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752:
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3125:
51:
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391:
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5224:"The origins of the letter c being used for the speed of light can be traced back to a paper of 1856 by Weber and Kohlrausch Weber apparently meant c to stand for 'constant' in his force law, but there is evidence that physicists such as Lorentz and Einstein were accustomed to a common convention that c could be used as a variable for velocity. This usage can be traced back to the classic Latin texts in which c stood for 'celeritas', meaning 'speed'."
3958:
2495:
4242:
3950:. In the 19th century, physicists believed light was propagating in a medium called aether (or ether). But for electric force, it looks more like the gravitational force in Newton's law. A transmitting medium was not required. After Maxwell theory unified light and electric and magnetic waves, it was favored that both light and electric magnetic waves propagate in the same aether medium (or called the
4256:
2289:. The popular description of light being "stopped" in these experiments refers only to light being stored in the excited states of atoms, then re-emitted at an arbitrarily later time, as stimulated by a second laser pulse. During the time it had "stopped", it had ceased to be light. This type of behaviour is generally microscopically true of all transparent media which "slow" the speed of light.
4024:) is indicated by clocks moving in the aether, which are synchronized under the assumption of constant light speed. In 1904, he speculated that the speed of light could be a limiting velocity in dynamics, provided that the assumptions of Lorentz's theory are all confirmed. In 1905, Poincaré brought Lorentz's aether theory into full observational agreement with the
2936:), equivalent to the uncertainty in Earth-based measurements of length by interferometry. Since the metre is defined to be the length travelled by light in a certain time interval, the measurement of the light time in terms of the previous definition of the astronomical unit can also be interpreted as measuring the length of an AU (old definition) in metres.
3317:. The ancient Greeks, Arabic scholars, and classical European scientists long debated this until Rømer provided the first calculation of the speed of light. Einstein's theory of special relativity postulates that the speed of light is constant regardless of one's frame of reference. Since then, scientists have provided increasingly accurate measurements.
3214:(the points at which the wave amplitude is the greatest), where it will begin to melt. The distance between two such spots is half the wavelength of the microwaves; by measuring this distance and multiplying the wavelength by the microwave frequency (usually displayed on the back of the oven, typically 2450 MHz), the value of
1774:, and it would take an infinite amount of energy to accelerate an object with mass to the speed of light. The speed of light is the upper limit for the speeds of objects with positive rest mass, and individual photons cannot travel faster than the speed of light. This is experimentally established in many
4772:
According to
Galileo, the lanterns he used were "at a short distance, less than a mile". Assuming the distance was not too much shorter than a mile, and that "about a thirtieth of a second is the minimum time interval distinguishable by the unaided eye", Boyer notes that Galileo's experiment could at
3931:
In the early 1860s, Maxwell showed that, according to the theory of electromagnetism he was working on, electromagnetic waves propagate in empty space at a speed equal to the above Weber/Kohlrausch ratio, and drawing attention to the numerical proximity of this value to the speed of light as measured
3785:
proposed an experiment, with an apparent claim to having performed it some years earlier, to measure the speed of light by observing the delay between uncovering a lantern and its perception some distance away. He was unable to distinguish whether light travel was instantaneous or not, but concluded
3284:
One way around this problem is to start with a low frequency signal of which the frequency can be precisely measured, and from this signal progressively synthesize higher frequency signals whose frequency can then be linked to the original signal. A laser can then be locked to the frequency, and its
3019:
with time resolutions of less than one nanosecond, the speed of light can be directly measured by timing the delay of a light pulse from a laser or an LED reflected from a mirror. This method is less precise (with errors of the order of 1%) than other modern techniques, but it is sometimes used as a
1912:
of two quantum states. If the particles are separated and one particle's quantum state is observed, the other particle's quantum state is determined instantaneously. However, it is impossible to control which quantum state the first particle will take on when it is observed, so information cannot be
2999:
consists of a beam of light directed at a mirror 8 kilometres (5 mi) away. On the way from the source to the mirror, the beam passes through a rotating cogwheel. At a certain rate of rotation, the beam passes through one gap on the way out and another on the way back, but at slightly higher or
4189:
and has become a defined constant in the SI system of units. Improved experimental techniques that, prior to 1983, would have measured the speed of light no longer affect the known value of the speed of light in SI units, but instead allow a more precise realization of the metre by more accurately
3725:
in favour of the now accepted intromission theory, in which light moves from an object into the eye. This led
Alhazen to propose that light must have a finite speed, and that the speed of light is variable, decreasing in denser bodies. He argued that light is substantial matter, the propagation of
1952:
effect caused by objects moving near the speed of light and approaching Earth at a small angle to the line of sight: since the light which was emitted when the jet was farther away took longer to reach the Earth, the time between two successive observations corresponds to a longer time between the
3839:
reported Rømer's calculations of the finite speed of light and gave a value of "seven or eight minutes" for the time taken for light to travel from the Sun to the Earth (the modern value is 8 minutes 19 seconds). Newton queried whether Rømer's eclipse shadows were coloured. Hearing that
3007:
replaces the cogwheel with a rotating mirror. Because the mirror keeps rotating while the light travels to the distant mirror and back, the light is reflected from the rotating mirror at a different angle on its way out than it is on its way back. From this difference in angle, the known speed of
2800:
of the velocity of light arriving from a distant source (such as a star) and the velocity of its observer (see diagram on the right). A moving observer thus sees the light coming from a slightly different direction and consequently sees the source at a position shifted from its original position.
4064:
In the second half of the 20th century, much progress was made in increasing the accuracy of measurements of the speed of light, first by cavity resonance techniques and later by laser interferometer techniques. These were aided by new, more precise, definitions of the metre and second. In 1950,
2849:
but in terms of the gravitational force exerted by the Sun in the framework of classical mechanics. The current definition uses the recommended value in metres for the previous definition of the astronomical unit, which was determined by measurement. This redefinition is analogous to that of the
2115:
of special relativity would then be the upper limit of the speed of light in vacuum. No variation of the speed of light with frequency has been observed in rigorous testing, putting stringent limits on the mass of the photon. The limit obtained depends on the model used: if the massive photon is
4793:
wavelengths in vacuum of the radiation corresponding to the transition between the levels 2p and 5d of the krypton-86 atom". It was discovered in the 1970s that this spectral line was not symmetric, which put a limit on the precision with which the definition could be realized in interferometry
3280:
sources were used for interferometry measurements of the speed of light. Interferometric determination of wavelength becomes less precise with wavelength and the experiments were thus limited in precision by the long wavelength (~4 mm (0.16 in)) of the radiowaves. The precision can be
4193:
In 2011, the CGPM stated its intention to redefine all seven SI base units using what it calls "the explicit-constant formulation", where each "unit is defined indirectly by specifying explicitly an exact value for a well-recognized fundamental constant", as was done for the speed of light. It
3760:
is taken into account, the latter was not recognized until the following century. Since such misalignment had not been observed, Descartes concluded the speed of light was infinite. Descartes speculated that if the speed of light were found to be finite, his whole system of philosophy might be
2763:
in the year 1676. When measured from Earth, the periods of moons orbiting a distant planet are shorter when the Earth is approaching the planet than when the Earth is receding from it. The difference is small, but the cumulative time becomes significant when measured over months. The distance
2543:
images. Those photographs, taken today, capture images of the galaxies as they appeared 13 billion years ago, when the universe was less than a billion years old. The fact that more distant objects appear to be younger, due to the finite speed of light, allows astronomers to infer the
2859:
expressed in seconds per astronomical unit was measured by comparing the time for radio signals to reach different spacecraft in the Solar System, with their position calculated from the gravitational effects of the Sun and various planets. By combining many such measurements, a
2805:) it is possible to express the speed of light in terms of the Earth's velocity around the Sun, which with the known length of a year can be converted to the time needed to travel from the Sun to the Earth. In 1729, Bradley used this method to derive that light travelled
2498:
A beam of light is depicted travelling between the Earth and the Moon in the time it takes a light pulse to move between them: 1.255 seconds at their mean orbital (surface-to-surface) distance. The relative sizes and separation of the Earth–Moon system are shown to
3932:
by Fizeau, he proposed that light is in fact an electromagnetic wave. Maxwell backed up his claim with his own experiment published in the 1868 Philosophical
Transactions which determined the ratio of the electrostatic and electromagnetic units of electricity.
1439:. It has since been consistently confirmed by many experiments. It is only possible to verify experimentally that the two-way speed of light (for example, from a source to a mirror and back again) is frame-independent, because it is impossible to measure the
3848:. From this effect he determined that light must travel 10,210 times faster than the Earth in its orbit (the modern figure is 10,066 times faster) or, equivalently, that it would take light 8 minutes 12 seconds to travel from the Sun to the Earth.
2523:
can vary between five and twenty minutes depending upon the relative positions of the two planets. As a consequence of this, if a robot on the surface of Mars were to encounter a problem, its human controllers would not be aware of it until approximately
5592:(1906–1992), a mathematician who became a naval officer and computer scientist during World War II, started distributing these wire "nanoseconds" in the late 1960s in order to demonstrate how designing smaller components would produce faster computers.
2948:
One of the last and most accurate time of flight measurements, Michelson, Pease and
Pearson's 1930–1935 experiment used a rotating mirror and a one-mile (1.6 km) long vacuum chamber which the light beam traversed 10 times. It achieved accuracy of
6426:
The possibility that the fundamental constants may vary during the evolution of the universe offers an exceptional window onto higher dimensional theories and is probably linked with the nature of the dark energy that makes the universe accelerate
4036:
In 1905 Einstein postulated from the outset that the speed of light in vacuum, measured by a non-accelerating observer, is independent of the motion of the source or observer. Using this and the principle of relativity as a basis he derived the
2503:
Similarly, communications between the Earth and spacecraft are not instantaneous. There is a brief delay from the source to the receiver, which becomes more noticeable as distances increase. This delay was significant for communications between
866:, travel at the speed of light. For many practical purposes, light and other electromagnetic waves will appear to propagate instantaneously, but for long distances and very sensitive measurements, their finite speed has noticeable effects. Much
2764:
travelled by light from the planet (or its moon) to Earth is shorter when the Earth is at the point in its orbit that is closest to its planet than when the Earth is at the farthest point in its orbit, the difference in distance being the
4045:
featured as a fundamental constant, also appearing in contexts unrelated to light. This made the concept of the stationary aether (to which
Lorentz and Poincaré still adhered) useless and revolutionized the concepts of space and time.
1967:, the farther galaxies are from each other, the faster they drift apart. For example, galaxies far away from Earth are inferred to be moving away from the Earth with speeds proportional to their distances. Beyond a boundary called the
2284:
speeds in material substances. As an extreme example of light "slowing" in matter, two independent teams of physicists claimed to bring light to a "complete standstill" by passing it through a Bose–Einstein condensate of the element
4194:
proposed a new, but completely equivalent, wording of the metre's definition: "The metre, symbol m, is the unit of length; its magnitude is set by fixing the numerical value of the speed of light in vacuum to be equal to exactly
2801:
Since the direction of the Earth's velocity changes continuously as the Earth orbits the Sun, this effect causes the apparent position of stars to move around. From the angular difference in the position of stars (maximally 20.5
3000:
lower rates, the beam strikes a tooth and does not pass through the wheel. Knowing the distance between the wheel and the mirror, the number of teeth on the wheel, and the rate of rotation, the speed of light can be calculated.
3813:
appeared to be shorter when the Earth was approaching
Jupiter than when receding from it, he concluded that light travels at a finite speed, and estimated that it takes light 22 minutes to cross the diameter of Earth's orbit.
3172:
of precisely known dimensions. The dimensions were established to an accuracy of about ±0.8 μm using gauges calibrated by interferometry. As the wavelength of the modes was known from the geometry of the cavity and from
2233:
The blue dot moves at the speed of the ripples, the phase velocity; the green dot moves with the speed of the envelope, the group velocity; and the red dot moves with the speed of the foremost part of the pulse, the front
2429:
5917:
Antonioli, Pietro; Fienberg, Richard Tresch; Fleurot, Fabrice; Fukuda, Yoshiyuki; Fulgione, Walter; Habig, Alec; Heise, Jaret; McDonald, Arthur B.; Mills, Corrinne; Namba, Toshio; Robinson, Leif J. (2 September 2004).
7287:
t was natural to dream that quantum correlations could be used for faster-than-light communication, but this speculation was quickly shot down, and the shooting established the principle that quantum states cannot be
2338:. It is impossible to transmit information with a light pulse any faster than the speed of the earliest part of the pulse (the front velocity). It can be shown that this is (under certain assumptions) always equal to
2331:, was proposed theoretically in 1993 and achieved experimentally in 2000. It should even be possible for the group velocity to become infinite or negative, with pulses travelling instantaneously or backwards in time.
2768:
of the Earth's orbit around the Sun. The observed change in the moon's orbital period is caused by the difference in the time it takes light to traverse the shorter or longer distance. Rømer observed this effect for
13377:
13309:
13299:
13289:
13258:
13248:
4638:. However, because they pass through matter much more easily than light does, there are in theory occasions when the neutrino signal from an astronomical event might reach Earth before an optical signal can, like
2158:
found no evidence for a dependence of photon speed on energy, supporting tight constraints in specific models of spacetime quantization on how this speed is affected by photon energy for energies approaching the
1928:
through a barrier is constant, regardless of the thickness of the barrier. This could result in a virtual particle crossing a large gap faster than light. However, no information can be sent using this effect.
1801:
then there are frames of reference in which A precedes B, others in which B precedes A, and others in which they are simultaneous. As a result, if something were travelling faster than
2087:
3790:
of
Florence reported that it had performed Galileo's experiment, with the lanterns separated by about one mile, but no delay was observed. The actual delay in this experiment would have been about 11
4127:. This was 100 times less uncertain than the previously accepted value. The remaining uncertainty was mainly related to the definition of the metre. As similar experiments found comparable results for
2431:
2596:
systems measure the distance to a target by the time it takes a radio-wave pulse to return to the radar antenna after being reflected by the target: the distance to the target is half the round-trip
3677:(c. 490–430 BCE) was the first to propose a theory of light and claimed that light has a finite speed. He maintained that light was something in motion, and therefore must take some time to travel.
4004:
along its length in the direction of motion, and he further assumed that the time variable for moving systems must also be changed accordingly ("local time"), which led to the formulation of the
13320:
13315:
12501:
3008:
rotation and the distance to the distant mirror the speed of light may be calculated. Foucault used this apparatus to measure the speed of light in air versus water, based on a suggestion by
13330:
2147:
Another reason for the speed of light to vary with its frequency would be the failure of special relativity to apply to arbitrarily small scales, as predicted by some proposed theories of
4680:, but the validity of those calculations has been questioned, and it appears the special conditions in which this effect might occur would prevent one from using it to violate causality.
2984:
A method of measuring the speed of light is to measure the time needed for light to travel to a mirror at a known distance and back. This is the working principle behind experiments by
4154:
In 1983 the 17th meeting of the
General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM) found that wavelengths from frequency measurements and a given value for the speed of light are more
2753:
of the Earth's orbit. Historically, such measurements could be made fairly accurately, compared to how accurately the length of the reference distance is known in Earth-based units.
2280:
near absolute zero, the effective speed of light may be only a few metres per second. However, this represents absorption and re-radiation delay between atoms, as do all slower-than-
14269:
4874:
2381:
are greater than zero. This applies from small to astronomical scales. On the other hand, some techniques depend on the finite speed of light, for example in distance measurements.
2319:
A pulse with different group and phase velocities (which occurs if the phase velocity is not the same for all the frequencies of the pulse) smears out over time, a process known as
2300:
1 for some frequencies; in some exotic materials it is even possible for the index of refraction to become negative. The requirement that causality is not violated implies that the
4424:. This particular value was chosen to provide a more accurate definition of the metre that still agreed as much as possible with the definition used before. See, for example, the
827:
that is exactly equal to 299,792,458 metres per second (approximately 300,000 kilometres per second; 186,000 miles per second; 671 million miles per hour). According to the
14257:
14252:
11912:
2478:, where traders seek to gain minute advantages by delivering their trades to exchanges fractions of a second ahead of other traders. For example, traders have been switching to
2011:
with which electromagnetic waves (such as light) propagate in vacuum is related to the distributed capacitance and inductance of vacuum, otherwise respectively known as the
1680:
have the same value throughout spacetime, meaning that they do not depend on location and do not vary with time. However, it has been suggested in various theories that the
2648:. One way is to measure the actual speed at which light waves propagate, which can be done in various astronomical and Earth-based setups. It is also possible to determine
1809:
would be violated. In such a frame of reference, an "effect" could be observed before its "cause". Such a violation of causality has never been recorded, and would lead to
14373:
13643:
4165:
would now determine both the second and the metre. To do this, they redefined the metre as "the length of the path traveled by light in vacuum during a time interval of 1/
1235:
for the speed of light in vacuum. This subscripted notation, which is endorsed in official SI literature, has the same form as related electromagnetic constants: namely,
7122:
2850:
metre and likewise has the effect of fixing the speed of light to an exact value in astronomical units per second (via the exact speed of light in metres per second).
