo finally surrendered with the full honors of war (1 July 1898 – 2 June 1899)

8474:

Nature, Empire, and Nation: Explorations in the History of Science in the Iberian World

8449: 8302: 8294: 8101: 8018: 7829: 7270: 7037: 6690: 6561: 6269: 6261: 6242:. Amerind Studies in Anthropology. Tucson: University of Arizona Press. pp. 3–15. 6218: 6092: 5590: 5336: 5242: 5187: 4823: 4786: 4640: 4577: 4571: 4538: 4443: 4332: 4269: 3986: 3901: 3516: 3286: 3104: 2857: 2764: 2756: 2569: 2525: 2450: 2439: 2431: 2354: 2349: 2206: 2060: 1895: 1718: 1706: 1380: 1360: 1251: 457: 436: 334: 288: 263: 253: 12330: 12259: 9221:

The First America: Spanish Monarchy, Creole Patriots, and the Liberal State, 1492–1866

8696: 7048:

represented a huge victory for Portugal and resulted tremendously damaging to Castile.

6651: 5138:

even though they are internationally recognized as administrative divisions of Spain.

4494: 3686: 3003: 2912:

Exploiting the resources of the Americas (gold, silver, sugar) and trading with Asia (

2397: 1981: 15216: 15191: 15171: 15151: 15141: 15031: 15013: 14982: 14915: 14832: 14806: 14671: 14567: 14503: 14498: 14427: 14324: 14039: 13967: 13962: 13804: 13733: 13716: 13711: 13706: 13506: 13457: 13187: 13129: 12962: 12734: 12708: 12698: 12688: 12623: 12578: 12508: 12488: 12463: 12410: 12385: 11650: 11177: 11118: 11073: 10932: 10852: 10793: 10761: 10742: 10720: 10701: 10643: 10620: 10598: 10579: 10560: 10541: 10522: 10435: 10430:

Spain's Empire in the New World: The Role of Ideas in Institutional and Social Change

10366: 10351: 10333: 10314: 10264: 10251: 10238: 10184: 10177: 10161: 10142: 10127: 10112: 10093: 10074: 10055: 10033: 9985: 9957: 9936: 9917: 9896: 9866: 9833: 9814: 9808: 9788: 9767: 9746: 9740: 9725: 9718: 9699: 9693: 9678: 9657: 9636: 9604: 9586: 9565: 9544: 9523: 9504: 9454: 9431: 9406: 9390: 9371: 9343: 9322: 9301: 9282: 9250: 9224: 9202: 9181: 9157: 9150: 9134: 9115: 9094: 9088: 8949: 8929: 8894: 8858: 8549: 8453: 8306: 8245: 8191: 8105: 8062: 8052: 8004: 7821: 7786: 7776: 7662: 7541: 7448: 7410: 7371: 7332: 7281: 7228: 7196: 7150: 7087: 7064: 7016: 6805: 6746: 6553: 6336: 6273: 6251: 6222: 6208: 6175: 5867: 5506: 5457: 5305:

and the exploration of unknown territories and oceans for the western knowledge. The

5298: 5230: 5210: 5104: 5072: 4973: 4955: 4942:

was declared an international city under French, Spanish, British, and later Italian

4923: 4827: 4739: 4727: 4509:

and local Royalists. In South America this period of wars led to the independence of

4451: 4323: 4300: 4213: 3943: 3939: 3935: 3893: 3643: 3572:, respectively, before the Virgin Mary. "Glorification of the Immaculate Conception". 3499: 3470: 3466: 3454: 3446: 3414: 3216: 3207: 3100: 3092: 3026: 3022: 2978: 2889: 2829: 2817: 2773: 2631:

In 1540, expeditions under Hernando de Alarcón and Melchior Díaz visited the area of

2513: 2300: 2033: 2017: 1737: 1733: 1659: 1368: 1328: 1318: 1255: 1247: 1243: 1180: 1137: 1069: 985: 957: 845: 817: 463: 409: 378: 344: 308: 248: 102: 11208: 9580: 7773:

Silver, Trade, and War : Spain and America in the Making of early modern Europe

6756: 5744:

of the Spanish Empire, but the following religions were also present in the empire:

4615: 4190: 3699: 2480:

of 600 men, that between 1527 and 1535 explored the mainland of North America. From

2043:

Ferdinand and Isabella defeated the last Muslim king out of Granada in 1492 after a

1323: 1207:. In the beginning, Portugal was the only serious threat to Spanish hegemony in the 1179:

and continuing for over three centuries, the Spanish Empire would expand across the

15206: 15121: 15066: 15036: 14987: 14947: 14930: 14920: 14855: 14827: 14520: 14307: 14302: 14258: 14245: 14175: 14143: 14138: 14002: 13997: 13979: 13940: 13873: 13856: 13797: 13787: 13782: 13723: 13679: 13649: 13609: 13592: 13575: 13538: 13289: 12819: 12814: 12779: 12759: 12518: 12395: 12294: 12198: 11660: 11500: 10458: 10297: 9476: 9342:(Individual e-book (no page numbers) ed.). Austin: University of Texas Press. 8921: 8886: 8850: 8803:"Desembarco en Alhucemas, el "Día D" de las tropas españolas en el norte de África" 8441: 8349: 8286: 8093: 7996: 7813: 7738: 6243: 6200: 6167: 6084: 5605: 5448:

are a common Hispanic American architectural element because Spanish colonization.

5414: 5290: 5194:

in the world, as result of the introduction of the language of Castile—Castilian, "

5100: 5096: 4965: 4907: 4604: 4304: 3721: 3553: 3523: 3503:, as well as licensed voyages to ports in Spanish colonial dominions and openings. 3438: 3418: 3034: 2958: 2791: 2672: 2648: 2533: 2517: 2234: 2166: 1911: 1811: 1782: 1694: 1687: 1407: 1348: 1235: 1141: 803: 418: 414: 364: 359: 354: 319: 298: 293: 283: 258: 225: 152: 56: 13197: 11229: 10428: 9487: 8645: 8155: 7960: 7944: 7859: 7083:

European Treaties Bearing on the History of the United States and Its Dependencies

6982:, p. 299, in the Separata from the Revista da Universidade de Coimbra, vol. XXXIV. 6524: 6505: 4751: 2845: 2620: 2446: 2348:

Defying the opposition of Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar, the governor of Hispaniola,

1592: 15246: 15221: 15009: 14992: 14837: 14738: 14706: 14579: 14547: 14530: 14486: 14481: 14459: 14454: 14412: 14405: 14380: 14240: 14235: 14076: 13957: 13851: 13846: 13814: 13639: 13629: 13523: 13516: 13511: 13496: 13452: 13334: 13320: 13262:

Law of coartación (which allowed slaves to buy their freedom, and that of others)

13012: 12952: 12866: 12774: 12648: 12628: 12593: 12375: 12345: 12284: 11894: 11884: 11780: 11665: 11557: 11514: 11274: 11182: 11053: 9911: 9882:

Church and State in Latin America: A History of Politico-Ecclesiastical Relations

9782: 9761: 9672: 9630: 9618: 9559: 9538: 9498: 9365: 9316: 9175: 9109: 9068: 8751:"The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 7~ from 1905 to 1940 (0521225051, 1986)" 8732: 8617: 8239: 8000: 7224: 7192: 7181: 7146: 7060: 7012: 6979: 6956: 6945: 6884: 6860:

to use the Canary Islands as an "exchange coin" in the peace treaty of Alcáçovas.

6853: 6832: 6801: 5960:

Inventário do Património Imóvel dos Açores Breve esboço sobre a História da Praia

5926: 5922: 5226: 5053: 5021: 5006: 4981: 4815: 4424: 4311: 4273: 4265: 4053: 3912: 3811: 3729:. In 1741, the Spanish repulsed a British attack on this fortress in present-day 3629: 3582: 3539: 3494: 3385: 3359: 3230: 2734: 2593: 2462: 2363: 2276: 2029: 1972: 1698: 1578: 1352: 1231: 1188: 1133: 487: 422: 349: 278: 268: 204: 14160: 12921: 8744:

William Gervase Clarence-Smith, 1986 "Spanish Equatorial Guinea, 1898–1940", in

8373:(in Spanish) (2nd. ed.). Bogotá: Instituto Colombiano de Cultura Hispánica. 8333:

Dos científicos de la Ilustración hispanoamericana: J.A. Alzate y F.J. de Caldas

6413: 5343:

coming together in the varied forms evident today in the former colonial areas.

4769:(now Bioko), adjacent islets, and commercial rights to the mainland between the 4541:

led forces that won independence between 1811 and 1826 for the area that became

4033:

of the Duchy of Milan in northern Italy since 1741, but faced the opposition of

3320:, and from there the primary Asian destination for silver from the Americas was 2919:

Excluding other European powers from the possessions it claimed in the New World

15196: 15186: 15181: 15176: 15146: 15061: 15004: 14897: 14860: 14676: 14639: 14614: 14597: 14508: 14493: 14464: 14422: 14270: 14230: 14225: 14180: 14106: 14066: 14056: 14046: 13861: 13740: 13634: 13501: 13383: 12856: 12769: 12653: 12405: 12228: 12213: 12114: 12088: 12073: 11954: 11549: 11543: 11447: 11214: 11128: 11078: 10956: 10783:(3rd revised ed.). Princeton: Princeton, N.J., Princeton University Press. 10292:(May 1981). "Debate – The Decline of Spain: A Historical Myth". 9953:

El cuarto viaje de Cristóbal Colón y los orígenes de la provincia de Costa Rica

7991:

Kuethe, Allan J.; Andrien, Kenneth J. (May 2014). "War and Reform, 1736–1749".

7033: 6063: 5884: 5797: 5769: 5741: 5542: 5486: 5405: 5306: 5180: 5122: 5118: 5092: 5076: 5061: 5029: 5017: 4999:

plantations for which thousands of Nigerian workers were imported as laborers.

4947: 4891: 4851: 4847: 4839: 4831: 4789:, anticipating a French move on the rocks located off the North-African coast. 4782: 4720: 4706: 4698: 4682: 4676: 4499: 4483: 4260: 4251: 4014: 3955: 3783: 3519: 3474: 3458: 3355: 3259: 3247: 3120: 3096: 2970: 2875: 2751: 2746: 2711: 2660: 2652: 2553: 2435: 2418:

equipped three ships with at least 200 men at his own expense and set out from

2118: 2086: 2037: 1934: 1845: 1777: 1765: 1745: 1714: 1628: 1612: 1423: 1399: 1344: 1259: 1239: 1212: 1097: 873: 831: 755: 750: 710: 441: 430: 329: 127: 70: 11361: 9973:

Silver, Trade, and War: Spain and America in the Making of Early Modern Europe

8925: 8890: 8854: 8445: 8353: 8066: 5293:

resulted in a mixing of indigenous peoples, Europeans, and Africans that were

4229: 1878: 1211:. To end the threat of Portuguese expansion, Spain conquered Portugal and the 15352: 15292: 15091: 14762: 14649: 14444: 14417: 14390: 14368: 14346: 14113: 14096: 14081: 13925: 13878: 13866: 13792: 13684: 13558: 13553: 13528: 13410: 12420: 11270: 11187: 10996: 10814: 10198: 9890: 9863:

Malay Muslims: The History and Challenge of Resurgent Islam in Southeast Asia

9792: 9238: 9216: 8933: 8898: 8371:

José Celestino Mutis y la real expedición botánica del Nuevo Reyno de Granada

8049:

New countries capitalism, revolutions, and nations in the Americas, 1750–1870

7825: 7790: 6557: 5410: 4754:

remained Spanish territories in Africa. The latter cities were lost in 1708,

4743: 4686: 4681:

of Philippines, the last Spanish garrison in the Philippines, which had been

4514: 4430:

The first major territory Spain was to lose in the 19th century was the vast

4415: 4296: 4096: 4030: 4018: 3923: 3169: 3157: 3149: 3051: 2973:

in 1588 marked the first southern European threat to the British Isles since

2841: 2707: 2637: 2632: 2573: 2562: 2521: 2509: 2077: 1938: 1722: 1531:

client-kingdom of Granada in the south-east by exacting tributes of gold—the

1298: 1223:, a forced union between the two crowns that lasted until 1640 when Portugal 1220: 1192: 1184: 887: 684: 536: 106: 14190: 14170: 10301: 8082:"Cycles of Silver: Global Economic Unity through the Mid-Eighteenth Century" 7943:

Bakewell, Peter and Kendall W. Brown, "Mining: Colonial Spanish America" in

6592:"2 January 1492 – King Boabdil surrenders Granada to Ferdinand and Isabella" 6265: 6088: 5057: 3040:

This was well acknowledged in Spain, with writers on political economy, the

2501: 2178:

specifying the terms of exploration, conquest, and settlement in new areas.

15251: 15081: 14952: 14870: 14654: 14395: 14385: 14351: 14280: 14275: 14202: 13992: 13974: 13935: 13930: 13910: 13905: 13777: 13770: 13760: 13755: 13750: 13644: 13582: 13563: 13548: 13484: 13192: 13182: 12911: 12450: 12304: 12129: 11645: 11421: 11103: 10951: 10052:

Volunteers of the Empire: War, Identity, and Spanish Imperialism, 1855–1898

9674:

Culture and history: occasional notes on the process of Philippine becoming

9480: 7041: 6680: 6239:

The Global Spanish Empire: Five Hundred Years of Place Making and Pluralism

6204: 5765: 5556: 5473: 5302: 5146: 5139: 4992: 4977: 4871: 4843: 4835: 4447: 4209: 4208:

As Portuguese-Brazilian settlement expanded, following in the trail of the

4182: 3791: 3755: 3672: 3522:

in 1808, Napoleon ousted the Spanish Bourbon monarchy, placing his brother

3331:

traversed the coast of California and named many of its features. In 1601,

3301: 3263: 3030: 2995:

Latin American economy § Colonial era and Independence (ca. 1500–1850)

2608: 2466: 2322: 2106: 2098: 1930: 1907: 1852:

wrote that the fame of the treasures of Guinea "spread around the ports of

1815: 1729: 1667: 1574: 1364: 741: 12503: 10689:

Apogee of Empire: Spain and New Spain in the Age of Charles III, 1759–1789

9656:. Printed for Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme and Brown ... and H. Colburn ... 8384:

Rickett, Harold W. (1947). "The Royal Botanical Expedition to New Spain".

8097: 7475:(second ed.). New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 212–213. 6068:"Expansion and Contraction Patterns of Large Polities: Context for Russia" 5190:. With over 470 million native speakers today, Spanish is the second 4197:, and forts on the northeastern coast threatened by the French and Dutch. 4194: 3410: 2426:

and surrounding coastal area. Another early motive was the search for the

1387:. Later in time, other denominations such as 'Spanish Monarchy' (Spanish: 1286:

taking only small Caribbean islands and outposts, using them to engage in

15236: 15114: 15099: 15071: 14907: 14373: 14358: 14207: 13920: 13829: 13819: 13745: 13393: 13388: 12093: 11919: 11488: 11366: 10862: 9713: 8545:

A History of Newfoundland: from the English, Colonial and Foreign Records

7742: 7294: 6333:

The Spanish Empire: A Historical Encyclopedia : A Historical Encyclopedia

6247: 5749: 5585: 5491: 5218: 5111: 4988: 4770: 4664: 4335:

later became part of Mexico after its independence from Spain; after the

4104: 4085: 4073: 3818: 3680: 3174: 3167:

One practice the Spanish used to gather workers for the mines was called

3153: 3042: 2934: 2907: 2837: 2558: 2454: 2419: 2257: 2044: 1886:

Castilian fleets fought in the Atlantic Ocean, temporarily occupying the

1549: 1522: 1199:—the first circumnavigation of the Earth—laid the foundation for Spain's 144: 12083: 10657:

Restall, Matthew (2007). "The Decline and Fall of the Spanish Empire?".

10519:

Enlightenment, governance, and reform in Spain and its empire, 1759–1808

9298:

The King's Coffer: Proprietors of the Spanish Florida Treasury 1565–1702

6565: 6541: 5890:

El papel de Granada en las relaciones castellano-portuguesas (1369–1492)

5433:, Mexico in January 2014, it is one of the largest churches in Americas. 5145:

on 11 July 2002 by Moroccan Gendarmerie and troops, who were evicted by

5002: 4863: 4595: 3489:. The treaty also granted British merchants the exclusive right to sell 3196: 2867:

Undermining the power of France and containing it in its eastern borders

1355:

joined the economic and military power of Iberia under one dynasty, the

14999: 14400: 14217: 14091: 14051: 13984: 12957: 11691: 10971: 10670: 10612: 10470: 8416:

Spanish Scientists in the New World: The Eighteenth-Century Expeditions

7833: 7367:

La formación de espacios regionales en la integración de América Latina

6096: 5761: 5445: 4996: 4859: 4562: 4348: 4340: 4095:

During most of the 18th century, Spanish privateers, particularly from

3888:

to bolster claims to territory, lengthy transatlantic and transpacific

3872:

The Spanish crown funded a number of important scientific expeditions:

3779: 3606: 3602: 3321: 2929: 2902:

Spreading (Catholic) Christianity to the unconverted indigenous of the

2668: 2625: 2549: 2497: 2489: 2284: 2210: 2198: 2183: 2081: 1887: 1857: 1773: 1553: 1287: 214: 119: 8941: 8298: 8174:, 2nd edition. New York: Cambridge University Press 1992, pp. 204–205. 7721: 6292: 5400: 4489:

The wars of independence in Spanish America were triggered by another

4268:

had expanded into North America from the mid-eighteenth century, with

3970:

by defeating a British combined army and navy force, although Spain's

3930:(1741). Spain defeated a British fleet and inflicted heavy casualties. 3598: 2317: 15046: 14290: 14061: 13945: 13915: 13696: 13570: 13361: 11924: 11681: 11581: 11356: 11258: 11192: 10129:

The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II

10090:

The Cambridge illustrated atlas of warfare: Renaissance to revolution

9408:

Empires of the Atlantic World: Britain and Spain in America 1492–1830

8081: 7899: 7515: 6804:, vol. III (in Portuguese), Imprensa Nacional-Casa da Moeda, p. 551, 5510: 5332: 5328: 4819: 4746:

ended. The formal allegiance of Ceuta to Spain was recognized by the

4542: 4510: 4403: 4069: 4010: 3835: 3775: 3767: 3478: 3442: 3351: 3282: 3251: 3137: 2913: 2903: 2656: 2481: 2280: 2154: 2008: 1989: 1853: 1632: 1450: 1438: 1301:, among the legacies of its relationship with Iberia, Spanish is the 1230:

The structure of governance of its overseas empire was significantly

1208: 390: 14775: 10462: 9884:(revised ed.). Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. 7817: 7471:

Collier, Simon (1992). "The non-Spanish Caribbean Islands to 1815".

5849:

and took the whole city except the citadel, but with the arrival of

4877: 4774: 4397: 4120: 3335:

mapped the coastline in detail and gave new names to many features.

3242:

In 1525, King Charles I of Spain ordered an expedition led by friar

2607:

Indians, Cárdenas and his men became the first outsiders to see the

2093: 2012:

Castile and Portugal divided the world in The Treaty of Tordesillas.

1335:

With the marriage of the heirs apparent to their respective thrones

15256: 15051: 13691: 13474: 13432: 13371: 12098: 10976: 10678:

Schmidt-Nowara, Christopher; Nieto Phillips, John M., eds. (2005).

10311:

Spain, Europe and the Atlantic: Essays in Honour of John H. Elliott

8290: 6683:

Middle East and Africa: International Dictionary of Historic Places

5781: 5777: 5385: 5381: 5323:

coin, depicting the two hemispheres which hosted the Spanish Empire

5271: 5254: 5067: 5041: 4899: 4546: 4522: 4479: 4376: 4368: 4364: 4100: 3730: 3590: 3586: 3340: 3313: 3072: 3068: 3055:

From 1715 to 1759, a third of Spanish ship production was from the

3037:

monarchs would later attempt to reverse in the eighteenth century.

3007: 2941:). The Habsburg dynasty spent the Castilian and American riches in 2885: 2849: 2682: 2505: 2292: 2230: 1956: 1840:

The Portuguese tried in vain to keep secret their discovery of the

1823: 1819: 1803: 1795: 1145: 566: 10758:

The Slave Trade; The History of the Atlantic Slave Trade 1440–1870

6199:. Nashville, Tenn.: Vanderbilt University Press. pp. xi–xvi. 4438:. The French, under Napoleon, took back possession as part of the 3668: 2229:

and became a stone-built, permanent city. Non-Castilians, such as

1860:

islands were exchanged for gold, slaves, ivory and Guinea pepper.

1682:

in 1503. In these battles, which established the supremacy of the

1271: 15126: 14937: 13604: 13533: 13489: 13344: 13256: 13227: 11737: 11722: 10879: 9339:

Moctezuma's Children: Aztec Royalty under Spanish Rule, 1520–1700

8668:

Latin America's Wars Volume I: The Age of the Caudillo, 1791–1899

8124: 7479: 6743:

La Teocracia Pontifical en las controversias sobre el Nuevo Mundo

6010: 5954:

This attack happened during the Castilian war of Succession. See

5793: 5789: 5785: 5279: 5084: 5025: 4960: 4911: 4811: 4660: 4628: 4623:

Uprisings in Cuba and the Philippine Islands culminated with the

4558: 4550: 4526: 4380: 4360: 4081: 4077: 4026: 3823: 3664: 3594: 3482: 3376:

Spain expanded its Pacific empire in 1668 when Jesuit missionary

3309: 3271: 3267: 3254:), thus crossing first the Atlantic and then the Pacific oceans. 3190: 3186: 3064: 2733:

sent another expedition in 1648 to explore, conquer and colonize

2676: 2581: 2529: 2493: 2423: 2406: 2056: 1922: 1868: 1623:. On the Atlantic coast, Spain took possession of the outpost of 1616: 1584: 1415: 1267: 1200: 1157: 1083: 385: 339: 13405: 8501:

Measuring the New World: Enlightenment Science and South America

7306: 7249: 7237: 6195:

Echávez-Solano, Nelsy; Dworkin y Méndez, Kenya C., eds. (2007).

4470: 1760: 13437: 13312: 12193: 11747: 11742: 11519: 10844: 10680:

Interpreting Spanish Colonialism: Empires, Nations, and Legends

9277:

A Palace for a King. The Buen Retiro and the Court of Philip IV

8831:

quoted in Simon Collier, "The Spanish Conquests, 1492–1580" in

8726:

Dictionary of Battles and Sieges: A Guide to 8,500 Battles 2007

6387:

2nd edition. New York: Cambridge University Press 1992, p. 218.

5312: 5209:

An important cultural legacy of the Spanish empire overseas is

5033: 4566: 4372: 4356: 4217: 4029:

on the inhabitants. In Europe, Spain had been trying to divest

3676: 3344: 3317: 3297: 3088: 3080: 2585: 2288: 1952: 1899: 1898:

in 1476 (but retaken by the Portuguese), and even attacked the

1683: 1608: 1533: 1419: 1149: 1144:. It achieved a global scale, controlling vast portions of the 745: 209: 9428:

The Count-Duke of Olivares: the statesman in an age of decline

9198:

Empires in World History: Power and the Politics of Difference

7503: 7491: 6414:"Los conceptos de España durante los reinados de los Austrias" 6194: 5171:

Universities founded in Spanish America by the Spanish Empire.

