Japanese prisoners of war in World War II

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troops and senior officers commonly believed that captured Japanese troops were very unlikely to divulge any information of military value, leading to them having little motivation to take prisoners. This view proved incorrect, however, and many Japanese POWs provided valuable intelligence during interrogations. Few Japanese were aware of the Geneva Convention and the rights it gave prisoners to not respond to questioning. Moreover, the POWs felt that by surrendering they had lost all their rights. The prisoners appreciated the opportunity to converse with Japanese-speaking Americans and felt that the food, clothing and medical treatment they were provided with meant that they owed favours to their captors. The Allied interrogators found that exaggerating the amount they knew about the Japanese forces and asking the POWs to 'confirm' details was also a successful approach. As a result of these factors, Japanese POWs were often cooperative and truthful during interrogation sessions.

26: 619:. The treatment of Japanese POWs in Siberia was also similar to that suffered by Soviet prisoners who were being held in the area. Between 1946 and 1950, many of the Japanese POWs in Soviet captivity were released; those remaining after 1950 were mainly those convicted of various crimes. They were gradually released under a series of amnesties between 1953 and 1956. After the last major repatriation in 1956, the Soviets continued to hold some POWs and release them in small increments. Some ended up spending decades living in the Soviet Union, and could only return to Japan in the 1990s. Some, having spent decades away and having started families of their own, elected not to permanently settle in Japan and remain where they were. 424:

they were interrogated by successive echelons of the Allied military. They were also questioned once they reached a POW camp in Australia, New Zealand, India or the United States. These interrogations were painful and stressful for the POWs. Similarly, Japanese sailors rescued from sunken ships by the US Navy were questioned at the Navy's interrogation centres in Brisbane, Honolulu and Noumea. Allied interrogators found that Japanese soldiers were much more likely to provide useful intelligence than Imperial Japanese Navy personnel, possibly due to differences in the indoctrination provided to members of the services. Force was not used in interrogations at any level, though on one occasion headquarters personnel of the US

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the departure of the Japanese military did not create a security vacuum and discourage Japanese personnel from fighting alongside the Chinese communists. Over the next few months, most Japanese prisoners in China, along with Japanese civilian settlers, were returned to Japan. The Nationalists retained over 50,000 POWs, most of whom had technical skills, until the second half of 1946, however. Tens of thousands of Japanese prisoners captured by Chinese communists were serving in their military forces in August 1946 and more than 60,000 were believed to still be held in Communist-controlled areas as late as April 1949. Hundreds of Japanese POWs were killed fighting for the

264:

Swiss intermediaries asking if Japan would abide by the 1929 Geneva Convention. The Japanese Government responded stating that while it had not signed the convention, Japan would treat POWs in accordance with its terms; in effect though, Japan had willfully ignored the convention's requirements. While the Western Allies notified the Japanese government of the identities of Japanese POWs in accordance with the Geneva Convention's requirements, this information was not passed onto the families of the captured men as the Japanese government wished to maintain that none of its soldiers had been taken prisoner.

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the order to surrender, Japan's Imperial Headquarters included a statement that "servicemen who come under the control of enemy forces after the proclamation of the Imperial Rescript will not be regarded as POWs" in its orders announcing the end of the war. While this measure was successful in avoiding unrest, it led to hostility between those who surrendered before and after the end of the war and denied prisoners of the Soviets POW status. In most instances the troops who surrendered were not taken into captivity, and were repatriated to the Japanese home islands after giving up their weapons.

177: 357: 243:. However, a factor equally strong or even stronger to those, was the fear of torture after capture. This fear grew out of years of battle experiences in China, where the Chinese guerrillas were considered expert torturers, and this fear was projected onto the American soldiers who also were expected to torture and kill surrendered Japanese. During the Pacific War the majority of Japanese military personnel did not believe that the Allies treated prisoners correctly, and even a majority of those who surrendered expected to be killed. 252: 538: 108: 298: 5679: 412: 329: 325:

programs highlighted the intelligence which could be gained from Japanese POWs, the need to honor surrender leaflets, and the benefits which could be gained by encouraging Japanese forces to not fight to the last man. The programs were partially successful, and contributed to US troops taking more prisoners. In addition, soldiers who witnessed Japanese troops surrender were more willing to take prisoners themselves.

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Unlike the prisoners held by China or the western Allies, these men were treated harshly by their captors, and over 60,000 died by Russian sources. Some American historians estimate that at least 250,000 people died. Japanese POWs were forced to undertake hard labour and were held in primitive conditions with inadequate food and medical treatments. This treatment was similar to that experienced by

348:

was one of the main factors which influenced Japanese troops to fight to the death, and a wartime US Office of Wartime Information report stated that it may have been more important than fear of disgrace and a desire to die for Japan. Instances of Japanese personnel being killed while attempting to surrender are not well documented, though anecdotal accounts provide evidence that this occurred.

137:, naval personnel were expected to exhibit similar behavior and not surrender. Most Japanese military personnel were told that they would be killed or tortured by the Allies if they were taken prisoner. The Army's Field Service Regulations were also modified in 1940 to replace a provision which stated that seriously wounded personnel in field hospitals came under the protection of the 445:

the Allies made extensive efforts to notify the Japanese government of the good conditions in Allied POW camps. This was not successful, however, as the Japanese government refused to recognise the existence of captured Japanese military personnel. Nevertheless, Japanese POWs in Allied camps continued to be treated in accordance with the Geneva Conventions until the end of the war.

529:, and the fear of being identified after surrendering could harden Japanese resistance. MacArthur reversed his position in December of that year, however, but only allowed the publication of photos that did not identify individual POWs. He also directed that the photos "should be truthful and factual and not designed to exaggerate". 436:

wording of this material sought to overcome the indoctrination which Japanese soldiers had received by stating that they should "cease resistance" rather than "surrender". POWs also provided advice on the wording for propaganda leaflets which were dropped on Japanese cities by heavy bombers in the final months of the war.

344:

purpose. Overall, however, Allied submariners usually did not attempt to take prisoners, and the number of Japanese personnel they captured was relatively small. The submarines which took prisoners normally did so towards the end of their patrols so that they did not have to be guarded for a long time.

597:

Nationalist Chinese forces took the surrender of 1.2 million Japanese military personnel following the war. While the Japanese feared that they would be subjected to reprisals, they were generally treated well. This was because the Nationalists wished to seize as many weapons as possible, ensure that

556:

Millions of Japanese military personnel surrendered following the end of the war. Soviet and Chinese forces accepted the surrender of 1.6 million Japanese and the western allies took the surrender of millions more in Japan, South-East Asia and the South-West Pacific. In order to prevent resistance to

435:

Some Japanese POWs also played an important role in helping the Allied militaries develop propaganda and politically indoctrinate their fellow prisoners. This included developing propaganda leaflets and loudspeaker broadcasts which were designed to encourage other Japanese personnel to surrender. The

402:

identifying POWs, it did not pass this information on to the families of the prisoners. When individuals wrote to the Bureau to inquire if their relative had been taken prisoner, it appears that the Bureau provided a reply which neither confirmed or denied whether the man was a prisoner. Although the

53:

Western Allied governments and senior military commanders directed that Japanese POWs be treated in accordance with relevant international conventions. In practice though, many Allied soldiers were unwilling to accept the surrender of Japanese troops because of atrocities committed by the Japanese. A

485:

in New Zealand staged a strike after being ordered to work. The protest turned violent when the camp's deputy commander shot one of the protest's leaders. The POWs then attacked the other guards, who opened fire and killed 48 prisoners and wounded another 74. Conditions at the camp were subsequently

444:

Japanese POWs held in Allied prisoner of war camps were treated in accordance with the Geneva Convention. By 1943 the Allied governments were aware that personnel who had been captured by the Japanese military were being held in harsh conditions. In an attempt to win better treatment for their POWs,

423:

Japanese POWs were interrogated multiple times during their captivity. Most Japanese soldiers were interrogated by intelligence officers of the battalion or regiment which had captured them for information which could be used by these units. Following this they were rapidly moved to rear areas where

347:

Allied forces continued to kill many Japanese personnel who were attempting to surrender throughout the war. It is likely that more Japanese soldiers would have surrendered if they had not believed that they would be killed by the Allies while trying to do so. Fear of being killed after surrendering

172:

The indoctrination of Japanese military personnel to have little respect for the act of surrendering led to conduct which Allied soldiers found deceptive. During the Pacific War, there were incidents where Japanese soldiers feigned surrender in order to lure Allied troops into ambushes. In addition,

98:

were also treated in accordance with international standards. The relatively good treatment that prisoners in Japan received was used as a propaganda tool, exuding a sense of "chivalry" in comparison to the more barbaric perception of Asia that the Meiji government wished to avoid. Attitudes towards

49:

in August 1945. Also, Soviet troops seized and imprisoned more than half a million Japanese troops and civilians in China and other places. The number of Japanese soldiers, sailors, marines, and airmen who surrendered was limited by the Japanese military indoctrinating its personnel to fight to the

477:

and analysed. Some of the conditions at Camp Tracy violated Geneva Convention requirements, such as insufficient exercise time being provided. However, prisoners at this camp were given special benefits, such as high quality food and access to a shop, and the interrogation sessions were relatively

614:

Hundreds of thousands of Japanese also surrendered to Soviet forces in the last weeks of the war and after Japan's surrender. The Soviet Union claimed to have taken 594,000 Japanese POWs, of whom 70,880 were immediately released, but Japanese researchers have estimated that 850,000 were captured.