2430:
6596:
Herrmann, S.; Senger, A.; Möhle, K.; Nagel, M.; Kovalchuk, E. V.; Peters, A. (2009). "Rotating optical cavity experiment testing
Lorentz invariance at the 10 level".
2608:
based on how long it takes for a radio signal to arrive from each satellite, and from these distances calculates the receiver's position. Because light travels about
15379:
2482:
communications between trading hubs, because of the advantage which radio waves travelling at near to the speed of light through air have over comparatively slower
13602:
14736:
13150:
2674:. Historically, the most accurate results have been obtained by separately determining the frequency and wavelength of a light beam, with their product equalling
2238:
The phase velocity is important in determining how a light wave travels through a material or from one material to another. It is often represented in terms of a
4698:
The astronomical unit was defined as the radius of an unperturbed circular
Newtonian orbit about the Sun of a particle having infinitesimal mass, moving with an
8836:
14571:
13406:
12977:
6346:
3973:
of reference for the propagation of light and therefore it should be possible to measure the motion of the Earth with respect to this medium, by measuring the
3769:
derived Snell's law using the opposing assumption, the denser the medium the slower light travelled. Fermat also argued in support of a finite speed of light.
2111:
Extensions of QED in which the photon has a mass have been considered. In such a theory, its speed would depend on its frequency, and the invariant speed
14341:
14276:
11140:
Roger Bacon and the origins of Perspectiva in the Middle Ages: a critical edition and English translation of Bacon's Perspectiva, with introduction and notes
14281:
13515:
12363:
8714:
Cherenkov, P. A. (1967). "Видимое свечение чистых жидкостей под действием γ-радиации" [Visible emission of pure liquids by action of γ radiation].
2996:
2958:
2459:, the theoretical shortest time for a piece of information to travel half the globe along the surface is about 67 milliseconds. When light is traveling in
796:
9853:
5060:
14383:
10507:
4750:, whereas the AU is usually used as a unit of observed length in a given frame of reference. The values cited here follow the latter convention, and are
4913:
of them to the distance travelled by light in a standard second, giving a value for the metre that very accurately matches the now inadequately precise
3313:, it was not known whether light travelled instantaneously or at a very fast finite speed. The first extant recorded examination of this subject was in
2404:, a signal can travel only a maximum of about 30 centimetres (1 ft) in a single clock cycle – in practice, this distance is even shorter since the
2253:
in the material: larger indices of refraction indicate lower speeds. The refractive index of a material may depend on the light's frequency, intensity,
14431:
14176:
11310:
6059:
2471:. Straight lines are rare in global communications and the travel time increases when signals pass through electronic switches or signal regenerators.
2734:
Measurement of the speed of light from the time it takes Io to orbit Jupiter, using eclipses of Io by Jupiter's shadow to precisely measure its orbit.
1443:(for example, from a source to a distant detector) without some convention as to how clocks at the source and at the detector should be synchronized.
14388:
14264:
9813:
3989:
in 1887. The detected motion was found to always be nil (within observational error). Modern experiments indicate that the two-way speed of light is
7153:
3806:
3737:
argued that the speed of light in air was not infinite, using philosophical arguments backed by the writing of Alhazen and Aristotle. In the 1270s,
2760:
901:
14400:
13531:
12410:"Monsieur Cassini, his New and Exact Tables for the Eclipses of the First Satellite of Jupiter, reduced to the Julian Stile and Meridian of London"
3004:
2467:) the actual transit time is longer, in part because the speed of light is slower by about 35% in optical fibre, depending on its refractive index
1971:, the rate at which their distance from Earth increases becomes greater than the speed of light. These recession rates, defined as the increase in
12843:
11627:
10660:
10656:
10206:
Essen, L. (1950). "The Velocity of Propagation of Electromagnetic Waves Derived from the Resonant Frequencies of a Cylindrical Cavity Resonator".
8925:
5986:
5195:
14588:
14346:
14247:
12994:
12414:
12368:
9437:
3285:
wavelength can be determined using interferometry. This technique was due to a group at the National Bureau of Standards (which later became the
2784:
Aberration of light: light from a distant source appears to be from a different location for a moving telescope due to the finite speed of light.
913:
12610:
12479:
12457:
9936:
Cooke, J.; Martin, M.; McCartney, H.; Wilf, B. (1968). "Direct determination of the speed of light as a general physics laboratory experiment".
8674:
14239:
12291:
12173:
Note that improvements in experimental accuracy will modify the meter relative to atomic wavelengths, but not the value of the speed of light!
12100:
7361:
5485:
5312:
4101:
3286:
8169:
1874:
from the laser to the various positions of the spot. Similarly, a shadow projected onto a distant object can be made to move faster than
14156:
14134:
13391:
13387:
13269:
13183:
9817:
9636:
5409:
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9359:
3781:
proposed an experiment in which a person observes the flash of a cannon reflecting off a mirror about one mile (1.6 km) away. In 1638,
1641:
is ubiquitous in modern physics, appearing in many contexts that are unrelated to light. For example, general relativity predicts that
15710:
14378:
12792:
11971:
11941:
10208:
10070:
9613:
6281:
Liu, Xiaoshu; He, Vincent F.; Mikulski, Timothy M.; Palenova, Daria; Williams, Claire E.; Creighton, Jolien; Tasson, Jay D. (7 July 2020).
5386:
3977:
of the speed of light. Beginning in the 1880s several experiments were performed to try to detect this motion, the most famous of which is
2155:
8700:(1934). "Видимое свечение чистых жидкостей под действием γ-радиации" [Visible emission of pure liquids by action of γ radiation].
2416:. If clock frequencies continue to increase, the speed of light may eventually become a limiting factor for the internal design of single
15426:
13775:
13494:
9714:
9004:
3798:
3191:, was substantially more precise than those found by optical techniques. By 1950, repeated measurements by Essen established a result of
1866:, although the initial movement of the spot is delayed because of the time it takes light to get to the distant object at the speed
10460:
Evenson, K. M.; et al. (1972). "Speed of Light from Direct Frequency and Wavelength Measurements of the Methane-Stabilized Laser".
8785:
3210:
and food such as marshmallows or margarine: if the turntable is removed so that the food does not move, it will cook the fastest at the
2718:. Consequently, accurate measurements of the speed of light yield an accurate realization of the metre rather than an accurate value of
15661:
14395:
13755:
13285:
13244:
4132:
2345:
It is possible for a particle to travel through a medium faster than the phase velocity of light in that medium (but still slower than
10307:
2037:
1345:
15450:
15196:
13325:
12185:
11165:
10419:
1775:
1691:, meaning that it has the same value regardless of the direction in which it is measured. Observations of the emissions from nuclear
2181:; further, different types of light wave will travel at different speeds. The speed at which the individual crests and troughs of a
1785:
Event A precedes B in the red frame, is simultaneous with B in the green frame, and follows B in the blue frame.
1708:
14756:
14186:
13703:
12881:
940:
is a constant and is independent of the motion of the light source. He explored the consequences of that postulate by deriving the
789:
4081:, using cavity resonance. This value was adopted by the 12th General Assembly of the Radio-Scientific Union in 1957. In 1960, the
2270:
1835:
There are situations in which it may seem that matter, energy, or information-carrying signal travels at speeds greater than
14593:
14164:
13698:
13382:
11049:
8947:
4162:
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improved by using light with a shorter wavelength, but then it becomes difficult to directly measure the frequency of the light.
1797:. If the spatial distance between two events A and B is greater than the time interval between them multiplied by
1432:
1095:). For example, for visible light, the refractive index of glass is typically around 1.5, meaning that light in glass travels at
11084:. Fifth International Conference for History of Science in Science Education. Keszthely, Hungary. pp. 75–84. Archived from
3160:. If the dimensions of the resonance cavity are also known, these can be used to determine the wavelength of the wave. In 1946,
2535:
Receiving light and other signals from distant astronomical sources takes much longer. For example, it takes 13 billion (13
390:
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15186:
14566:
14191:
14139:
12972:
7460:
5354:
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5287:
10066:"The Velocity of Propagation of Electromagnetic Waves Derived from the Resonant Frequencies of a Cylindrical Cavity Resonator"
15370:
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3920:, and found that its numerical value was very close to the speed of light as measured directly by Fizeau. The following year
2819:
times faster) or, equivalently, that it would take light 8 minutes 12 seconds to travel from the Sun to the Earth.
9433:"A demonstration concerning the motion of light, communicated from Paris, in the Journal des Sçavans, and here made English"
8528:
3752:
argued that if the speed of light were to be finite, the Sun, Earth, and Moon would be noticeably out of alignment during a
1881:
The rate of change in the distance between two objects in a frame of reference with respect to which both are moving (their
14854:
14761:
14224:
14094:
7222:
1870:. However, the only physical entities that are moving are the laser and its emitted light, which travels at the speed
13227:
12770:
9474:
The Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, from Their Commencement in 1665, in the Year 1800: Abridged
5467:
if the speed of light is defined as a fixed number then, in principle, the time standard will serve as the length standard
4763:
A detailed discussion of the interferometer and its use for determining the speed of light can be found in Vaughan (1989).
3032:
that does not directly depend on a measurement of the propagation of electromagnetic waves is to use the relation between
2864:
value for the light time per unit distance could be obtained. For example, in 2009, the best estimate, as approved by the
2316:. In practical terms, this means that in a material with refractive index less than 1, the wave will be absorbed quickly.
2100:(QED). In this theory, light is described by the fundamental excitations (or quanta) of the electromagnetic field, called
14408:
14124:
13295:
11037:
7468:
7161:
6354:
5994:
5576:
5207:
4914:
3870:
developed a method to determine the speed of light based on time-of-flight measurements on Earth and reported a value of
3818:
combined this estimate with an estimate for the diameter of the Earth's orbit to obtain an estimate of speed of light of
2292:
In transparent materials, the refractive index generally is greater than 1, meaning that the phase velocity is less than
2262:
782:
332:
14521:
12922:
11076:
6283:"Measuring the speed of gravitational waves from the first and second observing run of Advanced LIGO and Advanced Virgo"
15107:
14461:
14211:
14169:
13842:
13581:
13467:
8568:(1993). "Superluminal (but causal) propagation of wave packets in transparent media with inverted atomic populations".
6472:
Uzan, J.-P. (2003). "The fundamental constants and their variation: observational status and theoretical motivations".
1957:
1458:
with the assumption that the laws of physics are the same in all inertial frames of reference. One consequence is that
410:
1948:. However, these jets are not moving at speeds in excess of the speed of light: the apparent superluminal motion is a
15478:
15112:
14531:
14366:
14331:
14201:
14151:
14029:
13638:
13176:
12932:
9783:
9630:
9051:
8844:
8790:. 10th International Conference, PaCT 2009, Novosibirsk, Russia, 31 August – 4 September 2009. Springer. p. 26.
7236:
6179:
5893:
5547:
5403:
3857:
12214:
12139:
One peculiar consequence of this system of definitions is that any future refinement in our ability to measure
9414:
8116:
6358:
3727:
1805:
relative to an inertial frame of reference, it would be travelling backwards in time relative to another frame, and
1431:
of the observer. This invariance of the speed of light was postulated by Einstein in 1905, after being motivated by
15703:
14809:
14413:
14356:
11937:
9132:
4618:
3730:
agreed that light has a finite speed, and observed that the speed of light is much faster than the speed of sound.
2865:
2652:
from other physical laws where it appears, for example, by determining the values of the electromagnetic constants
2516:: for every question, the ground control station had to wait at least three seconds for the answer to arrive.
1427:
The speed at which light waves propagate in vacuum is independent both of the motion of the wave source and of the
430:
15432:
10418:
Sullivan, D. B. (2001). "Speed of Light from Direct Frequency and Wavelength Measurements". In Lide, D. R. (ed.).
7490:
4227:
751:
15145:
13796:
12449:
6704:
6679:
4614:
3978:
3258:
2662:
2412:
chips, to minimize communication latencies, and care must be exercised when routing wires between them to ensure
2323:. Certain materials have an exceptionally low (or even zero) group velocity for light waves, a phenomenon called
1134:
for visible light is about 1.0003, so the speed of light in air is about 90 km/s (56 mi/s) slower than
31:
12395:
2685:
In 1983 the metre was defined as "the length of the path travelled by light in vacuum during a time interval of
2474:
Although this distance is largely irrelevant for most applications, latency becomes important in fields such as
874:
is from the distant past, allowing humans to study the history of the universe by viewing distant objects. When
15951:
15248:
14119:
13218:
13208:
12648:
12605:
10594:
Foschi, Renato; Leone, Matteo (2009), "Galileo, measurement of the velocity of light, and the reaction times",
9861:
7538:
5068:
4635:
3741:
considered the possibility of light travelling at infinite speed in vacuum, but slowing down in denser bodies.
2625:
2549:
1597:
The results of special relativity can be summarized by treating space and time as a unified structure known as
10527:
9710:"Proposals for the masses of the three largest asteroids, the Moon–Earth mass ratio and the Astronomical Unit"
9047:
2636:
determine distances to the Moon, planets and spacecraft, respectively, by measuring round-trip transit times.
2257:, or direction of propagation; in many cases, though, it can be treated as a material-dependent constant. The
1673:
when measured from a remote frame of reference, depending on how measurements are extrapolated to the region.
15751:
15679:
15421:
15326:
15256:
14782:
14513:
14229:
14219:
13900:
13452:
12917:
10877:
10650:
8421:
3861:
2846:
2464:
2435:
Acoustic representation of the speed of light, at every beep the light makes a full circle around the equator
1972:
1295:
1039:
971:
607:
15389:
10766:
Michelson, A. A. (1927). "Measurement of the Velocity of Light Between Mount Wilson and Mount San Antonio".
7707:; Nanopoulos, D. V.; Sakharov, A. S. (2003). "Quantum-Gravity Analysis of Gamma-Ray Bursts using Wavelets".
4082:
3245:
is another method to find the wavelength of electromagnetic radiation for determining the speed of light. A
1558:, such as most everyday speeds – in which case special relativity is closely approximated by
15956:
15243:
14558:
14129:
13633:
13192:
13169:
12964:
12874:
12236:
11445:
9967:
Aoki, K.; Mitsui, T. (2008). "A small tabletop experiment for a direct measurement of the speed of light".
8697:
4038:
2277:
1878:, after a delay in time. In neither case does any matter, energy, or information travel faster than light.
1700:
1684:. No conclusive evidence for such changes has been found, but they remain the subject of ongoing research.
1451:
13863:
9821:
9469:
9154:
8978:
8369:
6878:"Can light signals travel faster than c in nontrivial vacua in flat space-time? Relativistic causality II"
4663:, is due to the different times that light from different parts of the object takes to reach the observer.
2831:(AU) is approximately the average distance between the Earth and Sun. It was redefined in 2012 as exactly
1889:. However, this does not represent the speed of any single object as measured in a single inertial frame.
1793:. One argument for this follows from the counter-intuitive implication of special relativity known as the
1450:
for the clocks, the one-way speed of light becomes equal to the two-way speed of light by definition. The
15966:
15864:
15849:
15834:
15793:
15696:
15284:
15018:
15003:
14731:
14711:
14583:
14466:
14456:
13955:
13837:
13800:
13145:
13122:
12989:
12331:"Démonstration touchant le mouvement de la lumière trouvé par M. Römer de l'Academie Royale des Sciences"
11761:
10018:
9969:
9938:
9415:"Demonstration tovchant le mouvement de la lumiere trouvé par M. Rŏmer de l'Académie Royale des Sciences"
9090:
7709:
7165:
6382:
5240:
5128:
2313:
1979:, are not velocities in a relativistic sense. Faster-than-light cosmological recession speeds are only a
1658:
1497:
1496:
Special relativity has many counterintuitive and experimentally verified implications. These include the
1428:
995:
937:
769:
512:
497:
487:
435:
35:
12143:
will not change the speed of light (which is a defined number), but will change the length of the meter!
9884:
6829:"Dispersion relations and causality: does relativistic causality require that n (ω) → 1 as ω → ∞ ?"
2575:. In round figures, a light year is nearly 10 trillion kilometres or nearly 6 trillion miles.
