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on the land since the beginning, before colonization. Brondo, quoting an article written by JosĂ© MartĂnez Cobo, states that indigenous peoples are those who have been on territories before the invasion and are considered different from other societies that have existed there. This was then taken up by numerous international organizations looking to advocate rights for indigenous peoples. They concluded that indigenous people need the land they came from and use of the resources found there in order to survive. The United
Nations then drafted a declaration of rights for indigenous peoples, and many organizations for the rights of indigenous peoples were subsequently formed. In addition, it was declared that the taking away of one's territory and control of resources was considered to be cultural ethnocide and a violation of human rights. Cultural ethnocide was likened to genocide, as wiping out the culture of an area is the same as killing people of a certain type. A turning point in the way of thinking of the indigenous was the revision of ILO 107, which was considered quite racist, according to Brondo. In 1989, it was made into ILO 169, which acknowledged the fact that indigenous societies were permanent parts of society and deserved to have the same rights as every other part of society. By 2007, the United Nations had evolved to create universal standards for indigenous people and they decided to leave the term indigenous up for interpretation. There was no longer a concrete definition for what is an indigenous group, and it could be any group with ties to pre-colonial land.
20:
679:
after the finalization of a deal. The approval process, in particular, can be cumbersome: It varies from approval by a simple district-level office to approval by multiple national-level government offices and is very subjective and discretionary. In
Ethiopia, companies must first obtain an investment license from the central government, identify appropriate land on the district level and negotiate with local leaders, then develop a contract with the regional investment office. Afterwards, the government will undertake a project feasibility study and capital verification process, and finally a lease agreement will be signed and land will be transferred to the investor. In
664:. This points to the vast diversity of investors and projects involved with land acquisitions: the land sizes, crop types, and investors involved vary wildly between agreements. Of these projects, 30% were still in an exploratory stage, with 70% approved but in varying stages of development. 18% had not started yet, 30% were in initial development stages, and 21% had started farming. The strikingly low proportion of projects that had initiated farming signifies the difficulties inherent in large-scale agricultural production in the developing world.
671:, as opposed to outright purchases, of land. These leases often range between 25 and 99 years. Such leases are usually undertaken between national or district governments and investors. Because the majority of land in Africa is categorized as ânon-private" as a result of government policies on public land ownership and a lack of active titling, governments own or control most of the land that is available for purchase or lease. Purchases are much less common than leases due to a number of countriesâ constitutional bans on
1125:,â leading to a lack of reporting requirements or monitoring arrangements, key information on land uses and value of the investment, and checks on economic viability. The Sudanese government has been noted as having paid minimal attention to existing land rights and neglecting to conduct any economic analysis on potential projects. In addition, many countries, including Cambodia, Congo, Sudan, and Ghana, have neglected to catalog and file even general geographical descriptions of land allocation boundaries.
3506:
31:. A settler ("R.W.P." ?) moves to the Northwest Territories, only to find multiple signs telling him that there is no land available for him: "Reserved for Friends of the Governm't", "This Land Sold to Speculators", "Gov't Land Policy: Keep Off'n The Grass", "Keep Off Grass", "This Lot Not for Sale", "Go West", "This Land is Sold to an English Company", and "Parties Wishing to Secure Land in Canada, Go to
1347:
diligence suggesting that states âshould set out clearly the expectation that all business enterprises domiciled in their territory and/or jurisdiction respect human rights throughout their operationsâ and notes that âat present States are not generally required under international human rights law to regulate the extraterritorial activities of businesses domiciled in their territory and/or jurisdiction.
1015:
intentionally excluded from negotiations, as investors tried to delegitimize their claims on land. This led to a lack of awareness on the part of these vulnerable groups until lease agreements have already been signed to transfer land. This oversight in consultations further disenfranchises previously overlooked communities and worsens power inequities in local villages.
991:
issues. In Ghana and elsewhere, chiefs often negotiated directly with investors without the input from other villagers, taking it upon themselves to sell common land or village land on their own. Moreover, investors often had obtained approval for their projects before beginning consultations, and lacked any contractual obligation to carry out promises made to villagers.
645:
their reports, implying that the actual total land covered could more than double the World Bank's reported 46 million ha. The most recent estimate of the scale, based on evidence presented in April 2011 at an international conference convened by the Land Deal
Politics Initiative, estimated the area of land deals at over 80 million ha.
1226:, signifying a renewed economic imperialism of developed over developing nations. Critics have pointed to the acquisitions of large tracts of land for economic profit, with little perceived benefit for local populations or target nations as a whole, as a renewal of the economically exploitative practices of the colonial period.
1425:(Environmental Justice Organisations, Liabilities and Trade) is building a global map of land grabbing, with the aim to make an interactive online map on this and many other environmental justice issue by 2013. The project also produces in-depth resources on land grabbing, such as a video on land grabbing in Ethiopia.
1170:
production quantity, as touted by investors and hosts, are exemplified by
Ethiopia's Abera Deressa, who claims that "foreign investors should help boost agricultural output by as much as 40%" throughout Ethiopia. However, large-scale mechanized agricultural production often entails the use of fertilizers and
1358:
He read that the UN's
Guiding Principles propose that âcontracts should always be publicly disclosed when the public interest is impacted; namely cases where the project presents either large-scale or significant social, economic, or environmental risks or opportunities, or involves the depletion of
1342:
He found the report stresses that âfurther analysis is needed to identify the benefits and opportunities of each entry point, as well as potential limitations, challenges, and risks around future campaigns which would need to be addressed from the startâ and notes that as of early 2013 there is a gap
644:
or 46,000,000 hectares (110,000,000 acres) in large-scale farmland acquisitions or negotiations were announced between
October 2008 and August 2009 alone, with two-thirds of demanded land concentrated in Sub-Saharan Africa. Of the World Bank's 464 examined acquisitions, only 203 included land area in
97:
or 100,000 hectares (250,000 acres) and thus much larger than in the past. The term is itself controversial. In 2011, Borras, Hall and others wrote that "the phrase 'global land grab' has become a catch-all to describe and analyze the current trend towards large scale (trans)national commercial land
1074:
starts by mentioning how indigenous rights are so important to the
Garifuna and their dispute over territory. One of the main points Brondo makes in this excerpt is the relationship between being indigenous and the right to territory. Traditionally, indigenous peoples are usually those who have been
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and a perception by communities that customary systems are sufficient. World Bank researchers have found that there existed a strong negative statistical link between land tenure recognition and prospective land acquisitions, with a smaller yet still significant relationship for implemented projects
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He claims that they are not generally prohibited from doing so either, provided there is a recognised jurisdictional basisâ and says the report notes that some states have introduced domestic measures with extraterritorial implications. âExamples include requirements on âparentâ companies to report
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The methods surrounding the negotiation, approval, and follow-up of contracts between investors and governments have attracted significant criticism for their opacity and complexity. The negotiation and approval processes have been closed in most cases, with little public disclosure both during and
152:
reported in
January 2013, that with limited data available in general and existing data associated with NGOs interested in generating media attention in particular, the scale of global land trade may have been exaggerated. They found the figures below provide a variety of estimates, all in the tens
1417:
In a joint research project between the FAO, IIED, and IFAD, Cotula et al. found that the majority of host countries lacked basic data on the size, nature, and location of land acquisitions through land registries or other public sources, and that "researchers needed to make multiple contacts...to
1346:
The researcher found that the UN's
Guiding Principles for Business and Human Rights, written by the former UN Special Representative to the Secretary General for Business and Human Rights, Professor John Ruggie provide some discussion of how business enterprises need to undertake human rights due
1169:
Foreign investors, through large-scale agriculture, increase the effectiveness of underused resources of land, labor, and water, while further providing additional market connections, large-scale infrastructure development, and provision of seeds, fertilizers, and technology. Proposed increases in
1128:
One addition to many contracts between governments and investors is a
Stabilisation Clause, which insulates investors from the effect of changed governmental regulations. Such clauses severely restrict the government's ability to change any regulations that would have a negative economic impact on
877:
and distribution. When the food price crisis hit, risk was transferred from primary production to the price-sensitive processing and distribution fields, and returns became concentrated in primary production. This has incentivized agribusinesses to vertically integrate to reduce supplier risk that
228:
Most seem to arrive at a ballpark of 20â60 million hectares. Given that total global farmland takes up just over 4 billion hectares, these acquisitions could equate to around 1 per cent of global farmland. However, in practice, land acquired may not have previously been used as farmland, it may be
125:
Much is said about grilagem and the term may be curious ... document aged by the action of insects ... However, for those who live in the interior of the country, the expression effectively reveals a dark, heavy, violent meaning, involving abuses and arbitrary actions against the former occupants,