572:

Repatriation of some Japanese POWs was delayed by Allied authorities. Until late 1946, the United States retained almost 70,000 POWs to dismantle military facilities in the Philippines, Okinawa, central Pacific, and Hawaii. British authorities retained 113,500 of the approximately 750,000 POWs in

419:

The Allies gained considerable quantities of intelligence from Japanese POWs. Because they had been indoctrinated to believe that by surrendering they had broken all ties with Japan, many captured personnel provided their interrogators with information on the Japanese military. Australian and US

263:

The Western Allies sought to treat captured Japanese in accordance with international agreements which governed the treatment of POWs. Shortly after the outbreak of the Pacific War in December 1941, the British and United States governments transmitted a message to the Japanese government through

141:

with a requirement that the wounded not fall into enemy hands. During the war, this led to wounded personnel being either killed by medical officers or given grenades to commit suicide. Aircrew from Japanese aircraft which crashed over Allied-held territory also typically committed suicide rather

343:

Survivors of ships sunk by Allied submarines frequently refused to surrender, and many of the prisoners who were captured by submariners were taken by force. US Navy submarines were occasionally ordered to obtain prisoners for intelligence purposes, and formed special teams of personnel for this

65:

were treated harshly in work camps located in Siberia. Following the war the prisoners were repatriated to Japan, though the United States and Britain retained thousands until 1946 and 1947 respectively and the Soviet Union continued to hold hundreds of thousands of Japanese POWs until the early

389:

and Communist forces held 22,293 Japanese prisoners prior to August 1945. The conditions these POWs were held in generally did not meet the standards required by international law. The Japanese government expressed no concern for these abuses, however, as it did not want IJA soldiers to even

324:

and 'surrender passes' on Japanese positions. This campaign was undermined by Allied troops' reluctance to take prisoners, however. As a result, from May 1944, senior US Army commanders authorized and endorsed educational programs which aimed to change the attitudes of front line troops. These

284:

in order to lure Allied combatants into ambushes were well known within the Allied militaries and also hardened attitudes against seeking the surrender of Japanese on the battlefield. As a result, Allied troops believed that their Japanese opponents would not surrender and that any attempts to

267:

Allied combatants were reluctant to take Japanese prisoners at the start of the Pacific War. During the first two years following the US entry into the war, US combatants were generally unwilling to accept the surrender of Japanese soldiers due to a combination of racist attitudes and anger at

606:. Following the war, the victorious Chinese Communist government began repatriating Japanese prisoners home, though some were put on trial for war crimes and had to serve prison sentences of varying length before being allowed to return. The last Japanese prisoner returned from China in 1964. 513:

in January 1944 after a planned uprising was foiled. News of the incidents at Cowra and Featherston was suppressed in Japan, but the Japanese Government lodged protests with the Australian and New Zealand governments as a propaganda tactic. This was the only time that the Japanese Government

397:

The Japanese government sought to suppress information about captured personnel. On 27 December 1941, it established a POW Information Bureau within the Ministry of the Army to manage information concerning Japanese POWs. While the Bureau cataloged information provided by the Allies via the

164:

was legally binding on Japanese soldiers, the document reflected Japan's societal norms and had great force over both military personnel and civilians. In 1942 the Army amended its criminal code to specify that officers who surrendered soldiers under their command faced at least six months

452:

program to cover the costs of maintaining the prisoners, and retained responsibility for repatriating the men to Japan at the end of the war. Prisoners captured in the central Pacific or who were believed to have particular intelligence value were held in camps in the United States.

147:

Those who know shame are weak. Always think of the honor of your community and be a credit to yourself and your family. Redouble your efforts and respond to their expectations. Never live to experience shame as a prisoner. By dying you will avoid leaving a stain on your honor.

403:

Bureau's role included facilitating mail between POWs and their families, this was not carried out as the families were not notified and few POWs wrote home. The lack of communication with their families increased the POWs feelings of being cut off from Japanese society.

377:

states that about 35,000 were captured by western Allied and Chinese forces, and Robert C. Doyle gives a figure of 38,666 Japanese POWs in captivity in camps run by the western Allies at the end of the war. Alison B. Gilmore has also calculated that Allied forces in the

125:), which was issued to all Japanese soldiers. This document sought to establish standards of behavior for Japanese troops and improve discipline and morale within the Army, and included a prohibition against being taken prisoner. The Japanese Government accompanied the 138: 224:. In these reports Americans were portrayed as "deranged, primitive, racist and inhuman". Hoyt in "Japan’s war: the great Pacific conflict" argues that the Allied practice of taking bones from Japanese corpses home as souvenirs was exploited by Japanese 173:

wounded Japanese soldiers sometimes tried to use hand grenades to kill Allied troops attempting to assist them. Japanese attitudes towards surrender also contributed to the harsh treatment which was inflicted on the Allied personnel they captured.

289:

advised soldiers to shoot any Japanese troops who had their hands closed while surrendering. Furthermore, in many instances, Japanese soldiers who had surrendered were killed on the front line or while being taken to POW compounds. The nature of

197:, 11,250 Japanese military personnel (including 3,581 unarmed labourers) surrendered between April and July 1945, representing 12 percent of the force deployed for the defense of the island. Many of these men were recently conscripted members of 460:

Japanese POWs practice baseball near their quarters, several weeks before the Cowra breakout. This photograph was taken with the intention of using it in propaganda leaflets, to be dropped on Japanese-held areas in the Asia-Pacific

192:

promising good treatment. During the later years of the war Japanese troops' morale deteriorated as a result of Allied victories, leading to an increase in the number who were prepared to surrender or desert. During the

368:

states that up to 50,000 Japanese became POWs before Japan's surrender. The Japanese Government's wartime POW Information Bureau believed that 42,543 Japanese surrendered during the war; a figure also used by

103:

covering treatment of POWs, it did not ratify the agreement, claiming that surrender was contrary to the beliefs of Japanese soldiers. This attitude was reinforced by the indoctrination of young people.

2043:

Hata, Ikuhiko (1996). "From Consideration to Contempt: The Changing Nature of Japanese Military and Popular Perceptions of Prisoners of War Through the Ages". In Moore, Bob; Fedorowich, Kent (eds.).

210:

has argued that this had a more important influence in discouraging surrenders than the fear of disciplinary action or dishonor. In addition, the Japanese public was aware that US troops sometimes

214:

and sent trophies made out of body-parts home from media reports of two high-profile incidents in 1944 in which a letter-opener carved from a bone of a Japanese soldier was presented to President

188:. Those who chose to surrender did so for a range of reasons including not believing that suicide was appropriate or lacking the will to commit the act, bitterness towards officers, and Allied 228:

very effectively, and "contributed to a preference to death over surrender and occupation, shown, for example, in the mass civilian suicides on Saipan and Okinawa after the Allied landings".

448:

Most Japanese captured by US forces after September 1942 were turned over to Australia or New Zealand for internment. The United States provided these countries with aid through the

82:(IJA) adopted an ethos which required soldiers to fight to the death rather than surrender. This policy reflected the practices of Japanese warfare in the pre-modern era. During the 280:

of Allied POWs. Australian soldiers were also reluctant to take Japanese prisoners for similar reasons. Incidents in which Japanese soldiers booby-trapped their dead and wounded or

1605: 486:

improved, leading to good relations between the Japanese and their New Zealand guards for the remainder of the war. More seriously, on 5 August 1944, Japanese POWs in a camp near

294:

also contributed to prisoners not being taken, as many battles were fought at close ranges where participants "often had no choice but to shoot first and ask questions later".

493:. During the fighting between the POWs and their guards 257 Japanese and 4 Australians were killed. Other confrontations between Japanese POWs and their guards occurred at 481:

Japanese POWs generally adjusted to life in prison camps and few attempted to escape. There were several incidents at POW camps, however. On 25 February 1943, POWs at the

61:

to the Allies. The prisoners taken by the Western Allies were held in generally good conditions in camps located in Australia, New Zealand, India and the United States.

50:

death, Allied combat personnel often being unwilling to take prisoners, and many Japanese soldiers believing that those who surrendered would be killed by their captors.

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Igarashi, Yoshikuni (2005). "Belated Homecomings: Japanese Prisoners of War in Siberia and their Return to Post-war Japan". In Moore, Bob; Hately-Broad, Barbara (eds.).