1312:; this relationship is used to define the metre as exactly the distance that light travels in vacuum in
15844:
15829:
15571:
15013:
14966:
14361:
14321:
11635:
9516:
9486:
8916:
8702:
8142:
5998:
5571:
5360:
5211:
4751:
4746:
must be taken into consideration when interpreting the length. The metre is considered to be a unit of
2741:
is a convenient setting for measuring the speed of light because of its large scale and nearly perfect
1794:
492:
482:
17:
14548:
12954:
11044:
9065:
8082:
4773:
best be said to have established a lower limit of about 60 miles per second for the velocity of light.
3257:), is split to follow two paths and then recombined. By adjusting the path length while observing the
2494:
2200:. A physical signal with a finite extent (a pulse of light) travels at a different speed. The overall
1862:
If a laser beam is swept quickly across a distant object, the spot of light can move faster than
982:
but can never reach it, regardless of the frame of reference in which their speed is measured. In the
15601:
15227:
14908:
14766:
14600:
14196:
13001:
11993:
Barger, R.; Hall, J. (1973). "Wavelength of the 3.39-μm laser-saturated absorption line of methane".
11882:
Albert Einstein's special theory of relativity. Emergence (1905) and early interpretation (1905–1911)
11111:
10704:
Buchwald, Jed; Yeang, Chen-Pang; Stemeroff, Noah; Barton, Jenifer; Harrington, Quinn (1 March 2021).
9417:[Demonstration to the movement of light found by Mr. Römer of the Royal Academy of Sciences]
6474:
5448:
3681:
argued, to the contrary, that "light is due to the presence of something, but it is not a movement".
3231:
2601:
2408:
refracts and slows down signals. Processors must therefore be placed close to each other, as well as
1964:
1028:
921:
859:
674:
11656:
Campbell, Lewis; Garnett, William; Rautio, James C. "The Life of James Clerk Maxwell", p. 544,
7394:
1882:
15626:
15176:
14936:
14847:
14451:
11631:
11054:
8422:"Observation of coherent optical information storage in an atomic medium using halted light pulses"
8177:
7627:
7200:
7195:
3947:
3704:
3690:
3235:
2301:
1447:
10127:"A new determination of the ratio of the electromagnetic to the electrostatic unit of electricity"
9909:
Catchers of the Light: The Forgotten Lives of the Men and Women Who First Photographed the Heavens
9617:
9328:
8472:
Bajcsy, M.; Zibrov, A. S.; Lukin, M. D. (2003). "Stationary pulses of light in an atomic medium".
7756:
Füllekrug, M. (2004). "Probing the Speed of Light with Radio Waves at Extremely Low Frequencies".
5735:
5390:
2756:
15767:
15733:
15355:
15277:
14897:
14888:
14797:
14792:
14718:
14615:
14536:
14326:
14302:
14146:
14084:
13940:
13129:
13018:
12937:
12867:
12343:
11290:
A History of Physics in Its Elementary Branches: Including the Evolution of Physical Laboratories
10362:
Froome, K. D. (1958). "A New Determination of the Free-Space Velocity of Electromagnetic Waves".
9511:
7656:
7536:(12 July 2012). "Measurement of the neutrino velocity with the OPERA detector in the CNGS beam".
6712:
6703:
Shanchao Zhang; J. F. Chen; Chang Liu; M. M. T. Loy; G. K. L. Wong; Shengwang Du (16 June 2011).
6226:
4209:
4025:
3809:
was made in 1676 by Ole Rømer. From the observation that the periods of Jupiter's innermost moon
3290:
3112:. Their method depended upon having a standard unit of electrical resistance, the "international
2568:
2553:
2540:
2394:
2309:
2258:
2097:
1814:
1681:
1618:
1383:
1265:
1131:
626:
400:
12780:
10872:
10260:
10016:
James, M. B.; Ormond, R. B.; Stasch, A. J. (1999). "Speed of light measurement for the myriad".
6787:
6758:
6175:"Gravitational Waves and Gamma-Rays from a Binary Neutron Star Merger: GW170817 and GRB 170817A"
5781:
5771:
4880:
3969:
in which the electromagnetic field existed. Some physicists thought that this aether acted as a
912:. Progressively more accurate measurements of its speed came over the following centuries. In a
15808:
15803:
15581:
15444:
15350:
15308:
14982:
14946:
14672:
14667:
14526:
14181:
14099:
14060:
14054:
13081:
13076:
12927:
12062:
11612:
11597:
9559:
9544:
7016:
7010:
7006:
6828:
6113:
6103:
5924:
5919:
5879:
5819:
5813:
4005:
3765:, Descartes assumed that some kind of motion associated with light was faster in denser media.
3174:
2745:. Typically, one measures the time needed for light to traverse some reference distance in the
2505:
2475:
2004:
1622:
1440:
1422:
1208:
450:
445:
12719:
12474:
12338:
12122:
11722:
11558:
11138:
10836:
9781:
9592:
9423:
9282:
9181:
8056:
7927:
7592:
6650:
5634:
5605:
5501:
5086:
4947:
4815:
1916:
Another quantum effect that predicts the occurrence of faster-than-light speeds is called the
1605:
relating the units of space and time), and requiring that physical theories satisfy a special
15586:
15191:
15130:
14067:
14022:
12677:
12671:
12520:
12156:
12093:
12066:
11582:
9575:
8306:"Interferometric measurement of the resonant absorption and refractive index in rubidium gas"
8203:
8025:
7369:
7330:
7303:
5844:
5440:
5166:
4978:
3925:
3787:
3347:
2653:
2624:) in one second, these measurements of small fractions of a second must be very precise. The
2405:
2378:
2000:
1980:
1909:
1617:. Lorentz invariance is an almost universal assumption for modern physical theories, such as
1047:
887:
11498:
10925:
10819:
7732:
7654:
Schaefer, B. E. (1999). "Severe limits on variations of the speed of light with frequency".
7619:
7095:
6138:
3748:
believed that the speed of light was infinite since empty space presents no obstacle to it.
2944:
15912:
15738:
15491:
15417:
15261:
14863:
14647:
14610:
14553:
13463:
13051:
13013:
12959:
12583:
12529:
12423:
12377:
12250:
12002:
11687:
11511:
11452:
The text of Prop. XI is identical between the first (1704) and second (1719) editions.
10775:
10690:
10469:
10371:
10274:
10217:
10167:
10079:
10027:
9988:
9947:
9787:
9723:
9446:
9247:
9196:
8879:
8579:
8491:
8436:
8384:
8320:
8305:
8240:
7972:
7884:
7865:
Adelberger, E.; Dvali, G.; Gruzinov, A. (2007). "Photon Mass Bound Destroyed by Vortices".
7818:
7765:
7728:
7675:
7557:
7425:
7378:
6968:
6899:
6840:
6799:
6721:
6615:
6550:
6493:
6454:
6401:
6306:
6245:
6198:
6068:
6031:
5943:
5681:
5249:
5137:
5017:
4275:
4059:
4009:
3965:
It was thought at the time that empty space was filled with a background medium called the
3891:
3708:
3693:
of vision, where light is emitted from the eye, thus enabling sight. Based on that theory,
2588:
2254:
1996:
1949:
1905:
1892:
Certain quantum effects appear to be transmitted instantaneously and therefore faster than
1161:
983:
941:
571:
405:
12193:
10438:
6221:
4100:
In 1972, using the laser interferometer method and the new definitions, a group at the US
8:
15762:
15566:
15561:
15551:
15383:
15332:
15150:
15135:
14961:
14892:
14840:
14701:
14677:
14657:
13925:
13805:
13785:
13732:
13625:
13351:
13112:
13088:
13061:
12853:
12796:
12492:
12241:
11353:
11041:
10655:(digital, online ed.), Florence: Istituto e Museo di Storia delle Scienze, pp.
10265:
10118:
7620:
5115:
4001:
3982:
3966:
3951:
3941:
3845:
3757:
3694:
3536:
3310:
3246:
3094:
3047:
3037:
2789:
2362:
2320:
2305:
1933:
1830:
1806:
1650:
1606:
1559:
1436:
1254:
1243:
1186:
1020:
917:
664:
621:
228:
109:
15556:
12587:
12533:
12427:
12381:
12254:
12006:
11691:
11515:
11232:"Descartes' Experimental Proof of the Infinite Velocity of Light and Huygens' Rejoinder"
10779:
10473:
10375:
10364:
Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A, Mathematical and Physical Sciences
10278:
10221:
10171:
10083:
10031:
9992:
9951:
9727:
9450:
9251:
9200:
8883:
8583:
8495:
8440:
8388:
8324:
8244:
7976:
7888:
7822:
7769:
7679:
7561:
7429:
7382:
6972:
6903:
6844:
6803:
6725:
6619:
6554:
6497:
6458:
6405:
6310:
6249:
6202:
6072:
6035:
5947:
5685:
5253:
5141:
5021:
4000:
proposed that the motion of the apparatus through the aether may cause the apparatus to
3840:
they were not, he concluded the different colours travelled at the same speed. In 1729,
2730:
2108:
and thus, according to special relativity, they travel at the speed of light in vacuum.
1859:, but phase velocity does not determine the velocity at which waves convey information.
1653:, and observations of gravitational waves have been consistent with this prediction. In
15839:
15719:
15631:
15531:
15455:
15313:
15294:
15288:
15239:
15181:
15090:
15008:
14926:
14903:
14871:
14814:
14662:
14605:
13945:
13832:
13648:
13536:
13203:
13066:
13008:
12749:
12745:
12553:
12274:
12018:
11880:
11823:
11778:
11590:
11503:
11479:
11426:
11335:
11269:
11261:
11212:
10954:
10733:
10629:
10573:
10513:
10485:
10395:
10387:
10241:
10233:
10183:
10122:
10097:
10004:
9978:
9739:
9687:
9537:
9391:
9305:
9263:
9220:
8955:
8651:
8638:
8515:
8481:
8460:
8400:
7998:
7908:
7874:
7842:
7808:
7794:
7744:
7718:
7691:
7665:
7573:
7547:
7508:
7441:
7336:
7266:
6984:
6958:
6923:
6889:
6864:
6631:
6605:
6573:
6540:
6528:
6509:
6483:
6444:
6417:
6391:
6322:
6296:
6282:
6269:
6235:
6188:
6139:
6084:
5967:
5933:
5875:
5703:
5672:
5041:
5007:
4743:
4673:
4396:
4261:
3815:
3726:
which requires time, even if this is hidden from the senses. Also in the 11th century,
3526:
3365:
3177:, knowledge of the associated frequencies enabled a calculation of the speed of light.
3098:
2633:
2545:
2417:
2374:
2273:, have refractive indexes of around 1.3, 1.5 and 2.4, respectively, for visible light.
1925:
1654:
1634:
1610:
1512:
1418:
1283:
959:
875:
828:
477:
382:
7390:
1562: – but it increases at relativistic speeds and diverges to infinity as
15971:
15897:
15869:
15859:
15854:
15641:
15473:
15465:
15066:
15023:
14819:
14787:
14543:
13597:
12949:
12944:
12731:
12704:
12681:
12656:
12557:
12545:
12278:
12266:
12162:
12128:
12072:
11917:
11887:
11858:
11830:
11801:
11728:
11703:
11657:
11601:
11571:
11547:
11418:
11410:
11361:
11327:
11273:
11253:
11216:
11173:
11144:
11017:
11013:
10914:
10846:
10808:
10737:
10725:
10646:
10621:
10577:
10517:
10489:
10428:
10399:
10339:
10245:
10008:
9913:
9743:
9691:
9679:
9626:
9548:
9395:
9267:
9212:
9110:
9100:
9024:
9003:
Parisi, Megan; Panontin, Tina; Wu, Shu-Chieh; Mctigue, Kaitlin; Vera, Alonso (2023).
8897:
8816:
8791:
8764:
8630:
8595:
8570:
8507:
8452:
8361:
8336:
8286:
8276:
8209:
8062:
8035:
8002:
7990:
7937:
7900:
7846:
7834:
7799:
7781:
7695:
7631:
7598:
7512:
7340:
7309:
7276:
7242:
7232:
7204:
7101:
7074:
7049:
7020:
6949:
6915:
6877:
6868:
6856:
6815:
6811:
6737:
6691:
6656:
6635:
6578:
6513:
6421:
6326:
6287:
6273:
6261:
6150:
6117:
6088:
5971:
5959:
5899:
5889:
5852:
5823:
5785:
5745:
5646:
5639:
A Broader View of Relativity: General Implications of Lorentz and Poincaré Invariance
5613:
5553:
5543:
5511:
5452:
5399:
5364:
5339:
5318:
5297:
5265:
5172:
5153:
5092:
5033:
4967:
4936:
4884:
4821:
4699:
4689:
A typical value for the refractive index of optical fibre is between 1.518 and 1.538.
4600:
of light can depend on the motion of the source relative to the observer, due to the
4178:
As a result of this definition, the value of the speed of light in vacuum is exactly
4105:
3895:
3722:
2828:
2715:
2105:
2022:
2012:
1992:
1976:
1826:
1704:
1463:
1165:
951:
824:
729:
694:
659:
546:
517:
507:
502:
273:
163:
15511:
12812:
12632:
11782:
11483:
11430:
11193:
Marshall, P. (1981). "Nicole Oresme on the Nature, Reflection, and Speed of Light".
10958:
10633:
9661:
9309:
9224:
7912:
7748:
7577:
7445:
5955:
4995:
4093:
was redefined in terms of the hyperfine transition frequency of the ground state of
4013:
3749:
3136:
Another way to measure the speed of light is to independently measure the frequency
3009:
2777:
and deduced that light takes 22 minutes to cross the diameter of the Earth's orbit.
2296:. In other materials, it is possible for the refractive index to become smaller than
689:
15546:
15536:
15483:
15460:
15038:
14015:
13930:
13921:
12591:
12574:
12537:
12515:
12445:
12431:
12385:
12258:
12022:
12010:
11770:
11695:
11519:
11471:
11400:
11392:
11319:
11245:
11204:
10987:
10946:
10886:
10783:
10717:
10611:
10603:
10565:
10477:
10379:
10282:
10225:
10187:
10175:
10138:
10087:
10035:
9996:
9955:
9731:
9671:
9666:
9454:
9381:
9373:
9355:
9297:
9255:
9204:
9016:
8887:
8727:
8723:
8642:
8622:
8613:
8587:
8519:
8499:
8464:
8444:
8404:
8392:
8328:
8248:
8199:
8021:
7980:
7963:
7933:
7892:
7826:
7773:
7736:
7704:
7683:
7565:
7533:
7500:
7433:
7416:
7386:
7262:
6976:
6907:
6848:
6807:
6733:
6729:
6623:
6568:
6558:
6501:
6409:
6314:
6257:
6253:
6206:
6076:
6039:
5951:
5777:
5741:
5689:
5642:
5257:
5145:
5045:
5025:
4660:
4280:
4247:
4049:
3986:
3921:
3867:
3766:
3415:
3265:) can be determined. The speed of light is then calculated using the equation
3169:
3157:
2985:
2576:
2413:
2350:
2201:
2172:
1937:
1921:
1646:
1630:
1063:
1016:
699:
669:
367:
313:
86:
15606:
12518:; Pearson, F. (1935). "Measurement of the Velocity of Light in a Partial Vacuum".
12470:
11462:
Guarnieri, M. (2015). "Two Millennia of Light: The Long Path to Maxwell's Waves".
10684:
8229:
Toll, J. S. (1956). "Causality and the Dispersion Relation: Logical Foundations".
7896:
7777:
4844:
3879:
3440:
2989:
2308:
of any material, corresponding respectively to the index of refraction and to the
1789:
More generally, it is impossible for signals or energy to travel faster than
15887:
15772:
15621:
15596:
15521:
15516:
15399:
15360:
15322:
15266:
15140:
15076:
12849:
12696:
12058:
11565:
11541:
11288:
10908:
10802:
10333:
9907:
9476:. Vol. II. From 1673 to 1682. London: C. & R. Baldwin. pp. 397–398.
9208:
8754:
8538:
8231:
7740:
7002:
6988:
6927:
6022:
5533:
5119:
4961:
4930:
4290:
4155:
3997:
3970:
3786:
that if it were not, it must nevertheless be extraordinarily rapid. In 1667, the
3782:
3745:
3333:
3081:, whereas the value of the vacuum permeability was historically fixed at exactly
2797:
2629:
2564:
2409:
2152:
2148:
2125:
2093:
1200:
1024:
955:
929:
684:
679:
654:
631:
541:
15404:
11724:
Michelson-Morley Experiments: An Enigma for Physics & The History of Science
11380:
10481:
7830:
7687:
7569:
6318:
5123:
3721:, in which he presented a series of arguments dismissing the emission theory of
3701:
because distant objects such as stars appear immediately upon opening the eyes.