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and, even in cases where they were, lacked the ability to interact with investors or to explore ways to use their land more productively." When consultations were even conducted, they often did not produce written agreements and were found to be superficial, glossing over environmental and social
337:
The researchers found that in terms of value of transnational land acquisitions, it is even harder to come across figures. Media reports usually just give information on the area and not on the value of the land transaction. Investment estimates, rather than the price of purchase are occasionally
240:
The researchers thought that a sizeable number of deals remain questionable in terms of size and whether they have been finalised and implemented. The land database often relies on one or two media sources and may not track whether the investments take place, or whether the full quantity reported
1120:
In addition to the lack of coordination between ministries, there is a wide knowledge gap between government-level offices and investors, leading to a rushed and superficial investment review. Many government agencies initially overwhelmed by the deluge of investment proposals failed to properly
1445:
In Myanmar, a 2018 amendment to the 2012 Vacant, Fallow and Virgin Lands Management Law has affects for millions of rural peoples, requiring registration of land and private land ownership. Failure to register land can result in criminal punishments for remaining on that land. The new amendment
1433:
In Madagascar, the anger among the population about land sales led to violent protests. The South Korean corporation Daewoo was in the process of negotiations with the Malagasy government for the purchase of 1.3 million hectares, half of all agricultural land, to produce corn and palm oil. This
1002:
of promises made by investors, and other issues. The inability of villagers to see and study the laws and regulations around land sales severely deteriorates communities' agency in consultations. When consultations do occur with communities, some take place in spans of only two to three months,
927:
The effect of the rise in popularity in biofuels was two-fold: first, demand for land for biofuel production became a primary driver of land sales in Sub-Saharan Africa; second, demand for biofuels production crowded out supply of traditional food crops worldwide. By crowding out food crops and
1397:
The UK encourages companies to abide by OECD guidelines for multinational enterprises which provide voluntary principles and standards for responsible business conduct for multinational corporations operating in or from countries adhering to the OECD Declaration on International Investment and
923:
in April 2009, which set 10% mandatory targets for renewable energy use, primarily biofuels, out of the total consumption of fuel for transport, by 2020. Taken as a whole, the rise in biofuels popularity, while perhaps beneficial for the environment, sparked a chain reaction by making biofuels
1408:
Overall, he summaries that the report notes that although these various instruments ârecognise secrecy and lack of access to information to be a problem, they give almost no detail as to how it should be tackled in practice, nor do any mandatory provisions yet exist to ensure such an implicit
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acting as the investments arms of governments have initiated a number of agreements in Sub-Saharan Africa. Since the population of the Gulf states is set to double from 30 million in 2000 to 60 million in 2030, their reliance on food imports is set to increase from the current level of 60% of
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holds numerous negative consequences for local populations. Most deals are based on the eventual formation of plantation-style farming, whereupon the investing company will own the land and employ locals as laborers in large-scale agricultural plots. The number of jobs created varies greatly
421:
They determined that the Land Portal also reports investments made by investors within their home country and after stripping these out found only 26 million hectares of transnational land acquisitions which strips out a lot of the Asian investments. The largest destination countries include
1014:
rarely included women in consultations and never presented official reports and documents for authorization by women. This holds true when women are the primary workers on the land that is to be leased out to companies. Meanwhile, pastoralists and internally displaced people were oftentimes
1182:
over the long run. Over time, such intensive farming threatens to degrade the quality of topsoil and damage local waterways and ecosystems. As such, civil society actors have widely accused land investors for promoting "not agricultural development, much less rural development, but simply
1351:
on the global operations of the entire enterprise; multilateral soft-law instruments such as the Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises of the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development; and performance standards required by institutions that support overseas investments.
968:: In a 2003 study, the World Bank estimated that only between 2 and 10 percent of total land in Africa is formally tenured. Much of the lack of private ownership is due to government ownership of land as a function of national policy, and also because of complicated procedures for
389:
There is significant uncertainty around the value of transnational land acquisitions, particularly given leasing arrangements. Given the quantity of land and the size of investment funds operating in the area, it is likely that the value will be in the tens of billions of dollars.
985:
Consultations have been found extremely problematic due to the fact that they often reach just village chiefs but neglect common villagers and disenfranchised groups. World Bank researchers noted that "a key finding from case studies is that communities were rarely aware of their
298:
The researchers claim these are only those that have been checked, and already amount to nearly 10 per cent of the GRAIN database transnational land acquisitions. Deals are reported that use the estimate of the full extent of land that the firm expects to use. For example,
1442:. Heilberg, who is planning to invest in 800,000 ha of land in partnership with many of Sudan's top civilian officials, attracted criticism with his remarks (regarding Africa and land grabbing) that "the whole place is like one big sewer — and I'm like a plumber."
1297:
He discussed the UNâs Guiding Principles for Business and Human Rights which address the extraterritorial obligations of states over overseas business enterprises and finds the principles do not provide any detailed discussion of the UK case, or of timeframes and costs.
1274:
He found this focus was confirmed by a range of other documents reviewing address international efforts to promote responsible investment in agriculture and recommended the International Working Group paper and Smaller & Mann. The researcher mentions a report by the
224:, without compensation for the local owners, and allocated to immigrants for new settlements and for the establishment of mostly large farms. Water for the local population became extremely sparse. In 2016, as a part of a permanent process 300 acres of land were added.
805:
companies. Many European- and American-owned investment vehicles and agricultural producers have initiated investments as well. These actors have been motivated by a number of factors, including cheap land, potential for improving agricultural production, and rising
1418:
access even superficial and incomplete information." The World Bank's own lack of land size information on over half of the reported land grabs that it researched points to the difficulties inherent in gaining access to and researching individual land acquisitions.
1282:
The researcher saw Smaller and Mann note that in many host states like the UK âthere is either no, or insufficient or unclear domestic law concerning land rights, water rights, pollution controls for intensive agriculture, human health, worker protection and so on.
818:
also contributes to a significant amount of large-scale land acquisition, as do several other processes: Zoomers mentions drivers such as the creation of protected areas and nature reserves, residential migration, large-scale tourist complexes and the creation of
981:
While commonly required by law in many host countries, the consultation process between investors and local populations have been criticized for not adequately informing communities of their rights, negotiating powers, and entitlements within land transactions.
899:
consumption. The director general of the Arab Organisation for Agricultural Development echoed the sentiment of many Gulf leaders in proclaiming, "the whole Arab World needs of cereal, sugar, fodder and other essential foodstuffs could be met by Sudan alone."
1069:
A specific instance of how land grabbing has displaced people is what happened to the Garifuna people of the Caribbean. Author K.V. Brondo has published a book on the relation between land grab and the Garifuna resistance. A specific excerpt from the book
1437:
In Sudan, numerous large-scale land acquisitions have taken place in spite of the country's unresolved political and security situation. One of the most prominent, involving a former GRAPE partner named Phil Heilberg, garnered attention by playing in
881:
While company-originated investments have originated from a wide range of countries, government-backed investments have originated primarily from the food-insecure Gulf States. Examples of such government-backed investments include the government of
627:
has done some significant deals by size, some driven by food deals, with Saudi Arabia a smaller number, this is not the dominant trend. While this aspect of land trade has gathered much media attention, it is not by any means a comprehensive story.
956:. These issues have contributed to critics' characterization of much large-scale investment since 2007 as "land grabbing", irrespective of differences in the types of investments and the ultimate impact that investments have on local populations.
1370:
The researcher states that the Global Witness et al. paper details a number of international instruments that âcreate obligations and responsibilities throughout all stages of decision-making around large-scale land investmentsâ, including the
1129:
the investment. While advantageous for businesses, these stabilization clauses would severely hinder the ability of governments to address possible social and/or environmental concerns that become apparent after the beginning of the project.
1354:
The researcher found other approaches amount to direct extraterritorial legislation and enforcement including criminal regimes that allow for prosecutions based on the nationality of the perpetrator no matter where the offence occursâ
1121:
screen out non-viable proposals. Due to the knowledge gaps between government agencies and investors, âin most countries it is implicitly presumed that investors will have the right incentive and be the best qualified to assess
738:
farmers produce crops by themselves. Implicit in the characterization of African agriculture as "underdeveloped" is the rejection of local communities' traditional methods of harvesting as an inadequate form of food production.
973:
as well. They concluded that "lower recognition of land rights increased a country's attractiveness for land acquisition," implying that companies have actively sought out areas with low land recognition rights for investment.