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campaign launched in 1944 to encourage prisoner-taking was partially successful, and the number of prisoners taken increased significantly in the last year of the war.

3589: 5601: 3605: 3932: 3528: 3500: 2644: 305:

Despite the attitudes of combat troops and nature of the fighting, Allied militaries made systematic efforts to take Japanese prisoners throughout the war. Each

5720: 5580: 4252: 3939: 3066: 4555: 3918: 3220: 2845: 585:

respectively. At least 81,090 Japanese personnel died in areas occupied by the western Allies and China before they could be repatriated to Japan. Historian

517:

The Allies distributed photographs of Japanese POWs in camps to induce other Japanese personnel to surrender. This tactic was initially rejected by General

301:

Two surrendered Japanese soldiers with a Japanese civilian and two US soldiers on Okinawa. The Japanese soldier on the left is reading a propaganda leaflet.

3561: 3507: 2693: 2111:

Kibata, Yoichi (2000). "Japanese Treatment of British Prisoners of War: The Historical Context". In Towle, Philip; Kosuge, Margaret; Kibata Yōichi (eds.).

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A US surrender leaflet depicting Japanese POWs. The leaflet's wording was changed from 'I surrender' to 'I cease resistance' at the suggestion of POWs.

236: 206:

Japanese soldiers' reluctance to surrender was also influenced by a perception that Allied forces would kill them if they did surrender, and historian

3911: 3351: 3227: 465:

Prisoners who were thought to possess significant technical or strategic information were brought to specialist intelligence-gathering facilities at

129:

s implementation with a propaganda campaign which celebrated people who had fought to the death rather than surrender during Japan's wars. While the

3204: 2584: 203:

home guard units who had not received the same indoctrination as regular Army personnel, but substantial numbers of IJA soldiers also surrendered.

3641: 2953: 573:

south and south-east Asia until 1947; the last POWs captured in Burma and Malaya returned to Japan in October 1947. The British also used armed

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Hayashi, Hirofumi (2005). "Japanese Deserters and Prisoners of War in the Battle of Okinawa". In Moore, Bob; Hately-Broad, Barbara (eds.).

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imprisonment, regardless of the circumstances in which the surrender took place. This change attracted little attention, however, as the

1862:

Ferguson, Niall (2004). "Prisoner Taking and Prisoner Killing in the Age of Total War: Towards a Political Economy of Military Defeat".

66:

1950s. The Soviet Union gradually released some POWs throughout the next few decades, but some did not return until the collapse of the

25: 4081: 2806: 379: 5594: 2598: 2556: 231:

The causes of the phenomenon that Japanese often continued to fight even in hopeless situations has been traced to a combination of

5443: 3248: 3022: 2785: 2651: 2462: 211: 1993:

Gilmore, Allison B. (1995). ""We Have Been Reborn": Japanese Prisoners and the Allied Intelligence War in the Southwest Pacific".

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campaign against their Japanese opponents to lower their morale and encourage surrender. This included dropping copies of the

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Ford, Douglas (May 2010). "US Perceptions of Military Culture and the Japanese Army's Performance During the Pacific War".

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to his head moments before using it to commit suicide. The Australian soldier on the beach had called on him to surrender.

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the Japanese government adopted western policies towards POWs, and few of the Japanese personnel who surrendered in the

5725: 5494: 5363: 5241: 4812: 4527: 4478: 4236: 3791: 3036: 2875: 2723: 2577: 2395: 2357: 2292: 1964: 1908: 1837:"Understanding the Enemy: Military Intelligence, Political Warfare and Japanese Prisoners of War in Australia, 1942–45" 1825: 1769: 1678: 991: 522: 18:

This article is about personnel from Japan held as POWs by the Allies. For Allied personnel held as POWs by Japan, see

218:

and a photo of the skull of a Japanese soldier which had been sent home by a US soldier was published in the magazine

5610: 4485: 4457: 4274: 3856: 3568: 3535: 2751: 119:

The Japanese military's attitude towards surrender was institutionalized in the 1941 "Code of Battlefield Conduct" (

5647: 4798: 4735: 3870: 3699: 2822: 1606:"The last Japanese man remaining in Kazakhstan: A Kafkian tale of the plight of a Japanese POW in the Soviet Union" 641: 482: 3376: 478:

relaxed. The continuous wiretapping at both locations may have also violated the spirit of the Geneva Convention.

5171: 5012: 5001: 4830: 4589: 4548: 4441: 4379: 3759: 3029: 2898: 2866: 2112: 2023: 473:, California. After arriving in these camps, the prisoners were interrogated again, and their conversations were 316:

whose duties included attempting to persuade Japanese personnel to surrender. Allied forces mounted an extensive

3546: 3114: 2263: 505:, India during 1945; these did not result in any fatalities. In addition, 24 Japanese POWs killed themselves at 364:

Estimates of the numbers of Japanese personnel taken prisoner during the Pacific War differ. Japanese historian

5557: 5529: 5407: 5200: 4430: 3881: 3807: 3596: 2967: 2686: 2591: 2476: 2376: 2273: 2181: 2122: 2101: 2080: 2052: 2033: 1983: 1852: 1760:

The Enemy in Our Hands: America's Treatment of Enemy Prisoners of War, from the Revolution to the War on Terror

1746: 1723: 1697: 1655: 1636: 1382: 986:

Interrogation: World War II, Vietnam, and Iraq, National Defense Intelligence College, Washington, DC. (2008),

823: 636: 574: 38: 5617: 5550: 5501: 5432: 5257: 4756: 4707: 4471: 4464: 4067: 3828: 3612: 2665: 2025:

You can't fight tanks with bayonets: psychological warfare against the Japanese Army in the Southwest Pacific

2254: 5691: 5587: 4962: 4916: 3835: 3663: 3648: 3575: 3554: 3372: 3050: 2836: 2829: 2813: 2524: 2483: 2455: 589:

has attributed these deaths to the "wretched" condition of Japanese military units at the end of the war.

5654: 4978: 4923: 4541: 4513: 4366: 3981: 3960: 3474: 3137: 3043: 2533: 599: 390:

consider surrendering. The government was, however, concerned about reports that 300 POWs had joined the

57:

Japanese POWs often believed that by surrendering they had broken all ties with Japan, and many provided

46: 664:

Gilmore provides the following numbers of Japanese POWs taken in the SWPA during each year of the war –

564:

Japanese prisoners released from Soviet captivity in Siberia prepare to disembark from a ship docked at

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in the 1990s, while others who had settled and started families in the Soviet Union opted to remain.

3107: 5093: 5070: 4315: 4116: 4109: 3766: 3426: 3398: 3391: 2778: 3123: 3100: 790: 5515: 5459: 5329: 5189: 4867: 4520: 4416: 4322: 3890: 3751: 3721: 3685: 3670: 3542: 3434: 3412: 3358: 3344: 3326: 2990: 2771: 2499: 2448: 121: 91: 19: 560: 5207: 5100: 4895: 4846: 4749: 4642: 4612: 4395: 4283: 4009: 3800: 3384: 3365: 3335: 2882: 2852: 2311:

Connor, Stephen (2010). "Side-stepping Geneva: Japanese Troops under British Control, 1945–7".

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Japanese Prisoners of War in Revolt. The Outbreaks at Featherston and Cowra during World War II

487: 333: 130: 90:

were punished at the end of the war. Prisoners captured by Japanese forces during this and the

79: 42: 1836: 622:

Due to the shame associated with surrendering, few Japanese POWs wrote memoirs after the war.

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The History of Camp Tracy : Japanese WWII POWs and the Future of Strategic Interrogation

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A Japanese soldier in the sea off Cape Endaiadere, New Guinea, on 18 December 1942 holding a

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Prisoners of War, Prisoners of Peace: Captivity, Homecoming, and Memory in World War II

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Prisoners of War, Prisoners of Peace: Captivity, Homecoming, and Memory in World War II

2010: 1943: 1887: 1804: 1758: 1625: 526: 391: 321: 87: 5624: 5508: 5398: 5338: 5299: 5232: 5214: 5180: 5123: 5077: 5021: 4839: 4577: 4569: 4506: 4359: 3953: 3478: 2939: 2918: 2628: 2391: 2372: 2353: 2340: 2288: 2269: 2235: 2223: 2177: 2152: 2118: 2097: 2076: 2048: 2029: 1979: 1960: 1947: 1935: 1931: 1904: 1891: 1879: 1848: 1821: 1808: 1796: 1765: 1742: 1735: 1719: 1712: 1693: 1674: 1651: 1632: 1225:

and Hilary Conroy "China and Japan: A Search for Balance since World War I", pp. 308.

987: 646: 603: 578: 518: 474: 470: 429: 373:

who states that it refers to prisoners taken by United States and Australian forces.

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officially recognized that some members of the country's military had surrendered.

