222:. Most early academic works written on Comorian are difficult or impossible to obtain because of the lack of written standard. According to John Mugane, professor of African languages at Harvard University, there were extended time gaps ranging from 25 to 30 years throughout the 1900s, which lacked new academic information on the Comorian languages. From the 1600s until the late 1990s, only two dozen publication have included the languages of the Comoros. Many academic publications have only been passing references in other language studies or the accounts of travelers.
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largely confined to religious, Quranic education and is introduced as early as the age of four or five. In
Comorian society, religious parents often insist on their children learning Arabic in Quranic schools before learning French in the public school system. The national education policy has also reinforced the role of French and Arabic as languages of instruction from primary through tertiary education, while Comorian is permitted at the preschool level. French and Arabic are also featured on the
1960:
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Swahili, using the Arabic script. Many ancient
Comorian poems and songs written in Swahili detail key historical events such as the slave trade, and the various battles between the Sultans who once ruled the Comoros. Swahili played a major role for the struggle for independence in the 1960s when Comorians living in Tanzania would support independence by broadcasting messages via radio in Comorian and Swahili to Comorians living in French-colonised Comoros.
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documentation. Comorian is also becoming increasingly present in education, with many schools teaching grammar on the local
Comorian dialects. In January 1978, the Comorian government had reformed primary schools to cater to religious education in Arabic and nursery education in Comorian. Since 2009, there has been an ongoing debate in the Comorian Government for Comorian as a language of instruction alongside French and Arabic.
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French as their language on
Facebook. Historically, French colonial planters and government officials used French to write personal and place names. This has influenced the spelling of place names on maps in the Comoros, many streets use French signage. Each island also holds a French and a Comorian name.
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spread of various Arabic publications such as Al Falaq in neighbouring
Tanzania and the Comoros. This led to the emergence of Islam, and the creation of the Koranic School in the 16th century which instructed children in the practices and beliefs of Islam and propagated the use of the Arabic language.
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There has been significant debate over which variant of the
Comorian language is considered as the national language. According to Martin-Luther University professor Iain Walker, this debate has been largely avoided in Comorian politics, which has contributed to an increasing sociolinguistic disunity
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Despite the lack of written standard, Comorian is still used for administrative purposes to a limited extent. In
October 1974, the French National Assembly passed a resolution, requiring that the referendum bill be published in both French and Comorian and the Arabic script was used for the Comorian
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The languages of media are predominantly French and Arabic. Newspapers are only published in two languages, as in the Arabic language Al Watany, and the independent, French language, l’Archipel. On social media, French is the predominant language, with 100% of
Comorians in 2014 reported to have used
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and the linguist
Mohamed Ahmed-Chamang. In 1986, a Swahili-based orthography was proposed by Comorian linguist Moinaecha Cheikh. However, the past attempts to introduce a Comorian orthography has failed to gain popularity. Political, historical and ethnic tensions regarding the different dialects of
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Upon independence from France in 1975, Comorian was sought as an official language, and a Latin-based orthography was demanded by the
Comorian government. In particular, both the government and the people of the Comoros sought for a writing system that was distinct from French, whilst resembling its
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The small Malagasy-speaking communities originated from the late 18th century to the early 19th century, with migrants from Madagascar settling in the Comoros. This was the result of the slave trades in Madagascar occurring at this time, as well as the periods of Malagasy rulers on the islands. The
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in the Comoros, lasting from 1841 until independence in 1975. French is considered the language of government and commerce and is acquired through formal, non-Qur’anic education. After independence, the use of the French language was propagated during the administration of the pro-French president,
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Outside of administration, education and commerce, French and Arabic are not widely spoken. Instead, Comorian is the most widely spoken language, confined largely to informal and oral purposes. This is because, during the French colonial period, Comorian language use was forbidden in schools as it
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Although an official language, Arabic is a minority language in the Comoros Islands. Arabic functions as a liturgical language for the country's dominant religion, Islam, adhered to by 95% of the population. Despite being an official language, Arabic is not widely used in the Comoros and it is not