2935:
International Working Group on the Food Security Pillar of the G20 Multi-Year Action Plan on Development (2011) âOptions for Promoting Responsible Investment in Agricultureâ, Report to the High-Level Development Working Group
1157:
to improve upon existing "unproductive" agricultural methods. The threat of the conversion of much of Africa's land to such large-scale agriculture has provoked a severe pushback from many civil society organizations such as
385:âPrivate capital investment in farming in expected to more than double to around $ 5 billion-$ 7 billion in the next couple of years from an estimated $ 2.5 billion-$ 3 billion invested in the last couple of yearsâ.
134:
applies to irregular procedures and / or illegal private landholding with violence in the countryside, exploitation of wealth, environmental damage and the threat to sovereignty, given their gigantic proportions.
910:
production, currently comprising 21% of total land investments, has played a significant, if at times unclear, role. The use and popularity of biofuels has grown over the past decade, corresponding with rising
61:
fears within the developed world and newfound economic opportunities for agricultural investors, the food price crisis caused a dramatic spike in large-scale agricultural investments, primarily foreign, in the
878:
has been heightened by the ongoing food price volatility. These companies hold mixed attitudes towards food imports and exports: While some concentrate on food exports, others focus on domestic markets first.
758:
has noted that investors are often better off learning how to navigate the bureaucracies and potentially pay off corrupt officers of governments rather than developing viable, sustainable business plans.
1039:, gender-specific erosion of social networks. Villagers were most often compensated as according to national guidelines for loss of land, loss of improvements over time on the land, and sometimes future
1401:
The researcher read the Global Witness et al. report also finds that âa number of instruments offer companies the opportunity to associate themselves with a set of principles or goals that demonstrate
1362:
He found Global Witness et al. state that governments and businesses often claim that confidentiality is necessarily to protect commercially sensitive information contained in investment contracts.
341:
They found a number of reports in land databases are not acquisitions, but are long-term leases, where a fee is paid or a certain proportion of the produce goes to domestic markets. For example:
1343:
between the extent to which individual states fulfill their obligations to regulate businesses overseas, and âthe extent to which such regulations cover transparency and information disclosureâ
77:
Although hailed by investors, economists and some developing countries as a new pathway towards agricultural development, investment in land in the 21st century has been criticized by some
250:
592:
and the GRAIN database show that the UK and the US are major players in transnational land acquisitions. This is agribusiness firms, as well as investment funds, investing mostly in
771:
enforces in a stricter way a long-existing law that limits the size of farmland properties foreigners may purchase, having halted a large part of projected foreign land purchases.
726:
The issue of agricultural development is a significant driving factor, within the larger umbrella of development, in target governments' agreement to investment by outsiders. The
2988:
1376:
1214:
of c. 75 Gt/y. For comparison, the world's rivers, for example, produce c. 54 Gt/y. Proportionally, by area, agriculture-related land grabbing could account for c. 0.6 Gt/y.
838:
trying to expand their holdings and react to market incentives, and government-backed investments, especially from the Gulf states, as a result of fears surrounding national
1294:
on investment, with both bodies acting on a commercial perspective and focusing on economic interests of foreign investors, rather than social or environmental dimensions
1286:
The researcher did find that international law framework provides hard rights for foreign investors with two primary sources of international law relating to this issue:
2325:
Zoomers, A. (2010) âGlobalization and the foreignization of space: The seven processes driving the current global land grabâ. Journal of Peasant Studies. 37:2, 429-447.
1291:
1035:
in marginal lands, restricting their use of resources on common land (such as water, grazing, and forests), resulting in loss of livelihoods especially in the case of
2989:"Report of the Special Representative of the SecretaryGeneral on the issue of human rights and transnational corporations and other business enterprises, John Ruggie"
1287:
3028:
3201:
1044:
944:
Large-scale investments in land since 2007 have been scrutinized by civil society organizations, researchers, and other organizations because of issues such as
999:
1398:
Multinational Enterprises, including detailed guidance concerning information disclosure. However they do not, provide any specific recommendations on land.
715:, roads, and in some cases hospitals and schools to carry out their investment projects. In return for a below-market-rate $ 10/ha annual payment for land,
1372:
1122:
2245:
730:
government's acceptance of cash crop-based land acquisitions reflects its belief that switching to cash crop production would be even more beneficial for
2906:
Laws and Regulations Concerning Reporting of Foreign Investment in Land, Economic and Private Sector Professional Evidence And Applied Knowledge Services
1276:
230:
2438:
1279:
stating a âsignificant lack of concrete and verifiableâ empirically based policy and legal work on the issue of foreign investment in agricultural land
919:. The total area under biofuel crops more than doubled between 2004 and 2008, expanding to 36 million ha by 2008. This rise in popularity culminated in
2018:
605:
778:, as of September 2011, a projected law is discussed in parliament that would restrict the size of land foreign entities can acquire to 1000 hectare.
2354:
2124:
1101:
1066:, sources of income, and livelihoods. This holds drastic impacts especially in the case of women, who rely greatly upon such informal relationships.
945:
952:
of local peoples, employment of local people, the process of negotiations between investors and governments, and the environmental consequences of
398:
Researchers used the Land Portal's Land Matrix database of 49 billion hectares of land deals, and found that Asia is a big centre of activity with
1109:
49:
While used broadly throughout history, land grabbing as used in the 21st century primarily refers to large-scale land acquisitions following the
1003:
casting doubt on whether such short time frames can be considered as adequate consultation for such large, wide-reaching, and impactful events.
1446:
heavily affects ethnic areas and internally displaced peoples. Unregistered land has been claimed by or sold to private agribusiness ventures.
93:
The term "land grabbing" is defined as very large-scale land acquisitions, either buying or leasing. The size of the land deal is multiples of
2730:
Agriculture at Crossroads: International Assessment of Agricultural Knowledge, Science and Technology for Development, Science, and Technology
1856:
814:
prices. Building on these motivations, investments can be broken down into three main categories: food, biofuel, and speculative investment.
589:
490:
169:
165:
2298:
2270:
1043:. However, compensation guidelines vary significantly between countries and depending on the types of projects undertaken. One study by the
853:
identifies three areas in which multinational companies can leverage economies of scale: access to cheap international rather than domestic
933:
807:
363:
158:
750:. Given the ad hoc, decentralized, and unorganized approval processes across countries for such transactions, the potential for lapses in
3169:"Land grabbing and human rights: The involvement of European corporal and financial entities in land grabbing outside the European Union"
378:
106:, structure, and outcomes of commercial land deals and deflects attention from the roles of domestic elites and governments as partners,
1434:
investment, while one of many pursued in Madagascar, attracted considerable attention there and led to protests against the government.
845:
Agricultural sector companies most often view investment in land as an opportunity to leverage their significant monetary resources and
687:, the Ministry of Lands and Housing Development, and the Ministry of Environment, among which communication is oftentimes intermittent.
2995:
3078:
2034:
3044:
2956:
2526:"Large scale land investments, household displacement and the effect on land degradation in semiarid agro-pastoral areas of Ethiopia"
2513:. Cape Town: 2010 Institute for Poverty Land and Agrarian Studies: Regional Workshop on Commercialization of Land in Southern Africa.
271:
246:
1957:
2702:
2925:
Dealing with Disclosure: Improving Transparency in Decision-Making over Large Scale Land Acquisitions, Allocations and Investments
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Balehegn, Mulubrhan (2015-03-04). "Unintended Consequences: The Ecological Repercussions of Land Grabbing in Sub-Saharan Africa".
2339:. Washington D.C.: Presented at the conference "Land Governance in support of the MDGs: responding to New Challenges," World Bank.
3093:
1238:
could change its laws and regulations to require UK companies investing in land in developing countries to report relevant data.
369:
Researchers discovered global investment funds are reported to have sizeable funds available for transnational land investments.
185:
database published in January 2012, quantified 35 million hectares, although when stripping out more developed economies such as
2746:
834:-driven investments, which comprise roughly 37% of land investments worldwide, are undertaken primarily by two sets of actors:
161:(IFPRI) estimated in 2009 between 15 and 20 million hectares of farmland in developing countries had changed hands since 2006.
1380:
3168:
345:
An Indian investment in Ethiopia, where price per hectare ranged from $ 1.20 to $ 8 per hectare per year on 311,000 hectares
3551:
1391:
1930:
3025:
2924:
683:, even though the Tanzania Investment Centre facilitates investments, an investor must obtain approval from the TIC, the
366:âs 2009 data to be 15 to 20 million hectares of farmland in developing countries, worth about $ 20 billion-$ 30 billion.