3177:, but instead existed alongside free wage labor, slavery, and 2149: 1966: 1312: 14071: 13234: 11508: 11172: 9177:

La América española y la América portuguesa: siglos XVI–XVIII

9111:

Don Diego Colón, almirante, virrey y gobernador de las Indias

8833:

The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Latin America and the Caribbean

8573:"Corsairs of Santo Domingo a socio-economic study, 1718–1779" 8172:

The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Latin America and the Caribbean

7473:

The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Latin America and the Caribbean

6416:[The Concepts of Spain during the Habsburg's reigns] 6385:

The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Latin America and the Caribbean

5897:(in Spanish), Serie III, Historia Medieval, tome 17, p. 350: 5745: 5294: 5282:, and fashion, some of which have been granted the status of 4972:, rebelled against the republican government and started the 4766: 4735: 4581: 4518: 4450:(1810) and in the remainder of Louisiana at the mouth of the 4344: 3713:, both in part reactions to tighter, more efficient control. 3274:, and laid the foundations for the Christian religion there. 2871: 2485: 2458: 2214: 2052: 1891: 1604: 1539: 1527: 1446: 1411: 195:

The Spanish Empire during the second half of the 18th century

10677: 9601:

The End of Iberian Rule on the American Continent, 1770–1830

9004:"El reloj más antiguo del mundo – 30 Maravillas de Honduras" 8170:

Fisher, John R. "The Spanish American empire, 1580–1808" in

7868: 5388:

Arab palace to the Spanish colonies during the 17th century.

3896:

in 1804 to vaccinate colonial populations against smallpox.

3830: 2603:

to lead a small contingent to find it. With the guidance of

1925:, Azores and Cape Verde islands ." The treaty delimited the 1136:

that existed between 1492 and 1976. In conjunction with the

11577: 11492: 10484:

The Rise of the Spanish Empire in the Old World and the New

8241:

Alexander von Humboldt, un explorador científico en América

8221: 8219: 7840: 7139:

Christianity in Latin America: Revised and Expanded Edition

5080: 4946:. In 1926, Bioko and Rio Muni were united as the colony of 4668: 4554: 4534: 4352: 3381: 3084: 2604: 2265: 2202: 1848:, but the news quickly caused a huge gold rush. Chronicler 1600: 1153: 1056:

United States Military Government of the Philippine Islands

13281: 11470: 10790:

History of the World, Part II: The last five hundred years

9629: 9077: 8597: 7300: 6703: 5024:

to the new nation, but retained control of Sidi Ifni, the

4742:

since 1415, chose to retain their links to Spain once the

4246: 4216:

have left a significant influence on the formation of the

4103:, with Dutch, British, French and Danish vessels as their 2059:(Japan) by sailing west. Castile was already engaged in a 10132:. Berkeley, Calif. : University of California Press. 9078:

Altman, Ida; Cline, Sarah; Javier Pescador, Juan (2003).

7659:

A History of the Global Economy. From 1500 to the Present

7053:

Antropología en Castilla y León e iberoamérica: Fronteras

5163:

Analysis of Western European colonialism and colonization

4235: 3639:

In 1717–18, the structures for governing the Indies, the

3437:(11 April 1713) ending the war, the French prince of the 2237:, were often prohibited from migrating to the New World. 1635:

garrisons to extend their rule into the central Maghrib.

367:

and other various indigenous and non-indigenous languages

30:

For the use of the imperial title in medieval Spain, see

10739:

Rivers of Gold: The Rise of the Spanish Empire 1490–1522

8216: 7466: 7464: 7217:

The original Australians: Story of the Aboriginal people

7015:(in Spanish), Ediciones Universidad del Bio-Bio, p. 88, 6486: 6474: 6462: 4001:

In 1742, the War of Jenkins' Ear merged with the larger

3258:

sailed to the Philippines in 1542–43. From 1546 to 1547

2373:

The Aztecs defeated the Spanish-Tlaxcalan forces at the

1929:

of the two countries, establishing the principle of the

1525:

era, the Castilian monarchy tolerated the small Moorish

10109:

Portuguese Trade in Asia Under the Habsburgs, 1580–1640

9578: 8483:

Science in the Spanish and Portuguese Empires, 1500–800

7627: 7625: 7588: 7586: 7584: 7571: 7569: 6452: 6450: 6399:

Iberia and the Americas: culture, politics, and history

4906:, a former officer for the Spanish administration. The 4457: 3892:

was for scientific purposes. The crown also funded the

1441:

in 1493, Portugal and Castile divided the world by the

10509:

Historical Dictionary of the Spanish Empire, 1402–1975

9540:

El sello y registro de Indias: imagen y representación

9363: 7922: 7880: 7521: 7325:

Diffie, Bailey Wallys; Winius, George Davison (1977).

6715: 6143:

Schneider, Reinhold, 'El Rey de Dios', Belacqva (2002)

4493:

to seize Spanish American territory, this time in the

4454:, led to their eventual cession to the United States. 3746:

against a British expedition in the Caribbean port of

2686:

Fort Matanzas. It was built by the Spanish to protect

2225:

was founded in 1496 by Christopher Columbus's brother

2109:, a compromise was worked out and incorporated in the 1414:(1415) and then by colonizing the Atlantic islands of 11225:

Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, northernmost France

10815:

Library of Iberian Resources Online, Stanley G Payne

9561:

Estudios sobre la historia colonial de hispanoamérica

8777:"La derrota más amarga del Ejército español – ABC.es" 8399:

La Real Expedición Botánica a Nueva España, 1787–1800

7461: 5616:

List of countries that gained independence from Spain

4607:

in Cuba, 1898. Around 300,000 Cubans died during the

4529:(1815, but subsequently ruled by Brazil until 1828). 2075:. Spain's claim to these lands was solidified by the 9082:. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson. pp. 321–322. 8835:. New York: Cambridge University Press 1992, p. 194. 7993:

The Spanish Atlantic World in the Eighteenth Century

7622: 7610: 7598: 7581: 7566: 6840:"so that with them King Ferdinand crush its enemies" 6736:"La Santa Sede ante las empresas marítimas ibéricas" 6681:

Trudy Ring, Noelle Watson, Paul Schellinger (2014).

6519: 6517: 6447: 5532: 4916:

We are at the most acute period of Spanish decadence

4692: 3754:

With a Bourbon monarchy came a repertory of Bourbon

3312:

travelled across the Pacific Ocean annually between

2740: 2138: 472:

1820–1823, 1833–1873, 1874–1923, 1930–1931 1975–1976

9635:(in Spanish). Vol. 10. Ediciones Rialp. 1992. 8204: 6891:). From the Biblioteca Virtual Miguel de Cervantes. 6236:Beaule, Christine; Douglass, John G., eds. (2020). 4954:. In 1934, during the government of Prime Minister 4785:. In 1848, Spanish troops occupied the uninhabited 4533:campaigned for independence in Chile (1818) and in 4414:'s recommendation to turn the empire into a looser 3716: 3601:, and the French in Saint Domingue (Haiti) (1697), 3395: 3246:to go to Asia by the western route to colonize the 1674:took over Naples after defeating the French at the 10876:contains primary materials on Spanish colonialism. 10776: 10635: 10427: 10263: 10250: 10237: 10176: 9717: 9489:Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture 9446: 9405: 9274: 9242: 9149: 8746:The Cambridge History of Africa: From 1905 to 1940 8680: 8647:Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture 8468: 8157:Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture 8136: 8079: 7962:Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture 7946:Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture 7861:Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture 7269: 6526:Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture 6507:Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture 6009:), composed of 2,000 allied Indians, 900 Mamluks ( 2209:and Puerto Rico. Columbus established the fort of 2016:Seven months before the treaty of Alcaçovas, King 1638: 1363:, completed in 1492, for which Valencia-born Pope 10714: 10348:Empire: How Spain Became a World Power, 1493–1763 9720:Empire: How Spain Became a World Power, 1492–1763 9500:La utopía de América: teoría, leyes, experimentos 9496: 9245:Miners and Merchants in Bourbon Mexico, 1763–1810 8665: 8644:Salvucci, Linda K. "Adams–Onís Treaty (1819)" in 7939: 7937: 7770: 7722:Kenneth L. Sokoloff; Stanley L. Engerman (2000). 7312: 7255: 6913:(3). London: Society for Nautical Research: 184. 6733: 6514: 6166:(2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. 6124: 3417:(r. 1700–1746), the first Spanish monarch of the 15350: 10448: 9984:(in Spanish) (1st ed.). Barcelona: Áltera. 9799: 9585:, vol. 5, Asia Publishing Company Limited, 9273:Brown, Jonathan; Elliott, John Huxtable (1980). 9201:. Princeton University Press. pp. 120–121. 8183: 7509: 7497: 7485: 7370:. Pontificia Universidad Javeriana. p. 56. 6779:, vol. I (in Spanish), Madrid, pp. 278–279. 6361: 6310: 4442:in 1800 and sold it to the United States in the 3907: 3237: 2729:between 1540 and 1542. The viceroy of New Spain 1495:History of the territorial organization of Spain 11769: 10792:(third ed.). New York: Hamlyn Publishing. 10155: 10050:Padilla Angulo, Fernando J. (12 January 2023). 9913:La proyección europea de la monarquía hispánica 9070:Philippine History: Political, Social, Economic 8738: 8517:"4 More of the Stupidest Wars in World History" 8498: 8330: 8148: 7706: 7686: 7328:Foundations of the Portuguese Empire, 1415–1580 6229: 6058: 6056: 3874:Botanical Expedition to the Viceroyalty of Peru 3659:, which governed investments in the cumbersome 2469:and eventually reached Florida in August 1525. 2306: 1713:against France, seeing a chance at taking both 1517:(Boabdil) surrenders to Ferdinand and Isabella. 1290:trade with the Spanish populace in the Indies. 1014:United States Military Government of Porto Rico 10824:The Mestizo-Mexicano-Indian History in the USA 10682:. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. 10203:Crown and Clergy in Colonial Mexico, 1759–1821 10049: 9582:Kasaysayan: The History of the Filipino People 9300:. Gainesville: University Presses of Florida. 9266:Civilization and Capitalism, 15th–18th century 9107: 8962:: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of August 2024 ( 8368: 7934: 7402: 7331:. University of Minnesota Press. p. 173. 7272:Spain and Portugal in the New World, 1492–1700 6331:. In Tarver, H. Micheal; Slape, Emily (eds.). 6235: 6188: 6127:España y los españoles en los tiempos modernos 4922:against the Moroccans. In September 1925, the 4850:, too, and even try to press a claim over the 4726:By the end of the 17th century, only Melilla, 1882:Iberian 'mare clausum' in the Age of Discovery 1871:in 1475—the ancestor of the future and famous 733:13,700,000 km (5,300,000 sq mi) 15369:States and territories disestablished in 1976 14791: 13297: 11414:, a northernmost portion of Brazilian Amazon) 10895: 10687:Stein, Stanley J.; Stein, Barbara H. (2003). 10595:The General Crisis of the Seventeenth Century 9971:Stein, Stanley J.; Stein, Barbara H. (2000). 9949: 9780: 9387:The Spain of the Catholic Monarchs, 1474–1520 9314: 9194: 8080:Owen Flynn, Dennis; Giraldez, Arturo (2002). 7990: 7980:. Princeton University Press. pp. 57–90. 7363: 7243: 5274:. The cultural legacy is also present in the 5130: 5046: 4918:". After the disaster of Annual, Spain began 4013:captured British merchant shipping along the 3684: 3651: 3641: 2822: 2442:and a short distance into the river's delta. 2434:, the first documented European to reach the 2392: 2047:. The Catholic Monarchs then negotiated with 1571:European enclaves in North Africa before 1830 1538:In so doing, they ensured that gold from the 142: 48: 14754:"Empire" as a description of foreign policy 11089:Independence of Spanish continental Americas 10774: 10619:. Berkeley: University of California Press. 10434:. Berkeley: University of California Press. 10361:Lach, Donald F.; Van Kley, Edwin J. (1994). 10360: 10309:Kagan, Richard L.; Parker, Geoffrey (1995). 9649: 9272: 8978:"Dissemination of Hispanic-American coinage" 8225: 8046: 7324: 6695:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 6329:and the Empire Upon Which the Sun Never Set" 6053: 5945:(in Portuguese), Book VI, Chapter VI, p. 257 5856:. See Ladero Quesada, Miguel Ángel (2000), " 5295:classified by race and hierarchically ranked 4980:presence in Tangier was overcome by that of 4619:Spanish garrison marching in the Philippines 4386: 4314:attempted to negotiate a treaty between the 4286:Spanish expeditions to the Pacific Northwest 4242:Spanish expeditions to the Pacific Northwest 3886:Spanish expeditions to the Pacific Northwest 3021:The Spanish Empire benefited from favorable 2816:As a result of the marriage politics of the 2360:Massacre in the Great Temple of Tenochtitlan 1564: 10405:The Spanish American Revolutions, 1808–1826 10308: 9909: 9698:(third ed.). London: Pearson Longman. 9536: 9370:(in Spanish). El Colegio de Michoacán A.C. 8876: 8674: 8661: 8659: 8657: 8187:La Guerra de Sucesión de España (1700–1714) 8092:(2). University of Hawai'i Press: 391–427. 7661:. Cambridge University Press. p. 159. 7656: 6887:(in Spanish), chapters LXXVI and LXXXVIII ( 6397:Bethany, Aram (2006). "Monarchs of Spain". 6316: 5846:... In August, the Duke besieged Ceuta 4976:(1936–39). During the Second World War the 4631:destroyed the Spanish Pacific fleet at the 4149:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 3997:of British forts with a multinational army. 3958:efforts to capture the strategic cities of 3858:Political Essay on the Kingdom of New Spain 2988: 2969:. The attempted invasion of England by the 2860:, at the abdication of the former in 1556. 2702:in Florida. Subsequently, they launched an 2401:Approximate reconstruction of the route of 1967:New World voyages and Treaty of Tordesillas 1814:between 1478 and 1496, when the islands of 1619:was forced to pay tribute to Castile until 1313:Catholic Monarchs and origins of the empire 117: 62: 15364:States and territories established in 1492 14798: 14784: 13304: 13290: 10902: 10888: 10686: 10497:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 10425: 10417:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 10394:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 10280:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 10266:The Eighteenth-Century Revolution in Spain 10224:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 10183:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 9970: 9852:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 9650:von Humboldt, Alexander (1 January 1811). 9491:. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. 1996. 8418:. Seattle: University of Washington Press. 8154:Kuethe, Allan J. "The Bourbon Reforms" in 7959:Fisher, John R. "Fleet System (Flota)" in 7874: 7846: 7803: 7086:, The Lawbook Exchange, Ltd., p. 49, 5601:Historiography of Colonial Spanish America 5309:became the world's first global currency. 4886: Spanish territories in Africa (1914) 4830:of 1884: Spain administered Sidi Ifni and 4734:(which had been taken again in 1564), and 3628:(1728), and the most successful ones, the 3429:, the crown of Spain was contested in the 1798:people, began in 1402 during the reign of 1437:in 1492 and first major settlement in the 189: 15399:1492 establishments in the Spanish Empire 13208:Colonial universities in Hispanic America 10870:The Kraus Collection of Sir Francis Drake 10700:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 10695: 10578:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 10559:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 9759: 9603:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 9543:(in Spanish). Böhlau Verlag Köln Weimar. 9223:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 9195:Burbank, Jane; Cooper, Frederick (2010). 9170: 8480: 8422: 8413: 8396: 8042: 8040: 7900:"Old Havana and its Fortification System" 7682: 7680: 7678: 7533: 7267: 7079: 6504:Dutra, Francis A. "Portuguese Empire" in 6062: 5245:, and national saints' days, such as the 5128:Morocco still claims Ceuta, Melilla, and 4228:. This settlement sowed the seeds of the 4169:Learn how and when to remove this message 4110: 4060:to British forces towards the end of the 3878:Royal Botanical Expedition to New Granada 3831:Scientific investigations and expeditions 1000:United States Military Government in Cuba 13213:Colonial universities in the Philippines 10845:Francisco José Calderón Vázquez (2008), 10638:Spain: The Rise of the First World Power 10516: 10477: 10106: 10068: 9979: 9930: 9813:. New York: Cambridge University Press. 9517: 9295: 8809:(in European Spanish). 12 January 2014. 8654: 8615: 8492:Ciencia, vida, y espacio en Iberoamérica 8313: 7715: 7702: 7700: 7698: 6900: 6523:Burkholder, Mark A. "Spanish Empire" in 5621:List of oldest buildings in the Americas 5576:Society in the Spanish Colonial Americas 5311: 5166: 5066: 5001: 4929: 4876: 4791: 4714: 4614: 4594: 4469: 4461: 4396: 4245: 4199: 3976: 3922: 3911: 3834: 3720: 3543: 3409: 3354:(Kyushu) of a group of Jesuits with St. 3296:The Spanish settled and took control of 3195: 3114: 3050: 3012: 2998: 2750: 2681: 2548:, and an enslaved Moroccan Berber named 2396: 2339: 2327: 2316: 2239: 2148: 2092: 2007: 1999: 1980: 1877: 1829: 1759: 1709:in 1508. In 1511, he became part of the 1642: 1503: 1322: 1219:, resulting in the establishment of the 1203:empire and for Spanish control over the 14578: 12204:Free Company of Volunteers of Catalonia 10656: 10517:Paquette, Gabriel B (17 January 2008). 10197: 10174: 10125: 9738: 9670: 9598: 9564:(in Spanish). Editorial Universitaria. 9557: 9467: 9444: 9425: 9416: 9403: 9384: 9364:Diego-Fernández Sotelo, Rafael (1987). 9335: 9268:. Vol. 3 volumes. London: Collins. 9263: 9237: 9215: 9093:. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska. 8911: 8849:, De Gruyter Mouton, pp. 271–288, 8689: 8503:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 8427:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 8383: 8339: 8318:. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. 8276: 8190:. Editorial Critica. pp. 239–241. 8130: 7886: 7806:The Hispanic American Historical Review 7644: 7470: 7406:Presencia de España en Orán (1509–1792) 7040:onwards, the Atlantic Ocean would be a 6721: 6709: 6401:. Santa Barbara: ABC Clio. p. 725. 6396: 6322: 5480:showing the ethnic differences between 5060:(in the south) to form the province of 4339:, Mexico ceded to the U.S. present-day 4204:Spanish and Portuguese empires in 1790. 3882:Royal Botanical Expedition to New Spain 3790:still an economic backwater. Under the 3384:. San Vitores was killed by the native 3017:Main trade routes of the Spanish Empire 1963:between both emerging maritime powers. 1890:islands (1476), conquering the city of 1717:—to which he held a dynastic claim—and 1670:beginning in 1494. Ferdinand's general 1375:The term 'Catholic Monarchy' (Spanish: 902:United Provinces of the Río de la Plata 14: 15351: 13157: 10787: 10755: 10733: 10691:. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University. 10633: 10592: 10573: 10554: 10535: 10288: 10257:. Stanford: Stanford University Press. 10248: 10232: 10209: 9998: 9975:. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University. 9888: 9879: 9860: 9787:(in Spanish). Editorial Andrés Bello. 9695:Spain 1469–1714. A Society of Conflict 9617: 9147: 9128: 9087:Archer, Christon; et al. (2002). 9086: 8707:from the original on 16 September 2018 8541: 8485:. Stanford: Stanford University Press. 8476:. Stanford: Stanford University Press. 8431: 8237: 8037: 7975: 7675: 7631: 7616: 7604: 7592: 7575: 7447:. Ediciones Rialp. 1981. p. 644. 7121: 6303:sfnm error: no target: CITEREFGibson ( 6161: 5091:In 1959, the Spanish territory on the 5020:became independent, Spain surrendered 4896:divided between the French and Spanish 4236:Rival empires in the Pacific Northwest 3262:worked in Maluku among the peoples of 2799: Territories administered by the 2790: Territories administered by the 2781: Territories administered by the 2772: Territories administered by the 2763: Territories administered by the 1166:the empire on which the sun never sets 14805: 14779: 13285: 13156: 13052: 13051: 12175: 12053: 11768: 11627: 11595: 11532: 11469: 11384: 11307: 11247: 11161: 11150: 10922: 10921: 10883: 10698:Philip IV and the Government of Spain 10611: 10540:(2nd ed.). New York: Routledge. 10521:. New York: Palgrave Macmillan 2008. 10505: 10402: 10379: 10327: 10136: 10087: 9950:Sibaja Chacón, Luis Fernando (2006). 9916:(in Spanish). Editorial Complutense. 9827: 9712: 9691: 9152:The Christopher Columbus Encyclopedia 8984:from the original on 29 December 2011 8844: 8603: 8489: 8210: 8142: 8112:from the original on 26 February 2021 7928: 7858:Andrien, Kenneth A. "Arbitristas" in 7695: 6539: 6492: 6480: 6468: 6456: 6411: 6383:. "Spanish American Independence" in 5859:Portugueses en la frontera de Granada 5649:Spanish North Africa (disambiguation) 4964:by Morocco in 1860. Two years later, 4329:Spanish American wars of independence 3528:Spanish American wars of independence 3425:With the 1700 death of the childless 3250:(known as Spice Islands, now part of 3144:The Spanish imperial economy's major 2863:The Habsburgs pursued several goals: 2299:in 1510. In 1513, Balboa crossed the 698:Spanish American wars of independence 27:Colonial empire between 1492 and 1976 15394:Spanish colonization of the Americas 11485:Captaincy General of the Philippines 10977:New Laws in favour of the indigenous 10261: 10141:. New Haven: Yale University Press. 10073:. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood. 9632:Historia general de España y América 9625:. New York: Oxford University Press. 9430:. New Haven: Yale University Press. 9281:. New Haven: Yale University Press. 9066: 8838: 8626:from the original on 14 January 2023 8585:from the original on 16 January 2017 8258:from the original on 14 January 2023 7731:The Journal of Economic Perspectives 7554:from the original on 14 January 2023 7423:from the original on 14 January 2023 7384:from the original on 14 January 2023 7345:from the original on 14 January 2023 7100:from the original on 14 January 2023 7080:Davenport, Frances Gardiner (2004), 7000:in Africa reached their fair reward. 6917:from the original on 14 January 2023 6674: 6662:from the original on 2 December 2021 6435:from the original on 7 November 2021 6349:from the original on 14 January 2023 6172:10.1093/acref/9780192807007.001.0001 5634:Captaincy General of the Philippines 4655:Military defeat was followed by the 4458:End of the global empire (1808–1899) 4147:adding citations to reliable sources 4114: 3300:in 1603 to trade spices and counter 3127:The crown established the system of 2313:Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire 2188:Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire 2073:Spanish colonization of the Americas 580:Spanish colonization of the Americas 15419:Historical transcontinental empires 15313:History of the Mediterranean region 13188:Indochristian painting in New Spain 11308: 10715:Studnicki-Gizbert, Daviken (2007). 10451:Hispanic American Historical Review 10160:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 10092:. Cambridge: Cambridge University. 9503:(in Spanish). Anthropos Editorial. 9497:Fernández Herrero, Beatriz (1992). 9421:. New Haven: Yale University Press. 9412:. New Haven: Yale University Press. 9080:The Early History of Greater Mexico 8879:Hispanic American Historical Review 7540:. Infobase Publishing. p. 84. 7444:Los Trastámara y la Unidad Española 7409:. I.T. San Ildefonso. p. 122. 6835:, Book XXXI, Chapters VIII and IX ( 6734:Castañeda Delgado, Paulino (1996). 6602:from the original on 31 August 2021 6572:from the original on 29 August 2021 6280:from the original on 30 August 2021 6041:Monarchy nominally restored in 1947 6005:An early bandeira in 1628, (led by 5596:Governor-General of the Philippines 5284:UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage 3441:, Philippe of Anjou, grandchild of 3281:was commissioned by the viceroy of 2808: Territories appointed to the 2723:Chamuscado and Rodríguez Expedition 2192:Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire 1391:) or 'Monarchy of Spain' (Spanish: 1175:Beginning with the 1492 arrival of 24: 12155:Commerce Consulate of Buenos Aires 11628: 10909: 10365:. Chicago: University of Chicago. 10158:The Golden Age of Spain, 1516–1659 10008: 9522:. Footprint Handbooks. Footprint. 9453:. New York: New American Library. 9318:Historia general de América Latina 9249:. New York: Cambridge University. 8523:from the original on 7 August 2023 8397:de Solano, Francisco, ed. (1987). 8184:Albareda Salvadó, Joaquim (2010). 7904:UNESCO World Heritage List website 6938:The expansion of Europe, 1400–1660 6745:. Universidad Autónoma de México. 6632:from the original on 16 April 2021 6622:"Constitutional Rights Foundation" 6298: 6288:– via Open Research Library. 6125:Fernández Álvarez, Manuel (1979). 5071:Map of Spain in 1960. Present-day 5044:, or in Spain, the Forgotten War ( 4934:Spanish officers in Africa in 1920 4814:paid Spain 100 million pesetas as 3533: 2592:explored the western coastline of 1933:. It was confirmed in 1481 by the 1499: 1488: 25: 15435: 11385: 11248: 11129:Independence of Equatorial Guinea 10808: 10156:Dominguez Ortiz, Antonio (1971). 9781:Lagos Carmona, Guillermo (1985). 9666:– via Biodiversity Library. 8914:Journal of Latin American Studies 8813:from the original on 12 June 2018 8783:from the original on 21 July 2017 8369:Pérez Arbeláez, Enrique (1983) . 8331:Saladino García, Alberto (1990). 7403:Sánchez Doncel, Gregorio (1991). 6426:Universidad Nacional Andrés Bello 5149:forces in a bloodless operation. 5125:but have a different tax system. 4693:Territories in Africa (1885–1976) 3683:, and at longer intervals to the 2741:The Spanish Habsburgs (1516–1700) 2273:Santa María la Antigua del Darién 2139:First settlements in the Americas 1755: 1542:region of Africa entered Europe. 