3261:
and carefully measuring the change in path length, the wavelength of the light (
2136:
15961:
15925:
15646:
15318:
15302:
15298:
15201:
15171:
15028:
14706:
13552:
13161:
13117:
12640:
11195:
10978:
10950:
10721:
10556:
9364:
8413:
8365:
6627:
6211:
6174:
6146:
6109:
4817:
Elementary and Intermediate Algebra: A Combined Course, Student Support Edition
4601:
4285:
4233:
3898:
measured the ratio of the electromagnetic and electrostatic units of charge, 1/
3778:
3762:
3717:
3485:
3314:
3242:
3207:
3129:
2605:
2539:
10) years for light to travel to Earth from the faraway galaxies viewed in the
2216:
2205:
2190:
1917:
1848:
1696:
1626:
1524:
1474:
1355:
891:
756:
724:
585:
145:
130:
12837:
12802:
12786:
12475:"Détermination expérimentale de la vitesse de la lumière: parallaxe du Soleil"
9735:
9675:
9301:
9114:
7793:
Bartlett, D. J.; Desmond, H.; Ferreira, P. G.; Jasche, J. (17 November 2021).
7504:
6911:
6852:
6505:
6080:
6057:
Penrose, R. (1959). "The Apparent Shape of a Relativistically Moving Sphere".
5667:
5477:
1155:
970:
regardless of the motion of the source or the inertial reference frame of the
904:
that light does not travel instantaneously by studying the apparent motion of
15945:
15930:
15824:
15636:
15616:
15611:
15526:
15394:
15222:
15166:
14998:
14951:
14501:
14089:
13989:
13810:
13664:
12910:
12565:
12405:
12270:
12210:
11850:
11774:
11707:
11523:
11475:
11414:
11365:
11331:
11257:
11085:
10842:
10832:
10729:
10705:
9683:
9386:
8565:
8533:
8340:
8290:
8252:
7838:
7254:
7190:
6919:
6860:
6702:
6380:
Ellis, G. F. R.; Uzan, J.-P. (2005). "'c' is the speed of light, isn't it?".
6043:
5963:
5694:
5507:
5269:
5157:
5037:
5029:
4870:
4747:
4429:
3841:
3753:
3390:
3090:
3016:
2793:
2460:
2393:, the speed of light imposes a limit on how quickly data can be sent between
1968:
1901:
1781:
1574: = 2 occurs at a relative velocity of 86.6% of the speed of light (
1516:
1379:
1032:
863:
590:
472:
12823:
10891:
9612:
8591:
7246:
5903:
5557:
5385:
4158:
than the previous standard. They kept the 1967 definition of second, so the
15656:
15576:
15541:
15071:
15033:
14046:
14038:
13950:
12817:
12549:
12436:
12409:
12390:
12219:
11907:
11422:
10625:
10383:
10229:
10092:
10065:
9459:
9432:
9216:
9094:
8901:
8760:
8634:
8608:
8511:
8456:
7994:
7904:
7785:
6980:
6741:
6582:
6265:
5589:
4455:
4270:
3836:
2746:
2579:, the closest star to Earth after the Sun, is around 4.2 light-years away.
2160:
2117:
1941:
1692:
1406:
719:
12326:
9791:
8599:
8370:"Light speed reduction to 17 metres per second in an ultracold atomic gas"
8270:
7795:"Constraints on quantum gravity and the photon mass from gamma ray bursts"
3361:
2928:
The relative uncertainty in these measurements is 0.02 parts per billion (
2597:
2571:, around 9461 billion kilometres, 5879 billion miles, or 0.3066
2567:
publications and media. A light-year is the distance light travels in one
897:
15920:
15440:
15409:
14956:
14620:
13023:
10143:
10126:
9020:
8675:"Light breaking its own speed limit: how 'superluminal' shenanigans work"
8486:
7723:
7670:
7495:
7411:
7218:
6449:
5938:
5883:
5635:"Appendix A: Systems of units and the development of relativity theories"
5537:
5012:
4991:
4094:
4066:
3792:
3734:
3165:
3161:
3074:
2738:
2483:
1897:
1366:
879:
848:
704:
580:
235:
203:
12496:
11945:
11265:
11231:
8503:
6692:"HKUST Professors Prove Single Photons Do Not Exceed the Speed of Light"
6563:
1185:
was used as an alternative symbol for the speed of light, introduced by
852:
15902:
15892:
15788:
15651:
15217:
15061:
15056:
13916:
13888:
13674:
12793:
Data Gallery: Michelson Speed of Light (Univariate Location Estimation)
12754:
12450:"Sur une expérience relative à la vitesse de propagation de la lumière"
12286:
12036:
11967:
11405:
11381:"Galileo, Measurement of the Velocity of Light, and the Reaction Times"
11339:
11305:
11249:
10616:
9593:"Supplement 2014: Updates to the 8th edition (2006) of the SI Brochure"
9576:"Resolution B2 on the re-definition of the astronomical unit of length"
9259:
9128:
7879:
7045:
6488:
5845:"Postulates of the special theory of relativity and their consequences"
4432:. The second is, in turn, defined to be the length of time occupied by
4295:
4086:
3917:
3674:
3289:). They used it in 1972 to measure the speed of light in vacuum with a
2560:
2358:
2354:
2324:
2182:
1712:
1217:, which by then had become the standard symbol for the speed of light.
1190:
734:
714:
556:
551:
288:
209:
13499:
12502:
Proceedings of the American Association for the Advancement of Science
12262:
12014:
11699:
10391:
10286:
10000:
9959:
9751:
8787:
Software Transactional Memories: An Approach for Multicore Programming
8332:
7414:(1966). "The Appearance of Relativistically Expanding Radio Sources".
7328:
6963:
6819:
6413:
6396:
5261:
3957:
2334:
None of these options allow information to be transmitted faster than
15879:
15688:
15048:
14696:
14652:
14642:
13973:
13868:
13438:
13371:
13367:
13335:
13264:
13107:
13056:
13046:
12859:
12806:
12727:
12596:
12569:
12235:
Knotts, Sandra; Mohr, Peter J.; Phillips, William D. (January 2017).
10237:
10179:
10101:
8670:
8626:
8448:
8266:
7437:
5708:
5293:
5168:
The Natural Laws of the Universe: Understanding Fundamental Constants
4639:
4597:
3990:
3810:
3678:
3277:
3226:
3116:", and so its accuracy was limited by how this standard was defined.
3078:
2802:
2774:
2479:
2401:
2186:
1724:
1598:
1378:
appears often, such as in relativity, it is common to use systems of
991:
975:
909:
894:
measurements to measure large distances to extremely high precision.
883:
867:
532:
350:
11756:
11675:
11323:
10039:
9782:
IAU Working Group on Numerical Standards for Fundamental Astronomy.
9709:
9360:"Roemer and the first determination of the velocity of light (1676)"
8892:
8867:
7985:
7958:
6222:"Bounding the Speed of Gravity with Gravitational Wave Observations"
5149:
4782:
Between 1960 and 1983 the metre was defined as "the length equal to
948:
had relevance outside of the context of light and electromagnetism.
50:
15591:
14941:
13873:
13847:
13749:
13743:
13738:
13728:
13723:
13718:
13713:
13708:
13489:
13484:
12541:
11306:"Descartes's Theory of Light and Refraction: A Discourse on Method"
11208:
10991:
10787:
10569:
9377:
8417:
8357:
7813:
6301:
6240:
6193:
4631:
3974:
3698:
3211:
2861:
2765:
2509:
2390:
2286:
1688:
1012:
709:
56:
11396:
10804:
Light-Matter Interaction: Physics and Engineering at the Nanoscale
10706:"What Heinrich Hertz discovered about electric waves in 1887–1888"
10607:
10421:
A Century of Excellence in Measurements, Standards, and Technology
9983:
9238:
Standish, E. M. (February 1982). "The JPL planetary ephemerides".
8396:
7552:
7329:
Hernández-Figueroa, H. E.; Zamboni-Rached, M.; Recami, E. (2007).
7271:
6894:
6610:
6545:
2229:
2177:
In a medium, light usually does not propagate at a speed equal to
13607:
10554:
Boyer, C. B. (1941). "Early Estimates of the Velocity of Light".
8756:
Introduction to parallel processing: algorithms and architectures
7702:
4876:
The Road to Reality: A Complete Guide to the Laws of the Universe
4447:
4159:
3993:(the same in every direction) to within 6 nanometres per second.
3831:
3712:
3686:
3206:
A household demonstration of this technique is possible, using a
3164:
and A.C. Gordon-Smith established the frequency for a variety of
2780:
2770:
1820:
1810:
1469:
905:
243:
12820:(Sixty Symbols, University of Nottingham Department of Physics )
11757:"On the Relative Motion of the Earth and the Luminiferous Ether"
9182:"Lunar Laser Ranging: A Continuing Legacy of the Apollo Program"
9048:"Hubble Reaches the "Undiscovered Country" of Primeval Galaxies"
9009:
Human-Centered Aerospace Systems and Sustainability Applications
7040:
Tolman, R. C. (2009) . "Velocities greater than that of light".
6220:
Cornish, Neil; Blas, Diego; Nardini, Germano (18 October 2017).
5776:. Advanced Series on Theoretical Physical Science. Vol. 4.
5740:. Advanced Series on Theoretical Physical Science. Vol. 8.
5503:
From Sundials to Atomic Clocks: Understanding Time and Frequency
4634:
have a small but non-zero mass, they travel through empty space
4190:
measuring the wavelength of krypton-86 and other light sources.
2242:. The refractive index of a material is defined as the ratio of
2082:{\displaystyle c={\frac {1}{\sqrt {\varepsilon _{0}\mu _{0}}}}.}
1676:
It is generally assumed that fundamental constants such as
1401:
does not appear explicitly because multiplication or division by
15271:
13895:
13443:
13254:
11913:
Subtle is the Lord: The Science and the Life of Albert Einstein
7228:
6020:
Terrell, J. (1959). "Invisibility of the Lorentz Contraction".
4715:
4655:
to be shorter along the line of relative motion, they are also
4421:
4090:
3738:
3682:
3124:
2812:
times faster than the Earth in its orbit (the modern figure is
2750:
2742:
2572:
2101:
1945:
1341:
1331:
1146:
The speed of light in vacuum is usually denoted by a lowercase
844:
840:
836:
814:
302:
280:
261:
174:
12748:(2004). "Comment on time-variation of fundamental constants".
10873:"Scientific Method, Statistical Method and the Speed of Light"
10652:
Saggi di Naturali Esperienze fatte nell' Accademia del Cimento
9005:"Effects of Communication Delay on Human Spaceflight Missions"
5916:
5506:(Reprint of National Bureau of Standards 1977, 2nd ed.).
3073:). The vacuum permittivity may be determined by measuring the
2439:
Given that the equatorial circumference of the Earth is about
1723:
According to special relativity, the energy of an object with
14832:
13669:
13458:
13427:
13305:
9281:
Berner, J. B.; Bryant, S. H.; Kinman, P. W. (November 2007).
8733:
7792:
4400:
3250:
2953:
2593:
2266:
1908:. Until either of the particles is observed, they exist in a
1852:
1613:, whose mathematical formulation contains the parameter
1181:
times the speed of light in vacuum. Historically, the symbol
871:
217:
72:
10703:
4935:(illustrated ed.). John Wiley & Sons. p. 497.
4208:." This was one of the changes that was incorporated in the
4085:
in terms of the wavelength of a particular spectral line of
15252:
13448:
13433:
13423:
10910:
Electronic Microwave Imaging with Planar Multistatic Arrays
10897:(click on "Historical background" in the table of contents)
8269:(2001). "Analyticity, Causality and Dispersion Relations".
7302:
Muga, J. G.; Mayato, R. S.; Egusquiza, I. L., eds. (2007).
6441:
Variations of the Fine Structure Constant in Space and Time
5888:(2 ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 12.
4820:(4th illustrated ed.). Cengage Learning. p. 197.
4451:
4425:
2520:
2513:
2121:
1687:
It is generally assumed that the two-way speed of light is
1523:
by which lengths contract and times dilate is known as the
1226:
is used for the speed of waves in any material medium, and
294:
254:
14007:
9283:"Range Measurement as Practiced in the Deep Space Network"
6943:
Liberati, S.; Sonego, S.; Visser, M. (2002). "Faster-than-
5499:
4742:
Nevertheless, at this degree of precision, the effects of
4395:
It is exact because, by a 1983 international agreement, a
2096:, the electromagnetic field is described by the theory of
1211:
on special relativity in 1905, but in 1907 he switched to
10937:
Gross, C. G. (1999). "The Fire That Comes from the Eye".
9602:. International Bureau of Weights and Measures: 14. 2014.
7257:(2015). "Quantum Information Science: Emerging No More".
6141:
Gravity: An Introduction to Einstein's General Relativity
6105:
Gravity: An Introduction to Einstein's General Relativity
4899:
the most accurate standard for the metre is conveniently
3802:
Rømer's observations of the occultations of Io from Earth
3113:
1354:
is different for different unit systems. For example, in
1021:
the appearance of certain high-speed astronomical objects
882:, it can take minutes to hours for signals to travel. In
269:
68:
9935:
8275:. River Edge, N.J.: World Scientific. pp. 577–584.
7154:"Is Faster-Than-Light Travel or Communication Possible?"
6595:
3156:. One option is to measure the resonance frequency of a
2703:
of a second", fixing the value of the speed of light at
2512:
when it became the first crewed spacecraft to orbit the
2120:, the experimental upper bound for its mass is about 10
1344:, one can thus establish a standard for the metre. As a
12722:. In Quinn, T. J.; Leschiutta, S.; Tavella, P. (eds.).
10158:
Essen, L. (1947). "Velocity of Electromagnetic Waves".
9512:"Account of a new discovered Motion of the Fix'd Stars"
9002:
8356:
7864:
5987:"What is the experimental basis of Special Relativity?"
5985:
Roberts, T.; Schleif, S. (2007). Dlugosz, J. M. (ed.).
5482:
The NIST reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty
5088:
Einstein from "B" to "Z" – Volume 9 of Einstein studies
4676:
does allow signals to travel slightly faster than
1839:, but they do not. For example, as is discussed in the
1174:
for a different constant that was later shown to equal
1141:
835:
is the upper limit for the speed at which conventional
12789:(National Institute of Standards and Technology, NIST)
12724:
Recent advances in metrology and fundamental constants
8784:
Imbs, D.; Raynal, Michel (2009). Malyshkin, V. (ed.).
4016:(1900) showed that this local time (to first order in
12699:. In Amelino-Camelia, G; Kowalski-Glikman, J (eds.).
12513:
12497:"Experimental Determination of the Velocity of Light"
12068:
Spacetime Physics: Introduction to Special Relativity
11625:
9860:. University of California, Riverside. Archived from
6280:
5542:. Princeton: Princeton University Press. p. 22.
4966:(revised ed.). Courier Corporation. p. 79.
3807:
The first quantitative estimate of the speed of light
2761:
the first quantitative estimate of the speed of light
2040:
1936:
is seen in certain astronomical objects, such as the
1011:
In some cases, objects or waves may appear to travel
12783:(International Bureau of Weights and Measures, BIPM)
12215:"Units of measure are getting a fundamental upgrade"
10678:
10676:
10589:
10587:
9173:
8411:
8304:
Libbrecht, K. G.; Libbrecht, M. W. (December 2006).
8143:"Optical constants of C (Carbon, diamond, graphite)"
6942:
5539:
It's About Time: Understanding Einstein's Relativity
4223:
3851:
3218:
can be calculated, "often with less than 5% error".
1843:
section below, many wave velocities can exceed
1711:) have put stringent limits on the possible two-way
1586: = 10 occurs at 99.5% the speed of light (
12161:(2 ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 41.
11855:
Einstein's Clocks, Poincaré's Maps: Empires of Time
11626:O'Connor, J. J.; Robertson, E. F. (November 1997).
10972:Hamarneh, S. (1972). "Review: Hakim Mohammed Said,
10455:
10453:
10451:
8868:"Physics in finance: Trading at the speed of light"
7532:
7301:
5773:
Special Relativity and Its Experimental Foundations
5500:Jespersen, J.; Fitz-Randolph, J.; Robb, J. (1999).
5356:
Quantities, Units and Symbols in Physical Chemistry
3961:
Hendrik Lorentz (right) with Albert Einstein (1921)
3946:The wave properties of light were well known since
3144:of an electromagnetic wave in vacuum. The value of
2644:There are different ways to determine the value of
1958:
neutrinos were observed to travel faster than light
1466:and waves, including light, must travel in vacuum.