50:
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are rarely, if ever, addressed in contracts. This fact, combined with the intrinsic incentives towards mechanization in
3208:
2381:
1387:
641:
94:
53:. Obtaining water resources is usually critical to the land acquisitions, so it has also led to an associated trend of
19:
2398:
1771:
849:
to take advantage of underused land, diversify their holdings, and vertically integrate their production systems. The
649:
2842:
1222:
Foreign investment in land has been criticized by many civil society actors and individuals as a new realization of
3541:
2623:
1153:
agriculture. As foreign investors begin to develop the land, they will, for the most part, start a shift towards
1024:
949:
1096:-style production, can lead to much lower employment than originally planned for. When employed, locals are often
172:
data totalled 49 million hectares of deals globally, although only 26 million hectares of these are transnational.
3268:
1402:
798:
2937:
2104:
924:
production a more attractive option than food production and drawing land away from food to biofuel production.
928:
forcing conversion of existing food-producing land to biofuels, biofuels production had a direct impact on the
149:
3479:
2444:
78:
2579:
2015:
623:
The smaller trend is the picture of Middle Eastern investors or State-backed Chinese investments. While the
1335:
1315:
1254:
1250:
2360:
1334:
a range of additional entry points for future policy work and campaigning, which includes addressing the â
1260:
The researcher found most available literature and policy on transparency in land investment focusing on:
3256:
2744:
Wilkinson, B. H.; McElroy B. J. (2007). "The impact of humans on continental erosion and sedimentation".
2544:
1183:
agribusiness development." This trend towards large-scale agriculture that overrides local knowledge and
42:
is the large-scale acquisition of land through buying or leasing of large pieces of land by domestic and
1267:
Upgrading obligations/capacities of host governments to improve regulation of foreign-funded land deals.
3556:
3531:
3066:
2603:
1711:
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estimated that biofuels had accounted for 30 percent of the increase in weighted average grain prices.
920:
3351:
1088:
dependent on commodity type and style of farming planned. In spite of this volatility, guarantees of
1058:
There are a number of issues with the process of relocating locals to other areas where land is less
858:
373:
One estimate suggests â$ 100 billion waiting to be invested by 120 investment groupsâ while already â
241:
takes place. For example, a number of deals in the GRAIN database appear to have stalled, including:
43:
2198:
Land grab or development opportunity? Agricultural investment and international land deals in Africa
1010:
and underrepresented populations are often left outside during the process. Large-scale projects in
410:
contributes a further 10 per cent of land deals. The majority of investment is in the production of
1318:
which identifies four key entry points for improving transparency in large-scale land acquisition:
742:
On a smaller scale, some deals can be traced to a personal stake in the project or possibly due to
2479:
Pearce, F. (2012). The land grabbers: The new fight over who owns the Earth. Boston: Beacon Press.
1864:
1062:. In the process of relocation, often changed or lost are historical methods of farming, existing
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3484:
3377:
3122:""A Declaration of War on Us": The 2018 VFV Law Amendment and its Impact on Ethnic Nationalities"
2302:
2274:
1982:
1677:
1662:
916:
684:
217:
355:
of Saudi Arabia was reported to be paying $ 125,000 per year for 105,000 hectares in South Sudan
178:
Friis & Reenberg (2012) reported in 2012 between 51 and 63 million hectares in Africa alone.
3339:
3322:
1647:
1154:
1138:
1028:
953:
2006:
Byerlee, Derek and Deininger, Klaus (2011), Rising Global Interest in Farmland, The World Bank
652:, with one-quarter over 200,000 ha and one-quarter under 10,000 ha. 37% of projects deal with
229:
covered by forests, which also equate to about 4 billion hectares worldwide, so transnational
3384:
895:
866:
820:
489:
The researchers found a mixed picture in terms of the origins of investors. According to the
28:
3121:
2563:
Brondo, K.V. "Land grab: Green neoliberalism, gender, and Garifuna resistance in Honduras".
1705:
Borras Jr., Saturnino M.; Ruth Hall; Ian Scoones; Ben White; Wendy Wolford (24 March 2011).
98:
transactions." Ruth Hall wrote elsewhere that the "term 'land grabbing', while effective as
3536:
3489:
3317:
3297:
2813:
2755:
2657:
1706:
1642:
1617:
1179:
708:
696:
672:
613:
506:
16:
Large-scale acquisition of land (over 1,000 ha) whether by purchase, leases or other means.
1746:
1229:
723:." Governments also count new job creation as a significant feature of land acquisitions.
8:
3307:
3290:
1595:
1032:
887:
325:
2817:
2759:
2661:
3425:
3372:
3332:
2681:
1835:
1728:
1235:
870:
328:'s deal reported at 169,000 hectares, despite their plans to reach just 50,000 by 2020.
310:
3026:
http://www.globalwitness.org/sites/default/files/library/Dealing_with_disclosure_1.pdf
2524:
Bekele, Adugna Eneyew; Drabik, Dusan; Dries, Liesbeth; Heijman, Wim (September 2020).
2440:
The Impact of Europe's Policies and Practices on African Agriculture and Food Security
2337:
Institutional Investment into Agricultural Activities: Potential Benefits and Pitfalls
2151:
1365:
1264:
Facilitating community engagement in planning decisions and enhancing community rights
1203:
over the long term, sustainable peasant agriculture must be encouraged and supported.
3510:
3312:
3246:
3241:
3194:
2685:
2673:
2525:
1839:
1732:
1667:
1311:
1246:
1175:
1171:
969:
636:
Other estimates of the scope of land acquisition, published in September 2010 by the
352:
82:
2106:
Rising Global Interest in Farmland: Can it Yield Sustainable and Equitable Benefits?
998:
between investors and local populations regarding the land acquisition process, the
481:
investors. Represented in the media as the norm they seem to be more the exception.
3389:
3302:
3280:
3236:
3231:
2821:
2763:
2665:
1825:
1720:
1707:"Towards a better understanding of global land grabbing: an editorial introduction"
1632:
1605:
1386:
He found several thematic binding agreements also examined in the report: the 1992
1207:
1174:
techniques that have been criticized by numerous civil society actors as extremely
1163:
1104:
in Ethiopia, workers are paid on average under $ 2 a day, with a minimum wage of 8
175:
A 2011 World Bank report by Klaus Deininger reported 56 million hectares worldwide.
2669:
2469:. Testimony for US Senate Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs.
1301:
3420:
3251:
3032:
2022:
1830:
1813:
1767:
Regulating Land Grabs: Third Party States, Social Activism, and International Law
1724:
874:
751:
67:
1137:
Land investment has been criticized for its implicit endorsement of large-scale
932:/demand balance and consequently the food price crisis. One researcher from the
3457:
3452:
3437:
3394:
3327:
2957:"A Thirst for Distant Lands: Foreign investment in agricultural land and water"
2608:
2219:
2194:
1672:
1652:
1637:
1622:
1463:
1455:
1307:
1242:
1234:
A 2013 report found no available literature giving recommendations for how the
1223:
1105:
1059:
862:
854:
720:
609:
557:
494:
107:
54:
3147:
1331:
multi-stakeholder initiatives, independent oversight and grievance mechanismsâ
719:
promised "to bring clinics, schools, better roads and electricity supplies to
3525:
3462:
3447:
3344:
2938:
http://archive.unctad.org/sections/dite_dir/docs//diae_dir_2011-06_G20_en.pdf
2677:
2436:
2196:
2035:"Farm private investment seen doubling in two years - Alberta Farmer Express"
1762:
1627:
1600:
1211:
1200:
995:
846:
839:
731:
533:
498:
358:
A South Korean investor in Peru was reported to be paying $ 0.80 per hectare.
234:
111:
58:
3474:
3415:
1657:
1575:
1150:
1089:
1047:
concluded that guidelines for compensation given to displaced villagers in
891:
835:
790:
747:
700:
617:
573:
569:
510:
374:
307:
is reported at 300,000 hectares, currently operating on just 1,000 hectares
63:
2490:
2246:"Ethiopia Plans to Rent Out Belgium-Sized Land Area to Produce Cash Crops"
1270:
Developing international frameworks to improve transparency in land deals.
3469:
3430:
3263:
2843:"Fears for the world's poor countries as the rich grab land to grow food"
2781:
Hooke, R. LeB. (1994). "On the efficacy of humans as geomorphic agents".