1521:During the last 250 years of the 1457:) who were university graduates ( 15298:Bibliography of European history 14893:Fall of the Western Roman Empire 13240:Criollos in the colonial society 13168:Spanish missions in the Americas 12290:Charles Bonaventure de Longueval 10819:vol 1 Ch 13 "The Spanish Empire" 10350:. New York: HarperCollins 2003. 10069:Anderson, James Maxwell (2000). 9471:(1961). "The Decline of Spain". 9043:from the original on 4 June 2023 9022: 9010:from the original on 1 July 2022 8996: 8970: 8905: 8870: 8825: 8795: 8769: 8719: 8638: 8609: 8565: 8535: 8509: 8481:Bleichmar, Daniela, ed. (2008). 8462: 8407: 8377: 8362: 8324: 8316:The Ibero-American Enlightenment 8270: 7910:from the original on 5 June 2020 7276:. U of Minnesota Press. p. 7174:General History of the Caribbean 7136:, in Prien, Hans-Jürgen (2012), 7050:In Espina Barrio, Angel (2001), 6106:from the original on 7 July 2020 5999: 5549: 5535: 5499: 5465: 5438: 5422: 5393: 5369: 5353: 4119: 4084:) and the British naval base in 4035:Charles Emmanuel III of Sardinia 3863:José Antonio de Alzate y Ramírez 3805:he says that the Amerindians of 3717:18th-century economic conditions 3396:The Spanish Bourbons (1700–1808) 2951:War of the Portuguese Succession 2445:In the year 1524 the Portuguese 2332:Artist's conception of what the 1234:in the late 18th century by the 1217:War of the Portuguese Succession 1197:Magellan-Elcano circumnavigation 1102: 1088: 1074: 1060: 1046: 1032: 1018: 1004: 990: 976: 962: 948: 934: 920: 906: 892: 878: 864: 850: 836: 822: 808: 783: 160: 94: 87: 15409:1976 disestablishments in Spain 15384:History of European colonialism 15323:History of Western civilization 14926:Christianity in the Middle Ages 13267:Great Potosí Mint Fraud of 1649 11151: 10817:A History of Spain and Portugal 10642:. University of Alabama Press. 9763:The Basque history of the world 9537:Gómez Gómez, Margarita (2008). 9059: 8616:Blackmar, Frank Wilson (1891). 8548:. Heritage Books. p. 311. 8238:Janota, Tom (9 February 2015). 8231: 8177: 8164: 8073: 7984: 7969: 7953: 7892: 7852: 7797: 7764: 7650: 7637: 7527: 7435: 7396: 7357: 7318: 7301:Historia general de España 1992 7261: 7205: 7159: 7127: 7111: 7073: 7025: 6985: 6963: 6894: 6865: 6814: 6782: 6766: 6727: 6644: 6614: 6584: 6533: 6498: 6405: 6390: 6374: 6155: 6146: 6076:International Studies Quarterly 5982: 5965: 5948: 5917:A Castilian fleet attacked the 5911: 5907:he decided to withdraw ... 5877: 5866:, vol. 23 (in Spanish), p. 98, 5839: 4882: 4874:which they initially claimed. 4711:Spanish protectorate in Morocco 3890:Malaspina-Bustamante Expedition 3725:San Felipe de Barajas Fortress 3624:(1714), a Caracas company; the 2244:Spanish colonial swords in the 2145:Voyages of Christopher Columbus 2028:, inherited the thrones of the 1865:War of the Castilian Succession 1639:Navarre and struggles for Italy 1124:, sometimes referred to as the 466:1700–1820, 1823–1833, 1923–1930 15167:Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth 15110:Christianity in the modern era 14881:Christianity in late antiquity 11596: 11319:Captaincy General of Guatemala 11027:Franco-Spanish War (1635–1659) 10659:The William and Mary Quarterly 10332:. New Haven: Yale University. 10313:. Cambridge University Press. 9419:Spain and Its World, 1500–1700 9315:Carrera Damas, Germán (1999). 8622:. Hopkins Press. p. 335. 8499:Franklin Safier, Neil (2008). 8490:Peset, José Luis, ed. (1989). 8414:Engstrand, Iris H. W. (1981). 8342:Colonial Latin American Review 8314:Aldridge, Alfred Owen (1971). 7534:Kozlowski, Darrell J. (2010). 6777:Crónica de los Reyes Católicos 6137: 6118: 6044: 6035: 5827: 5815: 5803: 5734: 5272:cultural and linguistic legacy 4048:Spain was defeated during the 4043:Parma, Piacenza, and Guastalla 4003:War of the Austrian Succession 3853:Spanish American Enlightenment 2405:on his voyage of discovery of 2032:. The two became known as the 1792:conquest of the Canary Islands 311:(until the early 17th century) 13: 1: 15318:History of the European Union 13218:General Archive of the Indies 12479:Francisco Vázquez de Coronado 12150:Camino Real de Tierra Adentro 12135:Guipuzcoan Company of Caracas 11084:Third Treaty of San Ildefonso 11037:War of the Spanish Succession 11002:Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604) 10741:. Weidenfeld & Nicolson. 10426:MacLachlan, Colin M. (1988). 10253:The Aztecs Under Spanish Rule 9623:The Spanish Empire in America 9367:Las capitulaciones colombinas 9131:Rough guide to Southeast Asia 9108:Arranz Márquez, Luis (1982). 8434:Colonial Latin America Review 7364:Vieira Posada, Édgar (2008). 7002:In Donat, Luis Rojas (2002), 6794:Os Descobrimentos Portugueses 6164:A Dictionary of World History 6050:Government proclaimed in 1936 5722: 5671:Spanish Viceroys of Catalonia 5566:Spanish Colonial architecture 5514: 5204:a secondary official language 5159:Spanish colonial architecture 4920:using German chemical weapons 3928:Battle of Cartagena de Indias 3908:Contesting with other empires 3770:participation in the Spanish 3744:Battle of Cartagena de Indias 3735:Battle of Cartagena de Indias 3520:invaded the Iberian peninsula 3509:War of the Quadruple Alliance 3431:War of the Spanish Succession 3238:Pacific exploration and trade 3212:War of the Spanish Succession 2694:In 1565, the Spanish, led by 2690:, from British encroachments. 2578:Francisco Vásquez de Coronado 2546:Alonso del Castillo Maldonado 1627:(1476) with support from the 1215:from 1580 to 1582 during the 1140:, it ushered in the European 15404:1492 establishments in Spain 12176: 11290:Captaincy General of Yucatan 11220:Union with Holy Roman Empire 11199:Southern Italy (Kingdoms of 11114:German–Spanish Treaty (1899) 10788:Wright, Esmond, ed. (1984). 10779:An Economic History of Spain 10775:Vicens Vives, Jaime (1969). 10634:Ramsey, John Fraser (1973). 10363:Asia in the Making of Europe 10139:Painting in Spain: 1500–1700 10111:. Johns Hopkins University. 10039:Resources in other libraries 9910:Ruiz Martín, Felipe (1996). 9148:Bedini, Silvio, ed. (1992). 9067:Alip, Eufronio Melo (1964). 8779:(in Spanish). 15 July 2011. 8001:10.1017/cbo9781107338661.007 7775:. Johns Hopkins Univ Press. 7510:Lockhart & Schwartz 1983 7498:Lockhart & Schwartz 1983 7486:Lockhart & Schwartz 1983 7214:In Flood, Josephine (2006), 6311:Lockhart & Schwartz 1983 6162:Wright, Edmund, ed. (2015). 6028: 5740:The Catholic Church was the 5696:Spanish Viceroys of Valencia 5686:Spanish Viceroys of Sardinia 5581:Cartography of Latin America 5289:The long colonial period in 4505:colonies led to war between 4041:, Spain gained (indirectly) 3991:American War of Independence 3948:War of the Polish Succession 3402:History of Spain (1700–1810) 2307:Conquest of the Aztec Empire 2004:The return of Columbus, 1493 1672:Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba 1625:Santa Cruz de la Mar Pequeña 1307:Spanish Constitution of 1812 670:• Establishment of the 607:Conquest of the Aztec Empire 494:Democratic transition period 7: 15277:Russian invasion of Ukraine 14888:Crisis of the Third Century 13311: 12054: 11770:Administrative subdivisions 10967:War of the League of Cognac 10719:. Oxford University Press. 10617:The Spanish Seaborne Empire 10244:. New York: Harper and Row. 10107:Boyajian, James C. (2007). 9861:McAmis, Robert Day (2002). 9745:. London: William Collins. 9724:. New York: HarperCollins. 9336:Chipman, Donald E. (2005). 8980:. Encyclopædia Britannica. 8928:(inactive 27 August 2024). 8681:Micheal Clodfelter (2017). 8494:(in Spanish). Madrid: CSIC. 8423:Bleichmar, Daniela (2012). 8401:(in Spanish). Madrid: CSIC. 8335:(in Spanish). Mexico: UNAM. 7522:Diego-Fernández Sotelo 1987 7268:McAlister, Lyle N. (1984). 6323:Márquez, Carlos E. (2016). 5996:from a share of the world." 5716:Viceroys of Río de la Plata 5681:Spanish Viceroys of Navarre 5528: 5267:UNESCO World Heritage Sites 5192:most spoken native language 5087:) were still part of Spain 4732:Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera 2565:in present-day New Mexico. 2542:Andrés Dorantes de Carranza 2169:granted expansive power to 2153:Spanish territories in the 2055:sailor attempting to reach 2022:Ferdinand II of Aragon 1902:islands, being defeated at 1664:Charles VIII of France 1597:Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera 1510:The Capitulation of Granada 1367:gave them the title of the 1327:Crowns and kingdoms of the 972:Louisiana (New France) 709:• Withdrawal from the 646:Conquest of the Inca Empire 620:Magellan's circumnavigation 10: 15440: 15333:Military history of Europe 15328:Maritime history of Europe 12484:Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar 12469:Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada 12371:Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca 11533: 11269:), Western United States ( 11162: 11032:Portuguese Restoration War 9264:Braudel, Fernand (1984) . 9035:Metropolitan Museum of Art 8666:Robert L. Scheina (2003). 7771:Stein, Stanley J. (2003). 6901:Laughton, Leonard (1943). 5956:Leite, José Guilherme Reis 5691:Spanish Viceroys of Sicily 5676:Spanish Viceroys of Naples 5666:Spanish Viceroys of Aragon 5522:Metropolitan Museum of Art 5450:Hospital Escuela Eva Perón 5346: 5156: 4822:to Spain as a part of the 4696: 4650:Battle of Santiago de Cuba 4609:Cuban War for Independence 4584:, which ruled it until an 4474:The Spanish Empire in 1898 4390: 4331:. Much of the present-day 4276:and forts as far south as 4239: 4099:, were the scourge of the 4090:American Revolutionary War 4039:Treaty of Aix-la-Chappelle 3942:from the Austrians at the 3917:Spanish expedition to Oran 3782:, and a renewed growth of 3581:against the realms of the 3537: 3473:and parts of Milan to the 3399: 3350:Since the 1549 arrival to 2992: 2744: 2731:Don Diego García Sarmiento 2727:southwestern United States 2716:Massacre at Matanzas Inlet 2474:Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca 2393:North American exploration 2310: 2246:Museum of the Royal Houses 2142: 2026:Isabella I of Castile 1970: 1833: 1786:dated 6 November 1436 and 1772:Portugal obtained several 1750:Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis 1568: 1492: 1406:had an advantage over the 1316: 791:Catholic Monarchs of Spain 33:Imperator totius Hispaniae 29: 15303:Genetic history of Europe 15285: 15090: 14906: 14846: 14813: 14747: 14699: 14216: 13620: 13319: 13252:Slavery in Spanish Empire 13163: 13152: 13058: 13047: 12945: 12839: 12832: 12717: 12566: 12559: 12552: 12539:Pere d'Alberní i Teixidor 12449: 12318: 12280:Álvaro de Bazán the Elder 12242: 12186: 12182: 12171: 12140:Barcelona Trading Company 12107: 12064: 12060: 12049: 11953: 11905:New Andalusia (1501–1513) 11875: 11817: 11779: 11775: 11764: 11715: 11674: 11638: 11634: 11623: 11602: 11539: 11480: 11412:Venezuela, part of Guyana 11391: 11314: 11265:, Central United States ( 11254: 11168: 11157: 11146: 10997:Bruneian–Spanish conflict 10982:Expulsion of the Moriscos 10928: 10917: 10837:The last Spanish colonies 10696:Stradling, R. A. (1988). 10593:Parker, Geoffrey (1997). 10574:Parker, Geoffrey (1977). 10555:Parker, Geoffrey (1972). 10536:Parker, Geoffrey (1997). 10382:Spain Under the Hapsburgs 10179:The Old World and The New 10126:Braudel, Fernand (1972). 10034:Resources in your library 9931:Saunders, Graham (2002). 9895:. Boston: Little, Brown. 9889:Parker, Geoffrey (1978). 9880:Mecham, J. Lloyd (1966). 9739:Kennedy, Paul M (2017) . 9518:Frankham, Steven (2008). 8926:10.1017/S0022216X97004719 8891:10.1215/00182168-2010-003 8855:10.1515/9783110866391.271 8470:Cañizares-Esguerra, Jorge 8446:10.1080/10609160600607432 8354:10.1080/10609169408569828 8051:. Duke University Press. 7244:Burbank & Cooper 2010 7171:, in Emmer, Piet (1999), 6837:"preparation of 2 fleets" 6685:. Routledge. p. 558. 6335:. ABC-CLIO. p. 161. 5899:... In that summer, 5644:Spain in the 18th century 5639:Spain in the 17th century 5478:National Palace of Mexico 5319:side of a Spanish Peru 8 5217:, particularly targeting 5152: 4834:jointly. Spain claimed a 4590:Dominican Restoration War 4387:Loss of Spanish Louisiana 3786:mining in South America. 3685: 3634:Barcelona Trading Company 3380:established a mission on 3378:Diego Luis de San Vitores 2870:Defending Europe against 2840:), lands in Germany, the 2568:The viceroy of New Spain 2163:Capitulations of Santa Fe 2065:Capitulations of Santa Fe 1943:(dated on 21 June 1481). 1800:Henry III of Castile 1790:dated 30 April 1437. The 1565:Campaigns in North Africa 1225:regained its independence 1042:First Philippine Republic 762: 737: 729: 724: 720: 707: 694: 681: 668: 655: 642: 629: 616: 603: 590: 576: 559: 555: 547: 543: 530: 517: 513: 503: 450: 397: 384: 374: 231: 221: 200: 188: 137: 113: 84: 79: 43: 13193:Quito painting tradition 13183:Cusco painting tradition 12544:García López de Cárdenas 12534:Jerónimo Luis de Cabrera 12441:Felipe González de Ahedo 12361:Pedro Menéndez de Avilés 10938:Conquest of the Americas 10506:Olson, James S. (1992). 10249:Gibson, Charles (1964). 10205:. London: Athlone Press. 10137:Brown, Jonathan (1998). 9980:Victoria, Pablo (2005). 9830:Bourbon Spain, 1700–1808 9760:Kurlansky, Mark (1999). 9449:Imperial Spain, 14691716 9156:. Simon & Schuster. 9090:World History of Warfare 8086:Journal of World History 7707:Cathal J. Nolan (2008). 7687:Cathal J. Nolan (2006). 7223:22 November 2022 at the 7180:22 November 2022 at the 7145:22 November 2022 at the 7011:22 November 2022 at the 6944:22 November 2022 at the 6935:In Richardson, Patrick, 6852:22 November 2022 at the 6831:22 November 2022 at the 6800:22 November 2022 at the 6412:Gloël, Matthias (2018). 5727: 5362:Cathedral of Mexico City 4995:, Spain developed large 4991:system, particularly on 4320:Viceroyalty of New Spain 4316:Russian-American Company 3702:in Peru in 1780 and the 3663:, were transferred from 3487:Kingdom of Great Britain 3210:. The treaty ending the 2989:Imperial economic policy 2696:Pedro Menéndez de Avilés 2688:Saint Augustine, Florida 2601:García López de Cárdenas 2496:, and Mexican states of 2457:, sailing South through 2334:Great Pyramid of Cholula 2036:, with their marriage a 1545:When King Ferdinand and 1433:Following the voyage of 1028:Naval Government of Guam 427:House of Valois-Burgundy 107:Right: early modern flag 15414:2nd millennium in Spain 15308:History of Christianity 12978:Comuneros (New Granada) 12755:Balearic Islands (1558) 12474:Hernán Pérez de Quesada 12401:Ruy López de Villalobos 12356:Miguel López de Legazpi 12270:García de Toledo Osorio 11134:Western Sahara conflict 11124:Independence of Morocco 11064:Treaty of Madrid (1750) 11007:Piracy in the Caribbean 10992:French Wars of Religion 10597:. New York: Routledge. 10479:Merriman, Roger Bigelow 10071:The History of Portugal 9599:Hamnett, Brian (2017). 9558:Góngora, Mario (1998). 9389:. New York: Blackwell. 9129:Atiyah, Jeremy (2002). 9006:(in European Spanish). 8847:Linguistic Human Rights 7044:to the Castilians. The 6883:16 January 2022 at the 6820:The Canary's campaign: 6131:University of Salamanca 6089:10.1111/0020-8833.00053 5895:Espacio, tiempo y forma 5701:Viceroys of New Granada 5611:History of the Americas 5409:. Spain impregnate its 4952:Second Spanish Republic 4750:in 1668), and Oran and 4657:U.S. occupation of Cuba 4645:Battle of San Juan Hill 4627:of 1898. On 1 May, the 4537:(1821). Further north, 4440:Treaty of San Ildefonso 4436:Treaty of Fontainebleau 4270:fur trading settlements 3845:Friedrich Georg Weitsch 3661:Spanish treasure fleets 3445:of France, became King 3329:Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo 3279:Miguel López de Legazpi 3256:Ruy López de Villalobos 3087:, and the Philippines: 2590:Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo 2572:, for who is named the 2375:Battle of Colhuacatonco 1988:, Statue commemorating 470:Constitutional monarchy 222:Official languages 103:Left: Cross of Burgundy 15132:Grand Duchy of Tuscany 13223:Colonial Spanish Horse 12897:Colonia del Sacramento 12120:Spanish treasure fleet 11697:Royal Decree of Graces 10262:Herr, Richard (1958). 10175:Elliott, J.H. (1970). 10088:Black, Jeremy (1996). 9999:Marley, David (2008). 9784:Los títulos históricos 9671:Joaquin, Nick (1988). 9445:Elliott, J.H. (1977). 9426:Elliott, J.H. (1986). 9417:Elliott, J.H. (1989). 9404:Elliott, J.H. (2006). 9385:Edwards, John (2000). 9321:(in Spanish). UNESCO. 9296:Bushnell, Amy (1981). 8542:Prowse, D. W. (2007). 8244:. CIDCLI. p. 64. 7875:Stein & Stein 2000 7847:Stein & Stein 2000 7313:Fernández Herrero 1992 7256:Fernández Herrero 1992 6969:Waters, David (1988), 6422:Revista de Humanidades 6205:10.2307/j.ctv16755vb.3 6007:Antônio Raposo Tavares 5834: 5822: 5810: 5324: 5172: 5131: 5088: 5047: 5013: 4935: 4887: 4803: 4723: 4637:Battle of Las Guasimas 4620: 4612: 4601:reconcentration policy 4491:failed British attempt 4475: 4467: 4407: 4255: 4205: 4193:, Santa Catarina, and 4111:Contestation in Brazil 3998: 3931: 3920: 3848: 3841:Alexander von Humboldt 3799:Alexander von Humboldt 3738: 3691:, where an additional 3652: 3642: 3573: 3497:for thirty years, the 3422: 3406:Enlightenment in Spain 3388:in 1672, sparking the 3244:García Jofre de Loaísa 3202: 3132: 3124: 3060: 3018: 3010: 2898:Protestant Reformation 2823: 2813: 2691: 2655:tribesmen in Florida, 2476:was the leader of the 2410: 2345: 2337: 2336:might have looked like 2325: 2248: 2158: 2124:Ea quae pro bono pacis 2102: 2090:on 26 September 1493. 2084:dated 4 May 1493, and 2018:John II of Aragon 2013: 2005: 1997: 1883: 1769: 1655: 1518: 1332: 659:Conquest of the Muisca 476:Parliamentary monarchy 212:(1561–1601, 1606–1976) 143: 118: 63: 49: 15212:Industrial Revolution 14724:Medieval great powers 12381:Vasco Núñez de Balboa 12341:Juan Sebastián Elcano 11656:Council of the Indies 11017:Spanish–Moro conflict 10987:Ottoman–Habsburg wars 10947:Treaty of Tordesillas 10756:Thomas, Hugh (1997). 10538:The Thirty Years' War 10328:Kamen, Henry (1998). 10302:10.1093/past/91.1.170 10210:Fisher, John (1985). 9956:(in Spanish). EUNED. 9692:Kamen, Henry (2005). 8161:, vol. 1, pp. 399–401 8098:10.1353/jwh.2002.0035 8047:Tutino, John (2016). 7976:Tutino, John (2018). 7059:10 April 2023 at the 6978:10 April 2023 at the 6845:Alfonso de Palencia, 6762:on 27 September 2011. 6540:Estow, Clara (1993). 5864:En la España Medieval 5706:Viceroys of New Spain 5629:Columbian Viceroyalty 5472:Detail of a Mural by 5429:Templo del Carmen in 5315: 5170: 5070: 5005: 4933: 4880: 4795: 4718: 4673:German–Spanish Treaty 4618: 4598: 4473: 4465: 4400: 4393:Louisiana (New Spain) 4278:Fort Ross, California 4249: 4203: 4187:Francisco de Orellana 3993:. Gálvez cleared the 3980: 3926: 3915: 3838: 3724: 3597:(1655); the Dutch in 3547: 3413: 3390:Spanish-Chamorro Wars 3199: 3118: 3054: 3016: 3002: 2894:Roman Catholic Church 2884:Maintaining Habsburg 2880:Ottoman–Habsburg wars 2801:Council of the Indies 2754: 2685: 2642:Juan Bautista de Anza 2528:coast to what is now 2400: 2343: 2331: 2320: 2297:Vasco Núñez de Balboa 2243: 2175:Treaty of Tordesillas 2152: 2111:Treaty of Tordesillas 2096: 2011: 2003: 1984: 1977:Treaty of Tordesillas 1961:Treaty of Tordesillas 1881: 1830:Rivalry with Portugal 1763: 1646: 1507: 1479:Council of the Indies 1443:Treaty of Tordesillas 1326: 1164:, becoming known as " 1152:, various islands in 15267:European debt crisis 15262:European integration 15202:Age of Enlightenment 15042:Republic of Florence 14734:European colonialism 14719:Ancient great powers 13178:Mesoamerican Codices 12902:Comuneros (Paraguay) 12740:Siege of Castelnuovo 12326:Christopher Columbus 12145:Consulate of the Sea 12125:Casa de Contratación 11716:Titles and positions 11109:Spanish–American War 11099:Liberal constitution 10942:Asia and the Pacific 10831:Villa de Albuquerque 10760:. London: Papermac. 10403:Lynch, John (1983). 