1062:at which light travels in a material is called the
12701:Planck Scale Effects in Astrophysics and Cosmology
12234:
11879:
11822:
11589:
11311:Transactions of the American Philosophical Society
9536:
9280:
8979:"Time delay between Mars and Earth – Mars Express"
8915:
8606:
8303:
6696:The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology
6219:
6060:Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical Society
4839:
4837:
4399:is defined as the length of the path travelled by
4149:
3935:
3230:An interferometric determination of length. Left:
3020:laboratory experiment in college physics classes.
2796:in the 18th century. This effect results from the
2559:Astronomical distances are sometimes expressed in
2368:
2081:
1657:of reference (gravitationally curved spacetime or
1031:is understood to exceed the speed of light beyond
12124:Relativity: An Introduction to Space–Time Physics
11109:
11036:
10673:
10584:
10063:
10015:
9467:
8471:
1920:: under certain conditions the time needed for a
1695:as a function of the orientation of the emitting
1554:1 is negligible for speeds much slower than
1519:(moving clocks run more slowly). The factor
30:"Lightspeed" redirects here. For other uses, see
15943:
13191:
12809:demonstrating group velocity information limits)
12697:"Quantum Foam and Quantum Gravity Phenomenology"
12364:"A Demonstration concerning the Motion of Light"
11721:Consoli, Maurizio; Pluchino, Alessandro (2018).
11676:"On the Relations between Light and Electricity"
10838:Ancient science through the golden age of Greece
10501:
10499:
10448:
9468:Hutton, C.; Shaw, G.; Pearson, R., eds. (1809).
9323:
9321:
9319:
9274:
9155:"StarChild Question of the Month for March 2000"
9096:The End of Everything (Astrophysically Speaking)
8736:Pavel Alekseyevich Čerenkov: Chelovek i Otkrytie
7617:
5114:
4959:
3276:Before the advent of laser technology, coherent
1454:explores the consequences of this invariance of
1435:and the lack of evidence for motion against the
886:, the speed of light fixes the ultimate minimum
104:Approximate values (to three significant digits)
12415:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society
12369:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society
11754:
11720:
10807:(illustrated ed.). OUP Oxford. p. 1.
9707:
9505:
9503:
9501:
9499:
9438:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society
8837:"Theoretical vs real-world speed limit of Ping"
8777:
7959:"Astrophysics: Burst of support for relativity"
7956:
6526:
4834:
4813:
3761:demolished. Despite this, in his derivation of
2261:is approximately 1.0003. Denser media, such as
2185:(a wave filling the whole space, with only one
1953:instants at which the light rays were emitted.
1409:per second is still relevant, even if omitted.
14737:Fédération Aéronautique Internationale records
13151:Fédération Aéronautique Internationale records
12292:National Institute of Standards and Technology
12158:Relativity: Special, General, and Cosmological
11455:
10866:
10864:
10862:
10357:
10355:
10261:"Finding the Speed of Light with Marshmallows"
10113:
10111:
8746:
8740:Pavel Alekseyevich Čerenkov: Man and Discovery
8734:A. N. Gorbunov; E. P. Čerenkova, eds. (1999).
8609:"Gain-assisted superluminal light propagation"
8607:Wang, L. J.; Kuzmich, A.; Dogariu, A. (2000).
7491:"Embattled neutrino project leaders step down"
5984:
4928:
4108:determined the speed of light in vacuum to be
3287:National Institute of Standards and Technology
2357:material, the electromagnetic equivalent of a
2128:, the experimental upper limit is less sharp,
1821:Faster-than-light observations and experiments
1669:, but the speed of light can differ from
1546:is the speed of the object. The difference of
1412:
1274:exclusively for the speed of light in vacuum.
966:in vacuum. Such particles and waves travel at
15704:
14848:
14023:
13746:(first-ever possible light from bh-bh merger)
13177:
12875:
12717:
12057:
11379:Foschi, Renato; Leone, Matteo (August 2009).
11229:
11166:"Late Thirteenth-Century Synthesis in Optics"
11078:Measuring Speed of Light: Why? Speed of what?
10870:
10496:
10201:
10199:
10197:
10059:
10057:
10055:
10053:
10051:
9534:
9485:was based on a report that Rømer read to the
9431:
9316:
8170:"Researchers now able to stop, restart light"
7860:
7858:
7199:(Revised ed.). Addison-Wesley. pp.
7001:
6947:signals, special relativity, and causality".
5874:
5811:
5379:
3772:
1665:speed of light is constant and equal to
790:
12720:"Physics behind the definition of the meter"
11543:College physics: reasoning and relationships
10413:
10411:
10409:
10209:Proceedings of the Royal Society of London A
10071:Proceedings of the Royal Society of London A
9614:International Bureau of Weights and Measures
9570:
9568:
9496:
9480:
8983:MARS EXPRESS ESA’s mission to the Red Planet
8272:Selected Works of Emil Wolf: with commentary
8205:Fast light, slow light and left-handed light
8027:Fast light, slow light and left-handed light
7461:"Apparent Superluminal Velocity of Galaxies"
6340:
6338:
5387:International Bureau of Weights and Measures
5164:
3826:, which is 27% lower than the actual value.
3711:that light had no speed of travel. In 1021,
3101:used this method in 1907 to find a value of
3023:
2939:
2725:
2489:
1960:turned out to be due to experimental error.
1340:, as well as an accurate measurement of the
1038:The speed at which light propagates through
944:and, in doing so, showed that the parameter
12771:"Test Light Speed in Mile Long Vacuum Tube"
12094:"Time Line for the Definition of the Meter"
11930:
11619:
11378:
10859:
10800:
10593:
10505:
10352:
10108:
9899:
9715:Celestial Mechanics and Dynamical Astronomy
8917:"Time is money when it comes to microwaves"
7597:. Cambridge University Press. p. 206.
6785:
5920:"SNEWS: the SuperNova Early Warning System"
5610:A Unified Grand Tour of Theoretical Physics
4996:"Quantum information and relativity theory"
3928:wire travels along the wire at this speed.
2532:for commands to travel from Earth to Mars.
2519:The communications delay between Earth and
2423:
2327:. The opposite, group velocities exceeding
1752:is equal to one, giving rise to the famous
1153:
15711:
15697:
14855:
14841:
14030:
14016:
13184:
13170:
12882:
12868:
12148:
11992:
11570:. Courier Dover Publications. p. 17.
11010:Visual Communication: Images With Messages
11003:
11001:
10639:
10194:
10117:
10048:
9966:
9409:
9407:
9405:
9146:
8815:(2 ed.). Krieger Publishing Company.
8783:
8649:
8054:
8016:
8014:
8012:
7855:
7482:
7073:(2 ed.). Addison-Wesley. p. 62.
6995:
6373:
5572:"Nanoseconds Associated with Grace Hopper"
5080:
5078:
4990:
4814:Larson, Ron; Hostetler, Robert P. (2007).
4512:
4467:The speed of light in imperial is exactly
4133:General Conference on Weights and Measures
2678:. This is described in more detail in the
2144: (roughly 2 × 10 g).
1855:through most glasses can routinely exceed
1744:is the Lorentz factor defined above. When
1405:1 does not affect the result. Its unit of
1160:(meaning 'swiftness, celerity'). In 1856,
797:
783:
49:
12753:
12631:
12611:Comptes rendus de l'Académie des sciences
12595:
12491:
12480:Comptes rendus de l'Académie des sciences
12458:Comptes rendus de l'Académie des sciences
12435:
12389:
12085:
12029:
11960:
11800:. Van Nostrand Reinhold. pp. 51–57.
11496:
11461:
11404:
11186:
11172:. Harvard University Press. p. 396.
11130:
10965:
10890:
10765:
10689:(in French). Pierre van der Aa. pp.
10645:
10615:
10549:
10547:
10545:
10406:
10142:
10091:
9982:
9581:. International Astronomical Union. 2012.
9565:
9458:
9385:
9350:
9348:
9346:
9231:
9099:. London: Penguin Books. pp. 18–19.
9042:
9040:
8891:
8810:
8804:
8713:
8696:
8485:
7984:
7878:
7812:
7755:
7722:
7669:
7618:Panofsky, W. K. H.; Phillips, M. (1962).
7551:
7362:"Causality and the nature of information"
7270:
6962:
6893:
6680:"It's official: Time machines won't work"
6609:
6572:
6562:
6544:
6487:
6448:
6395:
6379:
6335:
6300:
6239:
6210:
6192:
5937:
5842:
5704:"On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies"
5693:
5233:
5011:
2845:. Previously the AU was not based on the
2759:used an astronomical measurement to make
1776:tests of relativistic energy and momentum
1762:formula for mass–energy equivalence. The
1682:speed of light may have changed over time
1570:. For example, a time dilation factor of
13758:(first black hole - neutron star merger)
12844:Speed of Light – animated demonstrations
12608:(1900). "Sur la vitesse de la lumière".
12604:
12469:
12318:
12051:
11820:
11755:Michelson, A. A.; Morley, E. W. (1887).
11630:. School of Mathematics and Statistics,
11563:
11539:
11192:
11163:
11143:. Oxford University Press. p. 143.
11136:
11074:
10971:
10417:
10325:
10258:
9708:Pitjeva, E. V.; Standish, E. M. (2009).
9659:
9539:Practical Astronomy with your Calculator
9237:
9180:Dickey, J. O.; et al. (July 1994).
9066:"The Hubble Ultra Deep Field Lithograph"
8865:
7925:
7919:
7653:
7590:
7584:
7147:
7145:
7143:
7120:
6589:
5851:. PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd. pp. 20ff.
5765:
5763:
5761:
5733:
5665:
5478:"CODATA value: Speed of Light in Vacuum"
5438:
5431:
5429:
5331:
5276:
4659:as being rotated. This effect, known as
4461:
4054:and redefinition of the metre and second
4041:, in which the speed of light in vacuum
3956:
3924:calculated that an electric signal in a
3797:
3225:
3148:can then be found by using the relation
3123:
2952:
2943:
2779:
2729:
2604:(GPS) receiver measures its distance to
2493:
2427:
2228:
1780:
1718:
1582:). Similarly, a time dilation factor of
1468:
27:Speed of electromagnetic waves in vacuum
12647:
12564:
12209:
12154:
11849:
11825:Electrodynamics from Ampére to Einstein
11116:MacTutor History of Mathematics archive
11050:MacTutor History of Mathematics archive
10998:
10801:Weiner, John; Nunes, Frederico (2013).
10682:
10459:
10331:
10064:Essen, L.; Gordon-Smith, A. C. (1948).
9847:
9845:
9843:
9841:
9839:
9784:"IAU WG on NSFA Current Best Estimates"
9777:
9775:
9509:
9402:
8976:
8752:
8742:]. Moscow: Nauka. pp. 149–153.
8198:
8048:
8020:
8009:
7189:
6655:(3 ed.). Birkhäuser. p. 152.
6520:
6056:
6019:
5729:
5727:
5234:Mendelson, K. S. (2006). "The story of
5084:
5075:
4869:
3697:argued that the speed of light must be
3501:
2971:Toothed wheel-breaker of the light beam
2582:
2215:, and its earliest part travels at the
1986:
1480:as a function of velocity. It starts at
14:
15944:
15718:
12889:
12669:
12444:
12404:
12114:
12091:
11877:
11795:
11727:. World Scientific. pp. 118–119.
11673:
11443:
11286:
11112:"Abu han Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Biruni"
11007:
10871:MacKay, R. H.; Oldford, R. W. (2000).
10831:
10542:
10361:
9905:
9619:The International System of Units (SI)
9543:. Cambridge University Press. p.
9343:
9179:
9037:
8537:. Institute of Physics. Archived from
8168:Cromie, William J. (24 January 2001).
8167:
8117:"Optical constants of Soda lime glass"
8058:Understanding the Properties of Matter
7489:Reich, Eugenie Samuel (2 April 2012).
7322:
7093:
7042:The Theory of the Relativity of Motion
7039:
6756:
6705:"Optical Precursor of a Single Photon"
6172:
6136:
6130:
6101:
5612:(2 ed.). CRC Press. p. 540.
5603:
5597:
5532:
5392:The International System of Units (SI)
5310:
4863:
4454:in a transition between two specified
2968:Beam-splitting semi-transparent mirror
2373:The speed of light is of relevance to
1358:, the speed of light is approximately
1284:Metre § Speed of light definition
1277:
15692:
14836:
14011:
13165:
12863:
12813:Light discussion on adding velocities
12655:(2 ed.). John Wiley & Sons.
12325:
12186:"The "explicit-constant" formulation"
12120:
12071:(2 ed.). Macmillan. p. 59.
11360:. Thomas Yoseloff. pp. 205–206.
11358:The Rainbow: From Myth to Mathematics
11352:
11303:
11237:Archive for History of Exact Sciences
10936:
10906:
10750:
10710:Archive for History of Exact Sciences
10509:Dialogues Concerning Two New Sciences
10308:"BBC Look East at the speed of light"
10205:
10157:
9912:. ArtDeCiel Publishing. p. 210.
9854:"How is the speed of light measured?"
9851:
9660:Brumfiel, Geoff (14 September 2012).
8928:from the original on 10 December 2022
8564:
7488:
7359:
7353:
7253:
7217:
7151:
7140:
7097:Photonics and lasers: an introduction
7068:
6875:
6826:
6788:"Causality between conducting plates"
6786:Ben-Menahem, Shahar (November 1990).
6345:Gibbs, P. (1997) . Carlip, S. (ed.).
6344:
5870:
5868:
5769:
5758:
5426:
5352:
5289:CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics
5193:
5061:"How is the speed of light measured?"
5058:
4994:; Terno, Daniel R. (6 January 2004).
4031:
1885:) may have a value in excess of
1042:, such as glass or air, is less than
185:Approximate light signal travel times
13316:Stanford gravitational wave detector
12744:
12624:
12342:(in French): 223–236. Archived from
11906:
11596:. Harvard University Press. p.
11587:
11499:"Über die Bewegung der Elektricität"
11464:IEEE Industrial Electronics Magazine
9836:
9772:
9470:"On the Motion of Light by M. Romer"
9152:Further discussion can be found at
9089:
8669:
8526:
8265:
8228:
7410:
7295:
7224:Quantum Theory: Concepts and Methods
6764:. University of Virginia. p. 56
6648:
6642:
6471:
6465:
6438:
6432:
5818:. Oxford University Press. pp.
5724:
5676:(Submitted manuscript) (in German).
5668:"Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper"
5626:
5285:
4636:very slightly more slowly than light
4403:in vacuum during a time interval of
4204:when it is expressed in the SI unit
4135:in 1975 recommended using the value
3756:. Although this argument fails when
2822:
2600:multiplied by the speed of light. A
2528:later. It would then take a further
2007:, which predict that the speed
1433:Maxwell's theory of electromagnetism
1142:Numerical value, notation, and units
890:. The speed of light can be used in
15427:Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff equation
15380:Friedmann–Lemaître–Robertson–Walker
13123:greatest of a spacecraft population
12676:(3 ed.). McGraw-Hill. p.
12637:Wave propagation and group velocity
10512:. Crew, H.; de Salvio A. (trans.).
10338:. CRC Press. pp. 47, 384–391.
10131:Bulletin of the Bureau of Standards
8866:Buchanan, Mark (11 February 2015).
7622:Classical Electricity and Magnetism
7469:University of California, Riverside
7162:University of California, Riverside
6355:University of California, Riverside
6173:Abbott, B. P.; et al. (2017).
5995:University of California, Riverside
5701:
5632:
5577:National Museum of American History
5311:Harris, J. W.; et al. (2002).
5208:University of California, Riverside
5200:the symbol for the speed of light?"
4932:Special Relativity and How it Works
3119:
2679:
2124:; if photon mass is generated by a
932:postulated that the speed of light
924:and, therefore, travelled at speed
24:
13468:European Gravitational Observatory
12694:
12313:
11674:Watson, E. C. (1 September 1957).
11110:O'Connor, J. J.; Robertson, E. F.
10913:. Logos Verlag Berlin. p. 1.
9882:
9814:"NPL's Beginner's Guide to Length"
9662:"The astronomical unit gets fixed"
7100:. John Wiley and Sons. p. 9.
5865:
5353:Cohen, E. R.; et al. (2007).