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La Forte, Robert S. (2000). "World War II–Far East". In Vance, Jonathan F (ed.).

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The Faraway War: Personal Diaries of the Second World War in Asia and the Pacific

542: 297: 286: 281: 220: 5678: 1957:

The Elusive Enemy : U.S. Naval Intelligence and the Imperial Japanese Fleet

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Not all Japanese military personnel chose to follow the precepts set out on the

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MacKenzie, S.P. (1994). "The Treatment of Prisoners of War in World War II".

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Fighting the enemy: Australian soldiers and their adversaries in World War II

1939: 1883: 1800: 1707: 586: 510: 374: 521:

when it was proposed to him in mid-1943 on the grounds that it violated the

5683: 5487: 3773: 3678: 3309: 2672: 2436: 2028:. Studies in war, society, and the military. University of Nebraska Press. 1840: 365: 112: 83: 67: 34: 2388:

Japanese Prisoners of War in India, 1942–46 : Bushido and Barbed Wire

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Behind a Curtain of Silence: Japanese in Soviet Custody, 1945-1956

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to support Dutch and French attempts to reassert control in the

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Surface and Destroy : The Submarine Gun War in the Pacific

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imposed more severe consequences and had greater moral force.

4002: 1671:

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A Japanese POW being led off a US Navy submarine in May 1945.

99:

surrender hardened after World War I. While Japan signed the

29:

A group of Japanese prisoners of war in Australia during 1945

1820:. Modern War Studies. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas. 728: 726: 180:

Two Australian soldiers with a Japanese POW in October 1943.

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and had been trained to spread anti-Japanese propaganda.

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debated, but ultimately decided against, administering