10380:Lynch, John (1964). 9828:Lynch, John (1989). 9481:10.1093/past/20.1.52 9180:(in Spanish). Akal. 9172:Bennassar, Bartolomé 9114:(in Spanish). CSIC. 8731:5 April 2023 at the 8606:, pp. 237, 485. 7995:. pp. 133–166. 7752:on 21 September 2020 7743:10.1257/jep.14.3.217 7657:Baten, Jörg (2016). 6907:The Mariner's Mirror 6872:Pulgar, Hernando del 6248:10.2307/j.ctv105bb41 5901:D. Enrique de Guzmán 5571:Black legend (Spain) 5431:San Luis Potosí City 5223:religious toleration 5200:Spanish–American War 4944:joint administration 4758:in 1732 and sold by 4633:Battle of Manila Bay 4625:Spanish–American War 4421:French Revolutionary 4412:Alessandro Malaspina 4337:Mexican–American War 4290:Alessandro Malaspina 4143:improve this section 4050:invasion of Portugal 3867:José Celestino Mutis 3700:Tupac Amaru uprising 3654:Casa de Contratación 3579:Nueva Planta decrees 3570:Alonso Núñez de Haro 3566:Archbishop of Mexico 2659:in Mississippi, the 2428:Seven Cities of Gold 2387:Fall of Tenochtitlan 2227:Bartholomew Columbus 2171:Christopher Columbus 2127:on 24 January 1506. 2115:Pedro Álvares Cabral 2049:Christopher Columbus 1986:Monument to Columbus 1937:, in the papal bull 1927:spheres of influence 1873:Casa de Contratación 1764:The conquest of the 1680:Battle of Garigliano 1621:Ottoman intervention 1483:Casa de Contratación 1435:Christopher Columbus 1381:universal (that is, 1295:wars of independence 1177:Christopher Columbus 930:Protectorate of Peru 916:First Mexican Empire 860:Austrian Netherlands 633:Conquest of the Maya 563:Christopher Colombus 484:1873–1874, 1931–1939 478:1823–1923, 1975–1976 15232:Revolutions of 1848 15162:Early modern France 14943:Anglo-Saxon England 14848:Classical antiquity 14729:Modern great powers 12907:Cartagena de Indias 12529:Diego de Mazariegos 12499:Pere Fages i Beleta 12366:Sebastián de Ocampo 11847:Provincias Internas 11819:Captaincies General 11733:Municipal president 11702:School of Salamanca 11473:Spanish East Indies 11452:Misiones Orientales 11324:Spanish West Indies 11288:, Central America ( 11235:Pyrénées-Orientales 11188:Union with Portugal 11079:Napoleonic invasion 11059:War of Jenkins' Ear 10874:Library of Congress 10865:on 14 February 2009 9933:A History of Brunei 9810:Early Latin America 9805:Schwartz, Stuart B. 8757:on 20 February 2014 8701:avalon.law.yale.edu 8651:, vol. 1, pp. 11–12 7950:, vol. 4, pp. 59–63 7711:. pp. 442–443. 7691:. pp. 672–675. 7246:, pp. 120–121. 7191:23 May 2020 at the 7184:, vol. II, UNESCO, 7046:treaty of Alcáçovas 6994:Henry the Navigator 6955:23 May 2020 at the 6822:Alfonso de Palencia 6773:Hernando del Pulgar 6712:, pp. 282–288. 6495:, pp. 206–207. 6483:, pp. 205–206. 6471:, pp. 199–200. 5990:Francis I of France 5823:Monarquía Hispánica 5659:Spanish West Indies 5654:Spanish West Africa 5482:Agustín de Iturbide 5454:Granadero Baigorria 5378:Comayagua Cathedral 5247:Virgin of Guadalupe 5133:plazas de soberanía 5056:(in the north) and 5011:Spanish territories 4968:, a general of the 4806:In 1860, after the 4703:Spanish West Africa 4432:Louisiana Territory 4282:California missions 4045:in northern Italy. 3972:invasion of Georgia 3960:Cartagena de Indias 3954:(1739–42) thwarted 3952:War of Jenkins' Ear 3946:in 1734 during the 3748:Cartagena de Indias 3727:Cartagena de Indias 3626:Guipuzcoana Company 3615:Polysynodial System 3451:Spanish Netherlands 3435:Treaties of Utrecht 3427:Charles II of Spain 3291:Spanish East Indies 3077:Cartagena de Indias 2925:School of Salamanca 2810:Council of Flanders 2783:Council of Portugal 2616:Hernando de Alarcón 2461:, where he entered 2453:'s fleet, explored 2422:on 4 March 1513 to 2133:conquest of Melilla 2119:Pope Julius II 2061:race of exploration 1919:Treaty of Alcáçovas 1836:Treaty of Alcáçovas 1808:Jean de Béthencourt 1676:Battle of Cerignola 1652:Battle of Cerignola 1559:Spanish Inquisition 1428:Treaty of Alcaçovas 1404:Kingdom of Portugal 1393:Monarquía de España 1357:House of Trastámara 1341:Isabella of Castile 1337:Ferdinand of Aragon 1162:early modern period 672:Spanish East Indies 594:Conquest of Navarre 64:Imperium Hispanicum 15424:Kingdom of Castile 15338:Crusading movement 15242:Russian Revolution 15077:Hundred Years' War 14973:Maritime republics 14876:Early Christianity 14866:Hellenistic period 14823:Paleolithic Europe 13203:Academia Antártica 13158:Other civil topics 12524:Pánfilo de Narváez 12426:Sebastián Vizcaíno 12391:Andrés de Urdaneta 12351:Juan Ponce de León 12336:Ferdinand Magellan 12310:Bernardo de Gálvez 12209:Indian auxiliaries 11707:Trial of residence 11687:Laws of the Indies 11471:Asia and Oceania ( 11332:Dominican Republic 10829:Documentary Film, 7877:, pp. 94–102. 6948:(1966), Longmans, 6598:. 2 January 2016. 6197:Spanish and Empire 6066:(September 1997). 5835:Monarquía Católica 5591:Creole nationalism 5337:Columbian Exchange 5325: 5188:Western Hemisphere 5173: 5101:Spanish parliament 5089: 5048:la Guerra Olvidada 5014: 4936: 4910:(1921) during the 4888: 4838:over the coast of 4824:Treaty of Tangiers 4804: 4787:Chafarinas Islands 4779:Treaty of El Pardo 4724: 4641:Battle of El Caney 4621: 4613: 4572:Battle of Ayacucho 4531:José de San Martín 4476: 4468: 4444:Louisiana Purchase 4408: 4383:for $ 15 million. 4333:American Southwest 4256: 4206: 3999: 3989:(1781) during the 3987:Siege of Pensacola 3983:Bernardo de Gálvez 3932: 3921: 3902:history of science 3849: 3739: 3574: 3556:, seconded by the 3517:Napoleon Bonaparte 3423: 3333:Sebastián Vizcaíno 3287:Philip II of Spain 3203: 3125: 3061: 3019: 3011: 2943:wars across Europe 2892:and defending the 2858:Philip II of Spain 2814: 2765:Council of Castile 2757:Philip II of Spain 2692: 2619:gave up and left. 2570:Antonio de Mendoza 2526:Gulf of California 2478:Narváez expedition 2451:Ferdinand Magellan 2449:, who'd sailed in 2440:Gulf of California 2432:Francisco de Ulloa 2416:Juan Ponce de León 2411: 2403:Juan Ponce de León 2355:Battle of Cempoala 2346: 2338: 2326: 2254:Juan Ponce de León 2249: 2159: 2103: 2097:Iberian-born pope 2069:already discovered 2020:died, and his son 2014: 2006: 1998: 1996:, Madrid (1881–85) 1896:Tingitan Peninsula 1884: 1770: 1656: 1519: 1389:Monarquía Española 1377:Monarquía Católica 1361:Emirate of Granada 1333: 458:Composite monarchy 437:House of Bonaparte 15346: 15345: 15272:COVID-19 pandemic 15217:French Revolution 15192:Habsburg monarchy 15172:Cossack Hetmanate 15152:Portuguese Empire 15142:Absolute monarchy 15137:Thirty Years' War 15032:Holy Roman Empire 14957:Bulgarian Empire 14916:Early Middle Ages 14833:Bronze Age Europe 14807:History of Europe 14773: 14772: 14695: 14694: 14660:Polish–Lithuanian 13835:Gurjara-Pratihara 13279: 13278: 13275: 13274: 13148: 13147: 13053:Spanish conquests 13043: 13042: 13039: 13038: 13035: 13034: 13031: 13030: 12828: 12827: 12509:Pedro de Alvarado 12494:Gaspar de Portolà 12489:Pedro de Valdivia 12464:Francisco Pizarro 12416:Nicolás de Ovando 12411:Alonso de Ercilla 12386:Alonso de Salazar 12219:Ships of the line 12167: 12166: 12163: 12162: 12045: 12044: 12041: 12040: 11760: 11759: 11756: 11755: 11619: 11618: 11615: 11614: 11591: 11590: 11548:Northern Africa ( 11544:Equatorial Guinea 11528: 11527: 11465: 11464: 11380: 11379: 11303: 11302: 11294:Spanish Caribbean 11267:Spanish Louisiana 11243: 11242: 11178:Crown of Castille 11142: 11141: 11119:Spanish Civil War 11094:Adams–Onís Treaty 11074:Nootka Convention 11022:Thirty Years' War 11012:Eighty Years' War 10933:Catholic Monarchs 10923:Timeline–immersed 10061:978-1-350-28120-2 10015:Library resources 8386:Chronica Botanica 8226:von Humboldt 1811 8133:, vol. 2, p. 418. 7931:, pp. 10–11. 7849:, pp. 40–57. 7647:, vol. 2, p. 171. 7488:, pp. 61–85. 6596:The Tudor Society 5942:Historia Insulana 5937:Cordeiro, António 5932:Saudades da Terra 5380:'s bell tower in 5211:Roman Catholicism 5179:, English author 5105:Equatorial Guinea 5079:, as well as the 5073:Equatorial Guinea 4974:Spanish Civil War 4956:Alejandro Lerroux 4924:Alhucemas landing 4902:rebelled, led by 4828:Berlin Conference 4801:Battle of Tétouan 4740:Portuguese Empire 4452:Mississippi River 4324:Adams-Onis Treaty 4301:Nootka Convention 4214:Rio Grande do Sul 4179: 4178: 4171: 4007:King George's War 3950:, and during the 3944:Battle of Bitonto 3894:Balmis Expedition 3880:(1783–1816); the 3704:rebellion of the 3644:Consejo de Indias 3500:asiento de negros 3447:Philip V of Spain 3415:Philip V of Spain 3337:Martín de Aguilar 3217:Asiento de Negros 3208:Treaty of Utrecht 3179:indentured labor. 3027:mercantile system 3023:factor endowments 2979:Battle of Lepanto 2967:Anglo-Spanish War 2963:Eighty Years' War 2890:Holy Roman Empire 2818:Catholic Monarchs 2774:Council of Aragon 2514:Mississippi River 2301:Isthmus of Panama 2099:Alexander VI 2034:Catholic Monarchs 1822:(1492–1493), and 1788:Dominatur Dominus 1734:Kingdom of Naples 1703:League of Cambrai 1660:House of Habsburg 1589:Cardinal Cisneros 1369:Catholic Monarchs 1365:Alexander VI 1329:Catholic Monarchs 1319:Catholic Monarchs 1303:dominant language 1181:Caribbean Islands 1138:Portuguese Empire 1130:Catholic Monarchy 1126:Hispanic Monarchy 1118: 1117: 1114: 1113: 1110: 1109: 1070:German New Guinea 986:Florida Territory 958:Equatorial Guinea 944:Republic of Chile 846:Kingdom of Sicily 818:Kingdom of Naples 796: 795: 532:• 1975–1976 524:Catholic Monarchs 519:• 1492–1516 464:Absolute monarchy 379:Roman Catholicism 309:Andalusian Arabic 181: 16:(Redirected from 15431: 15389:Overseas empires 15374:Christian states 15207:Great Divergence 15122:Age of Discovery 15067:Late Middle Ages 15037:High Middle Ages 14948:Byzantine Empire 14931:Christianization 14921:Migration Period 14856:Classical Greece 14828:Neolithic Europe 14800: 14793: 14786: 14777: 14776: 14576: 14575: 14241:Austro-Hungarian 13941:Chagatai Khanate 13306: 13299: 13292: 13283: 13282: 13154: 13153: 13120:Chibchan Nations 13049: 13048: 13018:Santiago de Cuba 12877:Guadalupe Island 12837: 12836: 12564: 12563: 12557: 12556: 12519:Diego de Almagro 12396:Antonio de Ulloa 12300:Ambrosio Spinola 12295:Pedro de Zubiaur 12265:Alfonso d'Avalos 12255:Antonio de Leyva 12199:Army of Flanders 12184: 12183: 12173: 12172: 12062: 12061: 12051: 12050: 11777: 11776: 11766: 11765: 11636: 11635: 11625: 11624: 11593: 11592: 11566:Peñón of Algiers 11530: 11529: 11467: 11466: 11382: 11381: 11305: 11304: 11287: 11245: 11244: 11159: 11158: 11148: 11147: 11069:Seven Years' War 11042:Queen Anne's War 10919: 10918: 10904: 10897: 10890: 10881: 10880: 10866: 10861:, archived from 10841: 10803: 10784: 10782: 10771: 10752: 10730: 10711: 10692: 10683: 10674: 10653: 10641: 10630: 10608: 10589: 10576:The Dutch revolt 10570: 10551: 10532: 10513: 10502: 10496: 10488: 10474: 10445: 10433: 10422: 10416: 10408: 10399: 10393: 10385: 10376: 10343: 10324: 10305: 10294:Past and Present 10290:Israel, Jonathan 10285: 10279: 10271: 10269: 10258: 10256: 10245: 10243: 10240:Spain in America 10229: 10223: 10215: 10206: 10194: 10182: 10171: 10152: 10133: 10122: 10103: 10084: 10065: 10003: 9995: 9976: 9967: 9946: 9927: 9906: 9885: 9876: 9857: 9851: 9843: 9824: 9796: 9777: 9756: 9735: 9723: 9709: 9688: 9667: 9646: 9626: 9619:Haring, Clarence 9614: 9595: 9575: 9554: 9533: 9514: 9492: 9484: 9473:Past and Present 9464: 9452: 9441: 9422: 9413: 9411: 9400: 9381: 9360: 9358: 9356: 9332: 9311: 9292: 9280: 9269: 9260: 9248: 9234: 9212: 9191: 9167: 9155: 9144: 9125: 9104: 9083: 9074: 9053: 9052: 9050: 9048: 9030:"Chest (petaca)" 9026: 9020: 9019: 9017: 9015: 9000: 8994: 8993: 8991: 8989: 8974: 8968: 8967: 8961: 8953: 8909: 8903: 8902: 8874: 8868: 8867: 8842: 8836: 8829: 8823: 8822: 8820: 8818: 8799: 8793: 8792: 8790: 8788: 8773: 8767: 8766: 8764: 8762: 8753:. Archived from 8742: 8736: 8723: 8717: 8716: 8714: 8712: 8693: 8687: 8686: 8678: 8672: 8671: 8663: 8652: 8642: 8636: 8635: 8633: 8631: 8613: 8607: 8601: 8595: 8594: 8592: 8590: 8584: 8577: 8569: 8563: 8562: 8539: 8533: 8532: 8530: 8528: 8519:. October 2020. 8513: 8507: 8504: 8495: 8486: 8477: 8466: 8460: 8457: 8428: 8419: 8411: 8405: 8402: 8393: 8381: 8375: 8374: 8366: 8360: 8357: 8348:(1–2): 185–219. 8336: 8328: 8322: 8319: 8310: 8274: 8268: 8267: 8265: 8263: 8235: 8229: 8223: 8214: 8208: 8202: 8201: 8181: 8175: 8168: 8162: 8152: 8146: 8140: 8134: 8128: 8122: 8121: 8119: 8117: 8077: 8071: 8070: 8044: 8035: 8034: 8028: 8024: 8022: 8014: 7988: 7982: 7981: 7973: 7967: 7966:, vol. 2, p. 575 7957: 7951: 7941: 7932: 7926: 7920: 7919: 7917: 7915: 7896: 7890: 7884: 7878: 7872: 7866: 7865:, vol. 1, p. 122 7856: 7850: 7844: 7838: 7837: 7801: 7795: 7794: 7768: 7762: 7761: 7759: 7757: 7751: 7745:. Archived from 7728: 7719: 7713: 7712: 7704: 7693: 7692: 7684: 7673: 7672: 7654: 7648: 7641: 7635: 7629: 7620: 7614: 7608: 7602: 7596: 7590: 7579: 7573: 7564: 7563: 7561: 7559: 7531: 7525: 7519: 7513: 7507: 7501: 7495: 7489: 7483: 7477: 7476: 7468: 7459: 7458: 7439: 7433: 7432: 7430: 7428: 7400: 7394: 7393: 7391: 7389: 7361: 7355: 7354: 7352: 7350: 7322: 7316: 7310: 7304: 7298: 7292: 7291: 7275: 7265: 7259: 7253: 7247: 7241: 7235: 7209: 7203: 7163: 7157: 7131: 7125: 7115: 7109: 7108: 7107: 7105: 7077: 7071: 7029: 7023: 6989: 6983: 6967: 6961: 6929: 6924: 6922: 6898: 6892: 6869: 6863: 6818: 6812: 6786: 6780: 6770: 6764: 6763: 6761: 6755:. Archived from 6740: 6731: 6725: 6719: 6713: 6707: 6701: 6700: 6694: 6686: 6678: 6672: 6671: 6669: 6667: 6648: 6642: 6641: 6639: 6637: 6618: 6612: 6611: 6609: 6607: 6588: 6582: 6581: 6579: 6577: 6537: 6531: 6530:, vol. 5, p. 167 6521: 6512: 6511:, vol. 4, p. 451 6502: 6496: 6490: 6484: 6478: 6472: 6466: 6460: 6454: 6445: 6444: 6442: 6440: 6434: 6419: 6409: 6403: 6402: 6394: 6388: 6378: 6372: 6365: 6359: 6358: 6356: 6354: 6320: 6314: 6308: 6296: 6290: 6289: 6287: 6285: 6233: 6227: 6226: 6192: 6186: 6185: 6159: 6153: 6150: 6144: 6141: 6135: 6134: 6122: 6116: 6115: 6113: 6111: 6105: 6072: 6060: 6051: 6048: 6042: 6039: 6022: 6003: 5997: 5986: 5980: 5969: 5963: 5962:(in Portuguese). 5952: 5946: 5927:Frutuoso, Gaspar 5915: 5909: 5881: 5875: 5843: 5837: 5831: 5825: 5819: 5813: 5807: 5801: 5738: 5711:Viceroys of Peru 5606:History of Spain 5559: 5554: 5553: 5552: 5545: 5540: 5539: 5538: 5519: 5516: 5503: 5469: 5442: 5426: 5415:Hispanic America 5397: 5373: 5357: 5136: 5097:governor general 5050: 4966:Francisco Franco 4908:Battle of Annual 4885: 4884: 4748:Treaty of Lisbon 4648:squadron at the 4605:Valeriano Weyler 4507:patriotic rebels 4305:Vancouver Island 4226:Treaty of Madrid 4174: 4167: 4163: 4160: 4154: 4123: 4115: 4062:Seven Years' War 3964:Santiago de Cuba 3760:Seven Years' War 3690: 3689: 3657: 3647: 3622:Honduras Company 3562:Antonio Bucareli 3554:Pope Clement XIV 3524:Joseph Bonaparte 3439:House of Bourbon 3419:House of Bourbon 2826: 2807: 2798: 2792:Council of Italy 2789: 2780: 2771: 2762: 2673:Battle of Mabila 2649:Hernando de Soto 2524:; then down the 2518:Galveston Island 2438:, sailed up the 2344:Cholula Massacre 2167:Crown of Castile 1912:Battle of Guinea 1812:Crown of Castile 1695:Germaine de Foix 1688:Battle of Rocroi 1550:captured Granada 1547:Queen Isabella I 1513:by F. Pradilla: 1408:Crown of Castile 1331:in Europe (1500) 1142:Age of Discovery 1106: 1105: 1092: 1091: 1078: 1077: 1064: 1063: 1050: 1049: 1036: 1035: 1022: 1021: 1008: 1007: 994: 993: 980: 979: 966: 965: 952: 951: 938: 937: 924: 923: 910: 909: 896: 895: 882: 881: 868: 867: 854: 853: 840: 839: 826: 825: 812: 811: 804:Kingdom of Spain 800: 799: 787: 786: 780: 779: 764: 763: 415:Capetian dynasty 193: 183: 182: 156: 148: 133:"Further Beyond" 131: 123: 98: 91: 74: 66: 60: 52: 41: 40: 21: 15439: 15438: 15434: 15433: 15432: 15430: 15429: 15428: 15349: 15348: 15347: 15342: 15281: 15247:Interwar period 15222:Napoleonic Wars 15086: 15057:Mongol invasion 15010:Crown of Aragon 14902: 14842: 14838:Iron Age Europe 14809: 14804: 14774: 14769: 14758:American Empire 14743: 14739:African empires 14691: 14574: 14266:Central African 14212: 14030:Romano-Germanic 13616: 13350:Middle Assyrian 13323: 13315: 13310: 13280: 13271: 13247:Old inquisition 13159: 13144: 13054: 13027: 12983:Trinidad (1797) 12953:La Noche Triste 12941: 12937:San Juan (1797) 12887:San Juan (1595) 12824: 12713: 12553:Notable battles 12548: 12514:Martín de Ursúa 12445: 12376:Alonso de Ojeda 12346:Juan de la Cosa 12331:Pinzón brothers 12314: 12285:John of Austria 12260:Martín de Goiti 12238: 12178: 12159: 12103: 12056: 12037: 11949: 11945:Terra Australis 11940:Río de la Plata 11885:Castilla de Oro 11871: 11813: 11809:Río de la Plata 11771: 11752: 11711: 11670: 11666:Santa Hermandad 11630: 11611: 11607:Terra Australis 11598: 11587: 11554:Spanish Morocco 11535: 11524: 11515:Northern Taiwan 11476: 11461: 11432:Río de la Plata 11387: 11376: 11310: 11309:Central America 11299: 11281: 11250: 11239: 11183:Crown of Aragon 11164: 11153: 11138: 11054:Bourbon Reforms 10924: 10913: 10908: 10859: 10839: 10811: 10806: 10800: 10768: 10749: 10727: 10708: 10650: 10627: 10605: 10586: 10567: 10548: 10529: 10490: 10489: 10463:10.2307/2517493 10442: 10410: 10409: 10387: 10386: 10373: 10340: 10330:Philip of Spain 10321: 10296:(91): 170–185. 10273: 10272: 10234:Gibson, Charles 10217: 10216: 10191: 10168: 10149: 10119: 10100: 10081: 10062: 10045: 10044: 10043: 10023: 10022: 10018: 10011: 10009:Further reading 10006: 9992: 9964: 9943: 9924: 9903: 9873: 9845: 9844: 9840: 9821: 9801:Lockhart, James 9774: 9753: 9732: 9706: 9685: 9664: 9643: 9611: 9593: 9572: 9551: 9530: 9511: 9461: 9438: 9397: 9378: 9354: 9352: 9350: 9329: 9308: 9289: 9257: 9231: 9209: 9188: 9164: 9141: 9133:. Rough Guide. 