5187:
4845:"Definitions of the SI base units"
3878:. His method was improved upon by
3651:17th CGPM, definition of the metre
3594:K. D. Froome, radio interferometry
1995:, light is described as a type of
25:
15983:
15197:Hamilton–Jacobi–Einstein equation
14648:Furthest landing on another world
14544:Land vehicle (propulsively-driven
14152:FIBA Basketball World Cup records
13752:(first-ever "mass gap" collision)
13052:furthest landing on another world
12777:, September 1930, pp. 17–18.
12764:
11592:The equations: icons of knowledge
11546:. Cengage Learning. p. 787.
11170:A source book in medieval science
11045:"Abu Ali al-Hasan ibn al-Haytham"
9600:The International System of Units
9052:Space Telescope Science Institute
7458:
6347:"Is The Speed of Light Constant?"
6180:The Astrophysical Journal Letters
5815:Introducing Einstein's Relativity
5734:Hsu, J.-P.; Zhang, Y. Z. (2001).
3858:History of electromagnetic theory
3852:Connections with electromagnetism
3221:
3056:established by Maxwell's theory:
1999:. The classical behaviour of the
15675:
15674:
14810:List of longest-living organisms
14658:Furthest travel on another world
13062:furthest travel on another world
12856:, 28 September 1878, p. 193
12718:Helmcke, J.; Riehle, F. (2001).
12200:
12178:
11986:
11900:
11871:
11843:
11814:
11789:
11748:
11714:
11667:
11650:
11564:Bergmann, Peter Gabriel (1992).
11530:
11490:
11437:
11372:
11346:
11297:
11280:
11223:
11157:
11103:
11068:
11030:
10930:
10900:
10825:
10794:
10759:
10744:
10697:
10300:
10252:
10151:
9926:
9876:
9806:
9698:
9653:
9642:from the original on 4 June 2021
9606:
9585:
9528:
9413:
9133:International Astronomical Union
9129:"The IAU and astronomical units"
8948:"Day 4: Lunar Orbits 7, 8 and 9"
5849:The Special Theory to Relativity
5415:from the original on 4 June 2021
4776:
4766:
4757:
4736:
4692:
4672:It has been speculated that the
4254:
4240:
4226:
3669:
2866:International Astronomical Union
2853:Previously, the inverse of
1841:propagation of light in a medium
1840:
1372:In branches of physics in which
764:
763:
750:
389:
12237:"An Introduction to the New SI"
12037:"Resolution 2 of the 15th CGPM"
11968:"Resolution 6 of the 15th CGPM"
11938:"Resolution 1 of the 15th CGPM"
11444:Newton, I. (1704). "Prop. XI".
10553:
10427:. CRC Press. pp. 191–193.
9818:UK National Physical Laboratory
9490:
9354:
9329:"Resolution 1 of the 17th CGPM"
9121:
9083:
9058:
8996:
8970:
8940:
8908:
8859:
8829:
8813:Optical Fibers for Transmission
8690:
8650:Whitehouse, D. (19 July 2000).
8555:
8347:
8297:
8259:
8222:
8192:
8161:
8135:
8109:
8075:
7950:
7644:
7611:
7526:
7452:
7404:
7180:
7114:
7087:
7062:
7033:
6936:
6776:
6750:
6669:
6529:"Quantum Gravity Phenomenology"
6163:
6095:
6050:
6013:
5978:
5910:
5836:
5805:
5737:Lorentz and Poincaré Invariance
5659:
5564:
5526:
5227:
5165:Uzan, J-P; Leclercq, B (2008).
5105:
5052:
4683:
4666:
4645:
4624:
4607:
4590:
4150:Defined as an explicit constant
3715:(Ibn al-Haytham) published the
3180:The Essen–Gordon-Smith result,
2384:
2369:Practical effects of finiteness
1365:miles per second, or roughly 1
1209:original German-language papers
978:can be accelerated to approach
32:Speed of light (disambiguation)
15004:Mass–energy equivalence (E=mc)
14862:
14762:Category on tallest structures
13209:Gravitational-wave observatory
12840:(Live-Counter – Illustrations)
11540:Giordano, Nicholas J. (2009).
11230:Sakellariadis, Spyros (1982).
10335:The Fabry-Perot interferometer
10259:Stauffer, R. H. (April 1997).
8977:Ormston, Thomas (8 May 2012).
8728:10.3367/ufnr.0093.196710n.0385
7539:Journal of High Energy Physics
6827:Fearn, H. (10 November 2006).
6734:10.1103/physrevlett.106.243602
6258:10.1103/PhysRevLett.119.161102
5445:Instrumentation Reference Book
5065:The Physics and Relativity FAQ
4984:
4953:
4922:
4807:
4446:of the radiation emitted by a
4428:website or the explanation by
4389:
4352:
4309:
3089:through the definition of the
2872:light time for unit distance:
2792:, discovered and explained by
2639:
2626:Lunar Laser Ranging experiment
2397:. If a processor operates at 1
2166:
2151:. In 2009, the observation of
1766:factor approaches infinity as
1637:. As such, the parameter
1515:(moving objects shorten), and
1498:equivalence of mass and energy
1152:, for "constant" or the Latin
1050:in wire cables is slower than
319:
13:
1:
14220:Athletics record progressions
13901:Gravitational wave background
13453:LIGO Scientific Collaboration
9625:(8th ed.), p. 126,
7897:10.1103/PhysRevLett.98.010402
7778:10.1103/PhysRevLett.93.043901
7391:10.1016/S0030-4018(02)01638-3
7121:Wertheim, M. (20 June 2007).
6759:"Notes on Special Relativity"
5712:. Translated by Jeffery, G. B
5702:Perrett, W. Walker, J (ed.).
5398:(8th ed.), p. 112,
4800:
3862:History of special relativity
2847:International System of Units
2788:Another method is to use the
1904:of two particles that can be
1484:1 and approaches infinity as
1346:dimensional physical constant
1296:International System of Units
14177:Grand Prix motorcycle racing
13704:First observation (GW150914)
13490:TAMA 20, later known as LISM
13193:Gravitational-wave astronomy
12703:. Springer. pp. 321ff.
12673:Optical Fiber Communications
10907:Ahmed, Sherif Sayed (2014).
9209:10.1126/science.265.5171.482
8652:"Beam Smashes Light Barrier"
8529:"Switching light on and off"
8091:O (Water, heavy water, ice)"
7957:Amelino-Camelia, G. (2009).
7710:Astronomy & Astrophysics
6812:10.1016/0370-2693(90)91167-A
6533:Living Reviews in Relativity
6527:Amelino-Camelia, G. (2013).
5171:. Springer. pp. 43–44.
4619:Kennedy–Thorndike experiment
4102:National Bureau of Standards
4039:special theory of relativity
2670:and using their relation to
2204:of the pulse travels at the
1913:transmitted in this manner.
1659:accelerated reference frames
1452:special theory of relativity
829:special theory of relativity
7:
15850:Relativistic Doppler effect
15794:Inertial frame of reference
15019:Relativistic Doppler effect
14037:
13838:Tests of general relativity
12795:(download data gathered by
11916:. Oxford University Press.
11762:American Journal of Science
11680:American Journal of Physics
10755:. London: Macmillan and Co.
10482:10.1103/PhysRevLett.29.1346
10019:American Journal of Physics
9970:American Journal of Physics
9939:American Journal of Physics
9758:. Jet Propulsion Laboratory
9427:(in French): 233–236. 1676.
8952:The Apollo 8 Flight Journal
8843:. June 2007. Archived from
8313:American Journal of Physics
7831:10.1103/PhysRevD.104.103516
7688:10.1103/PhysRevLett.82.4964
7193:(1994). Tuan, S. F. (ed.).
6383:American Journal of Physics
6319:10.1103/PhysRevD.102.024028
5885:Flat and Curved Space-times
5606:"Appendix C: Natural units"
5241:American Journal of Physics
5129:American Journal of Physics
4651:Whereas moving objects are
4615:Michelson–Morley experiment
4219:
3996:Because of this experiment
3890:in 1862. In the year 1856,
3744:In the early 17th century,
3321:History of measurements of
3253:), with a known frequency (
3249:beam of light (e.g. from a
2246:to the phase velocity
1429:inertial frame of reference
1413:Fundamental role in physics
938:inertial frame of reference
920:proposed that light was an
498:Relativistic Doppler effect
436:Inertial frame of reference
67:seconds to travel from the
36:Lightspeed (disambiguation)
10:
15988:
15845:Relativity of simultaneity
15490:In computational physics:
15014:Relativity of simultaneity
14303:Australian Football League
13500:Caltech 40m interferometer
12127:. CRC Press. p. 140.
11118:. University of St Andrews
10951:10.1177/107385849900500108
10722:10.1007/s00407-020-00260-1
9535:Duffett-Smith, P. (1988).
9517:Philosophical Transactions
9491:(Cohen, 1940, p. 346)
9487:French Academy of Sciences
8703:Doklady Akademii Nauk SSSR
8368:; Behroozi, C. H. (1999).
8174:Harvard University Gazette
8061:. CRC Press. p. 131.
7929:The Thermodynamic Universe
7741:10.1051/0004-6361:20030263
7626:. Addison-Wesley. p.
7015:. W. H. Freeman. pp.
6628:10.1103/PhysRevD.80.105011
5361:Royal Society of Chemistry
5338:. CRC Press. p. 235.
4903:so that there are exactly
4879:. Vintage Books. pp.
4057:
3939:
3855:
3773:First measurement attempts
3707:initially agreed with the
3705:Early Islamic philosophers
3304:
2586:
2189:) propagate is called the
2170:
1900:. An example involves the
1824:
1795:relativity of simultaneity
1462:is the speed at which all
1416:
1281:
1257:or electric constant, and
1046:; similarly, the speed of
994:and appears in the famous
493:Relativity of simultaneity
29:
15911:
15878:
15817:
15781:
15747:
15726:
15672:
15504:
15369:
15341:
15327:Lense–Thirring precession
15210:
15159:
15121:
15100:
15089:
15047:
14991:
14975:
14917:
14909:Doubly special relativity
14881:
14870:
14775:
14749:
14727:
14686:
14635:
14512:
14489:
14482:
14475:
14444:
14424:
14311:
14290:
14238:
14210:
14115:
14108:
14077:
14045:
13909:
13856:
13825:
13765:
13691:
13684:
13657:
13624:
13590:
13574:
13565:
13545:
13524:
13508:
13477:
13416:
13405:
13360:
13344:
13278:
13237:
13226:
13217:
13199:
13138:
13113:greatest on another world
13108:greatest of a spaceflight
13097:
13036:
12895:
12653:Classical Electrodynamics
11567:The riddle of gravitation
11168:. In Edward Grant (ed.).
10768:The Astrophysical Journal
9736:10.1007/s10569-009-9203-8
9676:10.1038/nature.2012.11416
9479:The account published in
9302:10.1109/JPROC.2007.905128
8811:Midwinter, J. E. (1991).
8208:. CRC Press. p. 25.
8030:. CRC Press. pp. 25
7505:10.1038/nature.2012.10371
7305:Time in Quantum Mechanics
6912:10.1134/S1054660X07050155
6853:10.1080/09500340600952085
6757:Fowler, M. (March 2008).
6506:10.1103/RevModPhys.75.403
6475:Reviews of Modern Physics
6081:10.1017/S0305004100033776
5956:10.1088/1367-2630/6/1/114
5317:. Springer. p. 499.
5091:. Springer. p. 226.
5000:Reviews of Modern Physics
4960:Albert Shadowitz (1988).
4733:of a revolution) per day.
3653:
3352:
3338:
3232:constructive interference
3024:Electromagnetic constants
2940:Time of flight techniques
2726:Astronomical measurements
2602:Global Positioning System
2490:Spaceflight and astronomy
2278:Bose–Einstein condensates
2276:In exotic materials like
1699:in a magnetic field (see
1348:, the numerical value of
1288:Since 1983, the constant
1199:with its modern meaning.
1029:expansion of the universe
974:. Particles with nonzero
860:electromagnetic radiation
365:
348:
330:
311:
300:
286:
267:
252:
241:
226:
215:
201:
189:
184:
173:
162:
144:
129:
108:
103:
85:
80:
48:
15865:Bell's spaceship paradox
15187:Post-Newtonian formalism
15177:Einstein field equations
15113:Mathematical formulation
14937:Hyperbolic orthogonality
14187:World Rally Championship
13941:Supermassive black holes
12852:", Albert A. Nicholson,
12787:Speed of light in vacuum
11775:10.1366/0003702874447824
11632:University of St Andrews
11524:10.1002/andp.18571781203
11476:10.1109/MIE.2015.2421754
11293:. Macmillan. p. 76.
11287:Cajori, Florian (1922).
11164:Lindberg, D. C. (1974).
11137:Lindberg, D. C. (1996).
11055:University of St Andrews
10751:Hertz, Heinrich (1893).
9906:Hughes, Stephan (2012).
9887:. University of Virginia
9752:"Astrodynamic Constants"
8253:10.1103/PhysRev.104.1760
7926:Sidharth, B. G. (2008).
7591:Harrison, E. R. (2003).
7308:. Springer. p. 48.
7196:Modern Quantum Mechanics
6833:Journal of Modern Optics
6212:10.3847/2041-8213/aa920c
6044:10.1103/PhysRev.116.1041
5695:10.1002/andp.19053221004
5439:Sydenham, P. H. (2003).
5335:The Electronics Handbook
5332:Whitaker, J. C. (2005).
5030:10.1103/RevModPhys.76.93
4303:
4146:for the speed of light.
4069:determined the speed as
3882:who obtained a value of
3236:destructive interference
2773:'s innermost major moon
2680:"Interferometry" section
2424:Large distances on Earth
2314:Kramers–Kronig relations
2302:real and imaginary parts
1956:A 2011 experiment where
1701:Hughes–Drever experiment
1590: = 0.995
1578: = 0.866
1448:Einstein synchronization
1334:. By using the value of
1294:has been defined in the
513:Bell's spaceship paradox
15835:Mass–energy equivalence
15768:Galilean transformation
15734:Principle of relativity
14898:Galilean transformation
14889:Principle of relativity
14798:List of weather records
14793:Extreme points of Earth
14161:Formula One motorsport
14055:Category: World records
13780:Resonant mass detectors
12781:Definition of the metre
12775:Popular Science Monthly
12570:"The Velocity of Light"
11995:Applied Physics Letters
11304:Smith, A. Mark (1987).
10462:Physical Review Letters
10332:Vaughan, J. M. (1989).
9290:Proceedings of the IEEE
8592:10.1103/PhysRevA.48.R34
8083:"Optical constants of H
8055:de Podesta, M. (2002).
7867:Physical Review Letters
7758:Physical Review Letters
7733:2003A&A...402..409E
7657:Physical Review Letters
7570:10.1007/JHEP10(2012)093
6713:Physical Review Letters
6227:Physical Review Letters
5441:"Measurement of length"
5116:Feigenbaum, Mitchell J.
5085:Stachel, J. J. (2002).
4929:Moses Fayngold (2008).
4210:2019 revision of the SI
4026:principle of relativity
4010:Lorentz's aether theory
3028:An option for deriving
2997:setup as used by Fizeau
2541:Hubble Ultra-Deep Field
2310:attenuation coefficient
2259:refractive index of air
2098:quantum electrodynamics
1815:tachyonic antitelephone
1619:quantum electrodynamics
1384:geometrized unit system
1266:impedance of free space
1132:refractive index of air
996:mass–energy equivalence
962:, also travel at speed
958:perturbations, such as
627:Galilean transformation
488:Mass–energy equivalence
401:Principle of relativity
15809:Lorentz transformation
14983:Lorentz transformation
14157:FIFA World Cup records
14140:Twenty20 International
14061:Guinness World Records
12437:10.1098/rstl.1694.0048
12391:10.1098/rstl.1677.0024
12376:(136): 893–894. 1677.
12192:. 2011. Archived from
12092:Penzes, W. B. (2009).
11944:. 1967. Archived from
11878:Miller, A. I. (1981).
11796:French, A. P. (1983).
11497:Kirchhoff, G. (1857).
11008:Lester, P. M. (2005).
10384:10.1098/rspa.1958.0172
10230:10.1098/rspa.1950.0172
10093:10.1098/rspa.1948.0085
9481:
9460:10.1098/rstl.1677.0024
9445:(136): 893–895. 1677.
8954:. NASA. Archived from
7094:Quimby, R. S. (2006).
6981:10.1006/aphy.2002.6233
6876:Fearn, H. (May 2007).
6652:Astrophysical formulae
6137:Hartle, J. B. (2003).
6102:Hartle, J. B. (2003).
5925:New Journal of Physics
5843:Sriranjan, B. (2004).
5812:d'Inverno, R. (1992).
5700:English translation:
5604:Lawrie, I. D. (2002).