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Australian War Memorial. Archived from 830:. Australian War Memorial. Archived from 735: 659: 382:alone captured at least 19,500 Japanese. 255:A Japanese soldier surrendering to three 160:While scholars disagree over whether the 2366: 2242: 2171: 2089: 2070: 1959:. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press. 1898: 1861: 1664: 1645: 559: 536: 455: 410: 407:Intelligence gathered from Japanese POWs 355: 327: 296: 250: 175: 106: 24: 2131: 2061: 2021: 1992: 1622: 1522:Dower (1986), p. 298 and note 6, p. 363 710: 5713: 4282: 4260:Romanian prisoners in the Soviet Union 2385: 2347: 2310: 2282: 2261: 2110: 1673:. University of South Carolina Press. 711:Kristof, Nicholas D. (12 April 1998). 432:to a senior non-commissioned officer. 142:than allow themselves to be captured. 20:Prisoner of war § Empire of Japan 5138:Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign 4563:Japanese invasion of French Indochina 4209:Italian prisoners in the Soviet Union 4165:Finnish prisoners in the Soviet Union 3263:Rape during the occupation of Germany 2409: 1973: 1755: 1732: 1706: 1667:"No Quarter. The Pacific Battlefield" 501:during May 1944 as well as a camp in 4253:Polish prisoners in the Soviet Union 3278:Rape during the liberation of France 2042: 1954: 1917: 1815: 1778: 2390:. Folkestone: Global Oriental Ltd. 246: 13: 4479:German invasion of the Netherlands 2752:Weather events during World War II 2371:. New York: Berg. p. 105121. 2303: 1383:"Australian War Memorial – 067178" 332:Japanese POW bathing on board the 14: 5737: 5117:Northern Burma and Western Yunnan 2066:. New York: Berg. pp. 34–58. 1531:MacArthur (1994), p. 130, note 36 5677: 2435: 1932:10.1179/204243410X12674422128911 1870:(2). SAGE Publications: 148–92. 824:"Australian War Memorial 013968" 642:Internment of Japanese Americans 483:Featherston prisoner of war camp 287:Australian jungle warfare school 78:During the 1920s and 1930s, the 2313:Journal of Contemporary History 2176:. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. 1598: 1568: 1555: 1543: 1534: 1525: 1507: 1486: 1477: 1468: 1450: 1441: 1432: 1423: 1405: 1375: 1348: 1321: 1312: 1294: 1273: 1264: 1255: 1194: 1135: 1126: 1117: 1108: 959: 950: 941: 918: 909: 846: 816: 807: 617:German POWs in the Soviet Union 609: 74:Japanese attitudes to surrender 63:Those taken by the Soviet Union 5364:Vietnamese famine of 1944–1945 3060:Territorial changes of Germany 2968:Indonesian National Revolution 2352:. Fort Belvoir: Ziedon Press. 1926:(1). Maney Publishing: 71–93. 1688:Carr-Gregg, Charlotte (1978). 783: 774: 765: 637:Japanese Surrendered Personnel 575:Japanese Surrendered Personnel 352:Prisoners taken during the war 39:Imperial Japanese Armed Forces 1: 4757:Japanese invasion of Thailand 4708:Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran 4472:German invasion of Luxembourg 2846:Mediterranean and Middle East 2348:Corbin, Alexander D. (2009). 2208:The Journal of Modern History 1669:. In Yerxa, Donald A. (ed.). 1615: 1551:The Chinese Civil War 1945–49 212:mutilated Japanese casualties 45:service members prior to the 4664:Invasion of the Soviet Union 4353:Occupation of Czechoslovakia 3664:Independent State of Croatia 2022:Gilmore, Allison B. (1998). 1718:. New York: Pantheon Books. 1623:Aldrich, Richard J. (2005). 1483:Fedorowich (2000), pp. 80–81 1354:MacKenzie (1994), pp. 516–17 681: 440:Allied prisoner of war camps 7: 5655:End of World War II in Asia 5495:Western invasion of Germany 5002:Chinese famine of 1942–1943 4979:Second Battle of El Alamein 4542:Hundred Regiments Offensive 4514:Battle of the Mediterranean 4367:Italian invasion of Albania 2534:Air warfare of World War II 2191:MacArthur, Douglas (1994). 1978:. New York: Penguin Books. 1650:. New York: Penguin Books. 1540:Straus (2003), pp. xiii–xiv 1492:Straus (2003), pp. xii–xiii 1261:Straus (2003), pp. 116, 141 795:visualizingcultures.mit.edu 732:Bergerud (1997), pp. 415–16 625: 532: 47:end of World War II in Asia 10: 5742: 5581:Naval bombardment of Japan 4942:First Battle of El Alamein 4861:Battle of Christmas Island 4806:Japanese invasion of Burma 4570:Italian invasion of Greece 4486:German invasion of Belgium 4458:German invasion of Denmark 4431:1939–1940 Winter Offensive 4300:Second Italo-Ethiopian War 2557:Comparative military ranks 1974:Frank, Richard B. (2001). 1793:10.1177/0095327X8901500301 1781:Armed Forces & Society 791:"MIT Visualizing Cultures" 17: 5726:Japanese prisoners of war 5670: 5502:Bratislava–Brno offensive 5442: 5433:Dutch famine of 1944–1945 5170: 5057:Allied invasion of Sicily 5011: 4910:Aleutian Islands campaign 4882:Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign 4829: 4820:Greek famine of 1941–1944 4715:Second Battle of Changsha 4620:German invasion of Greece 4588: 4465:Battle of Zaoyang–Yichang 4440: 4378: 4273: 4154: 3880: 3790: 3631: 3334: 3325: 3083: 2908: 2800:North and Central Pacific 2761: 2523: 2516: 2443: 2243:McCarthy, Dudley (1959). 2137:Pacific Historical Review 2114:Japanese prisoners of war 1995:Pacific Historical Review 1903:. London: Penguin Books. 1876:10.1191/0968344504wh291oa 1845:Japanese prisoners of war 1835:Fedorowich, Fred (2000). 1756:Doyle, Robert C. (2010). 1474:Straus (2003), pp. 193–94 1456:Straus (2003), pp. 178–86 1447:Straus (2003), pp. 191–95 1438:Straus (2003), pp. 186–91 1429:Straus (2003), pp. 176–78 1411:Straus (2003), pp. 134–39 1279:Straus (2003), pp. 126–27 1270:Straus (2003), pp. 141–47 1123:Gilmore (1998), pp. 64–67 1114:Gilmore (1998), pp. 62–63 965:Hayashi (2005), pp. 51–55 947:Strauss (2003), pp. 44–45 813:Strauss (2003), pp. 21–22 780:Strauss (2003), pp. 20–21 771:Strauss (2003), pp. 17–19 5094:Allied invasion of Italy 5071:Solomon Islands campaign 4813:Third Battle of Changsha 4410:First Battle of Changsha 4316:Second Sino-Japanese War 3249:German military brothels 3115:United States war crimes 2325:10.1177/0022009409356751 2283:Sturma, Michael (2011). 1899:Ferguson, Niall (2007). 1816:Drea, Edward J. (2009). 1465:MacKenzie (1994), p. 517 1363:MacKenzie (1994), p. 518 1345:MacKenzie (1994), p. 516 1336:MacKenzie (1994), p. 512 1309:Fedorowich (2000), p. 85 956:Gilmore (1998), pp. 2, 8 753:Ferguson (2004), p. 176. 696:Fedorowich (2000), p. 61 652: 600:People's Liberation Army 592: 552:, Java, during May 1946. 5516:Second Guangxi campaign 5371:Philippines (1944–1945) 4868:Battle of the Coral Sea 4771:Fall of the Philippines 4417:Battle of South Guangxi 4323:Battles of Khalkhin Gol 3722:Italian Social Republic 2262:Straus, Ulrich (2003). 2090:Johnston, Mark (2000). 2071:Johnston, Mark (1996). 1733:Dower, John W. (1999). 1665:Bergerud, Eric (2008). 1646:Bergerud, Eric (1997). 1595:La Forte (2000), p. 335 1182:Ferguson (2004), p. 164 1150:Ferguson (2007), p. 544 1105:Ferguson (2007), p. 550 1087:Bergerud (2008), p. 103 1030:La Forte (2000), p. 333 852:McCarthy (1959), p. 450 380:South West Pacific Area 312:was assigned a team of 272:such as its widespread 92:First Sino-Japanese War 5101:Armistice of Cassibile 4896:Battle of Dutch Harbor 4847:Battle of the Java Sea 4750:Attack on Pearl Harbor 4650:Syria–Lebanon campaign 4643:Battle of South Shanxi 4613:Invasion of Yugoslavia 4396:Battle of the Atlantic 4010:Korean Liberation Army 3716:(until September 1943) 3673:(until September 1944) 3651:(until September 1944) 1955:Ford, Douglas (2011). 