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Multilingualism is prevalent in the Comoros with a diverse language repertoire. The potential language repertoire of a Comorian can consist of at least one of the Comorian dialects, French, Arabic, Malagasy and Swahili. Most of the population speaks at least two of the three official languages in
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The Comoros participates in international delegations tied to promoting Arabic language use. Six Arabo-Islamic colleges and an Institute for Arabic Language were constructed with financial support from the World Islamic League and Kuwait. Similar to French, higher education in the Comoros is tied
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Historically, Arabic was a language of commerce, used for trade in the Comoros for over fifteen hundred years. Arabic was first introduced as a result of increased Arabian maritime contact during the slave trade from the fifteenth to the nineteenth century. These influences had persisted with the
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are also present on the island with limited usage. According to Harriet Joseph Ottenheimer, a professor of anthropology at Kansas State university, the linguistic diversity of the Comoros is the result of its rich history as part of the Indian maritime trade routes and its periods of Malagasy and
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is a minority language spoken in the Comoros. A dialect of Malagasy called Shibushi is spoken by an estimated 39,000 people in the Comoros Islands. Traces of Malagasy speakers predominantly reside in the islands of Mayotte and Moheli manifesting as small populations of Malagasy-speaking villages
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In government and commerce, French is the most widely used language. Since colonisation, education in the Comoros has largely followed the French model where French is used as the language of instruction. A strict French monolingual policy was historically enforced for public schools. Arabic is
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served as the lingua franca of the Comoros, used for trade with the Arabic Peninsula, the East African Coast. As a Bantu language, Swahili shares similarities with the Comorian language and is estimated to be spoken by 1% of the population. Much of the early history of the Comoros is written in
435:
was not considered a suitable medium of instruction. Under the French model of education, Comorian language use by students were often met with severe punishments. The use of Comorian is also restricted by the lack of stable writing form that has complicated Comorian language use in education.
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From the 1970s, the use of Arabic gradually began to separate from religious purposes. The teaching of Arabic as a secular subject and at an advanced level started to gain popularity. Arabic languages skills came to be regarded as privilege in Comorian society. But, Arabic language use remains
442:
Amongst the different variants of Comorian, the Shingazidja is considered the most commonly used dialect, due to the population of Grande Comore Island being the largest in the archipelago. Shingazidja was used for the 1974 French and Comorian language referendum bill. The preference towards
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Comorian have been responsible for the failed attempts to provide a written standard for Comorian. For example, the orthography proposed by Cheikh was widely unpopular as the writing system was more suited towards the Shingazidja dialect rather than the Shinzwani dialect.
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During the colonial period, French was the main language of instruction across society, including administration, education and trade. Higher education is also dependent on French language ability, as many Comorian students attend universities in France.
301:. The Abdallah administration had reinforced the use of French in education and provided official, French place names in the country. Internationally, the Comoros is recognised as a Francophone nation, and is a full member of the
237:, have affirmed the distinctiveness of Comorian as a separate language from Swahili. For example, although both languages share similar vocabularies, there is a consistent mutual unintelligibility between Swahili and Comorian.
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Department of Modern Languages to standardize the Comorian language and integrate it into the education system alongside French and Arabic. In 1976, two Latin-based orthographies were proposed by the country's president,
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presence of the Malagasy language has also influenced the surrounding languages in the archipelago. For example, there is a variant of the Shimwali dialect in Moheli that heavily borrows Malagasy vocabulary.
167:, as recognized under its 2001 constitution. Although each language holds equal recognition under the constitution, language use varies across Comorian society. Unofficial minority languages such as
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or a separate language. But according to Martin Ottenheimer, a professor of anthropology at Kansas State University, grammatical and linguistic differences discovered by French linguists such as
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largely assigned to religious purposes. This is primarily due to the lasting importance of the Quranic School in the Comorian education system, existing in Comoros for more than four centuries.
397:, a dialect of Swahili, is also spoken in the Comoros, particularly in Grande Comore Islands. This was the result of the migration to the Comoros from Zanzibar in Tanzania during the
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Walker, Iain (2011). "What Came First, The Nation or the State? Political Process in the Comoro Islands". Africa. 77 (4): 586. doi:10.3366/afr.2007.77.4.582. ISSN 0001-9720.
1990:
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Ottenheimer, Martin; Ottenheimer, Harriet Joseph (1976). "The Classification of the Languages of the Comoro Islands". Anthropological Linguistics. 8 (9): 408-409.