9122: 9101: 9062: 9057: 9056: 9046: 9044: 9028: 9027: 9023: 9013: 9011: 9002: 9001: 8997: 8987: 8985: 8976: 8975: 8971: 8955: 8954: 8910: 8906: 8875: 8871: 8865: 8843: 8839: 8830: 8826: 8816: 8814: 8801: 8800: 8796: 8786: 8784: 8775: 8774: 8770: 8760: 8758: 8749: 8743: 8739: 8733:Wayback Machine 8724: 8720: 8710: 8708: 8695: 8694: 8690: 8679: 8675: 8664: 8655: 8643: 8639: 8629: 8627: 8614: 8610: 8602: 8598: 8588: 8586: 8582: 8575: 8571: 8570: 8566: 8556: 8540: 8536: 8526: 8524: 8515: 8514: 8510: 8467: 8463: 8412: 8408: 8382: 8378: 8367: 8363: 8329: 8325: 8275: 8271: 8261: 8259: 8252: 8236: 8232: 8224: 8217: 8209: 8205: 8198: 8182: 8178: 8169: 8165: 8153: 8149: 8141: 8137: 8129: 8125: 8115: 8113: 8078: 8074: 8059: 8045: 8038: 8026: 8025: 8016: 8015: 8011: 7989: 7985: 7974: 7970: 7958: 7954: 7942: 7935: 7927: 7923: 7913: 7911: 7898: 7897: 7893: 7885: 7881: 7873: 7869: 7857: 7853: 7845: 7841: 7818:10.2307/2515681 7802: 7798: 7783: 7769: 7765: 7755: 7753: 7749: 7726: 7720: 7716: 7705: 7696: 7685: 7676: 7669: 7655: 7651: 7642: 7638: 7630: 7623: 7615: 7611: 7603: 7599: 7591: 7582: 7574: 7567: 7557: 7555: 7548: 7532: 7528: 7520: 7516: 7508: 7504: 7496: 7492: 7484: 7480: 7469: 7462: 7455: 7441: 7440: 7436: 7426: 7424: 7417: 7401: 7397: 7387: 7385: 7378: 7362: 7358: 7348: 7346: 7339: 7323: 7319: 7311: 7307: 7299: 7295: 7288: 7266: 7262: 7254: 7250: 7242: 7238: 7225:Wayback Machine 7210: 7206: 7193:Wayback Machine 7182:Wayback Machine 7164: 7160: 7149:, Brill, p. 8, 7147:Wayback Machine 7132: 7128: 7116: 7112: 7103: 7101: 7094: 7078: 7074: 7061:Wayback Machine 7030: 7026: 7013:Wayback Machine 6990: 6986: 6980:Wayback Machine 6968: 6964: 6957:Wayback Machine 6946:Wayback Machine 6920: 6918: 6899: 6895: 6885:Wayback Machine 6870: 6866: 6854:Wayback Machine 6833:Wayback Machine 6819: 6815: 6802:Wayback Machine 6787: 6783: 6771: 6767: 6759: 6753: 6738: 6732: 6728: 6720: 6716: 6708: 6704: 6688: 6687: 6679: 6675: 6665: 6663: 6650: 6649: 6645: 6635: 6633: 6626:www.crf-usa.org 6620: 6619: 6615: 6605: 6603: 6590: 6589: 6585: 6575: 6573: 6538: 6534: 6522: 6515: 6503: 6499: 6491: 6487: 6479: 6475: 6467: 6463: 6455: 6448: 6438: 6436: 6432: 6417: 6410: 6406: 6395: 6391: 6379: 6375: 6366: 6362: 6352: 6350: 6343: 6321: 6317: 6302: 6297: 6293: 6283: 6281: 6258: 6234: 6230: 6215: 6193: 6189: 6182: 6160: 6156: 6151: 6147: 6142: 6138: 6123: 6119: 6109: 6107: 6103: 6070: 6064:Taagepera, Rein 6061: 6054: 6049: 6045: 6040: 6036: 6031: 6026: 6025: 6013:) and 69 white 6004: 6000: 5987: 5983: 5970: 5966: 5953: 5949: 5923:Terceira Island 5916: 5912: 5882: 5878: 5844: 5840: 5832: 5828: 5820: 5816: 5811:Imperio español 5808: 5804: 5770:Aztec religions 5739: 5735: 5730: 5725: 5720: 5555: 5550: 5548: 5541: 5536: 5534: 5531: 5524: 5517: 5511:colonial Mexico 5504: 5495: 5470: 5461: 5443: 5434: 5427: 5418: 5398: 5389: 5374: 5365: 5358: 5349: 5291:Spanish America 5227:Day of the Dead 5177:Writing in 1738 5165: 5155: 5054:Saguia el-Hamra 5022:Spanish Morocco 4982:Francoist Spain 4881: 4868:Treaty of Paris 4816:war reparations 4713: 4697:Main articles: 4695: 4635:. In Cuba, the 4599:Victims of the 4586:1844 revolution 4495:Río de la Plata 4460: 4425:Napoleonic Wars 4395: 4389: 4363:, and parts of 4312:Nikolai Rezanov 4310:In 1806, Baron 4272:in what is now 4244: 4238: 4175: 4164: 4158: 4155: 4140: 4124: 4113: 3910: 3833: 3812:northern Europe 3784:precious metals 3719: 3687:Río de la Plata 3632:(1740) and the 3593:(1623–25), and 3583:Crown of Aragon 3542: 3540:Bourbon Reforms 3536: 3534:Bourbon reforms 3495:Spanish America 3408: 3400:Main articles: 3398: 3360:Cosme de Torres 3343:in present-day 3240: 3231:Bourbon Reforms 3129:treasure fleets 3095:, Germany, the 3057:Havana shipyard 3004:Cerro de Potosí 2997: 2991: 2916:, spices, silk) 2824:Reyes Católicos 2812: 2805: 2803: 2796: 2794: 2787: 2785: 2778: 2776: 2769: 2767: 2760: 2749: 2743: 2735:the Californias 2675:in present-day 2663:in present-day 2594:Alta California 2463:New York Harbor 2395: 2364:La Noche Triste 2315: 2309: 2277:Castilla de Oro 2262:Diego Velázquez 2213:in present-day 2182:people via the 2147: 2141: 2030:Crown of Aragon 1979: 1973:Spanish America 1971:Main articles: 1969: 1955:, encountering 1838: 1832: 1794:, inhabited by 1783:Romani Pontifex 1780:with the bulls 1758: 1699:Crown of Aragon 1684:Spanish Tercios 1648:El gran capitán 1641: 1581: 1579:Spanish Tripoli 1567: 1502: 1500:Fall of Granada 1497: 1491: 1489:Early expansion 1418:(1418) and the 1321: 1315: 1189:Central America 1170:largest empires 1134:colonial empire 1103: 1089: 1075: 1061: 1047: 1033: 1019: 1005: 991: 977: 963: 949: 935: 921: 907: 893: 879: 865: 851: 837: 823: 809: 784: 754: 749: 744: 713: 700: 687: 674: 661: 648: 635: 622: 609: 596: 583: 572:12 October 1492 569: 533: 520: 498: 446: 423:House of Valois 370: 240: 239: 232:Other languages 213: 208: 205:Itinerant court 196: 184: 161: 157: 150: 132: 125: 109: 105: 100: 99: 92: 75: 68: 61: 54: 50:Imperio español 46: 37: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 15437: 15427: 15426: 15421: 15416: 15411: 15406: 15401: 15396: 15391: 15386: 15381: 15379:Former empires 15376: 15371: 15366: 15361: 15359:Spanish Empire 15344: 15343: 15341: 15340: 15335: 15330: 15325: 15320: 15315: 15310: 15305: 15300: 15295: 15289: 15287: 15283: 15282: 15280: 15279: 15274: 15269: 15264: 15259: 15254: 15249: 15244: 15239: 15234: 15229: 15224: 15219: 15214: 15209: 15204: 15199: 15197:Russian Empire 15194: 15189: 15187:British Empire 15184: 15182:Dutch Republic 15179: 15177:Swedish Empire 15174: 15169: 15164: 15159: 15157:Spanish Empire 15154: 15149: 15147:Ottoman Empire 15144: 15139: 15134: 15129: 15124: 15119: 15118: 15117: 15107: 15102: 15096: 15094: 15088: 15087: 15085: 15084: 15079: 15074: 15069: 15064: 15062:Serbian Empire 15059: 15054: 15049: 15044: 15039: 15034: 15029: 15007: 15002: 14997: 14996: 14995: 14990: 14985: 14980: 14970: 14969: 14968: 14963: 14955: 14950: 14945: 14940: 14935: 14934: 14933: 14923: 14918: 14912: 14910: 14904: 14903: 14901: 14900: 14898:Late antiquity 14895: 14890: 14885: 14884: 14883: 14873: 14868: 14863: 14861:Roman Republic 14858: 14852: 14850: 14844: 14843: 14841: 14840: 14835: 14830: 14825: 14819: 14817: 14811: 14810: 14803: 14802: 14795: 14788: 14780: 14771: 14770: 14768: 14767: 14766: 14765: 14760: 14751: 14749: 14745: 14744: 14742: 14741: 14736: 14731: 14726: 14721: 14716: 14715: 14714: 14703: 14701: 14697: 14696: 14693: 14692: 14690: 14689: 14684: 14679: 14674: 14669: 14668: 14667: 14657: 14652: 14647: 14642: 14637: 14632: 14627: 14622: 14617: 14612: 14611: 14610: 14605: 14595: 14590: 14584: 14582: 14573: 14572: 14571: 14570: 14565: 14560: 14555: 14550: 14540: 14535: 14534: 14533: 14523: 14518: 14517: 14516: 14511: 14506: 14496: 14491: 14490: 14489: 14484: 14474: 14473: 14472: 14467: 14462: 14457: 14452: 14442: 14441: 14440: 14435: 14425: 14420: 14415: 14410: 14409: 14408: 14403: 14398: 14393: 14388: 14378: 14377: 14376: 14371: 14361: 14356: 14355: 14354: 14349: 14339: 14338: 14337: 14332: 14322: 14321: 14320: 14315: 14305: 14300: 14299: 14298: 14293: 14288: 14283: 14278: 14268: 14263: 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13622:Post-classical 13618: 13617: 13615: 13614: 13613: 13612: 13602: 13597: 13596: 13595: 13590: 13580: 13579: 13578: 13568: 13567: 13566: 13561: 13556: 13551: 13546: 13541: 13531: 13526: 13521: 13520: 13519: 13514: 13509: 13504: 13494: 13493: 13492: 13487: 13477: 13472: 13471: 13470: 13465: 13460: 13455: 13450: 13440: 13435: 13430: 13429: 13428: 13423: 13421:Middle Kingdom 13418: 13408: 13403: 13402: 13401: 13396: 13391: 13381: 13380: 13379: 13377:Neo-Babylonian 13374: 13369: 13367:Old Babylonian 13359: 13358: 13357: 13352: 13342: 13337: 13331: 13329: 13317: 13316: 13309: 13308: 13301: 13294: 13286: 13277: 13276: 13273: 13272: 13270: 13269: 13264: 13259: 13254: 13249: 13244: 13243: 13242: 13232: 13231: 13230: 13220: 13215: 13210: 13205: 13200: 13195: 13190: 13185: 13180: 13175: 13170: 13164: 13161: 13160: 13150: 13149: 13146: 13145: 13143: 13142: 13137: 13132: 13127: 13122: 13117: 13112: 13107: 13102: 13101: 13100: 13095: 13090: 13085: 13075: 13070: 13065: 13063:Canary Islands 13059: 13056: 13055: 13045: 13044: 13041: 13040: 13037: 13036: 13033: 13032: 13029: 13028: 13026: 13025: 13020: 13015: 13010: 13005: 13000: 12995: 12990: 12985: 12980: 12975: 12970: 12965: 12960: 12955: 12949: 12947: 12943: 12942: 12940: 12939: 12934: 12929: 12924: 12919: 12917:Túpac Amaru II 12914: 12909: 12904: 12899: 12894: 12889: 12884: 12879: 12874: 12869: 12864: 12862:Bogotá savanna 12859: 12854: 12849: 12843: 12841: 12834: 12830: 12829: 12826: 12825: 12823: 12822: 12817: 12812: 12807: 12802: 12797: 12792: 12787: 12782: 12777: 12772: 12770:Spanish Armada 12767: 12762: 12757: 12752: 12747: 12742: 12737: 12732: 12727: 12721: 12719: 12715: 12714: 12712: 12711: 12706: 12701: 12696: 12691: 12686: 12681: 12676: 12671: 12666: 12664:White Mountain 12661: 12659:Cape Celidonia 12656: 12654:English Armada 12651: 12646: 12641: 12636: 12631: 12626: 12621: 12616: 12611: 12606: 12601: 12596: 12591: 12586: 12581: 12576: 12570: 12568: 12561: 12554: 12550: 12549: 12547: 12546: 12541: 12536: 12531: 12526: 12521: 12516: 12511: 12506: 12501: 12496: 12491: 12486: 12481: 12476: 12471: 12466: 12461: 12455: 12453: 12447: 12446: 12444: 12443: 12438: 12433: 12431:Juan Fernández 12428: 12423: 12418: 12413: 12408: 12406:Diego Columbus 12403: 12398: 12393: 12388: 12383: 12378: 12373: 12368: 12363: 12358: 12353: 12348: 12343: 12338: 12333: 12328: 12322: 12320: 12316: 12315: 12313: 12312: 12307: 12302: 12297: 12292: 12287: 12282: 12277: 12272: 12267: 12262: 12257: 12252: 12246: 12244: 12240: 12239: 12237: 12236: 12234:Army of Africa 12231: 12226: 12221: 12216: 12214:Spanish Armada 12211: 12206: 12201: 12196: 12190: 12188: 12180: 12179: 12169: 12168: 12165: 12164: 12161: 12160: 12158: 12157: 12152: 12147: 12142: 12137: 12132: 12127: 12122: 12117: 12115:Manila galleon 12111: 12109: 12105: 12104: 12102: 12101: 12096: 12091: 12086: 12081: 12076: 12070: 12068: 12058: 12057: 12047: 12046: 12043: 12042: 12039: 12038: 12036: 12035: 12030: 12025: 12020: 12015: 12010: 12005: 12000: 11995: 11990: 11985: 11980: 11975: 11970: 11965: 11959: 11957: 11951: 11950: 11948: 11947: 11942: 11937: 11932: 11927: 11922: 11917: 11912: 11907: 11902: 11897: 11892: 11887: 11881: 11879: 11873: 11872: 11870: 11869: 11864: 11859: 11854: 11849: 11844: 11839: 11834: 11829: 11823: 11821: 11815: 11814: 11812: 11811: 11806: 11801: 11796: 11791: 11785: 11783: 11773: 11772: 11762: 11761: 11758: 11757: 11754: 11753: 11751: 11750: 11745: 11740: 11735: 11730: 11725: 11719: 11717: 11713: 11712: 11710: 11709: 11704: 11699: 11694: 11689: 11684: 11678: 11676: 11672: 11671: 11669: 11668: 11663: 11658: 11653: 11648: 11642: 11640: 11632: 11631: 11629:Administration 11621: 11620: 11617: 11616: 11613: 11612: 11610: 11609: 11603: 11600: 11599: 11589: 11588: 11586: 11585: 11550:Western Sahara 11546: 11540: 11537: 11536: 11526: 11525: 11523: 11522: 11517: 11512: 11481: 11478: 11477: 11463: 11462: 11460: 11459: 11448:Banda Oriental 11429: 11415: 11392: 11389: 11388: 11378: 11377: 11375: 11374: 11369: 11364: 11359: 11354: 11349: 11344: 11339: 11321: 11315: 11312: 11311: 11301: 11300: 11298: 11297: 11263:Coastal Alaska 11255: 11252: 11251: 11241: 11240: 11238: 11237: 11232: 11227: 11222: 11217: 11212: 11197: 11196: 11195: 11190: 11185: 11180: 11169: 11166: 11165: 11155: 11154: 11144: 11143: 11140: 11139: 11137: 11136: 11131: 11126: 11121: 11116: 11111: 11106: 11101: 11096: 11091: 11086: 11081: 11076: 11071: 11066: 11061: 11056: 11051: 11046: 11045: 11044: 11034: 11029: 11024: 11019: 11014: 11009: 11004: 10999: 10994: 10989: 10984: 10979: 10974: 10969: 10964: 10959: 10954: 10949: 10944: 10935: 10929: 10926: 10925: 10915: 10914: 10911:Spanish Empire 10907: 10906: 10899: 10892: 10884: 10878: 10877: 10867: 10858:978-8469167861 10857: 10851:(in Spanish), 10842: 10834: 10826: 10821: 10810: 10809:External links 10807: 10805: 10804: 10799:978-0517436448 10798: 10785: 10772: 10767:978-0333731475 10766: 10753: 10748:978-0297645634 10747: 10731: 10726:978-0198039112 10725: 10712: 10707:978-0521323338 10706: 10693: 10684: 10675: 10665:(1): 183–194. 10654: 10649:978-0817357047 10648: 10631: 10626:978-0520071407 10625: 10609: 10604:978-0415165181 10603: 10590: 10585:978-0801411366 10584: 10571: 10566:978-0521084628 10565: 10552: 10547:978-0415128834 10546: 10533: 10528:978-0230300521 10527: 10514: 10503: 10475: 10457:(4): 587–613. 10446: 10441:978-0520074101 10440: 10423: 10400: 10377: 10372:978-0226467344 10371: 10358: 10356:978-0060194765 10346:Kamen, Henry. 10344: 10339:978-0300078008 10338: 10325: 10320:978-0521525114 10319: 10306: 10286: 10259: 10246: 10230: 10207: 10195: 10190:978-0521079372 10189: 10172: 10167:978-0297004059 10166: 10153: 10148:978-0300064728 10147: 10134: 10123: 10118:978-0801887543 10117: 10104: 10099:978-0521470339 10098: 10085: 10080:978-0313311062 10079: 10066: 10060: 10054:. Bloomsbury. 10046: 10042: 10041: 10036: 10031: 10025: 10024: 10020:Spanish Empire 10013: 10012: 10010: 10007: 10005: 10004: 9996: 9991:978-8489779686 9990: 9977: 9968: 9963:978-9968314886 9962: 9947: 9942:978-0700716982 9941: 9928: 9923:978-8495983305 9922: 9907: 9902:978-0316690805 9901: 9886: 9877: 9872:978-0802849458 9871: 9858: 9839:978-0631192459 9838: 9825: 9820:978-0521233446 9819: 9797: 9778: 9773:978-0802713490 9772: 9757: 9752:978-0006860525 9751: 9736: 9731:978-0060932640 9730: 9710: 9705:978-0582784642 9704: 9689: 9684:978-9711706333 9683: 9668: 9663:978-0665185465 9662: 9647: 9642:978-8432121029 9641: 9627: 9615: 9610:978-1316626634 9609: 9596: 9591: 9576: 9571:978-9561113817 9570: 9555: 9550:978-3412202293 9549: 9534: 9529:978-1906098148 9528: 9515: 9510:978-8476583203 9509: 9494: 9485: 9465: 9460:978-0452006140 9459: 9442: 9437:978-0300033908 9436: 9423: 9414: 9401: 9396:978-0631161653 9395: 9382: 9377:978-9687230306 9376: 9361: 9349:978-0292782648 9348: 9333: 9328:978-9233031517 9327: 9312: 9307:978-0813006901 9306: 9293: 9288:978-0300025071 9287: 9270: 9261: 9256:978-0521102070 9255: 9235: 9230:978-0521447966 9229: 9213: 9208:978-0691127088 9207: 9192: 9187:978-8476002032 9186: 9168: 9163:978-0131426702 9162: 9145: 9140:978-1858288932 9139: 9126: 9121:978-8400051563 9120: 9105: 9100:978-0803244238 9099: 9084: 9075: 9063: 9061: 9058: 9055: 9054: 9021: 8995: 8969: 8920:(2): 279–328. 8904: 8885:(3): 455–488. 8869: 8864:978-3110866391 8863: 8837: 8824: 8794: 8768: 8737: 8718: 8688: 8673: 8653: 8637: 8608: 8596: 8564: 8555:978-0788423109 8554: 8534: 8508: 8506: 8505: 8496: 8487: 8461: 8459: 8458: 8429: 8406: 8404: 8403: 8376: 8361: 8359: 8358: 8323: 8321: 8320: 8291:10.2307/978867 8285:(4): 381–391. 8269: 8251:978-6078351121 8250: 8230: 8215: 8203: 8197:978-8498920604 8196: 8176: 8163: 8147: 8135: 8123: 8072: 8058:978-0822361145 8057: 8036: 8027:|website= 8010:978-1107338661 8009: 7983: 7968: 7952: 7933: 7921: 7891: 7889:, p. 231. 7879: 7867: 7851: 7839: 7812:(4): 771–801. 7796: 7781: 7763: 7737:(3): 217–232. 7714: 7694: 7674: 7668:978-1107507180 7667: 7649: 7636: 7621: 7609: 7597: 7580: 7565: 7547:978-1438128900 7546: 7526: 7524:, p. 139. 7514: 7502: 7490: 7478: 7460: 7454:978-8432121005 7453: 7434: 7416:978-8460076148 7415: 7395: 7377:978-9586982344 7376: 7356: 7338:978-0816607822 7337: 7317: 7315:, p. 141. 7305: 7303:, p. 189. 7293: 7287:978-0816612185 7286: 7260: 7258:, p. 143. 7248: 7236: 7204: 7158: 7155:978-9004242074 7126: 7110: 7093:978-1584774228 7092: 7072: 7024: 6984: 6962: 6960: 6959: 6893: 6864: 6862: 6861: 6813: 6789:Jaime Cortesão 6781: 6765: 6752:978-9683651532 6751: 6726: 6724:, p. 248. 6714: 6702: 6673: 6643: 6613: 6583: 6532: 6513: 6497: 6485: 6473: 6461: 6459:, p. 205. 6446: 6404: 6389: 6373: 6360: 6342:978-1610694223 6341: 6315: 6291: 6257:978-0816545711 6256: 6228: 6214:978-0826515667 6213: 6187: 6181:978-0191726927 6180: 6154: 6145: 6136: 6133:. p. 128. 6129:(in Spanish). 6117: 6083:(3): 492–502. 6052: 6043: 6033: 6032: 6030: 6027: 6024: 6023: 5998: 5981: 5975:Perfect Prince 5964: 5947: 5910: 5885:Kingdom of Fez 5876: 5838: 5826: 5814: 5802: 5798:Crypto-Judaism 5774:Inca religions 5742:State religion 5732: 5731: 5729: 5726: 5724: 5721: 5719: 5718: 5713: 5708: 5703: 5698: 5693: 5688: 5683: 5678: 5673: 5668: 5663: 5662: 5661: 5656: 5651: 5646: 5641: 5636: 5631: 5623: 5618: 5613: 5608: 5603: 5598: 5593: 5588: 5583: 5578: 5573: 5568: 5562: 5561: 5560: 5546: 5543:History portal 5530: 5527: 5526: 5525: 5509:(petaca) from 5505: 5498: 5496: 5471: 5464: 5462: 5444: 5437: 5435: 5428: 5421: 5419: 5406:plaza de armas 5399: 5392: 5390: 5375: 5368: 5366: 5359: 5352: 5348: 5345: 5307:Spanish dollar 5239:Corpus Christi 5181:Samuel Johnson 5154: 5151: 5123:European Union 5119:Canary Islands 5093:Gulf of Guinea 5077:Western Sahara 5062:Spanish Sahara 5030:Spanish Sahara 5018:French Morocco 5016:In 1956, when 4970:Army of Africa 4948:Spanish Guinea 4832:Spanish Sahara 4783:Manuel Iradier 4721:Spanish Guinea 4707:Spanish Sahara 4699:Spanish Guinea 4694: 4691: 4484:Peninsular War 4459: 4456: 4391:Main article: 4388: 4385: 4266:Russian empire 4240:Main article: 4237: 4234: 4185:in 1541–42 by 4177: 4176: 4127: 4125: 4118: 4112: 4109: 4052:and lost both 4023:North Carolina 4015:Triangle Trade 3995:American south 3909: 3906: 3832: 3829: 3718: 3715: 3630:Havana Company 3538:Main article: 3535: 3532: 3475:Duchy of Savoy 3397: 3394: 3364:Juan Fernández 3356:Francis Xavier 3316:in Mexico and 3260:Francis Xavier 3248:Maluku Islands 3239: 3236: 3227:comercio libre 3121:Spanish dollar 2990: 2987: 2971:Spanish Armada 2921: 2920: 2917: 2910: 2900: 2882: 2876:Ottoman Empire 2874:, notably the 2868: 2804: 2795: 2786: 2777: 2768: 2759: 2755:The realms of 2747:Habsburg Spain 2745:Main article: 2742: 2739: 2712:French Florida 2698:, established 2661:Coosa chiefdom 2554:Marcos de Niza 2538:Cabeza de Vaca 2436:Colorado River 2394: 2391: 2311:Main article: 2308: 2305: 2295:), settled by 2140: 2137: 2087:Dudum siquidem 2038:personal union 1994:Plaza de Colón 1968: 1965: 1935:Pope Sixtus IV 1846:Gulf of Guinea 1844:(1471) in the 1831: 1828: 1778:Canary Islands 1766:Canary Islands 1757: 1756:Canary Islands 1754: 1746:Duchy of Milan 1728:Following the 1640: 1637: 1629:Canary Islands 1566: 1563: 1501: 1498: 1490: 1487: 1424:Canary Islands 1345:personal union 1317:Main article: 1314: 1311: 1264:merchant guild 1213:Azores Islands 1122:Spanish Empire 1116: 1115: 1112: 1111: 1108: 1107: 1100: 1098:Western Sahara 1094: 1093: 1086: 1080: 1079: 1072: 1066: 1065: 1058: 1052: 1051: 1044: 1038: 1037: 1030: 1024: 1023: 1016: 1010: 1009: 1002: 996: 995: 988: 982: 981: 974: 968: 967: 960: 954: 953: 946: 940: 939: 932: 926: 925: 918: 912: 911: 904: 898: 897: 890: 884: 883: 876: 874:Dutch Republic 870: 869: 862: 856: 855: 848: 842: 841: 834: 832:Duchy of Milan 828: 827: 820: 814: 813: 806: 797: 794: 793: 788: 776: 775: 770: 760: 759: 756:Spanish peseta 751:Spanish dollar 739: 735: 734: 731: 727: 726: 722: 721: 718: 717: 714: 711:Spanish Sahara 708: 705: 704: 701: 695: 692: 691: 688: 682: 679: 678: 675: 669: 666: 665: 662: 656: 653: 652: 649: 643: 640: 639: 636: 630: 627: 626: 623: 617: 614: 613: 610: 604: 601: 600: 597: 591: 588: 587: 584: 577: 574: 573: 570: 565:discovers the 560: 557: 556: 553: 552: 549: 545: 544: 541: 540: 534: 531: 528: 527: 521: 518: 515: 514: 511: 510: 507: 501: 500: 497: 496: 491: 485: 479: 473: 467: 461: 454: 452: 448: 447: 445: 444: 442:House of Savoy 439: 434: 431:House of Capet 412: 407: 401: 399: 395: 394: 388: 382: 381: 376: 372: 371: 369: 368: 362: 357: 352: 347: 342: 337: 332: 327: 322: 317: 312: 306: 301: 296: 291: 286: 281: 276: 271: 266: 261: 256: 251: 246: 237: 236: 235: 233: 229: 228: 223: 219: 218: 202: 198: 197: 194: 186: 185: 159: 135: 134: 111: 110: 101: 93: 86: 85: 82: 81: 77: 76: 47: 45:Spanish Empire 44: 26: 18:Imperial Spain 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 15436: 15425: 15422: 15420: 15417: 15415: 15412: 15410: 15407: 15405: 15402: 15400: 15397: 15395: 15392: 15390: 15387: 15385: 15382: 15380: 15377: 15375: 15372: 15370: 15367: 15365: 15362: 15360: 15357: 15356: 15354: 15339: 15336: 15334: 15331: 15329: 15326: 15324: 15321: 15319: 15316: 15314: 15311: 15309: 15306: 15304: 15301: 15299: 15296: 15294: 15293:Art of Europe 15291: 15290: 15288: 15284: 15278: 15275: 15273: 15270: 15268: 15265: 15263: 15260: 15258: 15255: 15253: 15250: 15248: 15245: 15243: 15240: 15238: 15235: 15233: 15230: 15228: 15225: 15223: 15220: 15218: 15215: 15213: 15210: 15208: 15205: 15203: 15200: 15198: 15195: 15193: 15190: 15188: 15185: 15183: 15180: 15178: 15175: 15173: 15170: 15168: 15165: 15163: 15160: 15158: 15155: 15153: 15150: 15148: 15145: 15143: 15140: 15138: 15135: 15133: 15130: 15128: 15125: 15123: 15120: 15116: 15113: 15112: 15111: 15108: 15106: 15103: 15101: 15098: 15097: 15095: 15093: 15092:Modern period 15089: 15083: 15080: 15078: 15075: 15073: 15070: 15068: 15065: 15063: 15060: 15058: 15055: 15053: 15050: 15048: 15045: 15043: 15040: 15038: 15035: 15033: 15030: 15027: 15023: 15019: 15015: 15011: 15008: 15006: 15003: 15001: 14998: 14994: 14991: 14989: 14986: 14984: 14981: 14979: 14976: 14975: 14974: 14971: 14967: 14964: 14962: 14959: 14958: 14956: 14954: 14951: 14949: 14946: 14944: 14941: 14939: 14936: 14932: 14929: 14928: 14927: 14924: 14922: 14919: 14917: 14914: 14913: 14911: 14909: 14905: 14899: 14896: 14894: 14891: 14889: 14886: 14882: 14879: 14878: 14877: 14874: 14872: 14869: 14867: 14864: 14862: 14859: 14857: 14854: 14853: 14851: 14849: 14845: 14839: 14836: 14834: 14831: 14829: 14826: 14824: 14821: 14820: 14818: 14816: 14812: 14808: 14801: 14796: 14794: 14789: 14787: 14782: 14781: 14778: 14764: 14763:Soviet empire 14761: 14759: 14756: 14755: 14753: 14752: 14750: 14748:Miscellaneous 14746: 14740: 14737: 14735: 14732: 14730: 14727: 14725: 14722: 14720: 14717: 14713: 14710: 14709: 14708: 14705: 14704: 14702: 14698: 14688: 14685: 14683: 14680: 14678: 14675: 14673: 14670: 14666: 14663: 14662: 14661: 14658: 14656: 14653: 14651: 14648: 14646: 14643: 14641: 14638: 