1252:Gilmore (1998), p. 172 1212:Gilmore (1998), p. 155 1078:Johnston (1996), p. 40 1042:Johnston (2000), p. 95 1003:Gilmore (1998), p. 169 741:Johnston (2000), p. 81 569: 568:, Japan, January 1946. 553: 462: 426:40th Infantry Division 416: 361: 340: 302: 282:pretended to surrender 260: 181: 150: 131:Imperial Japanese Navy 116: 101:1929 Geneva Convention 80:Imperial Japanese Army 30: 5265:Second Battle of Guam 5161:Bengal famine of 1943 5131:Second Battle of Kiev 5087:Battle of the Dnieper 4956:Kokoda Track campaign 4785:Battle of Wake Island 4657:East African campaign 4599:Battle of South Henan 4244:atrocities by Germans 4017:Korean Volunteer Army 2991:Occupation of Germany 2745:Music in World War II 2386:Sareen, T.R. (2006). 1631:. London: Doubleday. 1586:Straus (2003), p. xiv 1563:China's War Reporters 1513:Kibata (2000), p. 146 1420:Straus (2003), p. 197 1372:Krammer (1983), p. 70 1300:Straus (2003), p. 120 1141:Sturma (2011), p. 151 1132:Sturma (2011), p. 147 1060:Gilmore (1998), p. 61 563: 540: 459: 414: 359: 331: 318:psychological warfare 300: 254: 179: 145: 110: 59:military intelligence 28: 5551:Surrender of Germany 5029:Battle of West Hubei 4986:Guadalcanal campaign 4949:Battle of Stalingrad 4875:Battle of Madagascar 3642:Albania protectorate 3429:(formerly Swaziland) 3138:Wehrmacht war crimes 2954:Expulsion of Germans 2738:Art and World War II 2636:British contribution 2585:Governments in exile 1327:Doyle (2010), p. 213 1318:Doyle (2010), p. 212 1234:Straus (2003), p. 24 1200:Doyle (2010), p. 209 1191:Straus (2003), p. ix 1096:Gilmore (1998), p. 2 1012:Straus (2003), p. 29 924:Doyle (2010), p. 206 885:Straus (2003), p. 40 873:Straus (2003), p. 39 5641:Potsdam Declaration 5530:Italy (Spring 1945) 5293:Liberation of Paris 4743:Siege of Sevastopol 3754:(until August 1944) 3657:Wang Jingwei regime 3479:from September 1943 3439:from September 1944 3377:from September 1944 3237:Romanian war crimes 3228:Persecution of Jews 3214:Croatian war crimes 3184:Japanese war crimes 2998:Occupation of Japan 2947:First Indochina War 2659:Military production 2571:Declarations of war 1574:Nimmo, William F.: 1504:Dower (1999), p. 51 1387:Collection database 1291:Ford (2011), p. 100 1243:Hata (1996), p. 265 1173:Hata (1996), p. 263 1159:Dower (1986), p. 68 1069:Dower (1986), p. 69 1051:Dower (1986), p. 64 938:Straus (2003), p. 3 915:Ford (2011), p. 139 906:Hata (1996), p. 269 894:Dower (1986), p. 77 861:Drea (2009), p. 212 828:Collection database 762:Drea (2009), p. 257 491:attempted to escape 387:Chinese Nationalist 5634:Surrender of Japan 5467:Battle of Iwo Jima 5316:Belgrade offensive 4722:Siege of Leningrad 4606:Battle of Shanggao 4535:British Somaliland 4500:Dunkirk evacuation 4451:Norwegian campaign 4389:Invasion of Poland 4216:Japanese prisoners 3177:Italian war crimes 3108:British war crimes 3023:Soviet occupations 2807:South-West Pacific 2694:Allied cooperation 2652:Military equipment 1608:. 7 February 2011. 717:The New York Times 570: 554: 527:Geneva Conventions 463: 417: 392:Chinese Communists 362: 341: 322:Geneva Conventions 314:Japanese Americans 303: 261: 182: 117: 88:Russo-Japanese War 31: 5708: 5707: 5666: 5665: 5509:Battle of Okinawa 5408:Burma (1944–1945) 5242:Mariana and Palau 5022:Tunisian campaign 4840:Fall of Singapore 4764:Fall of Hong Kong 4507:Battle of Britain 4360:Operation Himmler 4269: 4268: 3933:Dutch East Indies 3569:Southern Rhodesia 3321: 3320: 3221:Genocide of Serbs 3124:German war crimes 3101:Soviet war crimes 3094:Allied war crimes 2940:Division of Korea 2919:Chinese Civil War 2717:Strategic bombing 2629:Manhattan Project 1920:War & Society 1561:Coble, Parks M.: 1393:on 13 August 2012 647:Takenaga incident 604:Chinese Civil War 579:Dutch East Indies 519:Douglas MacArthur 278:summary execution 195:Battle of Okinawa 5733: 5701: 5694: 5687: 5684:World portal 5682: 5681: 5657: 5650: 5643: 5636: 5627: 5620: 5613: 5604: 5597: 5590: 5583: 5576: 5569: 5560: 5553: 5546: 5544:Prague offensive 5539: 5537:Battle of Berlin 5532: 5525: 5518: 5511: 5504: 5497: 5490: 5483: 5481:Vienna offensive 5476: 5469: 5462: 5460:Battle of Manila 5455: 5435: 5426: 5417: 5410: 5401: 5394: 5387: 5380: 5373: 5366: 5359: 5350: 5341: 5334: 5325: 5318: 5311: 5304: 5295: 5288: 5281: 5274: 5267: 5260: 5253: 5244: 5237: 5228: 5219: 5210: 5203: 5201:Korsun–Cherkassy 5196: 5185: 5163: 5154: 5147: 5140: 5133: 5126: 5119: 5112: 5103: 5096: 5089: 5082: 5073: 5066: 5059: 5052: 5045: 5043:Bombing of Gorky 5038: 5031: 5024: 5004: 4997: 4988: 4981: 4974: 4965: 4958: 4951: 4944: 4937: 4926: 4919: 4912: 4905: 4903:Battle of Midway 4898: 4891: 4889:Battle of Gazala 4884: 4877: 4870: 4863: 4856: 4849: 4842: 4822: 4815: 4808: 4801: 4799:Battle of Borneo 4794: 4792:Malayan campaign 4787: 4780: 4773: 4766: 4759: 4752: 4745: 4738: 4736:Bombing of Gorky 4731: 4729:Battle of Moscow 4724: 4717: 4710: 4703: 4696: 4689: 4673: 4666: 4659: 4652: 4645: 4638: 4629: 4622: 4615: 4608: 4601: 4581: 4572: 4565: 4558: 4551: 4544: 4537: 4530: 4523: 4516: 4509: 4502: 4495: 4493:Battle of France 4488: 4481: 4474: 4467: 4460: 4453: 4433: 4426: 4419: 4412: 4405: 4398: 4391: 4369: 4362: 4355: 4348: 4346:Munich Agreement 4341: 4334: 4325: 4318: 4311: 4302: 4295: 4280: 4279: 4262: 4255: 4246: 4239: 4232: 4231:Soviet prisoners 4225: 4218: 4211: 4202: 4195: 4186: 4179: 4172: 4171:German prisoners 4167: 4147: 4138: 4131: 4124: 4119: 4112: 4105: 4098: 4091: 4084: 4077: 4070: 4063: 4056: 4049: 4042: 4035: 4028: 4019: 4012: 4005: 3998: 3991: 3984: 3977: 3970: 3963: 3956: 3949: 3942: 3935: 3928: 3921: 3914: 3907: 3900: 3893: 3873: 3866: 3859: 3852: 3845: 3838: 3831: 3824: 3817: 3810: 3803: 3783: 3776: 3769: 3762: 3755: 3747: 3740: 3733: 3724: 3717: 3709: 3702: 3700:French Indochina 3695: 3688: 3681: 3674: 3666: 3659: 3652: 3644: 3624: 3615: 3608: 3599: 3592: 3585: 3578: 3571: 3564: 3557: 3550: 3547:from August 1944 3538: 3531: 3524: 3517: 3510: 3503: 3496: 3489: 3482: 3470: 3463: 3456: 3449: 3442: 3430: 3422: 3415: 3408: 3401: 3394: 3387: 3380: 3368: 3361: 3354: 3347: 3332: 3331: 3312: 3305: 3298: 3291: 3284: 3273: 3258: 3251: 3244: 3239: 3230: 3223: 3216: 3207: 3200: 3193: 3191:Nanjing Massacre 3186: 3179: 3170: 3168:Nuremberg trials 3161: 3154: 3147: 3140: 3133: 3126: 3117: 3110: 3103: 3096: 3076: 3069: 3062: 3053: 3046: 3039: 3032: 3025: 3018: 3009: 3000: 2993: 2986: 2979: 2970: 2963: 2956: 2949: 2942: 2935: 2928: 2921: 2901: 2892: 2885: 2878: 2869: 2862: 2855: 2848: 2839: 2832: 2825: 2816: 2809: 2802: 2795: 2788: 2781: 2774: 2772:Asia and Pacific 2754: 2747: 2740: 2733: 2726: 2719: 2712: 2703: 2701:Mulberry harbour 2696: 2689: 2682: 2675: 2668: 2661: 2654: 2647: 2638: 2631: 2624: 2615: 2608: 2601: 2594: 2587: 2580: 2573: 2566: 2559: 2552: 2543: 2536: 2521: 2520: 2509: 2502: 2493: 2486: 2479: 2472: 2465: 2458: 2451: 2430: 2423: 2416: 2407: 2406: 2401: 2382: 2363: 2344: 2298: 2279: 2258: 2239: 2202: 2187: 2168: 2128: 2107: 2086: 2067: 2058: 2047:. Oxford: Berg. 2039: 2018: 1989: 1970: 1951: 1914: 1895: 1858: 1831: 1812: 1775: 1763: 1752: 1740: 1729: 1717: 1703: 1684: 1661: 1642: 1630: 1610: 1609: 1602: 1596: 1593: 1587: 1584: 1578: 1572: 1566: 1559: 1553: 1549:Lynch, Michael: 1547: 1541: 1538: 1532: 1529: 1523: 1520: 1514: 1511: 1505: 1502: 1493: 1490: 1484: 1481: 1475: 1472: 1466: 1463: 1457: 1454: 1448: 1445: 1439: 1436: 1430: 1427: 1421: 1418: 1412: 1409: 1403: 1402: 1400: 1398: 1379: 1373: 1370: 1364: 1361: 1355: 1352: 1346: 1343: 1337: 1334: 1328: 1325: 1319: 1316: 1310: 1307: 1301: 1298: 1292: 1289: 1280: 1277: 1271: 1268: 1262: 1259: 1253: 1250: 1244: 1241: 1235: 1232: 1226: 1219: 1213: 1210: 1201: 1198: 1192: 1189: 1183: 1180: 1174: 1171: 1160: 1157: 1151: 1148: 1142: 1139: 1133: 1130: 1124: 1121: 1115: 1112: 1106: 1103: 1097: 1094: 1088: 1085: 1079: 1076: 1070: 1067: 1061: 1058: 1052: 1049: 1043: 1040: 1031: 1028: 1013: 1010: 1004: 1001: 995: 984: 978: 977:Harrison, p. 833 975: 966: 963: 957: 954: 948: 945: 939: 936: 925: 922: 916: 913: 907: 904: 895: 892: 886: 883: 874: 871: 862: 859: 853: 850: 844: 843: 841: 839: 834:on 14 March 2011 820: 814: 811: 805: 804: 802: 801: 787: 781: 778: 772: 769: 763: 760: 754: 751: 742: 739: 733: 730: 721: 720: 708: 697: 694: 663: 546:Dakota transport 488:Cowra, Australia 430:sodium penthanol 339:, December 1944. 