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Ottenheimer, Martin; Ottenheimer, Harriet Joseph (1976). "The Classification of the Languages of the Comoro Islands". Anthropological Linguistics. 8 (9): 405-406.
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Arabic language usage, with many Comorian students receiving tertiary education in Arabic-speaking countries. The Comoros is also a member of the Arab League.
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There is no accepted orthography in the Comorian language. Historically and informally, Comorian was written using a variant of Arabic script, called the
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The Plurilingual Repertoire of the Comorian Community in Marseille: Remarks on Status and Function Based on Selected Sociolinguistic Biographies
858:. Mugane, John M., Annual Conference on African Linguistics (33rd : 2002 : Ohio University). Trenton, N.J.: Africa World Press. 2003.
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1123:(PDF). Mohammed Bin Rashid School of Government. 25 June 2014. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-06-16. Retrieved 19 May 2020.
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dialect is the most widely used variant of Comorian, spoken on Grande Comore (Ngazija) by about 312,000 people. Additionally, the
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Joseph Ottenheimer, Harriet (2001). "Spelling Shinzwani: Dictionary construction and orthographic choice in the Comoro Islands".
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dialect is spoken by about 275,000 people on Anjouan (Nzwani). Although the dialects have linguistic differences, they all share
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1008:. Mellor, Noha, 1969-, ʻĀyish, Muḥammad ʻIṣām., Dajani, Nabil H., Rinnawi, Khalil. Cambridge, UK: Polity Press. 2011.
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Comorian, or Shikomoro is the most widely spoken language in the country, spoken by 96.9% of the population. As a
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nearby East African nations. Since the 1970s, attempts have been made by both the Comorian government and the
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The impact of language policy and practice on children’s learning: Evidence from Eastern and Southern Africa
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When Comorian was first identified in the 1880s, there was much debate over whether it was a variant of
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Shingazidja however, has contributed to the growing language disunity amongst the Comorian variants.
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712:(Order No. 7120225). Available from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. (302537456).
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Bakar, Abdourahim Said (1988). "Small Island Systems: a case study of the Comoro Islands".
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1121:"Citizen Engagement and Public Services in the Arab World: The Potential of Social Media"
1070:. Frawley, William, 1953- (2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 113.
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A 1906 Comorian postage stamp in French. The Comoros was a colony of France at the time.
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is frequently used for socialising purposes, in particular, with the Comorian youth.
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is the second most spoken language in the Comoros. According to a 2018 report by the
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Sellström, Tor (2015-05-26). "Africa In the Indian Ocean. Islands Ebb and Flow".
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The anthropology of language : an introduction to linguistic anthropology
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The linguistic typology and representation of African languages
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Présidence de L'Union des Comores, les cultures et traditions
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Arab media : globalization and emerging media industries
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Estimation des populations francophones dans le monde en 2018
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dialect is spoken by 29,000 people on Moheli (Mwali) and the
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Ottenheimer, Harriet J. (2012). "Ideology and Orthography".
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922:(PDF) (in French). ODSEF. 2018. Retrieved 18 May 2020
1140:. Pine, Judith M. S. (Fourth ed.). Boston, MA.
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Africa : an encyclopedia of culture and society
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1195:(2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
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331:Comorian passport with text in French and Arabic
761:. Santa Barbara, California. pp. 260–264.
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1111:(PDF). pp. 262–263. Retrieved 25 May 2020.
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2039:
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2023:
2017:
2011:
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1993:
1988:
1983:
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1971:
1965:
1964:
1957:
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1932:
1927:
1926:
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1915:
1913:French Comoros
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454:Code-switching
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386:Historically,
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338:first language
336:reported as a
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299:Ahmed Abdallah
277:African French
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197:Bantu language
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1576:Guinea-Bissau
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365:According to
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63:
59:
56:
52:
48:
45:
43:
39:
35:
29:
24:
19:
16:
2196:
2172:Demographics
2133:Trade unions
2042:Human rights
2027:Constitution
1811:Saint Helena
1782:
1686:South Africa
1676:Sierra Leone
1510:
1481:Burkina Faso
1268:
1192:
1186:
1137:
1116:
1106:
1067:
1061:
1051:
1046:
1005:
985:, retrieved
963:
953:
917:
913:
855:
813:
758:
709:
682:. Retrieved
672:
647:
643:
556:(1): 15–29.