2016:
http://www.westerninvestor.com/index.php/news/55-features/764-land-values
1791:
1682:
1610:
1590:
1580:
1498:
1184:
1063:
1036:
1023:
Another criticism of investment in land is the potential for large-scale
987:
965:
929:
794:
563:
474:
442:
190:
2542:
465:
They found the reason seems to be biofuels expansion with exceptions in
377:
has spent $ 800 million on overseas farmsâ. In 2011, a farm consultancy
2923:
Global Witness, Oakland Institute, International Land Coalition, 2012,
2905:
2826:
2799:
2195:
Cotula, Lorenzo; Sonja Vermeulen; Rebeca Leonard; James Keeley (2009).
1910:
1814:"Land grabbing in Southern Africa: the many faces of the investor rush"
1704:
1519:
1230:
Laws and regulations concerning reporting of foreign investment in land
1142:
1093:
1011:
850:
802:
755:
754:
and openings for corruption are extremely high. In many countries, the
743:
735:
716:
712:
657:
653:
637:
593:
452:
438:
2424:
Towards sustainable production and use of resources assessing biofuels
2125:"Small-scale farmers increasingly at risk from 'global land grabbing'"
3442:
3285:
2783:
2767:
1146:
1097:
912:
775:
704:
577:
458:
399:
291:
213:
186:
3067:
http://www.ejolt.org/2011/10/ejolt-video-on-landgrabbing-in-gambela/
2437:
Graham, Alison; Sylvain Aubry; Rolf KĂŒnnemann; Sofia Suarez (2010).
1766:
711:
and eventually modernization. Many companies have promised to build
699:: Target governments tout the benefits of agricultural development,
3367:
3217:
1491:
1366:
Other relevant international principles, guidelines and instruments
1253:
from 2012 which states that there is little sustained focus on the
1048:
869:
have shied away from direct involvement in relatively unprofitable
815:
786:
727:
680:
661:
601:
597:
581:
518:
470:
446:
415:
411:
403:
348:
Indian investors paid $ 4 per hectare per year on 100,000 hectares.
304:
285:
275:
264:
103:
99:
81:
and commentators as having a negative impact on local communities.
1055:
was insufficient to restore livelihoods lost through dislocation.
209:, the amount in the GRAIN database reduces to 25 million hectares.
1958:"GRAIN â GRAIN releases data set with over 400 global land grabs"
1585:
1561:
1554:
1547:
1533:
1512:
1505:
1484:
1084:
1040:
907:
811:
382:
321:
206:
202:
126:
occasionally with forced loss of possession by the taking of land
71:
2580:"Ethiopian Farms Lure Investor Funds as Workers Live in Poverty"
317:
reported at 300,000 hectares, currently operating on just 50,000
2728:
1540:
1470:
1302:
Extraterritorial obligations of states over overseas businesses
1210:
impact as well. Farmland in general generates a global average
1188:
1031:, in either land or money. These displacements often result in
768:
514:
426:
221:
198:
194:
32:
24:
1923:
1745:
Maria Cristina Rullia, Antonio Savioria, and Paolo DâOdorico,
1458:
in non-EU countries according to EU Land Matrix Data of 2016.
1377:
International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
85:
is implicated when attempting to regulate these transactions.
2122:
1526:
1477:
1159:
1108:, or $ 0.48, per day, both of which are under the World Bank
1052:
1007:
883:
668:
553:
547:
541:
526:
522:
502:
478:
466:
432:
407:
314:
290:
A suspended 320,000 hectare purchase by Chinese investors in
260:
254:
182:
3045:"OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises 2011 Edition"
2703:"Seized: The 2008 land grab for food and financial security"
2543:
Behrman, Julia; Ruth Meinzen-Dick; Agnes Quisumbing (2011).
707:
production, and infrastructure provision as drivers towards
3410:
3186:
2804:
2650:
Environment: Science and Policy for Sustainable Development
1857:"Rogério Reis Devisate - Grilagem de Terras e da Soberania"
1196:
831:
406:
counting for a quarter of international deals by hectares.
695:
One common thread among governments has been the theme of
2492:
Biofuels, land access and rural livelihoods in Mozambique
1449:
1192:
1083:
When not displaced, the conversion of local farmers into
624:
537:
281:
2523:
2123:
Borras, Jun; Ian Scoones; David Hughes (15 April 2011).
1851:
1849:
1786:
1784:
1782:
1422:
2983:
2981:
2979:
2977:
2975:
2467:
Biofuels and Grain Prices: Impacts and Policy Responses
2150:
Borras, Saturnino; Jennifer Franco (16 December 2010).
2743:
2102:
976:
2900:
2898:
2896:
2894:
2892:
2890:
2888:
2886:
2884:
2314:
discussed in congress that would limit the maximum...
2149:
1846:
1779:
894:
government's King Abdullah Initiative. Additionally,
667:
Investment in land often takes the form of long-term
3079:"Land Grabbing: the End of Sustainable Agriculture?"
2972:
2882:
2880:
2878:
2876:
2874:
2872:
2870:
2868:
2866:
2864:
2426:. Paris: United Nations Environment Programme. 2009.
2359:. International Land Coalition, IIED. Archived from
1373:
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights
2800:"Land grabbing as a driver of environmental change"
2488:
1328:
public disclosure of all contractual documentation;
1277:
International Institute for Sustainable Development
1166:, and other lobbyists for small-scale agriculture.
642:
460,000 square kilometres (180,000 sq mi)
320:Three investments amounting to 600,000 hectares in
2616:
2597:
2286:restrictions now limiting the size of farm land...
1905:
1903:
1901:
1187:local farming runs directly counter to the recent
2861:
2546:The Gender Implications of Large-Scale Land Deals
2482:
2348:
2346:
2301:. Peer Voss, a farmland brokerage. Archived from
2273:. Peer Voss, a farmland brokerage. Archived from
2220:"Land grab fears for Ethiopian rural communities"
1899:
1897:
1895:
1893:
1891:
1889:
1887:
1885:
1883:
1881:
1006:An additional concern with consultations is that
497:is the biggest country of origin followed by the
473:, which sees a trend towards growth of food from
3523:
2919:
2917:
2915:
2913:
2190:
2188:
2186:
2184:
2182:
2180:
2178:
2176:
2174:
2172:
1241:The researcher looked at a literature review by
948:, local consultation and compensation for land,
138:
1751:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
1739:
1454:List of land grabbings in hectares of involved
1405:â but most of these are largely âdeclarativeâ.
1322:transparent land and natural resource planning;
789:can be generally broken down into three types:
117:In Portuguese, Land Grabbing is translated as "
2536:
2343:
2213:
2211:
2116:
1878:
1359:renewable or non-renewable natural resourcesâ
1338:of states over overseas business enterprisesâ.
1257:of states over overseas business enterprises.
102:terminology, obscures vast differences in the
3202:
3085:
2910:
2697:
2695:
2430:
2399:"Gulf food security needs delicate diplomacy"
2169:
2143:
2098:
2096:
2094:
2092:
2090:
2088:
2086:
2084:
2082:
2080:
2078:
2076:
95:1,000 square kilometres (390 sq mi)
2074:
2072:
2070:
2068:
2066:
2064:
2062:
2060:
2058:
2056:
1141:, which relies heavily on costly machinery,
604:. This trend has clearly been driven by the
362:The estimated value has been calculated for
159:International Food Policy Research Institute
2208:
1199:, World Bank, and others, that to increase
781:
3209:
3195:
2692:
1115:
544:all constitute around 12 per cent of deals
280:A 324,000 hectare purchase of land by the
245:1 million hectares taken between US firms
2825:
2737:
2464:
2458:
2416:
2374:
2291:
2053:
1952:
1950:
1948:
1829:
1756:
2647:
2129:The Guardian.co.uk: Poverty Matters Blog
2103:Deininger, Klaus; Derek Byerlee (2010).
1700:
1698:
797:investors. Governments and companies in
18:
2797:
2791:
2243:
2237:
1132:
233:may have a significant role in ongoing
23:1880 cartoon about land speculation in
3524:
2747:Geological Society of America Bulletin
2721:
2577:
2571:
2508:
2396:
2390:
2352:
2263:
2217:
1945:
1807:
1805:
1450:List of land grabbings of EU countries
1290:, which are commercial in nature; and
1206:It is argued that land grabbing has a
220:) 195 km2 of land was expropriated by
3190:
3145:
3021:
3019:
3017:
3015:
2951:
2949:
2947:
2945:
2840:
2780:
2774:
2383:Land grabbing in Kenya and Mozambique
2334:
2328:
1695:
1412:
1381:Universal Declaration of Human Rights
865:roadblocks. In the past few decades,
3091:
2356:The outlook on farmland acquisitions
2244:Davison, William (26 October 2010).