5059:Gibbs, Philip (1997).
4050:Increased accuracy of
4006:Lorentz transformation
3962:
3803:
3624:, laser interferometry
3566:Essen and Gordon-Smith
3291:fractional uncertainty
3239:
3175:electromagnetic theory
3133:
2981:
2950:
2785:
2735:
2500:
2476:high-frequency trading
2436:
2235:
2104:. In QED, photons are
2083:
1786:
1623:quantum chromodynamics
1493:
1441:one-way speed of light
1423:One-way speed of light
1382:of measurement or the
1246:or magnetic constant,
1154:
451:Lorentz transformation
242:the length of Earth's
15952:Fundamental constants
15451:Weyl−Lewis−Papapetrou
15192:Raychaudhuri equation
15131:Equivalence principle
14783:Solar System extremes
14712:Spacecraft population
14678:Deepest ocean vehicle
14374:Major League Baseball
14298:National Rugby League
14135:One Day International
14068:Limca Book of Records
13965:Rotating neutron star
13776:Laser interferometers
13089:Deepest ocean vehicle
12850:The Velocity of Light
12521:Astrophysical Journal
12319:Historical references
11821:Darrigol, O. (2000).
11628:"James Clerk Maxwell"
11588:Bais, Sander (2005).
11075:Lauginie, P. (2004).
10892:10.1214/ss/1009212817
10686:Traitée de la Lumière
10506:Galilei, G. (1954) .
9756:Solar System Dynamics
7594:Masks of the Universe
7370:Optics Communications
7259:OSA Century of Optics
5770:Zhang, Y. Z. (1997).
5666:Einstein, A. (1905).
5449:Butterworth–Heinemann
5443:. In Boyes, W (ed.).
3960:
3936:"Luminiferous aether"
3801:
3788:Accademia del Cimento
3733:In the 13th century,
3689:advanced Empedocles'
3416:Hippolyte Fizeau
3393:, aberration of light
3348:Accademia del Cimento
3229:
3127:
2956:
2947:
2783:
2757:Ole Christensen Rømer
2733:
2497:
2434:
2406:printed circuit board
2379:round-trip delay time
2232:
2084:
2001:electromagnetic field
1784:
1719:Upper limit on speeds
1709:Resonator experiments
1472:
1395:. Using these units,
1282:Further information:
1048:electromagnetic waves
1040:transparent materials
851:) can travel through
431:Einstein's postulates
15739:Theory of relativity
15492:Numerical relativity
15333:pulsar timing arrays
13857:Effects / properties
13786:Atom interferometers
13699:List of observations
13626:Pulsar timing arrays
13118:greatest of a person
12155:Rindler, W. (2006).
11354:Boyer, Carl Benjamin
10683:Huygens, C. (1690).
10144:10.6028/bulletin.070
9885:"The Speed of Light"
9788:US Naval Observatory
9510:Bradley, J. (1729).
9021:10.54941/ahfe1003920
8753:Parhami, B. (1999).
8673:(26 February 2008).
8149:. Mikhail Polyanskiy
8147:refractiveindex.info
8123:. Mikhail Polyanskiy
8121:refractiveindex.info
8097:. Mikhail Polyanskiy
8095:refractiveindex.info
7265:. pp. 320–326.
7044:(Reprint ed.).
6839:(16–17): 2569–2581.
6649:Lang, K. R. (1999).
6439:Mota, D. F. (2006).
5645:. pp. 427–428.
5286:Lide, D. R. (2004).
4276:Speed of electricity
4089:, and, in 1967, the
4060:History of the metre
3892:Wilhelm Eduard Weber
3866:In the 19th century
3728:Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī
3259:interference pattern
3077:and dimensions of a
2589:Distance measurement
2583:Distance measurement
2465:transparent material
2312:, are linked by the
2038:
1997:electromagnetic wave
1987:Propagation of light
1268:. This article uses
1162:Wilhelm Eduard Weber
1054:. The ratio between
984:theory of relativity
942:theory of relativity
936:with respect to any
922:electromagnetic wave
902:demonstrated in 1676
406:Theory of relativity
15957:Physical quantities
15888:Minkowski spacetime
15804:Maxwell's equations
15763:Galilean relativity
15384:Friedmann equations
15278:Hulse–Taylor binary
15240:Gravitational waves
15136:Riemannian geometry
14962:Proper acceleration
14947:Maxwell's equations
14893:Galilean relativity
14732:Spaceflight records
14663:Closest to the Sun)
14643:Furthest spacecraft
14606:Water-borne vehicle
14432:Indian Super League
14396:Major League Soccer
13946:Stellar black holes
13926:quantum fluctuation
13806:Pulsar timing array
13793:Indirect detection
13733:neutron star merger
13516:INDIGO (LIGO-India)
13146:Spaceflight records
13047:furthest spacecraft
13009:Water-borne vehicle
12950:propulsively-driven
12854:Scientific American
12834:, 30 November 2006)
12797:Albert A. Michelson
12670:Keiser, G. (2000).
12588:1886Natur..34...29.
12534:1935ApJ....82...26M
12487:: 501–503, 792–796.
12428:1694RSPT...18..237C
12382:1677RSPT...12..893.
12349:on 8 September 2022
12339:Journal des sçavans
12255:2017PhTea..55...16K
12242:The Physics Teacher
12213:(2 November 2016).
12007:1973ApPhL..22..196B
11829:. Clarendon Press.
11692:1957AmJPh..25..335W
11559:Extract of page 787
11516:1857AnP...178..529K
10878:Statistical Science
10780:1927ApJ....65....1M
10474:1972PhRvL..29.1346E
10376:1958RSPSA.247..109F
10312:BBC Norfolk website
10279:1997PhTea..35..231S
10266:The Physics Teacher
10222:1950RSPSA.204..260E
10172:1947Natur.159..611E
10084:1948RSPSA.194..348E
10032:1999AmJPh..67..681J
9993:2008AmJPh..76..812A
9952:1968AmJPh..36..847C
9728:2009CeMDA.103..365P
9704:See the following:
9482:Journal des sçavans
9451:1677RSPT...12..893.
9424:Journal des sçavans
9252:1982CeMec..26..181S
9240:Celestial Mechanics
9201:1994Sci...265..482D
9015:. AHFE Open Acces.
8884:2015Natur.518..161B
8847:on 2 September 2010
8698:Cherenkov, Pavel A.
8584:1993PhRvA..48...34C
8504:10.1038/nature02176
8496:2003Natur.426..638B
8441:2001Natur.409..490L
8416:; Behroozi, C. H.;
8389:1999Natur.397..594V
8325:2006AmJPh..74.1055L
8245:1956PhRv..104.1760T
7977:2009Natur.462..291A
7889:2007PhRvL..98a0402A
7823:2021PhRvD.104j3516B
7770:2004PhRvL..93d3901F
7680:1999PhRvL..82.4964S
7562:2012JHEP...10..093A
7534:OPERA Collaboration
7430:1966Natur.211..468R
7383:2002OptCo.209...85W
6973:2002AnPhy.298..167L
6904:2007LaPhy..17..695F
6845:2006JMOp...53.2569F
6804:1990PhLB..250..133B
6726:2011PhRvL.106x3602Z
6620:2009PhRvD..80j5011H
6564:10.12942/lrr-2013-5
6555:2013LRR....16....5A
6498:2003RvMP...75..403U
6459:2004astro.ph..1631M
6406:2005AmJPh..73..240E
6311:2020PhRvD.102b4028L
6250:2017PhRvL.119p1102C
6203:2017ApJ...848L..13A
6073:1959PCPS...55..137P
6036:1959PhRv..116.1041T
5948:2004NJPh....6..114A
5876:Ellis, George F. R.
5686:1905AnP...322..891E
5590:Grace Murray Hopper
5314:Handbook of Physics
5254:2006AmJPh..74..995M
5194:Gibbs, P. (2004) .
5142:1988AmJPh..56...18F
5022:2004RvMP...76...93P
4948:Extract of page 497
4915:standard metre rule
4518:The exact value is
4163:hyperfine frequency
4083:metre was redefined
3983:Albert A. Michelson
3967:luminiferous aether
3952:luminiferous aether
3942:Luminiferous aether
3916:, by discharging a
3758:aberration of light
3695:Heron of Alexandria
3537:Albert A. Michelson
3326:
3311:early modern period
3168:of microwaves of a
3048:vacuum permeability
3038:vacuum permittivity
2790:aberration of light
2377:: the one-way and
2363:Cherenkov radiation
2306:dielectric constant
2005:Maxwell's equations
1934:superluminal motion
1831:Superluminal motion
1703:), and of rotating
1655:non-inertial frames
1651:gravitational waves
1560:Galilean relativity
1437:luminiferous aether
1278:Use in unit systems
1255:vacuum permittivity
1244:vacuum permeability
1187:James Clerk Maxwell
960:gravitational waves
918:James Clerk Maxwell
916:published in 1865,
888:communication delay
817:, commonly denoted
622:Galilean relativity
542:Minkowski spacetime
446:Maxwell's equations
229:geostationary orbit
110:kilometres per hour
45:
15967:Special relativity
15898:Spacetime diagrams
15840:Length contraction
15720:Special relativity
15433:Reissner–Nordström
15351:Brans–Dicke theory
15182:Linearized gravity
15009:Length contraction
14927:Frame of reference
14904:Special relativity
14815:Smallest organisms
14776:Physical phenomena
14757:Tallest structures
13833:General relativity
13537:Einstein Telescope
13439:Fermilab holometer
13204:Gravitational wave
13067:closest to the Sun
12890:Extremes of motion
12695:Ng, Y. J. (2004).
12514:Michelson, A. A.;
12206:See, for example:
12196:on 11 August 2014.
12121:Adams, S. (1997).
11886:. Addison–Wesley.
11798:Special relativity
11638:on 28 January 2011
11613:Extract of page 40
11583:Extract of page 17
11536:See, for example:
11250:10.1007/BF00348308
11016:. pp. 10–11.
10647:Magalotti, Lorenzo
10530:on 30 January 2019
10514:Dover Publications
10444:on 13 August 2009.
9932:See, for example:
9858:Usenet Physics FAQ
9852:Gibbs, P. (1997).
9794:on 8 December 2009
9560:Extract of page 62
9260:10.1007/BF01230883
8561:See, for example:
8541:on 5 December 2008
8353:See, for example:
8180:on 28 October 2011
7650:See, for example:
7465:Usenet Physics FAQ
7360:Wynne, K. (2002).
7337:Wiley Interscience
7186:See, for example:
7158:Usenet Physics FAQ
7152:Gibbs, P. (1997).
7127:The New York Times
7069:Hecht, E. (1987).
6782:See, for example:
6720:(243602): 243602.
6675:See, for example:
6351:Usenet Physics FAQ
6169:See, for example:
6001:on 15 October 2009
5991:Usenet Physics FAQ
5744:. pp. 543ff.
5673:Annalen der Physik
5435:See, for example:
5282:See, for example:
5204:Usenet Physics FAQ
5111:See, for example:
5071:on 21 August 2015.
4979:Extract of page 79
4963:Special Relativity
4744:general relativity
4674:Scharnhorst effect
4507:inches per second.
4262:Outer space portal
4212:, also termed the
4032:Special relativity
3963:
3846:stellar aberration
3816:Christiaan Huygens
3804:
3568:, cavity resonator
3441:Léon Foucault
3391:James Bradley
3368:, moons of Jupiter
3350:, covered lanterns
3336:, covered lanterns
3320:
3240:
3134:
3005:method of Foucault
2982:
2951:
2786:
2736:
2714:by definition, as
2634:Deep Space Network
2546:evolution of stars
2501:
2437:
2375:telecommunications
2236:
2106:massless particles
2079:
2031:, by the equation
1965:expanding universe
1787:
1705:optical resonators
1635:general relativity
1611:Lorentz invariance
1513:length contraction
1494:
1464:massless particles
1419:Special relativity
1189:in 1865. In 1894,
1033:a certain boundary
952:Massless particles
757:Physics portal
478:Length contraction
383:Special relativity
164:astronomical units
43:
15939:
15938:
15870:Ehrenfest paradox
15860:Relativistic disk
15855:Thomas precession
15830:Relativistic mass
15686:
15685:
15500:
15499:
15479:Ozsváth–Schücking
15085:
15084:
15067:Minkowski diagram
15024:Thomas precession
14967:Relativistic mass
14830:
14829:
14820:Largest organisms
14788:Extremes on Earth
14767:Superlative trees
14745:
14744:
14673:Highest altitude)
14631:
14630:
14563:Production model
14440:
14439:
14005:
14004:
13821:
13820:
13772:Direct detection
13620:
13619:
13616:
13615:
13598:Big Bang Observer
13561:
13560:
13401:
13400:
13159:
13158:
12969:production model
12737:978-1-58603-167-1
12710:978-3-540-25263-4
12687:978-0-07-232101-2
12662:978-0-471-30932-1
12625:Modern references
12287:"SI Redefinition"
12263:10.1119/1.4972491
12168:978-0-19-856731-8
12134:978-0-7484-0621-0
12078:978-0-7167-2327-1
12015:10.1063/1.1654608
11923:978-0-19-520438-4
11893:978-0-201-04679-3
11864:978-0-393-32604-8
11836:978-0-19-850594-5
11807:978-0-442-30782-0
11734:978-9-813-27818-9
11700:10.1119/1.1934460
11662:978-1-77375-139-9
11607:978-0-674-01967-6
11577:978-0-486-27378-5
11553:978-0-534-42471-8
11179:978-0-674-82360-0
11150:978-0-19-823992-5
11023:978-0-534-63720-0
11014:Thomson Wadsworth
10926:Extract of page 1
10920:978-3-8325-3621-3
10852:978-0-486-27495-9
10820:Extract of page 1
10814:978-0-19-856766-0
10523:978-0-486-60099-4
10468:(19): 1346–1349.
10434:978-0-8493-1247-2
10370:(1248): 109–122.
10345:978-0-85274-138-2
10287:10.1119/1.2344657
10216:(1077): 260–277.
10166:(4044): 611–612.
10078:(1038): 348–361.
10001:10.1119/1.2919743
9960:10.1119/1.1975166
9919:978-1-62050-961-6
9864:on 21 August 2015
9824:on 31 August 2010
9554:978-0-521-35699-2
9489:in November 1676
9387:2027/uc1.b4375710
9296:(11): 2202–2214.
9195:(5171): 482–490.
9106:978-0-141-98958-7
9054:. 5 January 2010.
9050:(Press release).
9030:978-1-958651-74-2
8958:on 4 January 2011
8878:(7538): 161–163.
8822:978-0-89464-595-2
8797:978-3-642-03274-5
8770:978-0-306-45970-2
8621:(6793): 277–279.
8571:Physical Review A
8527:Dumé, B. (2003).
8480:(6967): 638–641.
8435:(6819): 490–493.
8383:(6720): 594–598.
8333:10.1119/1.2335476
8319:(12): 1055–1060.
8282:978-981-281-187-5
8215:978-0-7503-0926-4
8068:978-0-415-25788-6
8041:978-0-7503-0926-4
8022:Milonni, Peter W.
7971:(7271): 291–292.
7943:978-981-281-234-6
7800:Physical Review D
7705:Mavromatos, N. E.
7664:(25): 4964–4966.
7637:978-0-201-05702-7
7604:978-0-521-77351-5
7400:on 25 March 2009.
7346:978-0-470-10885-7
7315:978-3-540-73472-7
7282:978-1-943-58004-0
7255:Caves, Carlton M.
7210:978-0-201-53929-5
7123:"The Shadow Goes"
7107:978-0-471-71974-8
7080:978-0-201-11609-0
7055:978-1-103-17233-7
7026:978-0-7167-2327-1
7012:Spacetime Physics
6950:Annals of Physics
6792:Physics Letters B
6684:Los Angeles Times
6662:978-3-540-29692-8
6598:Physical Review D
6414:10.1119/1.1819929
6288:Physical Review D
6156:978-981-02-2749-4
6123:978-981-02-2749-4
5880:Williams, Ruth M.