247:Allied attitudes 156: 5741: 5740: 5736: 5735: 5734: 5732: 5731: 5730: 5711: 5710: 5709: 5704: 5697: 5690: 5676: 5674: 5662: 5653: 5646: 5639: 5632: 5623: 5616: 5609: 5600: 5595:Atomic bombings 5593: 5586: 5579: 5572: 5565: 5556: 5549: 5542: 5535: 5528: 5521: 5514: 5507: 5500: 5493: 5486: 5479: 5472: 5465: 5458: 5451: 5438: 5431: 5420: 5413: 5406: 5397: 5390: 5383: 5376: 5369: 5362: 5353: 5344: 5337: 5328: 5321: 5314: 5307: 5298: 5291: 5286:Eastern Romania 5284: 5279:Warsaw Uprising 5277: 5272:Tannenberg Line 5270: 5263: 5258:Western Ukraine 5256: 5247: 5240: 5231: 5222: 5213: 5206: 5199: 5188: 5179: 5166: 5159: 5150: 5143: 5136: 5129: 5122: 5115: 5108: 5099: 5092: 5085: 5076: 5069: 5062: 5055: 5050:Battle of Kursk 5048: 5041: 5034: 5027: 5020: 5007: 5000: 4991: 4984: 4977: 4968: 4961: 4954: 4947: 4940: 4931: 4922: 4915: 4908: 4901: 4894: 4887: 4880: 4873: 4866: 4859: 4854:St Nazaire Raid 4852: 4845: 4838: 4825: 4818: 4811: 4804: 4797: 4790: 4783: 4776: 4769: 4762: 4755: 4748: 4741: 4734: 4727: 4720: 4713: 4706: 4699: 4692: 4678: 4669: 4662: 4655: 4648: 4641: 4636:Anglo-Iraqi War 4634: 4627:Battle of Crete 4625: 4618: 4611: 4604: 4597: 4584: 4575: 4568: 4561: 4556:Eastern Romania 4554: 4547: 4540: 4533: 4526: 4519: 4512: 4505: 4498: 4491: 4484: 4477: 4470: 4463: 4456: 4449: 4436: 4429: 4422: 4415: 4408: 4401: 4394: 4387: 4374: 4365: 4358: 4351: 4344: 4337: 4330: 4321: 4314: 4307: 4298: 4291: 4265: 4258: 4251: 4242: 4235: 4230: 4221: 4214: 4207: 4198: 4191: 4182: 4175: 4170: 4163: 4150: 4143: 4134: 4127: 4122: 4117:Western Ukraine 4115: 4108: 4101: 4094: 4087: 4080: 4073: 4066: 4061:Northeast China 4059: 4052: 4045: 4038: 4031: 4024: 4015: 4008: 4001: 3994: 3987: 3980: 3973: 3966: 3959: 3952: 3945: 3938: 3931: 3924: 3917: 3910: 3903: 3896: 3889: 3876: 3869: 3862: 3855: 3848: 3841: 3834: 3827: 3820: 3813: 3806: 3799: 3786: 3779: 3772: 3765: 3760:Slovak Republic 3758: 3750: 3743: 3736: 3731:Empire of Japan 3729: 3720: 3712: 3705: 3698: 3691: 3684: 3677: 3669: 3662: 3655: 3647: 3640: 3627: 3620: 3611: 3604: 3595: 3588: 3581: 3574: 3567: 3560: 3553: 3541: 3534: 3527: 3520: 3513: 3506: 3499: 3492: 3485: 3473: 3466: 3459: 3452: 3445: 3433: 3425: 3418: 3411: 3404: 3397: 3390: 3383: 3371: 3364: 3357: 3350: 3343: 3317: 3308: 3301: 3294: 3287: 3276: 3261: 3254: 3247: 3243:Sexual violence 3242: 3235: 3226: 3219: 3212: 3203: 3196: 3189: 3182: 3175: 3166: 3157: 3150: 3143: 3136: 3129: 3122: 3113: 3106: 3099: 3092: 3079: 3072: 3065: 3058: 3049: 3042: 3035: 3028: 3021: 3012: 3003: 2996: 2989: 2982: 2973: 2966: 2961:Greek Civil War 2959: 2952: 2945: 2938: 2931: 2924: 2917: 2904: 2897: 2888: 2881: 2874: 2865: 2858: 2851: 2844: 2835: 2828: 2821: 2812: 2805: 2798: 2791: 2786:South-East Asia 2784: 2777: 2770: 2757: 2750: 2743: 2736: 2729: 2722: 2715: 2708: 2699: 2692: 2685: 2678: 2671: 2664: 2657: 2650: 2645:Military awards 2643: 2634: 2627: 2620: 2611: 2604: 2597: 2590: 2583: 2576: 2569: 2562: 2555: 2548: 2539: 2532: 2512: 2505: 2498: 2489: 2482: 2475: 2470: 2461: 2454: 2447: 2439: 2434: 2404: 2398: 2379: 2360: 2306: 2304:Further reading 2301: 2295: 2276: 2184: 2149:10.2307/3639455 2133:Krammer, Arnold 2125: 2104: 2083: 2055: 2036: 2007:10.2307/3640895 1986: 1967: 1911: 1855: 1828: 1772: 1749: 1726: 1700: 1681: 1658: 1639: 1618: 1613: 1604: 1603: 1599: 1594: 1590: 1585: 1581: 1573: 1569: 1560: 1556: 1548: 1544: 1539: 1535: 1530: 1526: 1521: 1517: 1512: 1508: 1503: 1496: 1491: 1487: 1482: 1478: 1473: 1469: 1464: 1460: 1455: 1451: 1446: 1442: 1437: 1433: 1428: 1424: 1419: 1415: 1410: 1406: 1396: 1394: 1381: 1380: 1376: 1371: 1367: 1362: 1358: 1353: 1349: 1344: 1340: 1335: 1331: 1326: 1322: 1317: 1313: 1308: 1304: 1299: 1295: 1290: 1283: 1278: 1274: 1269: 1265: 1260: 1256: 1251: 1247: 1242: 1238: 1233: 1229: 1220: 1216: 1211: 1204: 1199: 1195: 1190: 1186: 1181: 1177: 1172: 1163: 1158: 1154: 1149: 1145: 1140: 1136: 1131: 1127: 1122: 1118: 1113: 1109: 1104: 1100: 1095: 1091: 1086: 1082: 1077: 1073: 1068: 1064: 1059: 1055: 1050: 1046: 1041: 1034: 1029: 1016: 1011: 1007: 1002: 998: 985: 981: 976: 969: 964: 960: 955: 951: 946: 942: 937: 928: 923: 919: 914: 910: 905: 898: 893: 889: 884: 877: 872: 865: 860: 856: 851: 847: 837: 835: 822: 821: 817: 812: 808: 799: 797: 789: 788: 784: 779: 775: 770: 766: 761: 757: 752: 745: 740: 736: 731: 724: 709: 700: 695: 688: 684: 655: 628: 612: 595: 543:Royal Air Force 535: 442: 409: 354: 249: 158: 152: 76: 41:surrendered to 23: 12: 11: 5: 5739: 5729: 5728: 5723: 5706: 5705: 5703: 5702: 5695: 5688: 5671: 5668: 5667: 5664: 5663: 5661: 5660: 5659: 5658: 5651: 5644: 5630: 5629: 5628: 5614: 5611:South Sakhalin 5607: 5606: 5605: 5591: 5584: 5577: 5570: 5563: 5562: 5561: 5547: 5540: 5533: 5526: 5519: 5512: 5505: 5498: 5491: 5484: 5477: 5470: 5463: 5456: 5448: 5446: 5440: 5439: 5437: 5436: 5429: 5428: 5427: 5411: 5404: 5403: 5402: 5388: 5381: 5374: 5367: 5360: 5351: 5342: 5335: 5326: 5319: 5312: 5305: 5296: 5289: 5282: 5275: 5268: 5261: 5254: 5245: 5238: 5229: 5220: 5211: 5204: 5197: 5186: 5176: 5174: 5168: 5167: 5165: 5164: 5157: 5156: 5155: 5148: 5134: 5127: 5120: 5113: 5106: 5105: 5104: 5090: 5083: 5074: 5067: 5060: 5053: 5046: 5039: 5036:Battle of Attu 5032: 5025: 5017: 5015: 5009: 5008: 5006: 5005: 4998: 4989: 4982: 4975: 4966: 4959: 4952: 4945: 4938: 4929: 4928: 4927: 4920: 4906: 4899: 4892: 4885: 4878: 4871: 4864: 4857: 4850: 4843: 4835: 4833: 4827: 4826: 4824: 4823: 4816: 4809: 4802: 4795: 4788: 4781: 4778:Battle of Guam 4774: 4767: 4760: 4753: 4746: 4739: 4732: 4725: 4718: 4711: 4704: 4701:Battle of Kiev 4697: 4690: 4676: 4675: 4674: 4660: 4653: 4646: 4639: 4632: 4631: 4630: 4616: 4609: 4602: 4594: 4592: 4586: 4585: 4583: 4582: 4573: 4566: 4559: 4552: 4545: 4538: 4531: 4524: 4517: 4510: 4503: 4496: 4489: 4482: 4475: 4468: 4461: 4454: 4446: 4444: 4438: 4437: 4435: 4434: 4427: 4420: 4413: 4406: 4399: 4392: 4384: 4382: 4376: 4375: 4373: 4372: 4371: 4370: 4363: 4356: 4349: 4342: 4328: 4327: 4326: 4319: 4305: 4304: 4303: 4288: 4286: 4277: 4271: 4270: 4267: 4266: 4264: 4263: 4256: 4249: 4248: 4247: 4240: 4228: 4227: 4226: 4212: 4205: 4204: 4203: 4200:United Kingdom 4196: 4189: 4188: 4187: 4168: 4160: 4158: 4152: 4151: 4149: 4148: 4141: 4140: 4139: 4132: 4120: 4113: 4106: 4099: 4092: 4085: 4078: 4071: 4064: 4057: 4050: 4043: 4036: 4029: 4022: 4021: 4020: 4013: 3999: 3992: 3985: 3978: 3971: 3964: 3957: 3950: 3943: 3936: 3929: 3922: 3915: 3908: 3901: 3894: 3886: 3884: 3878: 3877: 3875: 3874: 3867: 3860: 3853: 3846: 3839: 3832: 3825: 