1931:"Rising Global Interest in Farmland"
1811:
1392:Convention to Combat Desertification
801:have been very prominent along with
673:outright sales of land to foreigners
393:
3094:"Meet the New Capitalists of Chaos"
1818:Review of African Political Economy
1802:
1325:free, prior and âinformedâ consent;
1306:The researcher studied a report by
977:Local consultation and compensation
823:, particularly in Asian countries.
690:
648:Of these deals, the median size is
13:
3012:
2942:
2578:McLure, Jason (30 December 2009).
2562:
2489:Nhantumbo, I.; A. Salomao (2010).
1388:Convention on Biological Diversity
959:
270:The 325,000 hectare investment by
14:
3568:
1911:"Transnational land acquisitions"
1668:2007-2008 world food price crisis
1217:
1027:of local people without adequate
886:âs attempt to secure land in the
873:, instead focusing on inputs and
861:, and greater ability to address
3505:
3504:
1428:
251:Nile Trading and Development Inc
46:, governments, and individuals.
3269:Integrated landscape management
3161:
3139:
3114:
3071:
3060:
3037:
2929:
2834:
2641:
2606:(November 2013), Fred Magdoff,
2604:Twenty-First-Century Land Grabs
2556:
2517:
2502:
2473:
2319:
2218:Butler, Ed (16 December 2010).
2204:. London/Rome: FAO, IIED, IFAD.
2027:
2009:
2000:
1975:
1403:corporate social responsibility
1018:
484:
259:A 400,000 hectare deal between
51:2007â08 world food price crisis
3092:Funk, McKenzie (27 May 2010).
1747:Global Land and Water Grabbing
650:40,000 hectares (99,000 acres)
631:
212:Between 1990 and 2011, in the
150:Overseas Development Institute
79:non-governmental organizations
66:for the purpose of industrial
1:
3480:Drainage system (agriculture)
2670:10.1080/00139157.2015.1001687
1689:
1336:extra-territorial obligations
1078:
429:with 11 per cent by land area
332:
139:Situation in the 21st century
88:
3216:
3149:IDP Voice 5min# VFV Law#2018
1831:10.1080/03056244.2011.582753
1725:10.1080/03066150.2011.559005
1316:International Land Coalition
1255:extraterritorial obligations
1251:International Land Coalition
939:
762:
143:
7:
3552:Rural community development
3257:Sustainable land management
2841:Vidal, John (3 July 2009).
2565:University of Arizona Press
2397:Woertz, E. (4 March 2009).
2152:"Regulating land grabbing?"
1568:
964:One of the major issues is
902:
859:diversification of holdings
525:a much smaller player. The
10:
3573:
1792:"Outsourcing's third wave"
1753:110, no. 3 (2013): 892â97.
1712:Journal of Peasant Studies
267:that seems to have stalled
3500:
3403:
3360:
3352:Locally unwanted land use
3224:
2624:"Stop Land Grabbing Now!"
2039:www.albertafarmexpress.ca
1149:, and other inputs, over
153:of millions of hectares.
2465:Rosegrant, Mark (2008).
2353:Cotula, Lorenzo (2011).
1812:Hall, Ruth (June 2011).
1292:international treaty law
1176:ecologically detrimental
782:Types of land investment
3542:Anti-corporate activism
3485:Sustainable agriculture
3378:Real estate development
3126:Transnational Institute
2798:Lazarus, E. D. (2014).
1772:Rethinking Food Systems
1678:Sustainable development
1663:Sustainable agriculture
1288:international contracts
1180:environmentally harmful
1155:large-scale agriculture
1116:Government negotiations
954:large-scale agriculture
921:EU Directive 2009/28/EC
917:environmental awareness
826:
685:Ministry of Agriculture
164:As of January 2013 the
44:transnational companies
3340:Developed environments
3323:Environmental planning
3237:Development/Conversion
2443:. FIAN. Archived from
1648:Industrial agriculture
1191:report, backed by the
1139:industrial agriculture
896:sovereign wealth funds
821:Special Economic Zones
128:
36:
3385:Land development bank
2511:Mozambique Case Study
2299:"Farmland Investment"
2271:"Farmland Investment"
1765:and William J. Moon,
1421:The European project
303:Indian investment in
123:
29:Northwest Territories
22:
3490:Land change modeling
3318:Rangeland management
3298:Illegal construction
1643:Illegal construction
1618:Economic development
1133:Environmental impact
1100:: In investments by
1000:legal enforceability
709:economic development
614:vertical integration
612:and US, and greater
584:all with 4 per cent.
449:with 8 per cent each
3308:Land rehabilitation
3291:Habitat destruction
2818:2014Area...46...74L
2760:2007GSAB..119..140W
2662:2015ESPSD..57b...4B
2629:. FIAN, LRAN, GRAIN
2613:Volume 65, Issue 06
1861:rogerioreisdevisate
1596:Settler colonialism
1409:aspiration is metâ
793:, governments, and
640:, showed that over
326:Equatorial Palm Oil
3426:Soil contamination
3373:Subdivision (land)
3333:Watertable control
3031:2012-06-03 at the
2904:Walton, O., 2013,
2827:10.1111/area.12072
2509:Duvane, L (2010).
2335:Selby, A. (2009).
2021:2013-03-08 at the
1769:, book chapter in
1413:Information issues
1236:British government
1123:economic viability
871:primary production
311:Olam International
37:
3557:Land registration
3532:Agrarian politics
3519:
3518:
3313:Landscape ecology
2709:. 24 October 2008
2224:BBC World Service
2112:. The World Bank.
1312:Oakland Institute
1247:Oakland Institute
1172:intensive farming
970:land registration
855:financial markets
394:Land destinations
353:Bandar Bin Sultan
313:'s investment in
231:land acquisitions
83:International law
3564:
3508:
3507:
3390:Land (economics)
3303:Land reclamation
3281:Land consumption
3211:
3204:
3197:
3188:
3187:
3182:
3181:
3179:
3178:
3173:
3165:
3159:
3158:
3157:
3156:
3143:
3137:
3136:
3134:
3133:
3118:
3112:
3111:
3109:
3107:
3098:
3089:
3083:
3082:
3075:
3069:
3064:
3058:
3057:
3055:
3054:
3049:
3041:
3035:
3023:
3010:
3009:
3007:
3006:
3000:
2994:. Archived from
2993:
2985:
2970:
2969:
2967:
2966:
2961:
2953:
2940:
2933:
2927:
2921:
2908:
2902:
2859:
2858:
2856:
2854:
2838:
2832:
2831:
2829:
2795:
2789:
2788:
2778:
2772:
2771:
2768:10.1130/B25899.1
2741:
2735:
2734:
2725:
2719:
2718:
2716:
2714:
2699:
2690:
2689:
2645:
2639:
2638:
2636:
2634:
2628:
2620:
2614:
2601:
2595:
2594:
2592:
2590:
2575:
2569:
2568:
2560:
2554:
2553:
2551:
2540:
2534:
2533:
2521:
2515:
2514:
2506:
2500:
2499:
2497:
2486:
2480:
2477:
2471:
2470:
2462:
2456:
2455:
2453:
2452:
2434:
2428:
2427:
2420:
2414:
2413:
2411:
2409:
2394:
2388:
2387:
2378:
2372:
2371:
2369:
2368:
2350:
2341:
2340:
2332:
2326:
2323:
2317:
2316:
2311:
2310:
2295:
2289:
2288:
2283:
2282:
2267:
2261:
2260:
2258:
2256:
2241:
2235:
2234:
2232:
2230:
2215:
2206:
2205:
2203:
2192:
2167:
2166:
2164:
2162:
2147:
2141:
2140:
2138:
2136:
2120:
2114:
2113:
2111:
2100:
2051:
2050:
2048:
2046:
2031:
2025:
2013:
2007:
2004:
1998:
1997:
1995:
1993:
1979:
1973:
1972:
1970:
1968:
1954:
1943:
1941:
1935:
1927:
1921:
1920:
1918:
1917:
1907:
1876:
1875:
1873:
1872:
1863:. Archived from
1853:
1844:
1843:
1833:
1824:(128): 193â214.
1809:
1800:
1799:
1788:
1777:
1760:
1754:
1743:
1737:
1736:
1702:
1633:Food sovereignty
1606:Manifest destiny
1208:geomorphological
1164:La Via Campesina
1112:of $ 2 per day.
888:Tana River Delta
857:, risk-reducing
691:Target countries
606:biofuels targets
461:with 6 per cent.