14636: 14633: 14631: 14628: 14626: 14623: 14621: 14618: 14616: 14613: 14609: 14606: 14604: 14601: 14600: 14599: 14596: 14594: 14591: 14589: 14586: 14585: 14583: 14581: 14577: 14569: 14566: 14564: 14561: 14559: 14556: 14554: 14551: 14549: 14546: 14545: 14544: 14541: 14539: 14536: 14532: 14529: 14528: 14527: 14524: 14522: 14519: 14515: 14512: 14510: 14507: 14505: 14502: 14501: 14500: 14497: 14495: 14492: 14488: 14485: 14483: 14480: 14479: 14478: 14475: 14471: 14468: 14466: 14463: 14461: 14458: 14456: 14453: 14451: 14448: 14447: 14446: 14443: 14439: 14436: 14434: 14431: 14430: 14429: 14426: 14424: 14421: 14419: 14416: 14414: 14411: 14407: 14404: 14402: 14399: 14397: 14394: 14392: 14389: 14387: 14384: 14383: 14382: 14379: 14375: 14372: 14370: 14367: 14366: 14365: 14362: 14360: 14357: 14353: 14350: 14348: 14347:German Empire 14345: 14344: 14343: 14340: 14336: 14333: 14331: 14328: 14327: 14326: 14323: 14319: 14316: 14314: 14311: 14310: 14309: 14306: 14304: 14301: 14297: 14294: 14292: 14289: 14287: 14284: 14282: 14279: 14277: 14274: 14273: 14272: 14269: 14267: 14264: 14260: 14257: 14255: 14252: 14251: 14249: 14247: 14244: 14242: 14239: 14237: 14234: 14232: 14229: 14227: 14224: 14223: 14221: 14219: 14215: 14209: 14206: 14204: 14201: 14199: 14196: 14192: 14189: 14187: 14184: 14182: 14179: 14177: 14174: 14172: 14169: 14167: 14164: 14162: 14159: 14158: 14157: 14154: 14152: 14149: 14145: 14142: 14140: 14137: 14135: 14132: 14130: 14127: 14125: 14122: 14120: 14117: 14116: 14115: 14112: 14108: 14105: 14103: 14100: 14098: 14095: 14093: 14090: 14089: 14088: 14087:Turco-Persian 14085: 14083: 14080: 14078: 14075: 14073: 14070: 14068: 14065: 14063: 14060: 14058: 14055: 14053: 14050: 14048: 14045: 14041: 14038: 14036: 14033: 14032: 14031: 14028: 14024: 14021: 14019: 14016: 14014: 14011: 14009: 14006: 14004: 14001: 13999: 13996: 13995: 13994: 13991: 13988: 13986: 13983: 13981: 13978: 13976: 13973: 13969: 13966: 13964: 13961: 13959: 13956: 13955: 13954: 13951: 13947: 13944: 13942: 13939: 13937: 13934: 13932: 13929: 13928: 13927: 13924: 13922: 13919: 13917: 13914: 13912: 13909: 13907: 13904: 13902: 13899: 13895: 13892: 13890: 13887: 13885: 13882: 13880: 13877: 13876: 13875: 13872: 13868: 13865: 13863: 13860: 13858: 13855: 13853: 13850: 13849: 13848: 13845: 13841: 13838: 13836: 13833: 13831: 13828: 13827: 13826: 13823: 13821: 13818: 13816: 13813: 13811: 13808: 13806: 13803: 13799: 13796: 13794: 13791: 13789: 13786: 13785: 13784: 13781: 13779: 13776: 13772: 13769: 13767: 13764: 13762: 13759: 13757: 13754: 13752: 13749: 13747: 13744: 13743: 13742: 13739: 13735: 13732: 13730: 13727: 13726: 13725: 13722: 13718: 13715: 13713: 13710: 13708: 13705: 13703: 13700: 13699: 13698: 13695: 13693: 13690: 13686: 13683: 13682: 13681: 13678: 13674: 13671: 13669: 13666: 13665: 13663: 13661: 13658: 13656: 13653: 13651: 13648: 13646: 13643: 13641: 13638: 13636: 13633: 13631: 13628: 13627: 13625: 13623: 13619: 13611: 13608: 13607: 13606: 13603: 13601: 13598: 13594: 13591: 13589: 13586: 13585: 13584: 13581: 13577: 13574: 13573: 13572: 13569: 13565: 13562: 13560: 13557: 13555: 13552: 13550: 13547: 13545: 13542: 13540: 13537: 13536: 13535: 13532: 13530: 13527: 13525: 13522: 13518: 13515: 13513: 13510: 13508: 13505: 13503: 13500: 13499: 13498: 13495: 13491: 13488: 13486: 13483: 13482: 13481: 13478: 13476: 13473: 13469: 13466: 13464: 13461: 13459: 13456: 13454: 13451: 13449: 13446: 13445: 13444: 13441: 13439: 13436: 13434: 13431: 13427: 13424: 13422: 13419: 13417: 13414: 13413: 13412: 13409: 13407: 13404: 13400: 13397: 13395: 13392: 13390: 13387: 13386: 13385: 13382: 13378: 13375: 13373: 13370: 13368: 13365: 13364: 13363: 13360: 13356: 13353: 13351: 13348: 13347: 13346: 13343: 13341: 13338: 13336: 13333: 13332: 13330: 13327: 13322: 13318: 13314: 13307: 13302: 13300: 13295: 13293: 13288: 13287: 13284: 13268: 13265: 13263: 13260: 13258: 13255: 13253: 13250: 13248: 13245: 13241: 13238: 13237: 13236: 13233: 13229: 13226: 13225: 13224: 13221: 13219: 13216: 13214: 13211: 13209: 13206: 13204: 13201: 13199: 13198:Tapada limeña 13196: 13194: 13191: 13189: 13186: 13184: 13181: 13179: 13176: 13174: 13171: 13169: 13166: 13165: 13162: 13155: 13151: 13141: 13138: 13136: 13133: 13131: 13128: 13126: 13123: 13121: 13118: 13116: 13113: 13111: 13108: 13106: 13103: 13099: 13096: 13094: 13091: 13089: 13086: 13084: 13081: 13080: 13079: 13076: 13074: 13071: 13069: 13066: 13064: 13061: 13060: 13057: 13050: 13046: 13024: 13021: 13019: 13016: 13014: 13011: 13009: 13006: 13004: 13001: 12999: 12996: 12994: 12991: 12989: 12986: 12984: 12981: 12979: 12976: 12974: 12971: 12969: 12966: 12964: 12961: 12959: 12956: 12954: 12951: 12950: 12948: 12944: 12938: 12935: 12933: 12930: 12928: 12925: 12923: 12920: 12918: 12915: 12913: 12910: 12908: 12905: 12903: 12900: 12898: 12895: 12893: 12890: 12888: 12885: 12883: 12880: 12878: 12875: 12873: 12870: 12868: 12865: 12863: 12860: 12858: 12855: 12853: 12850: 12848: 12845: 12844: 12842: 12838: 12835: 12831: 12821: 12818: 12816: 12813: 12811: 12808: 12806: 12803: 12801: 12798: 12796: 12793: 12791: 12790:Montes Claros 12788: 12786: 12783: 12781: 12778: 12776: 12773: 12771: 12768: 12766: 12763: 12761: 12758: 12756: 12753: 12751: 12748: 12746: 12743: 12741: 12738: 12736: 12733: 12731: 12730:Vienna (1529) 12728: 12726: 12723: 12722: 12720: 12716: 12710: 12707: 12705: 12702: 12700: 12697: 12695: 12692: 12690: 12687: 12685: 12682: 12680: 12677: 12675: 12672: 12670: 12667: 12665: 12662: 12660: 12657: 12655: 12652: 12650: 12647: 12645: 12642: 12640: 12637: 12635: 12632: 12630: 12627: 12625: 12622: 12620: 12617: 12615: 12612: 12610: 12607: 12605: 12602: 12600: 12597: 12595: 12592: 12590: 12587: 12585: 12582: 12580: 12577: 12575: 12572: 12571: 12569: 12565: 12562: 12558: 12555: 12551: 12545: 12542: 12540: 12537: 12535: 12532: 12530: 12527: 12525: 12522: 12520: 12517: 12515: 12512: 12510: 12507: 12505: 12502: 12500: 12497: 12495: 12492: 12490: 12487: 12485: 12482: 12480: 12477: 12475: 12472: 12470: 12467: 12465: 12462: 12460: 12459:Hernán Cortés 12457: 12456: 12454: 12452: 12451:Conquistadors 12448: 12442: 12439: 12437: 12434: 12432: 12429: 12427: 12424: 12422: 12421:Juan de Ayala 12419: 12417: 12414: 12412: 12409: 12407: 12404: 12402: 12399: 12397: 12394: 12392: 12389: 12387: 12384: 12382: 12379: 12377: 12374: 12372: 12369: 12367: 12364: 12362: 12359: 12357: 12354: 12352: 12349: 12347: 12344: 12342: 12339: 12337: 12334: 12332: 12329: 12327: 12324: 12323: 12321: 12317: 12311: 12308: 12306: 12303: 12301: 12298: 12296: 12293: 12291: 12288: 12286: 12283: 12281: 12278: 12276: 12275:Duke of Savoy 12273: 12271: 12268: 12266: 12263: 12261: 12258: 12256: 12253: 12251: 12248: 12247: 12245: 12241: 12235: 12232: 12230: 12227: 12225: 12222: 12220: 12217: 12215: 12212: 12210: 12207: 12205: 12202: 12200: 12197: 12195: 12192: 12191: 12189: 12185: 12181: 12174: 12170: 12156: 12153: 12151: 12148: 12146: 12143: 12141: 12138: 12136: 12133: 12131: 12128: 12126: 12123: 12121: 12118: 12116: 12113: 12112: 12110: 12106: 12100: 12097: 12095: 12092: 12090: 12087: 12085: 12082: 12080: 12077: 12075: 12074:Dollar (Peso) 12072: 12071: 12069: 12067: 12063: 12059: 12052: 12048: 12034: 12033:Santo Domingo 12031: 12029: 12026: 12024: 12021: 12019: 12016: 12014: 12011: 12009: 12006: 12004: 12001: 11999: 11996: 11994: 11991: 11989: 11986: 11984: 11981: 11979: 11976: 11974: 11971: 11969: 11966: 11964: 11961: 11960: 11958: 11956: 11952: 11946: 11943: 11941: 11938: 11936: 11933: 11931: 11928: 11926: 11923: 11921: 11918: 11916: 11913: 11911: 11910:New Andalusia 11908: 11906: 11903: 11901: 11898: 11896: 11893: 11891: 11888: 11886: 11883: 11882: 11880: 11878: 11874: 11868: 11865: 11863: 11860: 11858: 11857:Santo Domingo 11855: 11853: 11850: 11848: 11845: 11843: 11840: 11838: 11835: 11833: 11830: 11828: 11825: 11824: 11822: 11820: 11816: 11810: 11807: 11805: 11802: 11800: 11797: 11795: 11792: 11790: 11787: 11786: 11784: 11782: 11781:Viceroyalties 11778: 11774: 11767: 11763: 11749: 11746: 11744: 11741: 11739: 11736: 11734: 11731: 11729: 11726: 11724: 11721: 11720: 11718: 11714: 11708: 11705: 11703: 11700: 11698: 11695: 11693: 11690: 11688: 11685: 11683: 11680: 11679: 11677: 11673: 11667: 11664: 11662: 11659: 11657: 11654: 11652: 11649: 11647: 11644: 11643: 11641: 11637: 11633: 11626: 11622: 11608: 11605: 11604: 11601: 11594: 11583: 11579: 11575: 11571: 11567: 11563: 11559: 11555: 11551: 11547: 11545: 11542: 11541: 11538: 11531: 11521: 11518: 11516: 11513: 11510: 11506: 11502: 11498: 11494: 11490: 11486: 11483: 11482: 11479: 11474: 11468: 11457: 11453: 11449: 11445: 11441: 11437: 11433: 11430: 11427: 11423: 11419: 11416: 11413: 11409: 11405: 11401: 11397: 11394: 11393: 11390: 11386:South America 11383: 11373: 11370: 11368: 11365: 11363: 11360: 11358: 11355: 11353: 11350: 11348: 11345: 11343: 11340: 11337: 11333: 11329: 11325: 11322: 11320: 11317: 11316: 11313: 11306: 11295: 11291: 11285: 11280: 11276: 11272: 11271:Spanish Texas 11268: 11264: 11260: 11257: 11256: 11253: 11249:North America 11246: 11236: 11233: 11231: 11230:Franche-Comté 11228: 11226: 11223: 11221: 11218: 11216: 11213: 11210: 11206: 11202: 11198: 11194: 11191: 11189: 11186: 11184: 11181: 11179: 11176: 11175: 11174: 11171: 11170: 11167: 11160: 11156: 11149: 11145: 11135: 11132: 11130: 11127: 11125: 11122: 11120: 11117: 11115: 11112: 11110: 11107: 11105: 11102: 11100: 11097: 11095: 11092: 11090: 11087: 11085: 11082: 11080: 11077: 11075: 11072: 11070: 11067: 11065: 11062: 11060: 11057: 11055: 11052: 11050: 11047: 11043: 11040: 11039: 11038: 11035: 11033: 11030: 11028: 11025: 11023: 11020: 11018: 11015: 11013: 11010: 11008: 11005: 11003: 11000: 10998: 10995: 10993: 10990: 10988: 10985: 10983: 10980: 10978: 10975: 10973: 10970: 10968: 10965: 10963: 10960: 10958: 10955: 10953: 10950: 10948: 10945: 10943: 10939: 10936: 10934: 10931: 10930: 10927: 10920: 10916: 10912: 10905: 10900: 10898: 10893: 10891: 10886: 10885: 10882: 10875: 10871: 10868: 10864: 10860: 10854: 10850: 10849: 10843: 10838: 10835: 10833: 10832: 10827: 10825: 10822: 10820: 10818: 10813: 10812: 10801: 10795: 10791: 10786: 10781: 10780: 10773: 10769: 10763: 10759: 10754: 10750: 10744: 10740: 10736: 10732: 10728: 10722: 10718: 10713: 10709: 10703: 10699: 10694: 10690: 10685: 10681: 10676: 10672: 10668: 10664: 10660: 10655: 10651: 10645: 10640: 10639: 10632: 10628: 10622: 10618: 10614: 10610: 10606: 10600: 10596: 10591: 10587: 10581: 10577: 10572: 10568: 10562: 10558: 10553: 10549: 10543: 10539: 10534: 10530: 10524: 10520: 10515: 10511: 10510: 10504: 10500: 10494: 10486: 10485: 10480: 10476: 10472: 10468: 10464: 10460: 10456: 10452: 10447: 10443: 10437: 10432: 10431: 10424: 10420: 10414: 10406: 10401: 10397: 10391: 10383: 10378: 10374: 10368: 10364: 10359: 10357: 10353: 10349: 10345: 10341: 10335: 10331: 10326: 10322: 10316: 10312: 10307: 10303: 10299: 10295: 10291: 10287: 10283: 10277: 10268: 10267: 10260: 10255: 10254: 10247: 10242: 10241: 10235: 10231: 10227: 10221: 10213: 10208: 10204: 10200: 10199:Farriss, N.M. 10196: 10192: 10186: 10181: 10180: 10173: 10169: 10163: 10159: 10154: 10150: 10144: 10140: 10135: 10131: 10130: 10124: 10120: 10114: 10110: 10105: 10101: 10095: 10091: 10086: 10082: 10076: 10072: 10067: 10063: 10057: 10053: 10048: 10047: 10040: 10037: 10035: 10032: 10030: 10027: 10026: 10021: 10016: 10002: 9997: 9993: 9987: 9983: 9978: 9974: 9969: 9965: 9959: 9955: 9954: 9948: 9944: 9938: 9935:. Routledge. 9934: 9929: 9925: 9919: 9915: 9914: 9908: 9904: 9898: 9894: 9893: 9887: 9883: 9878: 9874: 9868: 9864: 9859: 9855: 9849: 9841: 9835: 9831: 9826: 9822: 9816: 9812: 9811: 9806: 9802: 9798: 9794: 9790: 9786: 9785: 9779: 9775: 9769: 9765: 9764: 9758: 9754: 9748: 9744: 9743: 9737: 9733: 9727: 9722: 9721: 9715: 9711: 9707: 9701: 9697: 9696: 9690: 9686: 9680: 9676: 9675: 9669: 9665: 9659: 9655: 9654: 9648: 9644: 9638: 9634: 9633: 9628: 9624: 9620: 9616: 9612: 9606: 9602: 9597: 9594: 9592:962-258-228-1 9588: 9584: 9583: 9577: 9573: 9567: 9563: 9562: 9556: 9552: 9546: 9542: 9541: 9535: 9531: 9525: 9521: 9516: 9512: 9506: 9502: 9501: 9495: 9490: 9486: 9482: 9478: 9475:(20): 52–75. 9474: 9470: 9469:Elliott, J.H. 9466: 9462: 9456: 9451: 9450: 9443: 9439: 9433: 9429: 9424: 9420: 9415: 9410: 9409: 9402: 9398: 9392: 9388: 9383: 9379: 9373: 9369: 9368: 9362: 9351: 9345: 9341: 9340: 9334: 9330: 9324: 9320: 9319: 9313: 9309: 9303: 9299: 9294: 9290: 9284: 9279: 9278: 9271: 9267: 9262: 9258: 9252: 9247: 9246: 9240: 9239:Brading, D.A. 9236: 9232: 9226: 9222: 9218: 9217:Brading, D.A. 9214: 9210: 9204: 9200: 9199: 9193: 9189: 9183: 9179: 9178: 9173: 9169: 9165: 9159: 9154: 9153: 9146: 9142: 9136: 9132: 9127: 9123: 9117: 9113: 9112: 9106: 9102: 9096: 9092: 9091: 9085: 9081: 9076: 9072: 9071: 9065: 9064: 9042: 9038: 9036: 9031: 9025: 9009: 9005: 8999: 8983: 8979: 8973: 8965: 8959: 8951: 8947: 8943: 8939: 8935: 8931: 8927: 8923: 8919: 8915: 8908: 8900: 8896: 8892: 8888: 8884: 8880: 8873: 8866: 8860: 8856: 8852: 8848: 8841: 8834: 8828: 8812: 8808: 8804: 8798: 8782: 8778: 8772: 8756: 8752: 8747: 8741: 8734: 8730: 8727: 8722: 8706: 8702: 8698: 8692: 8684: 8677: 8669: 8662: 8660: 8658: 8650: 8648: 8641: 8625: 8621: 8620: 8612: 8605: 8600: 8581: 8574: 8568: 8561: 8557: 8551: 8547: 8546: 8538: 8522: 8518: 8512: 8502: 8497: 8493: 8488: 8484: 8479: 8478: 8475: 8471: 8465: 8455: 8451: 8447: 8443: 8439: 8435: 8430: 8426: 8421: 8420: 8417: 8410: 8400: 8395: 8394: 8391: 8387: 8380: 8372: 8365: 8355: 8351: 8347: 8343: 8338: 8337: 8334: 8327: 8317: 8312: 8311: 8308: 8304: 8300: 8296: 8292: 8288: 8284: 8280: 8273: 8257: 8253: 8247: 8243: 8242: 8234: 8227: 8222: 8220: 8213:, p. 11. 8212: 8207: 8199: 8193: 8189: 8188: 8180: 8173: 8167: 8160: 8158: 8151: 8144: 8139: 8132: 8127: 8111: 8107: 8103: 8099: 8095: 8091: 8087: 8083: 8076: 8068: 8064: 8060: 8054: 8050: 8043: 8041: 8032: 8020: 8012: 8006: 8002: 7998: 7994: 7987: 7979: 7972: 7965: 7963: 7956: 7949: 7947: 7940: 7938: 7930: 7925: 7909: 7905: 7901: 7895: 7888: 7883: 7876: 7871: 7864: 7862: 7855: 7848: 7843: 7835: 7831: 7827: 7823: 7819: 7815: 7811: 7807: 7800: 7792: 7788: 7784: 7778: 7774: 7767: 7748: 7744: 7740: 7736: 7732: 7725: 7718: 7710: 7703: 7701: 7699: 7690: 7683: 7681: 7679: 7670: 7664: 7660: 7653: 7646: 7640: 7634:, p. 38. 7633: 7628: 7626: 7619:, p. 37. 7618: 7613: 7607:, p. 36. 7606: 7601: 7595:, p. 30. 7594: 7589: 7587: 7585: 7578:, p. 27. 7577: 7572: 7570: 7553: 7549: 7543: 7539: 7538: 7530: 7523: 7518: 7512:, p. 63. 7511: 7506: 7500:, p. 62. 7499: 7494: 7487: 7482: 7474: 7467: 7465: 7456: 7450: 7446: 7445: 7438: 7422: 7418: 7412: 7408: 7407: 7399: 7383: 7379: 7373: 7369: 7368: 7360: 7344: 7340: 7334: 7330: 7329: 7321: 7314: 7309: 7302: 7297: 7289: 7283: 7279: 7274: 7273: 7264: 7257: 7252: 7245: 7240: 7234: 7233:1 74114 872 3 7230: 7226: 7222: 7219: 7218: 7213: 7208: 7202: 7198: 7194: 7190: 7187: 7183: 7179: 7176: 7175: 7170: 7167: 7162: 7156: 7152: 7148: 7144: 7141: 7140: 7135: 7130: 7123: 7119: 7114: 7099: 7095: 7089: 7085: 7084: 7076: 7070: 7066: 7062: 7058: 7055: 7054: 7049: 7047: 7043: 7039: 7035: 7028: 7022: 7018: 7014: 7010: 7007: 7006: 7001: 6999: 6995: 6988: 6981: 6977: 6974: 6973: 6966: 6958: 6954: 6951: 6947: 6943: 6940: 6939: 6934: 6931: 6930: 6928: 6916: 6912: 6908: 6904: 6897: 6890: 6886: 6882: 6879: 6878: 6873: 6868: 6859: 6855: 6851: 6848: 6844: 6843: 6841: 6838: 6834: 6830: 6827: 6823: 6817: 6811: 6807: 6803: 6799: 6796: 6795: 6790: 6785: 6778: 6774: 6769: 6758: 6754: 6748: 6744: 6737: 6730: 6723: 6718: 6711: 6706: 6698: 6692: 6684: 6677: 6661: 6657: 6653: 6652:"Inquisition" 6647: 6631: 6627: 6623: 6617: 6601: 6597: 6593: 6587: 6571: 6567: 6563: 6559: 6555: 6551: 6547: 6543: 6536: 6529: 6527: 6520: 6518: 6510: 6508: 6501: 6494: 6489: 6482: 6477: 6470: 6465: 6458: 6453: 6451: 6431: 6427: 6423: 6415: 6408: 6400: 6393: 6386: 6382: 6377: 6370: 6369:Bourbon Spain 6364: 6348: 6344: 6338: 6334: 6330: 6328: 6319: 6313:, p. 19. 6312: 6306: 6300: 6295: 6279: 6275: 6271: 6267: 6263: 6259: 6253: 6249: 6245: 6241: 6240: 6232: 6224: 6220: 6216: 6210: 6206: 6202: 6198: 6191: 6183: 6177: 6173: 6169: 6165: 6158: 6149: 6140: 6132: 6128: 6121: 6102: 6098: 6094: 6090: 6086: 6082: 6078: 6077: 6069: 6065: 6059: 6057: 6047: 6038: 6034: 6020: 6016: 6012: 6008: 6002: 5995: 5991: 5985: 5977: 5976: 5968: 5961: 5957: 5951: 5944: 5943: 5938: 5934: 5933: 5928: 5924: 5920: 5914: 5908: 5904: 5902: 5896: 5892: 5891: 5886: 5880: 5873: 5869: 5865: 5861: 5860: 5855: 5852: 5847: 5842: 5836: 5830: 5824: 5818: 5812: 5806: 5799: 5796:and Judaism ( 5795: 5791: 5787: 5783: 5779: 5775: 5771: 5767: 5763: 5759: 5755: 5751: 5747: 5743: 5737: 5733: 5717: 5714: 5712: 5709: 5707: 5704: 5702: 5699: 5697: 5694: 5692: 5689: 5687: 5684: 5682: 5679: 5677: 5674: 5672: 5669: 5667: 5664: 5660: 5657: 5655: 5652: 5650: 5647: 5645: 5642: 5640: 5637: 5635: 5632: 5630: 5627: 5626: 5624: 5622: 5619: 5617: 5614: 5612: 5609: 5607: 5604: 5602: 5599: 5597: 5594: 5592: 5589: 5587: 5584: 5582: 5579: 5577: 5574: 5572: 5569: 5567: 5564: 5563: 5558: 5547: 5544: 5533: 5523: 5520:. Now in the 5512: 5508: 5502: 5497: 5494:Mexican court 5493: 5489: 5488: 5483: 5479: 5475: 5468: 5463: 5459: 5455: 5451: 5447: 5441: 5436: 5432: 5425: 5420: 5416: 5412: 5411:public square 5408: 5407: 5402: 5396: 5391: 5387: 5383: 5379: 5376:The clock of 5372: 5367: 5363: 5356: 5351: 5350: 5344: 5340: 5338: 5334: 5330: 5322: 5318: 5314: 5310: 5308: 5304: 5300: 5296: 5292: 5287: 5285: 5281: 5277: 5273: 5268: 5263: 5259: 5258:as a result. 5256: 5250: 5248: 5244: 5240: 5236: 5232: 5228: 5224: 5220: 5216: 5212: 5207: 5205: 5201: 5197: 5193: 5189: 5184: 5182: 5178: 5169: 5164: 5160: 5150: 5148: 5147:Spanish naval 5144: 5141: 5137: 5135: 5134: 5126: 5124: 5120: 5115: 5113: 5108: 5106: 5102: 5098: 5094: 5086: 5082: 5078: 5074: 5069: 5065: 5063: 5059: 5055: 5051: 5049: 5043: 5039: 5036:(later King) 5035: 5031: 5027: 5023: 5019: 5012: 5008: 5004: 5000: 4998: 4994: 4990: 4989:paternalistic 4985: 4983: 4979: 4975: 4971: 4967: 4963: 4962: 4957: 4953: 4949: 4945: 4941: 4932: 4928: 4925: 4921: 4917: 4913: 4909: 4905: 4901: 4897: 4893: 4879: 4875: 4873: 4869: 4865: 4861: 4857: 4853: 4849: 4845: 4841: 4837: 4833: 4829: 4825: 4821: 4817: 4813: 4809: 4802: 4798: 4794: 4790: 4788: 4784: 4780: 4776: 4772: 4768: 4763: 4761: 4757: 4753: 4752:Mers El Kébir 4749: 4745: 4744:Iberian Union 4741: 4738:(part of the 4737: 4733: 4729: 4722: 4717: 4712: 4708: 4704: 4700: 4690: 4688: 4687:Baler, Aurora 4684: 4680: 4679: 4674: 4670: 4666: 4662: 4658: 4653: 4651: 4646: 4642: 4638: 4634: 4630: 4626: 4617: 4610: 4606: 4602: 4597: 4593: 4591: 4587: 4583: 4579: 4578:Santo Domingo 4575: 4573: 4568: 4564: 4560: 4556: 4552: 4548: 4544: 4540: 4539:Simón Bolívar 4536: 4532: 4528: 4524: 4520: 4516: 4515:Gran Colombia 4512: 4508: 4503: 4501: 4496: 4492: 4487: 4485: 4481: 4472: 4464: 4455: 4453: 4449: 4445: 4441: 4437: 4433: 4428: 4426: 4422: 4417: 4416:confederation 4413: 4405: 4399: 4394: 4384: 4382: 4378: 4374: 4370: 4366: 4362: 4358: 4354: 4350: 4346: 4342: 4338: 4334: 4330: 4325: 4321: 4317: 4313: 4308: 4306: 4302: 4298: 4297:Nootka Crisis 4293: 4291: 4287: 4283: 4279: 4275: 4271: 4267: 4262: 4253: 4248: 4243: 4233: 4231: 4227: 4221: 4219: 4215: 4211: 4202: 4198: 4196: 4192: 4188: 4184: 4173: 4170: 4162: 4152: 4148: 4144: 4138: 4137: 4133: 4128:This section 4126: 4122: 4117: 4116: 4108: 4106: 4102: 4098: 4097:Santo Domingo 4093: 4091: 4087: 4083: 4079: 4075: 4071: 4068:(present-day 4067: 4063: 4059: 4055: 4051: 4046: 4044: 4040: 4036: 4032: 4031:Maria Theresa 4028: 4024: 4021:the coast of 4020: 4016: 4012: 4008: 4004: 3996: 3992: 3988: 3984: 3979: 3975: 3973: 3969: 3968:St. Augustine 3965: 3961: 3957: 3953: 3949: 3945: 3941: 3937: 3929: 3925: 3918: 3914: 3905: 3903: 3897: 3895: 3891: 3887: 3883: 3879: 3875: 3870: 3868: 3864: 3859: 3854: 3846: 3842: 3837: 3828: 3825: 3820: 3815: 3813: 3808: 3804: 3800: 3795: 3793: 3787: 3785: 3781: 3777: 3773: 3769: 3763: 3761: 3757: 3752: 3749: 3745: 3736: 3732: 3728: 3723: 3714: 3712: 3708: 3707: 3701: 3696: 3694: 3688: 3682: 3678: 3674: 3670: 3666: 3662: 3658: 3656: 3655: 3648: 3646: 3645: 3637: 3635: 3631: 3627: 3623: 3618: 3617:of Councils. 