553:
549:
496:
450:
441:
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424:
416:
393:
385:
376:
366:
364:
350:
346:
342:
334:
307:
284:
253:
239:
224:
220:Ajami script
217:
194:
149:
148:
15:
2105:Agriculture
1738:recognition
1691:South Sudan
1581:Ivory Coast
1050:Comoros at
281:Francophone
248:Ali Soilihi
2162:Corruption
2112:(currency)
1793:(Portugal)
1751:Somaliland
1671:Seychelles
1636:Mozambique
1621:Mauritania
1606:Madagascar
1561:The Gambia
1496:Cape Verde
1385:Portuguese
1156:1020345071
1053:Ethnologue
987:2020-05-18
684:2012-05-25
488:References
367:Ethnologue
323:Arab world
201:Shingazija
80:Vernacular
61:Recognised
2197:Languages
2177:Education
2138:Transport
2069:President
2032:Elections
1996:Volcanoes
1969:Geography
1930:1979–1989
1626:Mauritius
1164:cite book
1032:cite book
1024:731216190
882:cite book
824:0246-0092
785:cite book
777:900016532
664:0305-0068
570:1387-6732
209:Shinzwani
2267:Category
2252:Category
2217:Religion
2212:Olympics
2192:Holidays
2059:Military
2015:Politics
2001:Wildlife
1875:articles
1817: /
1813: /
1806:(France)
1800: /
1778: /
1774: /
1726:Zimbabwe
1701:Tanzania
1551:Ethiopia
1546:Eswatini
1526:Djibouti
1491:Cameroon
1476:Botswana
1390:Japanese
1314:Malagasy
1283:Comorian
1211:51478240
1086:51478240
874:53881176
460:See also
395:Kiunguja
371:Malagasy
361:Malagasy
205:Shimwali
185:Comorian
169:Malagasy
157:Comorian
92:Minority
69:Malagasy
47:Comorian
42:Official
2236:Outline
2167:Culture
2151:Society
2128:Tourism
2093:Economy
1991:Regions
1986:Climate
1901:Sultans
1896:Shirazi
1883:History
1871:Comoros
1802:Réunion
1798:Mayotte
1789:Madeira
1784:(Spain)
1780:Melilla
1711:Tunisia
1681:Somalia
1666:Senegal
1651:Nigeria
1641:Namibia
1631:Morocco
1596:Liberia
1591:Lesotho
1541:Eritrea
1511:Comoros
1486:Burundi
1461:Algeria
1395:Russian
1380:Chinese
1360:Italian
1350:Spanish
1345:Punjabi
1335:English
388:Swahili
382:Swahili
227:Swahili
173:Swahili
152:Comoros
133:French
109:English
104:Foreign
97:Swahili
2187:Health
2118:Mining
2110:Franc
1981:Cities
1873:
1821:
1804:
1791:
1721:Zambia
1716:Uganda
1656:Rwanda
1611:Malawi
1571:Guinea
1466:Angola
1400:Danish
1375:Arabic
1370:Hebrew
1355:German
1340:French
1293:Arabic
1288:French
1209:
1199:
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319:Arabic
313:Arabic
286:French
279:, and
267:French
165:Arabic
161:French
135:AZERTY
116:Signed
55:Arabic
51:French
34:Moroni
2243:Index
2207:Music
2202:Media
1950:Coups
1891:Bantu
1776:Ceuta
1696:Sudan
1646:Niger
1601:Libya
1586:Kenya
1566:Ghana
1556:Gabon
1531:Egypt
1471:Benin
1405:Dutch
1365:Hindi
1319:Maore
1309:Bushi
73:Maore
65:Bushi
2182:Flag
2047:LGBT
1945:Wars
1706:Togo
1616:Mali
1506:Chad
1207:OCLC
1197:ISBN
1178:link
1174:link
1170:link
1152:OCLC
1142:ISBN
1082:OCLC
1072:ISBN
1038:link
1020:OCLC
1010:ISBN
976:ISBN
942:ISBN
888:link
870:OCLC
860:ISBN
822:ISSN
791:link
773:OCLC
763:ISBN
660:ISSN
566:ISSN
405:Uses
321:and
233:and
171:and
163:and
155:are
53:and
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