435:with 10 per cent
3572:
3571:
3567:
3566:
3565:
3563:
3562:
3561:
3522:
3521:
3520:
3515:
3496:
3421:Soil compaction
3399:
3356:
3252:Land management
3220:
3215:
3185:
3176:
3174:
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3167:
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3162:
3154:
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3144:
3140:
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3119:
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3096:
3090:
3086:
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3047:
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3033:Wayback Machine
3024:
3013:
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2911:
2903:
2862:
2852:
2850:
2839:
2835:
2796:
2792:
2779:
2775:
2754:(1â2): 140â56.
2742:
2738:
2733:. IAASTD. 2008.
2727:
2726:
2722:
2712:
2710:
2701:
2700:
2693:
2646:
2642:
2632:
2630:
2626:
2622:
2621:
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2598:
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2586:
2576:
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2549:
2541:
2537:
2522:
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2503:
2498:. London: IIED.
2495:
2487:
2483:
2478:
2474:
2463:
2459:
2450:
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2431:
2422:
2421:
2417:
2407:
2405:
2403:Financial Times
2395:
2391:
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2364:
2351:
2344:
2333:
2329:
2324:
2320:
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2297:
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2292:
2280:
2278:
2269:
2268:
2264:
2254:
2252:
2242:
2238:
2228:
2226:
2216:
2209:
2201:
2193:
2170:
2160:
2158:
2148:
2144:
2134:
2132:
2121:
2117:
2109:
2101:
2054:
2044:
2042:
2041:. 26 April 2011
2033:
2032:
2028:
2023:Wayback Machine
2014:
2010:
2005:
2001:
1991:
1989:
1981:
1980:
1976:
1966:
1964:
1956:
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1928:
1924:
1915:
1913:
1909:
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1102:Karuturi Global
1081:
1021:
979:
962:
960:Land insecurity
946:land insecurity
942:
905:
863:infrastructural
829:
784:
765:
693:
660:, and 21% with
634:
566:with 5 per cent
560:with 6 per cent
550:with 8 per cent
529:database says:
487:
455:with 7 per cent
396:
335:
146:
141:
91:
57:. By prompting
17:
12:
11:
5:
3570:
3560:
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3547:Neocolonialism
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3458:Infrastructure
3453:Urban planning
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3438:Overpopulation
3435:
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3404:Related fields
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3328:Leopold matrix
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2609:Monthly Review
2596:
2570:
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2501:
2481:
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2429:
2415:
2389:
2373:
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2262:
2236:
2207:
2168:
2156:Pambazuka News
2142:
2115:
2052:
2026:
2008:
1999:
1974:
1944:
1938:The World Bank
1922:
1877:
1845:
1801:
1798:. 23 May 2009.
1778:
1755:
1738:
1693:
1691:
1688:
1686:
1685:
1680:
1675:
1673:Water grabbing
1670:
1665:
1660:
1655:
1650:
1645:
1640:
1638:Green grabbing
1635:
1630:
1625:
1623:Eminent domain
1620:
1615:
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1608:
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1464:United Kingdom
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1326:
1323:
1308:Global Witness
1303:
1300:
1272:
1271:
1268:
1265:
1243:Global Witness
1231:
1228:
1224:neocolonialism
1219:
1218:Neocolonialism
1216:
1134:
1131:
1117:
1114:
1080:
1077:
1020:
1017:
978:
975:
961:
958:
941:
938:
915:and increased
904:
901:
867:multinationals
836:agribusinesses
828:
825:
791:agribusinesses
783:
780:
764:
761:
692:
689:
633:
630:
586:
585:
567:
561:
551:
545:
495:United Kingdom
486:
483:
475:Middle Eastern
463:
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226:
225:
210:
179:
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173:
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145:
142:
140:
137:
108:intermediaries
90:
87:
55:water grabbing
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3569:
3558:
3555:
3553:
3550:
3548:
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3509:Categories:
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3491:
3488:
3486:
3483:
3481:
3478:
3476:
3473:
3472:
3471:
3468:
3464:
3463:Urban renewal
3461:
3459:
3456:
3455:
3454:
3451:
3449:
3448:Deforestation
3446:
3444:
3441:
3439:
3436:
3432:
3429:
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3374:
3371:
3370:
3369:
3366:
3365:
3363:
3359:
3353:
3350:
3346:
3345:Built-up area
3343:
3342:
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3329:
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3325:
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3319:
3316:
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3304:
3301:
3299:
3296:
3292:
3289:
3288:
3287:
3284:
3282:
3279:
3277:
3276:Land grabbing
3274:
3270:
3267:
3266:
3265:
3262:
3258:
3255:
3254:
3253:
3250:
3248:
3245:
3243:
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3235:
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3230:
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3223:
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3193:
3192:
3189:
3170:
3164:
3151:
3150:
3142:
3127:
3123:
3117:
3102:
3101:Rolling Stone
3095:
3088:
3080:
3074:
3068:
3063:
3046:
3040:
3034:
3030:
3027:
3022:
3020:
3018:
3016:
3001:on 2013-10-19
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2605:
2600:
2585:
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2574:
2566:
2559:
2548:
2547:
2539:
2531:
2530:Research Gate
2527:
2520:
2512:
2505:
2494:
2493:
2485:
2476:
2468:
2461:
2447:on 2011-09-28
2446:
2442:
2441:
2433:
2425:
2419:
2404:
2400:
2393:
2386:. FIAN. 2010.
2385:
2384:
2377:
2363:on 2012-02-01
2362:
2358:
2357:
2349:
2347:
2338:
2331:
2322:
2315:
2305:on 2011-07-07
2304:
2300:
2294:
2287:
2277:on 2011-07-07
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2240:
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2199:
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2099:
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2057:
2040:
2036:
2030:
2024:
2020:
2017:
2012:
2003:
1988:
1984:
1978:
1963:
1962:www.grain.org
1959:
1953:
1951:
1949:
1940:. March 2015.
1939:
1932:
1926:
1912:
1906:
1904:
1902:
1900:
1898:
1896:
1894:
1892:
1890:
1888:
1886:
1884:
1882:
1867:on 2017-10-23
1866:
1862:
1858:
1852:
1850:
1841:
1837:
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1823:
1819:
1815:
1808:
1806:
1797:
1796:The Economist
1793:
1787:
1785:
1783:
1776:February 2014
1775:
1773:
1768:
1764:
1763:Lea Brilmayer
1759:
1752:
1748:
1742:
1734:
1730:
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1656:
1654:
1651:
1649:
1646:
1644:
1641:
1639:
1636:
1634:
1631:
1629:
1628:Food security
1626:
1624:
1621:
1619:
1616:
1612:
1609:
1607:
1604:
1602:
1601:Terra nullius
1599:
1597:
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1574:
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1468:
1465:
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1460:
1459:
1457:
1447:
1443:
1441:
1440:Rolling Stone
1435:
1429:Notable cases
1426:
1424:
1419:
1410:
1406:
1404:
1399:
1395:
1393:
1390:and the 1994
1389:
1384:
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1363:
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1212:sediment flux
1209:
1204:
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1201:food security
1198:
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1110:poverty limit
1107:
1103:
1099:
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1026:
1016:
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1004:
1001:
997:
996:knowledge gap
992:
989:
983:
974:
971:
967:
957:
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951:
947:
937:
935:
931:
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922:
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893:
889:
885:
879:
876:
872:
868:
864:
860:
856:
852:
848:
847:market access
843:
841:
840:food security
837:
833:
824:
822:
817:
813:
809:
804:
800:
796:
792:
788:
779:
777:
772:
770:
760:
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753:
749:
745:
740:
737:
733:
732:food security
729:
724:
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718:
714:
710:
706:
702:
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688:
686:
682:
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674:
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579:
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571:
568:
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559:
555:
552:
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546:
543:
539:
535:
534:United States
532:
531:
530:
528:
524:
520:
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512:
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500:
499:United States
496:
492:
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451:
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269:
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258:
256:
252:
248:
244:
243:
242:
238:
236:
235:deforestation
232:
223:
219:
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211:
208:
204:
200:
196:
192:
188:
184:
180:
177:
174:
171:
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156:
155:
154:
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133:
127:
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112:beneficiaries
109:
105:
101:
96:
86:
84:
80:
75:
73:
69:
65:
60:
59:food security
56:
52:
47:
45:
41:
40:Land grabbing
34:
30:
26:
21:
3475:Permaculture
3416:Soil science
3275:
3175:. Retrieved
3163:
3153:, retrieved
3148:
3141:
3130:. Retrieved
3128:. 2018-12-13
3125:
3116:
3104:. Retrieved
3100:
3087:
3073:
3062:
3051:. Retrieved
3039:
3003:. Retrieved
2996:the original
2963:. Retrieved
2931:
2851:. Retrieved
2847:The Guardian
2846:
2836:
2812:(1): 74â82.