3818: 3811: 3804: 3796: 3794: 3788: 3787: 3785: 3784: 3777: 3770: 3763: 3756: 3748: 3741: 3734: 3727: 3726: 3725: 3710: 3703: 3696: 3689: 3682: 3675: 3667: 3660: 3653: 3645: 3637: 3635: 3629: 3628: 3626: 3625: 3618: 3617: 3616: 3602: 3601: 3600: 3597:British Empire 3590:United Kingdom 3586: 3579: 3572: 3565: 3558: 3551: 3539: 3532: 3525: 3518: 3511: 3504: 3497: 3490: 3483: 3471: 3464: 3457: 3450: 3443: 3431: 3423: 3416: 3409: 3406:Czechoslovakia 3402: 3395: 3388: 3381: 3369: 3362: 3355: 3348: 3340: 3338: 3329: 3323: 3322: 3319: 3318: 3316: 3315: 3314: 3313: 3306: 3303:Rape of Manila 3299: 3292: 3285: 3274: 3259: 3252: 3240: 3233: 3232: 3231: 3224: 3210: 3209: 3208: 3201: 3194: 3180: 3173: 3172: 3171: 3164: 3163: 3162: 3155: 3141: 3134: 3120: 3119: 3118: 3111: 3104: 3089: 3087: 3081: 3080: 3078: 3077: 3074:United Nations 3070: 3063: 3056: 3055: 3054: 3047: 3040: 3033: 3019: 3010: 3001: 2994: 2987: 2980: 2971: 2964: 2957: 2950: 2943: 2936: 2933:Decolonization 2929: 2922: 2914: 2912: 2906: 2905: 2903: 2902: 2895: 2894: 2893: 2879: 2872: 2871: 2870: 2863: 2856: 2842: 2841: 2840: 2833: 2819: 2818: 2817: 2810: 2803: 2796: 2789: 2782: 2767: 2765: 2759: 2758: 2756: 2755: 2748: 2741: 2734: 2727: 2720: 2713: 2706: 2705: 2704: 2697: 2683: 2676: 2669: 2662: 2655: 2648: 2641: 2640: 2639: 2625: 2618: 2617: 2616: 2609: 2606:United Kingdom 2602: 2588: 2581: 2574: 2567: 2560: 2553: 2546: 2545: 2544: 2529: 2527: 2518: 2514: 2513: 2511: 2510: 2503: 2496: 2495: 2494: 2487: 2480: 2468: 2467: 2466: 2452: 2444: 2441: 2440: 2433: 2432: 2425: 2418: 2410: 2403: 2402: 2397:978-1901903942 2396: 2383: 2377: 2364: 2359:978-0578029795 2358: 2345: 2319:(2): 389–405. 2307: 2305: 2302: 2300: 2299: 2294:978-0813129969 2293: 2280: 2274: 2259: 2257:on 2009-05-25. 2240: 2220:10.1086/244883 2203: 2188: 2182: 2169: 2129: 2123: 2108: 2102: 2087: 2081: 2068: 2059: 2053: 2040: 2034: 2019: 1990: 1984: 1971: 1966:978-1591142805 1965: 1952: 1915: 1910:978-0141013824 1909: 1896: 1864:War in History 1859: 1853: 1832: 1827:978-0700616633 1826: 1813: 1776: 1771:978-0813134604 1770: 1753: 1747: 1730: 1724: 1708:Dower, John W. 1704: 1698: 1685: 1680:978-1570037399 1679: 1662: 1656: 1643: 1637: 1619: 1617: 1614: 1612: 1611: 1597: 1588: 1579: 1567: 1554: 1542: 1533: 1524: 1515: 1506: 1494: 1485: 1476: 1467: 1458: 1449: 1440: 1431: 1422: 1413: 1404: 1374: 1365: 1356: 1347: 1338: 1329: 1320: 1311: 1302: 1293: 1281: 1272: 1263: 1254: 1245: 1236: 1227: 1214: 1202: 1193: 1184: 1175: 1161: 1152: 1143: 1134: 1125: 1116: 1107: 1098: 1089: 1080: 1071: 1062: 1053: 1044: 1032: 1014: 1005: 996: 992:978-1932946239 979: 967: 958: 949: 940: 926: 917: 908: 896: 887: 875: 863: 854: 845: 815: 806: 782: 773: 764: 755: 743: 734: 722: 698: 685: 683: 680: 679: 678: 675: 672: 669: 654: 651: 650: 649: 644: 639: 634: 627: 624: 611: 608: 594: 591: 534: 531: 469:, Virginia or 441: 438: 408: 405: 371:Niall Ferguson 353: 350: 292:jungle warfare 248: 245: 208:Niall Ferguson 144: 75: 72: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5738: 5727: 5724: 5722: 5719: 5718: 5716: 5700: 5696: 5693: 5689: 5686: 5685: 5680: 5673: 5672: 5669: 5656: 5652: 5649: 5645: 5642: 5638: 5637: 5635: 5631: 5626: 5622: 5621: 5619: 5618:Kuril Islands 5615: 5612: 5608: 5603: 5599: 5598: 5596: 5592: 5589: 5585: 5582: 5578: 5575: 5571: 5568: 5564: 5559: 5555: 5554: 5552: 5548: 5545: 5541: 5538: 5534: 5531: 5527: 5524: 5520: 5517: 5513: 5510: 5506: 5503: 5499: 5496: 5492: 5489: 5485: 5482: 5478: 5475: 5471: 5468: 5464: 5461: 5457: 5454: 5450: 5449: 5447: 5445: 5441: 5434: 5430: 5425: 5424: 5419: 5418: 5416: 5412: 5409: 5405: 5400: 5396: 5395: 5393: 5389: 5386: 5385:Syrmian Front 5382: 5379: 5375: 5372: 5368: 5365: 5361: 5358: 5357: 5352: 5349: 5348: 5343: 5340: 5336: 5333: 5332: 5331:Market Garden 5327: 5324: 5320: 5317: 5313: 5310: 5306: 5303: 5302: 5297: 5294: 5290: 5287: 5283: 5280: 5276: 5273: 5269: 5266: 5262: 5259: 5255: 5252: 5251: 5246: 5243: 5239: 5236: 5235: 5230: 5227: 5226: 5221: 5218: 5217: 5212: 5209: 5205: 5202: 5198: 5195: 5191: 5190:Monte Cassino 5187: 5184: 5183: 5178: 5177: 5175: 5173: 5169: 5162: 5158: 5153: 5149: 5146: 5142: 5141: 5139: 5135: 5132: 5128: 5125: 5121: 5118: 5114: 5111: 5107: 5102: 5098: 5097: 5095: 5091: 5088: 5084: 5081: 5080: 5075: 5072: 5068: 5065: 5061: 5058: 5054: 5051: 5047: 5044: 5040: 5037: 5033: 5030: 5026: 5023: 5019: 5018: 5016: 5014: 5010: 5003: 4999: 4996: 4995: 4990: 4987: 4983: 4980: 4976: 4973: 4972: 4967: 4964: 4960: 4957: 4953: 4950: 4946: 4943: 4939: 4936: 4935: 4930: 4925: 4921: 4918: 4914: 4913: 4911: 4907: 4904: 4900: 4897: 4893: 4890: 4886: 4883: 4879: 4876: 4872: 4869: 4865: 4862: 4858: 4855: 4851: 4848: 4844: 4841: 4837: 4836: 4834: 4832: 4828: 4821: 4817: 4814: 4810: 4807: 4803: 4800: 4796: 4793: 4789: 4786: 4782: 4779: 4775: 4772: 4768: 4765: 4761: 4758: 4754: 4751: 4747: 4744: 4740: 4737: 4733: 4730: 4726: 4723: 4719: 4716: 4712: 4709: 4705: 4702: 4698: 4695: 4691: 4687: 4686: 4681: 4677: 4672: 4668: 4667: 4665: 4661: 4658: 4654: 4651: 4647: 4644: 4640: 4637: 4633: 4628: 4624: 4623: 4621: 4617: 4614: 4610: 4607: 4603: 4600: 4596: 4595: 4593: 4591: 4587: 4580: 4579: 4574: 4571: 4567: 4564: 4560: 4557: 4553: 4550: 4549:Baltic states 4546: 4543: 4539: 4536: 4532: 4529: 4525: 4522: 4518: 4515: 4511: 4508: 4504: 4501: 4497: 4494: 4490: 4487: 4483: 4480: 4476: 4473: 4469: 4466: 4462: 4459: 4455: 4452: 4448: 4447: 4445: 4443: 4439: 4432: 4428: 4425: 4421: 4418: 4414: 4411: 4407: 4404: 4400: 4397: 4393: 4390: 4386: 4385: 4383: 4381: 4377: 4368: 4364: 4361: 4357: 4354: 4350: 4347: 4343: 4340: 4336: 4335: 4333: 4329: 4324: 4320: 4317: 4313: 4312: 4310: 4306: 4301: 4297: 4296: 4294: 4290: 4289: 4287: 4285: 4281: 4278: 4276: 4272: 4261: 4257: 4254: 4250: 4245: 4241: 4238: 4234: 4233: 4229: 4224: 4220: 4219: 4217: 4213: 4210: 4206: 4201: 4197: 4194: 4193:United States 4190: 4185: 4181: 4180: 4178: 4174: 4173: 4169: 4166: 4162: 4161: 4159: 4157: 4153: 4146: 4142: 4137: 4133: 4130: 4129:Quốc dân Đảng 4126: 4125: 4121: 4118: 4114: 4111: 4107: 4104: 4100: 4097: 4093: 4090: 4086: 4083: 4079: 4076: 4072: 4069: 4065: 4062: 4058: 4055: 4051: 4048: 4044: 4041: 4037: 4034: 4030: 4027: 4023: 4018: 4014: 4011: 4007: 4006: 4004: 4000: 3997: 3993: 3990: 3986: 3983: 3979: 3976: 3972: 3969: 3965: 3962: 3958: 3955: 3951: 3948: 3944: 3941: 3937: 3934: 3930: 3927: 3923: 3920: 3916: 3913: 3909: 3906: 3902: 3899: 3895: 3892: 3888: 3887: 3885: 3883: 3879: 3872: 3868: 3865: 3861: 3858: 3854: 3851: 3847: 3844: 3840: 3837: 3833: 3830: 3829:Liechtenstein 3826: 3823: 3819: 3816: 3812: 3809: 3805: 3802: 3798: 3797: 3795: 3793: 3789: 3782: 3781:Collaboration 3778: 3775: 3771: 3768: 3764: 3761: 3757: 3753: 3749: 3746: 3742: 3739: 3735: 3732: 3728: 3723: 3719: 3718: 3715: 3711: 3708: 3704: 3701: 3697: 3694: 3690: 3687: 3683: 3680: 3676: 3672: 3668: 3665: 3661: 3658: 3654: 3650: 3646: 3643: 3639: 3638: 3636: 3634: 3630: 3623: 3619: 3614: 3610: 3609: 3607: 3606:United States 3603: 3598: 3594: 3593: 3591: 3587: 3584: 3580: 3577: 3573: 3570: 3566: 3563: 3559: 3556: 3552: 3548: 3544: 3540: 3537: 3533: 3530: 3526: 3523: 3519: 3516: 3512: 3509: 3505: 3502: 3498: 3495: 3491: 3488: 3484: 3480: 3476: 3472: 3469: 3465: 3462: 3458: 3455: 3451: 3448: 3444: 3440: 3436: 3432: 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Japanese prisoners of war in World War II

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