3616: 3610: 3608: 3604: 3600: 3596: 3592: 3588: 3584: 3580: 3571: 3567: 3563: 3559: 3555: 3551: 3546: 3541: 3531: 3530:(1808–1826). 3529: 3525: 3521: 3518: 3512: 3510: 3504: 3502: 3501: 3496: 3492: 3488: 3484: 3480: 3476: 3472: 3468: 3464: 3460: 3456: 3452: 3448: 3444: 3440: 3436: 3432: 3428: 3420: 3416: 3412: 3407: 3403: 3393: 3391: 3387: 3383: 3379: 3374: 3372: 3367: 3365: 3361: 3357: 3353: 3348: 3346: 3342: 3338: 3334: 3330: 3325: 3323: 3319: 3315: 3311: 3306: 3303: 3299: 3294: 3292: 3288: 3284: 3280: 3275: 3273: 3269: 3265: 3261: 3257: 3253: 3249: 3245: 3235: 3232: 3228: 3223: 3219: 3218: 3213: 3209: 3198: 3194: 3192: 3188: 3182: 3180: 3176: 3172: 3171: 3170:repartimiento 3165: 3163: 3159: 3158:patio process 3155: 3151: 3150:silver mining 3147: 3146:global impact 3142: 3140: 3139: 3134: 3130: 3122: 3117: 3113: 3111: 3106: 3102: 3098: 3094: 3090: 3086: 3082: 3078: 3074: 3070: 3066: 3058: 3053: 3049: 3046: 3044: 3038: 3036: 3032: 3028: 3024: 3015: 3009: 3005: 3001: 2996: 2986: 2982: 2980: 2976: 2972: 2968: 2964: 2960: 2956: 2952: 2947: 2944: 2940: 2936: 2932: 2931: 2926: 2918: 2915: 2911: 2909: 2905: 2901: 2899: 2895: 2891: 2887: 2883: 2881: 2877: 2873: 2869: 2866: 2865: 2864: 2861: 2859: 2855: 2851: 2847: 2846:Franche-Comté 2843: 2842:Low Countries 2839: 2835: 2831: 2827: 2825: 2820:(in Spanish, 2819: 2811: 2802: 2793: 2784: 2775: 2766: 2758: 2753: 2748: 2738: 2736: 2732: 2728: 2724: 2719: 2717: 2713: 2709: 2708:Fort Caroline 2705: 2701: 2700:St. Augustine 2697: 2689: 2684: 2680: 2678: 2674: 2670: 2666: 2662: 2658: 2654: 2650: 2645: 2643: 2639: 2638:Yuma Crossing 2634: 2629: 2627: 2622: 2621:Melchior Díaz 2617: 2612: 2610: 2606: 2602: 2597: 2595: 2591: 2587: 2583: 2579: 2575: 2574:Codex Mendoza 2571: 2566: 2564: 2560: 2555: 2551: 2547: 2543: 2539: 2535: 2531: 2527: 2523: 2522:Nueva Vizcaya 2519: 2515: 2511: 2510:Apalachee Bay 2507: 2503: 2499: 2495: 2491: 2487: 2483: 2479: 2475: 2472:The Spaniard 2470: 2468: 2464: 2460: 2456: 2452: 2448: 2447:Estevão Gomes 2443: 2441: 2437: 2433: 2429: 2425: 2421: 2417: 2408: 2404: 2399: 2390: 2388: 2384: 2381:and publicly 2380: 2376: 2371: 2367: 2365: 2361: 2356: 2351: 2350:Hernán Cortés 2342: 2335: 2330: 2324: 2319: 2314: 2304: 2302: 2298: 2294: 2290: 2286: 2282: 2278: 2274: 2269: 2267: 2263: 2259: 2255: 2247: 2242: 2238: 2236: 2232: 2228: 2224: 2223:Santo Domingo 2218: 2216: 2212: 2208: 2204: 2200: 2195: 2193: 2189: 2185: 2179: 2176: 2172: 2168: 2164: 2156: 2151: 2146: 2136: 2134: 2128: 2126: 2125: 2120: 2116: 2112: 2108: 2100: 2095: 2091: 2089: 2088: 2083: 2080: 2079: 2078:Inter caetera 2074: 2070: 2066: 2062: 2058: 2054: 2050: 2046: 2041: 2039: 2035: 2031: 2027: 2024:, married to 2023: 2019: 2010: 2002: 1995: 1991: 1987: 1983: 1978: 1974: 1964: 1962: 1958: 1954: 1950: 1949:road to India 1944: 1942: 1941: 1936: 1932: 1928: 1924: 1920: 1915: 1913: 1909: 1905: 1901: 1897: 1893: 1889: 1880: 1876: 1874: 1870: 1866: 1861: 1859: 1855: 1851: 1847: 1843: 1837: 1827: 1825: 1821: 1818:(1478–1483), 1817: 1813: 1809: 1805: 1801: 1797: 1793: 1789: 1785: 1784: 1779: 1775: 1767: 1762: 1753: 1751: 1747: 1743: 1739: 1735: 1731: 1726: 1724: 1723:Upper Navarre 1720: 1716: 1712: 1708: 1704: 1700: 1696: 1691: 1689: 1685: 1681: 1677: 1673: 1669: 1665: 1661: 1653: 1649: 1645: 1636: 1634: 1630: 1626: 1622: 1618: 1614: 1610: 1606: 1602: 1598: 1594: 1590: 1586: 1580: 1576: 1572: 1562: 1560: 1555: 1551: 1548: 1543: 1541: 1537: 1535: 1530: 1529: 1524: 1516: 1512: 1511: 1506: 1496: 1486: 1484: 1480: 1476: 1472: 1468: 1464: 1460: 1456: 1452: 1448: 1444: 1440: 1436: 1431: 1429: 1425: 1421: 1417: 1413: 1409: 1405: 1401: 1400:Ottoman Turks 1396: 1394: 1390: 1386: 1384: 1378: 1372: 1370: 1366: 1362: 1358: 1354: 1350: 1346: 1342: 1338: 1330: 1325: 1320: 1310: 1308: 1304: 1300: 1299:Latin America 1296: 1291: 1289: 1285: 1281: 1277: 1273: 1269: 1265: 1261: 1257: 1253: 1249: 1245: 1241: 1237: 1233: 1228: 1226: 1222: 1221:Iberian Union 1218: 1214: 1210: 1206: 1202: 1198: 1194: 1193:North America 1190: 1186: 1185:South America 1182: 1178: 1173: 1171: 1167: 1163: 1159: 1155: 1151: 1147: 1143: 1139: 1135: 1131: 1127: 1123: 1101: 1099: 1096: 1095: 1087: 1085: 1082: 1081: 1073: 1071: 1068: 1067: 1059: 1057: 1054: 1053: 1045: 1043: 1040: 1039: 1031: 1029: 1026: 1025: 1017: 1015: 1012: 1011: 1003: 1001: 998: 997: 989: 987: 984: 983: 975: 973: 970: 969: 961: 959: 956: 955: 947: 945: 942: 941: 933: 931: 928: 927: 919: 917: 914: 913: 905: 903: 900: 899: 891: 889: 888:Gran Colombia 886: 885: 877: 875: 872: 871: 863: 861: 858: 857: 849: 847: 844: 843: 835: 833: 830: 829: 821: 819: 816: 815: 807: 805: 802: 801: 798: 792: 789: 782: 781: 778: 777: 774: 771: 769: 766: 765: 761: 757: 752: 747: 743: 740: 736: 732: 728: 723: 719: 715: 712: 706: 702: 699: 693: 689: 686: 685:Iberian Union 680: 677:27 April 1565 676: 673: 667: 663: 660: 654: 650: 647: 641: 637: 634: 628: 624: 621: 615: 611: 608: 602: 598: 595: 589: 585: 581: 575: 571: 568: 564: 558: 554: 550: 546: 542: 538: 537:Juan Carlos I 535: 529: 525: 522: 516: 512: 508: 506: 505:Head of state 502: 495: 492: 489: 486: 483: 480: 477: 474: 471: 468: 465: 462: 459: 456: 455: 453: 449: 443: 440: 438: 435: 432: 428: 424: 420: 416: 413: 411: 408: 406: 403: 402: 400: 396: 392: 389: 387: 383: 380: 377: 373: 366: 363: 361: 358: 356: 353: 351: 348: 346: 343: 341: 338: 336: 333: 331: 328: 326: 325:Luxembourgish 323: 321: 318: 316: 313: 310: 307: 305: 302: 300: 297: 295: 292: 290: 287: 285: 282: 280: 277: 275: 272: 270: 267: 265: 262: 260: 257: 255: 252: 250: 247: 245: 242: 241: 234: 230: 227: 224: 220: 216: 211: 206: 203: 199: 192: 187: 158:"Royal March" 154: 147: 146: 140: 136: 129: 122: 121: 116: 112: 108: 104: 97: 90: 83: 78: 72: 65: 58: 51: 42: 39: 35: 34: 19: 15252:World War II 15156: 15105:Early modern 15082:Kalmar Union 14953:Papal States 14871:Roman Empire 14681: 14514:Contemporary 14364:Indo-Persian 14352:Nazi Germany 14296:Contemporary 14198:Vijayanagara 14097:Great Seljuk 14008:Thessalonica 13936:Golden Horde 13576:Carthaginian 13355:Neo-Assyrian 13340:Neo-Sumerian 13173:Architecture 13068:The Americas 12932:Newfoundland 12922:Túpac Katari 12912:Cuerno Verde 12847:Tenochtitlan 12679:Valenciennes 12436:Luis Fajardo 12305:Blas de Lezo 12250:Duke of Alba 12130:Spanish Road 11968:Buenos Aires 11877:Governorates 11646:Ayuntamiento 11639:Organization 11104:Carlist Wars 10952:Italian Wars 10910: 10863:the original 10847: 10840:(in Spanish) 10830: 10816: 10789: 10778: 10757: 10738: 10735:Thomas, Hugh 10716: 10697: 10688: 10679: 10662: 10658: 10637: 10616: 10594: 10575: 10556: 10537: 10518: 10508: 10483: 10454: 10450: 10429: 10404: 10381: 10362: 10347: 10329: 10310: 10293: 10270:. Princeton. 10265: 10252: 10239: 10214:. Liverpool. 10211: 10202: 10178: 10157: 10138: 10128: 10108: 10089: 10070: 10051: 10029:Online books 10019: 10000: 9981: 9972: 9952: 9932: 9912: 9891: 9881: 9865:. Eerdmans. 9862: 9832:. New York. 9829: 9809: 9783: 9762: 9741: 9719: 9714:Kamen, Henry 9694: 9673: 9652: 9631: 9622: 9600: 9581: 9560: 9539: 9519: 9499: 9488: 9472: 9448: 9427: 9418: 9407: 9386: 9366: 9353:. Retrieved 9338: 9317: 9297: 9276: 9265: 9244: 9220: 9197: 9176: 9151: 9130: 9110: 9089: 9079: 9069: 9060:Bibliography 9045:. Retrieved 9033: 9024: 9012:. Retrieved 8998: 8986:. Retrieved 8972: 8958:cite journal 8917: 8913: 8907: 8882: 8878: 8872: 8846: 8840: 8832: 8827: 8815:. Retrieved 8806: 8797: 8785:. Retrieved 8771: 8761:23 September 8759:. Retrieved 8755:the original 8745: 8740: 8721: 8711:29 September 8709:. Retrieved 8700: 8691: 8682: 8676: 8667: 8646: 8640: 8628:. Retrieved 8618: 8611: 8599: 8587:. Retrieved 8567: 8559: 8544: 8537: 8525:. Retrieved 8511: 8500: 8491: 8482: 8473: 8464: 8440:(1): 55–79. 8437: 8433: 8424: 8415: 8409: 8398: 8389: 8385: 8379: 8370: 8364: 8345: 8341: 8332: 8326: 8315: 8282: 8279:The Americas 8278: 8272: 8262:23 September 8260:. Retrieved 8240: 8233: 8206: 8186: 8179: 8171: 8166: 8156: 8150: 8145:, p. 1. 8138: 8131:Braudel 1984 8126: 8114:. Retrieved 8089: 8085: 8075: 8048: 7992: 7986: 7977: 7971: 7961: 7955: 7945: 7924: 7912:. Retrieved 7903: 7894: 7887:Elliott 1989 7882: 7870: 7860: 7854: 7842: 7809: 7805: 7799: 7772: 7766: 7754:. Retrieved 7747:the original 7734: 7730: 7717: 7708: 7688: 7658: 7652: 7645:Braudel 1984 7639: 7612: 7600: 7556:. Retrieved 7536: 7529: 7517: 7505: 7493: 7481: 7472: 7443: 7437: 7425:. Retrieved 7405: 7398: 7386:. Retrieved 7366: 7359: 7347:. Retrieved 7327: 7320: 7308: 7296: 7271: 7263: 7251: 7239: 7216: 7211: 7207: 7173: 7168: 7165: 7161: 7138: 7133: 7129: 7124:, p. 53 7117: 7113: 7102:, retrieved 7082: 7075: 7052: 7042:Mare clausum 7031: 7027: 7004: 6991: 6987: 6971: 6965: 6937: 6932: 6926: 6919:. Retrieved 6910: 6906: 6896: 6888: 6876: 6867: 6839: 6836: 6816: 6793: 6784: 6776: 6768: 6757:the original 6742: 6729: 6722:Edwards 2000 6717: 6710:Edwards 2000 6705: 6682: 6676: 6664:. Retrieved 6655: 6646: 6634:. Retrieved 6625: 6616: 6604:. Retrieved 6595: 6586: 6574:. Retrieved 6549: 6546:Mediaevistik 6545: 6535: 6525: 6506: 6500: 6488: 6476: 6464: 6437:. Retrieved 6421: 6407: 6398: 6392: 6384: 6376: 6371:, pp. 10–11. 6368: 6363: 6353:19 September 6351:. Retrieved 6332: 6326: 6318: 6301:, p. 91 6294: 6282:. Retrieved 6266:j.ctv105bb41 6238: 6231: 6196: 6190: 6163: 6157: 6148: 6139: 6126: 6120: 6108:. Retrieved 6080: 6074: 6046: 6037: 6001: 5993: 5984: 5974: 5967: 5950: 5941: 5931: 5913: 5906: 5898: 5894: 5889: 5879: 5863: 5858: 5848: 5845: 5841: 5829: 5817: 5805: 5766:Crypto-Islam 5757: 5753: 5736: 5557:Spain portal 5485: 5474:Diego Rivera 5460:, Argentina. 5404: 5341: 5326: 5303:trade routes 5288: 5264: 5260: 5251: 5208: 5195: 5185: 5174: 5143:was occupied 5140:Isla Perejil 5129: 5127: 5116: 5109: 5090: 5045: 5015: 4993:Bioko Island 4986: 4978:Vichy French 4959: 4937: 4915: 4890:Following a 4889: 4872:Ubangi River 4844:Cape Bojador 4836:protectorate 4805: 4797:General Prim 4764: 4725: 4677: 4654: 4622: 4576: 4498: 4488: 4477: 4448:West Florida 4429: 4409: 4309: 4294: 4257: 4222: 4210:Bandeirantes 4207: 4183:Amazon River 4180: 4165: 4156: 4141:Please help 4129: 4094: 4066:West Florida 4047: 4000: 3981:Painting of 3933: 3898: 3871: 3857: 3850: 3839:Portrait of 3816: 3802: 3796: 3788: 3764: 3756:mercantilist 3753: 3740: 3705: 3697: 3673:flota system 3650: 3640: 3638: 3619: 3611: 3575: 3513: 3505: 3498: 3433:. Under the 3424: 3375: 3368: 3349: 3326: 3307: 3295: 3276: 3264:Ambon Island 3241: 3226: 3215: 3204: 3183: 3168: 3166: 3143: 3136: 3126: 3109: 3062: 3041: 3039: 3031:Buenos Aires 3020: 2983: 2948: 2938: 2928: 2922: 2896:against the 2862: 2821: 2815: 2720: 2693: 2667:, and Chief 2646: 2630: 2613: 2609:Grand Canyon 2598: 2596:in 1542–43. 2567: 2471: 2467:Hudson River 2444: 2412: 2372: 2368: 2347: 2323:Aztec Empire 2270: 2250: 2219: 2196: 2180: 2160: 2129: 2122: 2121:in the bull 2107:Cape Bojador 2104: 2085: 2076: 2068: 2045:ten-year war 2042: 2015: 1957:the Americas 1945: 1940:Æterni regis 1939: 1931:Mare clausum 1916: 1908:Gran Canaria 1885: 1862: 1839: 1816:Gran Canaria 1787: 1781: 1771: 1730:Italian Wars 1727: 1692: 1668:Italian Wars 1657: 1582: 1575:Spanish Oran 1544: 1532: 1526: 1520: 1515:Muhammad XII 1509: 1458: 1454: 1432: 1397: 1392: 1388: 1382: 1376: 1373: 1334: 1292: 1229: 1227:from Spain. 1191:and much of 1174: 1172:in history. 1129: 1125: 1121: 1119: 773:Succeeded by 772: 767: 742:Spanish real 488:Dictatorship 138: 115:Motto: 114: 38: 32: 15237:World War I 15227:Nationalism 15115:Reformation 15100:Renaissance 15072:Black Death 15005:Kievan Rus' 14908:Middle Ages 14102:Khwarezmian 14035:Carolingian 13840:Rashtrakuta 13544:Shaishunaga 13443:Hellenistic 13426:New Kingdom 13416:Old Kingdom 13140:Philippines 13105:El Salvador 12725:Capo d'Orso 12609:St. Quentin 12584:Rome (1527) 12243:Strategists 11993:Guadalajara 11920:New Navarre 11915:New Castile 11900:La Luisiana 11852:Puerto Rico 11842:Philippines 11799:New Granada 11489:Philippines 11450:(Uruguay), 11446:(Bolivia), 11396:New Granada 11336:Puerto Rico 11282: [ 11152:Territories 10972:Encomiendas 10613:Parry, J.H. 10487:. New York. 10407:. New York. 10384:. New York. 7632:Marley 2008 7617:Marley 2008 7605:Marley 2008 7593:Marley 2008 7576:Marley 2008 7558:21 November 7537:Colonialism 7427:21 November 7388:21 November 7349:21 November 7201:0333-724550 7122:Bedini 1992 7104:21 November 6998:Discoveries 6996:during the 6858:Prince John 6381:Lynch, John 6015:Paulistanos 5750:Sunni Islam 5586:Colonialism 5518: 1772 5492:multiracial 5403:, Colombia 5360:A photo of 5255:caudillismo 5249:in Mexico. 5219:crypto-Jews 5215:Inquisition 5112:Green March 5083:territory ( 5032:. Moroccan 5028:region and 4858:regions in 4767:Fernando Pó 4756:reconquered 4665:Puerto Rico 4525:(1811) and 4230:Guaraní War 4092:(1775–83). 4088:during the 4086:the Bahamas 4074:Mississippi 4017:routes and 3876:(1777–78); 3819:Mexico City 3780:plantations 3772:slave trade 3711:New Granada 3693:viceroyalty 3681:Puerto Rico 3550:Charles III 3175:slave labor 3154:royal fifth 3110:arbitristas 3097:Netherlands 3043:arbitristas 2975:Roman times 2935:public debt 2930:arbitristas 2908:Philippines 2838:south Italy 2584:in central 2561:village of 2455:Nova Scotia 2420:Puerto Rico 2321:Map of the 2260:(1508) and 2258:Puerto Rico 2157:around 1515 1774:papal bulls 1768:(1402–1496) 1748:) with the 1711:Holy League 1593:Mazalquivir 1523:Reconquista 1471:Complutense 1459:licenciados 1260:Netherlands 1205:East Indies 768:Preceded by 758:(from 1869) 753:(from 1598) 748:(from 1537) 217:(1601–1606) 207:(1492–1561) 145:Marcha Real 15353:Categories 15000:Viking Age 14815:Prehistory 14672:Portuguese 14553:Revival Le 14543:Vietnamese 14186:Later Tran 14156:Vietnamese 14052:Singhasari 14040:Holy Roman 13664:Bulgarian 13600:Satavahana 13571:Phoenician 13507:Achaemenid 13468:Indo-Greek 13448:Macedonian 13362:Babylonian 12810:Somosierra 12800:Manila Bay 12674:Nördlingen 12614:Gravelines 12094:Columnario 12066:Currencies 11983:Concepción 11955:Audiencias 11930:New Toledo 11895:La Florida 11728:Corregidor 11692:Papal bull 11597:Antarctica 11505:Micronesia 10962:Golden Age 9766:. Walker. 9355:22 October 8988:7 February 8787:28 January 8604:Kamen 2003 8589:12 October 8392:(1): 1–81. 8211:Lynch 1989 8143:Lynch 1989 8067:1107326871 7929:Lynch 1989 7782:0801877555 7643:Quoted in 7069:8493123110 7021:9567813191 6921:25 October 6810:9722704222 6666:8 February 6636:8 February 6606:8 February 6576:8 February 6552:: 85–120. 6493:Gloël 2018 6481:Gloël 2018 6469:Gloël 2018 6457:Gloël 2018 6439:13 October 6327:Plus Ultra 5921:'s Bay in 5762:Shia Islam 5760:schools), 5723:References 5490:, and the 5446:Roof tiles 5299:Portuguese 5196:Castellano 5157:See also: 5058:Río de Oro 5038:Mohammed V 4860:Mauritania 4818:and ceded 4808:Tetuan War 4760:Charles IV 4563:Upper Peru 4349:New Mexico 4341:California 4025:, levying 4011:privateers 3792:mercantile 3607:Guadeloupe 3603:Martinique 3564:, and the 3371:Philip III 3138:consulados 3131:(Spanish: 3075:, Havana, 2993:See also: 2965:, and the 2669:Tuskaloosa 2657:Chickasaws 2626:Gila River 2550:Estevanico 2502:Nuevo León 2498:Tamaulipas 2490:New Mexico 2383:sacrificed 2285:Costa Rica 2256:conquered 2211:La Navidad 2199:Hispaniola 2184:encomienda 2143:See also: 2082:papal bull 1888:Cape Verde 1858:Cape Verde 1842:Gold Coast 1834:See also: 1744:, and the 1569:See also: 1554:Encomienda 1493:See also: 1467:Valladolid 1385:) monarchy 1343:created a 1288:contraband 1258:, and the 1187:, most of 1183:, half of 451:Government 405:Trastámara 398:Membership 393:or Spanish 386:Demonym(s) 315:Portuguese 244:Neapolitan 215:Valladolid 120:Plus Ultra 15047:Feudalism 15018:Catalonia 14665:Couronian 14303:Ethiopian 14291:Manchukuo 14246:Brazilian 14092:Ghaznavid 14062:Srivijaya 14013:Trebizond 13998:Byzantine 13980:North Sea 13975:Norwegian 13963:Almoravid 13946:Ilkhanate 13916:Majapahit 13889:Muromachi 13798:Solomonic 13783:Ethiopian 13697:Caliphate 13630:Aragonese 13458:Ptolemaic 13115:Nicaragua 13093:Guatemala 13003:Pichincha 12988:Chacabuco 12927:Pensacola 12872:Mataquito 12852:Cajamarca 12833:New World 12805:Trafalgar 12709:Alhucemas 12589:Landriano 12574:Comuneros 12560:Old World 12504:Joan Orpí 12224:Royalists 11998:Guatemala 11925:New Spain 11862:Venezuela 11837:Guatemala 11794:New Spain 11789:Columbian 11682:Exequatur 11582:Cape Juby 11436:Argentina 11259:New Spain 11193:Gibraltar 10957:Habsburgs 10493:cite book 10413:cite book 10390:cite book 10276:cite book 10220:cite book 9892:Philip II 9848:cite book 9793:320082537 9677:. Solar. 9493:5 volumes 8950:145479092 8934:0022-216X 8899:0018-2168 8454:218576951 8307:146900474 8106:145805906 8029:ignored ( 8019:cite book 7826:0018-2168 7791:173164546 6903:"Reviews" 6847:Decada IV 6826:Decada IV 6691:cite book 6558:0934-7453 6274:241500499 6223:242814420 6029:Citations 5872:0214-3038 5833:Spanish: 5821:Spanish: 5809:Spanish: 5413:style in 5329:Old World 5235:Holy Week 4938:In 1923, 4904:Abdelkrim 4892:brief war 4848:Cap Blanc 4820:Sidi Ifni 4765:In 1778, 4762:in 1792. 4728:Alhucemas 4719:A map of 4678:Cazadores 4543:Venezuela 4511:Argentina 4478:In 1808, 4404:presidios 4232:in 1756. 4195:São Paulo 4159:July 2021 4130:does not 4070:Louisiana 3807:New Spain 3776:Barcelona 3706:comuneros 3479:Gibraltar 3443:Louis XIV 3386:Chamorros 3352:Kagoshima 3327:In 1542, 3283:New Spain 3277:In 1564, 3252:Indonesia 3162:Piet Hein 2914:porcelain 2904:New World 2854:Ferdinand 2832:grandson 2828:), their 2647:In 1541, 2614:In 1540, 2482:Tampa Bay 2281:Nicaragua 2235:Aragonese 2161:With the 2155:New World 2135:in 1497. 1990:New World 1854:Andalusia 1806:nobleman 1633:Janissary 1463:Salamanca 1451:New World 1439:New World 1398:With the 1209:New World 690:1580–1640 638:1524–1697 499:1975–1976 490:1939–1975 460:1492–1700 410:Habsburgs 375:Religion 289:Valencian 264:Aragonese 254:Sardinian 80:1492–1976 15286:See also 15257:Cold War 15052:Crusades 15022:Valencia 14645:Japanese 14608:Scottish 14588:American 14580:Colonial 14509:Imperial 14477:Moroccan 14413:Japanese 14391:Afsharid 14250:Burmese 14236:Austrian 14191:Later Le 14166:Early Le 14151:Venetian 14077:Tiwanaku 13990:Hellenic 13953:Moroccan 13884:Kamakura 13874:Japanese 13857:Saffarid 13810:Georgian 13724:Chalukya 13702:Rashidun 13692:Calakmul 13660:Bruneian 13539:Haryanka 13517:Sasanian 13512:Parthian 13463:Bactrian 13453:Seleucid 13433:Goguryeo 13411:Egyptian 13345:Assyrian 13335:Akkadian 13326:Colonies 13125:Colombia 13110:Honduras 13023:Asomante 13008:Ayacucho 12998:Carabobo 12973:Curalaba 12750:Ceresole 12644:Gembloux 12604:Mühlberg 12319:Mariners 12177:Military 12099:Doubloon 12084:Maravedí 12028:Santiago 11935:Paraguay 11661:Germania 11501:Caroline 11456:Malvinas 11440:Paraguay 11400:Colombia 11342:Trinidad 11209:Sardinia 11049:Bourbons 10737:(2004). 10615:(1966). 10481:(1918). 10236:(1966). 10201:(1968). 9807:(1983). 9716:(2003). 9621:(1947). 9241:(1971). 9219:(1993). 9174:(2001). 9041:Archived 9008:Archived 8982:Archived 8811:Archived 8781:Archived 8729:Archived 8705:Archived 8624:Archived 8580:Archived 8527:7 August 8521:Archived 8472:(2006). 8256:Archived 8116:8 August 8110:Archived 7914:7 August 7908:Archived 7756:12 March 7552:Archived 7421:Archived 7382:Archived 7343:Archived 7227:, p. 1, 7221:Archived 7189:Archived 7178:Archived 7143:Archived 7098:archived 7057:Archived 7038:Parallel 7009:Archived 6976:Archived 6953:Archived 6942:Archived 6915:Archived 6881:Archived 6874:(1780), 6850:Archived 6829:Archived 6798:Archived 6791:(1990), 6775:(1943), 6660:Archived 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