2809:
2803:
2793:
2782:
2776:
2751:
2745:
2739:
2729:
2723:
2711:. Retrieved
2706:
2653:
2649:
2643:
2631:. Retrieved
2618:
2607:
2599:
2587:. Retrieved
2583:
2573:
2564:
2558:
2545:
2538:
2529:
2519:
2510:
2504:
2491:
2484:
2475:
2466:
2460:
2449:. Retrieved
2445:the original
2439:
2432:
2423:
2418:
2406:. Retrieved
2402:
2392:
2382:
2376:
2365:. Retrieved
2361:the original
2355:
2336:
2330:
2321:
2313:
2307:. Retrieved
2303:the original
2293:
2285:
2279:. Retrieved
2275:the original
2265:
2253:. Retrieved
2249:
2239:
2227:. Retrieved
2223:
2197:
2159:. Retrieved
2155:
2145:
2133:. Retrieved
2128:
2118:
2105:
2043:. Retrieved
2038:
2029:
2011:
2002:
1990:. Retrieved
1986:
1977:
1965:. Retrieved
1961:
1937:
1925:
1914:. Retrieved
1869:. Retrieved
1865:the original
1860:
1821:
1817:
1795:
1770:
1758:
1750:
1741:
1716:
1710:
1658:Land titling
1576:Agribusiness
1456:EU countries
1453:
1444:
1439:
1436:
1432:
1420:
1416:
1407:
1400:
1396:
1385:
1369:
1361:
1357:
1353:
1349:
1345:
1341:
1305:
1296:
1285:
1281:
1273:
1259:
1240:
1233:
1221:
1205:
1168:
1136:
1127:
1119:
1090:job creation
1082:
1071:
1068:
1057:
1037:pastoralists
1033:resettlement
1029:compensation
1025:displacement
1022:
1019:Displacement
1005:
993:
984:
980:
963:
950:displacement
943:
926:
906:
880:
844:
830:
785:
773:
766:
748:rent-seeking
741:
734:than having
725:
701:job creation
694:
677:
666:
647:
635:
622:
620:in general.
618:agribusiness
587:
574:Saudi Arabia
570:South Africa
511:South Africa
488:
485:Land origins
464:
420:
397:
388:
375:Saudi Arabia
368:
361:
340:
336:
297:
239:
227:
147:
131:
129:
124:
118:
116:
92:
76:
74:production.
64:Global South
48:
39:
38:
3537:Agriculture
3470:Agriculture
3431:Alkali soil
3264:Landscaping
3232:Degradation
3146:shwe yone,
2656:(2): 4â21.
1983:"Land Grab"
1683:Water right
1653:Land rights
1611:Frontierism
1591:Colonialism
1581:Agriculture
1499:Netherlands
1466:(1 972 010)
1185:sustainable
1151:smallholder
1143:fertilizers
1098:paid little
1064:social ties
994:There is a
966:land tenure
930:food supply
799:Gulf States
795:speculative
767:Since 2010
697:development
656:, 21% with
632:Other deals
590:Land Portal
564:South Korea
491:Land Portal
443:Philippines
191:New Zealand
170:Land Matrix
166:Land Portal
3526:Categories
3177:2019-12-20
3155:2019-01-25
3132:2019-01-25
3053:2019-12-20
3005:2019-12-20
2965:2019-12-20
2633:21 January
2451:2011-08-22
2367:2011-11-23
2309:2011-11-30
2281:2011-11-30
1916:2019-12-20
1871:2019-10-15
1719:(2): 209.
1690:References
1520:Luxembourg
1379:; and the
1249:, and the
1147:pesticides
1094:plantation
1079:Employment
1012:Mozambique
913:oil prices
875:processing
851:World Bank
803:East Asian
756:World Bank
752:governance
744:corruption
717:Saudi Star
713:irrigation
658:cash crops
654:food crops
638:World Bank
594:sugar cane
453:Mozambique
439:Madagascar
414:and other
333:Land value
89:Definition
3443:Pollution
3286:Land loss
3106:22 August
2853:22 August
2787:(4): 217.
2784:GSA Today
2713:22 August
2686:153977506
2678:0013-9157
2589:22 August
2584:Bloomberg
2408:22 August
2250:Bloomberg
2229:22 August
2135:22 August
1840:154145307
1733:154522081
1536:(130 000)
1529:(136 504)
1522:(157 914)
1515:(251 808)
1508:(309 566)
1501:(414 974)
1494:(503 953)
1487:(566 559)
1480:(615 674)
1473:(629 953)
1072:Land Grab
940:Criticism
787:Investors
776:Argentina
763:Responses
728:Ethiopian
705:cash crop
588:Both the
578:Singapore
459:Indonesia
400:Indonesia
379:HighQuest
292:Argentina
218:Palestine
214:West Bank
187:Australia
144:Land area
130:The term
3511:Land use
3368:Property
3361:Property
3247:Conflict
3242:Planning
3218:Land use
3029:Archived
2849:. London
2567:: 90â95.
2552:. IFPRI.
2131:. London
2045:16 April
2019:Archived
1992:16 April
1987:B'Tselem
1967:16 April
1569:See also
1564:(18 800)
1557:(21 000)
1550:(31 460)
1543:(77 329)
1492:Portugal
1314:and the
1085:laborers
1049:Ethiopia
1041:harvests
903:Biofuels
890:and the
816:Forestry
721:Gambella
681:Tanzania
662:biofuels
602:palm oil
598:jatropha
582:Malaysia
556:and the
519:Malaysia
471:Ethiopia
447:Ethiopia
416:biofuels
412:palm oil
404:Malaysia
305:Tanzania
286:Pakistan
276:Tanzania
265:Colombia
132:grilagem
119:grilagem
104:legality
100:activist
72:biofuels
3225:General
2814:Bibcode
2756:Bibcode
2658:Bibcode
1586:Biofuel
1562:Estonia
1555:Austria
1548:Denmark
1534:Romania
1513:Belgium
1506:Germany
1485:Finland
1060:fertile
908:Biofuel
812:biofuel
608:in the
521:, with
383:Reuters
351:Prince
324:, with
322:Liberia
272:Agrisol
247:Arc Cap
207:Romania
203:Ukraine
2684:
2676:
2255:26 May
2161:26 May
1838:
1731:
1541:Sweden
1471:France
1375:; the
1310:, the
1245:, the
1189:IAASTD
988:rights
769:Brazil
669:leases
536:, the
515:Canada
505:, the
493:, the
479:Indian
441:, the
427:Brazil
338:given
222:Israel
199:Russia
195:Poland
110:, and
33:Kansas
25:Canada
3172:(PDF)
3097:(PDF)
3048:(PDF)
2999:(PDF)
2992:(PDF)
2960:(PDF)
2707:GRAIN
2682:S2CID
2627:(PDF)
2550:(PDF)
2496:(PDF)
2202:(PDF)
2110:(PDF)
1934:(PDF)
1836:S2CID
1729:S2CID
1527:Spain
1478:Italy
1423:EJOLT
1160:GRAIN
1053:Ghana
1008:women
934:IFPRI
892:Saudi
884:Qatar
736:local
554:Egypt
548:India
542:China
527:GRAIN
523:China
503:India
467:Sudan
433:Sudan
408:India
381:told
364:IFPRI
315:Gabon
261:China
255:Sudan
183:GRAIN
3411:Soil
3108:2011
2855:2011
2805:Area
2715:2011
2674:ISSN
2635:2016
2591:2011
2410:2011
2257:2011
2231:2011
2163:2011
2137:2011
2047:2018
1994:2018
1969:2018
1560:15.
1553:14.
1546:13.
1539:12.
1532:11.
1525:10.
1197:UNDP
1178:and
1106:birr
1051:and
1045:IIED
832:Food
827:Food
810:and
808:food
580:and
540:and
517:and
477:and
469:and
445:and
402:and
263:and
249:and
205:and
181:The
157:The
148:The
70:and
68:food
2822:doi
2764:doi
2752:119
2666:doi
1826:doi
1721:doi
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1511:8.
1504:7.
1497:6.
1490:5.
1483:4.
1476:3.
1469:2.
1462:1.
1193:FAO
774:In
746:or
625:UAE
616:in
600:or
538:UAE
507:UAE
284:in
282:UAE
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