5858:978-81-203-1963-9
5829:978-0-19-859686-8
5791:978-981-02-2749-4
5751:978-981-02-4721-8
5652:978-981-256-651-5
5619:978-0-7503-0604-1
5517:978-0-486-40913-9
5458:978-0-7506-7123-1
5370:978-0-85404-433-7
5345:978-0-8493-1889-4
5324:978-0-387-95269-7
5303:978-0-8493-0485-9
5262:10.1119/1.2238887
5178:978-0-387-73454-5
5098:978-0-8176-4143-6
4973:978-0-486-65743-1
4942:978-3-527-40607-4
4890:978-0-679-77631-4
4827:978-0-618-75354-3
4700:angular frequency
4106:Boulder, Colorado
3896:Rudolf Kohlrausch
3829:In his 1704 book
3709:Aristotelian view
3667:
3666:
3539:, rotating mirror
3500:Rosa and Dorsey,
3443:, rotating mirror
3087:10 H⋅m
2829:astronomical unit
2823:Astronomical unit
2432:
2074:
2073:
2023:magnetic constant
2013:electric constant
1993:classical physics
1977:cosmological time
1963:In models of the
1938:relativistic jets
1827:Faster-than-light
1166:Rudolf Kohlrausch
1069:of the material (
1023:, and particular
1013:faster than light
825:physical constant
823:, is a universal
807:
806:
547:Spacetime diagram
518:Ehrenfest paradox
508:Relativistic disk
503:Thomas precession
483:Relativistic mass
377:
376:
373:2.5 million years
272:to Earth (1
87:metres per second
16:(Redirected from
15979:
15713:
15706:
15699:
15690:
15689:
15678:
15677:
15461:van Stockum dust
15233:Two-body problem
15151:Mach's principle
15098:
15097:
15039:Terrell rotation
14879:
14878:
14857:
14850:
14843:
14834:
14833:
14702:On another world
14537:Transcontinental
14532:Propeller-driven
14487:
14486:
14480:
14479:
14445:National records
14230:National records
14113:
14112:
14109:Sporting records
14032:
14025:
14018:
14009:
14008:
13937:Binary inspiral
13931:Phase transition
13922:Cosmic inflation
13689:
13688:
13572:
13571:
13414:
13413:
13235:
13234:
13224:
13223:
13186:
13179:
13172:
13163:
13162:
13082:highest altitude
12938:transcontinental
12933:propeller-driven
12884:
12877:
12870:
12861:
12860:
12829:
12805:(Java applet by
12759:
12757:
12741:
12714:
12691:
12666:
12644:
12619:
12601:
12599:
12597:10.1038/034029c0
12561:
12510:
12493:Michelson, A. A.
12488:
12466:
12454:
12441:
12439:
12422:(214): 237–256.
12399:
12398:on 29 July 2007.
12394:. Archived from
12393:
12358:
12356:
12354:
12348:
12335:
12307:
12304:
12302:
12300:
12282:
12231:
12229:
12227:
12204:
12198:
12197:
12182:
12176:
12175:
12152:
12146:
12145:
12118:
12112:
12111:
12109:
12107:
12098:
12089:
12083:
12082:
12055:
12049:
12048:
12046:
12044:
12033:
12027:
12026:
11990:
11984:
11983:
11981:
11979:
11964:
11958:
11957:
11955:
11953:
11948:on 11 April 2021
11934:
11928:
11927:
11904:
11898:
11897:
11885:
11875:
11869:
11868:
11857:. W. W. Norton.
11847:
11841:
11840:
11828:
11818:
11812:
11811:
11793:
11787:
11786:
11769:(203): 333–345.
11752:
11746:
11745:
11743:
11741:
11718:
11712:
11711:
11671:
11665:
11654:
11648:
11647:
11645:
11643:
11634:. Archived from
11623:
11617:
11611:
11595:
11581:
11557:
11534:
11528:
11527:
11494:
11488:
11487:
11470:(2): 54–56, 60.
11459:
11453:
11451:
11441:
11435:
11434:
11408:
11391:(8): 1251–1259.
11376:
11370:
11369:
11350:
11344:
11343:
11301:
11295:
11294:
11284:
11278:
11277:
11227:
11221:
11220:
11190:
11184:
11183:
11161:
11155:
11154:
11134:
11128:
11127:
11125:
11123:
11107:
11101:
11100:
11098:
11096:
11090:
11083:
11072:
11066:
11065:
11063:
11061:
11042:Robertson, E. F.
11034:
11028:
11027:
11005:
10996:
10995:
10969:
10963:
10962:
10934:
10928:
10924:
10904:
10898:
10896:
10894:
10868:
10857:
10856:
10829:
10823:
10818:
10798:
10792:
10791:
10763:
10757:
10756:
10748:
10742:
10741:
10701:
10695:
10694:
10680:
10671:
10670:
10669:
10667:
10643:
10637:
10636:
10619:
10602:(8): 1251–1259,
10591:
10582:
10581:
10551:
10540:
10539:
10537:
10535:
10526:. Archived from
10503:
10494:
10493:
10457:
10446:
10445:
10443:
10437:. Archived from
10426:
10415:
10404:
10403:
10359:
10350:
10349:
10329:
10323:
10322:
10320:
10318:
10304:
10298:
10297:
10295:
10293:
10256:
10250:
10249:
10203:
10192:
10191:
10180:10.1038/159611a0
10155:
10149:
10148:
10146:
10115:
10106:
10105:
10095:
10061:
10046:
10043:
10012:
9986:
9963:
9930:
9924:
9923:
9903:
9897:
9896:
9894:
9892:
9880:
9874:
9873:
9871:
9869:
9849:
9834:
9833:
9831:
9829:
9820:. Archived from
9810:
9804:
9803:
9801:
9799:
9790:. Archived from
9779:
9770:
9767:
9765:
9763:
9747:
9702:
9696:
9695:
9657:
9651:
9650:
9649:
9647:
9641:
9624:
9610:
9604:
9603:
9597:
9589:
9583:
9582:
9580:
9572:
9563:
9558:
9542:
9532:
9526:
9525:
9507:
9494:
9484:
9477:
9464:
9462:
9428:
9420:
9411:
9400:
9399:
9389:
9352:
9341:
9340:
9338:
9336:
9325:
9314:
9313:
9287:
9278:
9272:
9271:
9235:
9229:
9228:
9186:
9177:
9171:
9170:
9168:
9166:
9150:
9144:
9143:
9141:
9139:
9125:
9119:
9118:
9087:
9081:
9080:
9078:
9076:
9070:
9062:
9056:
9055:
9044:
9035:
9034:
9000:
8994:
8993:
8991:
8989:
8974:
8968:
8967:
8965:
8963:
8944:
8938:
8937:
8935:
8933:
8919:
8912:
8906:
8905:
8895:
8863:
8857:
8856:
8854:
8852:
8833:
8827:
8826:
8808:
8802:
8801:
8781:
8775:
8774:
8750:
8744:
8743:
8731:
8711:
8694:
8688:
8685:
8683:
8681:
8666:
8664:
8662:
8646:
8627:10.1038/35018520
8603:
8559:
8553:
8550:
8548:
8546:
8523:
8489:
8487:quant-ph/0311092
8468:
8449:10.1038/35054017
8426:
8408:
8374:
8351:
8345:
8344:
8310:
8301:
8295:
8294:
8263:
8257:
8256:
8239:(6): 1760–1770.
8226:
8220:
8219:
8196:
8190:
8189:
8187:
8185:
8176:. Archived from
8165:
8159:
8158:
8156:
8154:
8139:
8133:
8132:
8130:
8128:
8113:
8107:
8106:
8104:
8102:
8079:
8073:
8072:
8052:
8046:
8045:
8018:
8007:
8006:
7988:
7954:
7948:
7947:
7934:World Scientific
7923:
7917:
7916:
7882:
7862:
7853:
7850:
7816:
7789:
7752:
7726:
7724:astro-ph/0210124
7699:
7673:
7671:astro-ph/9810479
7648:
7642:
7641:
7625:
7615:
7609:
7608:
7588:
7582:
7581:
7555:
7530:
7524:
7523:
7521:
7519:
7486:
7480:
7479:
7477:
7475:
7456:
7450:
7449:
7438:10.1038/211468a0
7408:
7402:
7401:
7399:
7393:. Archived from
7366:
7357:
7351:
7350:
7326:
7320:
7319:
7299:
7293:
7290:
7274:
7250:
7214:
7184:
7178:
7177:
7175:
7173:
7168:on 10 March 2010
7164:. Archived from
7149:
7138:
7137:
7135:
7133:
7118:
7112:
7111:
7091:
7085:
7084:
7066:
7060:
7059:
7037:
7031:
7030:
6999:
6993:
6992:
6966:
6940:
6934:
6931:
6897:
6872:
6823:
6798:(1–2): 133–138.
6780:
6774:
6773:
6771:
6769:
6763:
6754:
6748:
6745:
6709:
6699:
6687:
6673:
6667:
6666:
6646:
6640:
6639:
6613:
6593:
6587:
6586:
6576:
6566:
6548:
6524:
6518:
6517:
6491:
6469:
6463:
6462:
6452:
6450:astro-ph/0401631
6436:
6430:
6429:
6399:
6377:
6371:
6370:
6368:
6366:
6357:. Archived from
6342:
6333:
6330:
6304:
6277:
6243:
6216:
6214:
6196:
6167:
6161:
6160:
6144:
6134:
6128:
6127:
6099:
6093:
6092:
6054:
6048:
6047:
6030:(4): 1041–1045.
6017:
6011:
6010:
6008:
6006:
5997:. Archived from
5982:
5976:
5975:
5941:
5939:astro-ph/0406214
5914:
5908:
5907:
5872:
5863:
5862:
5840:
5834:
5833:
5809:
5803:
5802:
5800:
5798:
5778:World Scientific
5767:
5756:
5755:
5742:World Scientific
5731:
5722:
5721:
5719:
5717:
5699:
5697:
5663:
5657:
5656:
5643:World Scientific
5633:Hsu, L. (2006).
5630:
5624:
5623:
5601:
5595:
5594:
5586:
5584:
5568:
5562:
5561:
5534:Mermin, N. David
5530:
5524:
5521:
5496:
5494:
5492:
5473:
5470:
5466:
5433:
5424:
5423:
5422:
5420:
5414:
5397:
5383:
5377:
5374:
5349:
5328:
5307:
5296:. pp. 2–9.
5280:
5274:
5273:
5231:
5225:
5223:
5221:
5219:
5214:on 25 March 2010
5210:. Archived from
5191:
5185:
5182:
5161:
5122:(January 1988).
5120:Mermin, N. David
5109:
5103:
5102:
5082:
5073:
5072:
5067:. Archived from
5056:
5050:
5049:
5015:
5013:quant-ph/0212023
4988:
4982:
4977:
4957:
4951:
4946:
4926:
4920:
4919:
4912:
4911:
4908:
4898:
4867:
4861:
4860:
4858:
4856:
4849:physics.nist.gov
4841:
4832:
4831:
4811:
4795:
4792:
4790:
4787:
4780:
4774:
4770:
4764:
4761:
4755:
4740:
4734:
4732:
4731:
4730:
4729:
4722:
4714:
4713:
4710:
4707:
4696:
4690:
4687:
4681:
4670:
4664:
4661:Terrell rotation
4649:
4643:
4628:
4622:
4611:
4605:
4594:
4588:
4586:
4584:
4583:
4580:
4577:
4571:
4567:
4565:
4564:
4561:
4558:
4552:
4549:
4547:
4546:
4545:
4544:
4541:
4535:
4532:
4531:
4530:
4527:
4516:
4510:
4506:
4503:
4501:
4500:
4497:
4494:
4490:
4484:
4480:
4476:
4474:
4465:
4459:
4445:
4443:
4440:
4437:
4420:
4419:
4418:
4417:
4414:
4407:
4393:
4387:
4385:
4383:
4382:
4379:
4376:
4370:
4368:
4365:
4356:
4350:
4348:
4346:
4345:
4342:
4339:
4333:
4332:
4326:
4325:
4322:
4313:
4281:Speed of gravity
4264:
4259:
4258:
4257:
4250:
4248:Astronomy portal
4245:
4244:
4243:
4236:
4231:
4230:
4207:
4203:
4202:
4199:
4188:
4186:
4183:
4174:
4173:
4170:
4145:
4143:
4140:
4126:
4124:
4120:
4117:
4080:
4078:
4074:
3987:Edward W. Morley
3922:Gustav Kirchhoff
3915:
3914:
3889:
3887:
3877:
3875:
3868:Hippolyte Fizeau
3825:
3823:
3767:Pierre de Fermat
3662:
3661:
3658:
3640:
3638:
3634:
3631:
3609:
3607:
3604:
3601:
3583:
3581:
3578:
3575:
3567:
3554:
3552:
3549:
3546:
3522:
3521:
3517:
3514:
3511:
3503:
3461:
3460:
3456:
3453:
3450:
3429:
3428:
3425:
3404:
3403:
3400:
3379:
3378:
3375:
3327:
3319:
3300:
3298:
3202:
3200:
3196:
3190:
3188:
3185:
3170:microwave cavity
3158:cavity resonator
3128:Electromagnetic
3120:Cavity resonance
3111:
3109:
3106:
3088:
3086:
3060: = 1/(
2986:Hippolyte Fizeau
2959:Fizeau apparatus
2935:
2933:
2923:
2921:
2918:
2912:
2910:
2907:
2904:
2901:
2889:
2887:
2884:
2858:
2844:
2842:
2839:
2836:
2818:
2817:
2811:
2810:
2713:
2711:
2708:
2702:
2701:
2700:
2699:
2696:
2689:
2623:
2621:
2615:
2614: kilometres
2613:
2577:Proxima Centauri
2563:, especially in
2538:
2531:
2527:
2458:
2456:
2446:
2444:
2433:
2414:signal integrity
2400:
2351:charged particle
2299:
2240:refractive index
2173:Refractive index
2143:
2142:
2088:
2086:
2085:
2080:
2075:
2072:
2071:
2062:
2061:
2052:
2048:
2003:is described by
1922:virtual particle
1770:approaches
1761:
1739:
1647:speed of gravity
1631:particle physics
1553:
1541:
1527:and is given by
1510:
1488:approaches
1483:
1404:
1400:
1394:
1392:
1377:
1369:per nanosecond.
1364:
1363:
1353:
1339:
1329:
1328:
1327:
1326:
1323:
1316:
1311:
1309:
1306:
1293:
1273:
1231:
1225:
1216:
1198:
1180:
1179:
1173:
1159:
1151:
1137:
1129:
1127:
1126:
1120:
1119:
1113:
1111:
1110:
1107:
1104:
1103:
1094:
1093:
1091:
1090:
1089:
1085:
1082:
1081:
1073:
1068:
1064:refractive index
1061:
1057:
1053:
1045:
1017:phase velocities
1007:
989:
981:
969:
965:
947:
935:
927:
834:
822:
799:
792:
785:
772:
767:
766:
759:
755:
754:
647:
574:
535:
466:
424:
393:
379:
378:
368:Andromeda Galaxy
361:
359:
344:
342:
322:
321:
158:
157:
154:
140:
139:
131:miles per second
125:
124:
121:
118:
99:
98:
95:
66:
62:
53:
46:
42:
21:
15987:
15986:
15982:
15981:
15980:
15978:
15977:
15976:
15942:
15941:
15940:
15935:
15907:
15874:
15813:
15789:Relative motion
15777:
15773:Aether theories
15756:
15743:
15722:
15717:
15687:
15682:
15668:
15496:
15400:BKL singularity
15390:Lemaître–Tolman
15365:
15361:Quantum gravity
15343:
15337:
15323:geodetic effect
15297:(together with
15267:LISA Pathfinder
15206:
15155:
15141:Penrose diagram
15123:
15117:
15092:
15081:
15077:Minkowski space
15043:
14987:
14971:
14919:
14913:
14873:
14866:
14861:
14831:
14826:
14771:
14741:
14723:
14682:
14668:Furthest flight
14653:Furthest humans
14627:
14589:by acceleration
14580:Production car
14572:by acceleration
14508:
14471:
14436:
14420:
14401:Track and field
14307:
14286:
14234:
14225:Olympic records
14206:
14104:
14073:
14041:
14036:
14006:
14001:
13910:Types / sources
13905:
13852:
13843:Metric theories
13817:
13761:
13680:
13653:
13612:
13586:
13568:interferometers
13567:
13557:
13541:
13532:Cosmic Explorer
13520:
13504:
13473:
13409:interferometers
13408:
13397:
13392:Mario Schenberg
13356:
13340:
13274:
13270:Mario Schenberg
13229:
13213:
13195:
13190:
13160:
13155:
13134:
13093:
13077:furthest flight
13057:furthest humans
13032:
12995:by acceleration
12986:production car
12978:by acceleration
12891:
12888:
12827:
12767:
12762:
12738:
12730:. p. 453.
12711:
12688:
12663:
12627:
12622:
12528:(2091): 26–61.
12471:Foucault, J. L.
12452:
12362:
12352:
12350:
12346:
12333:
12321:
12316:
12314:Further reading
12311:
12310:
12298:
12296:
12285:
12225:
12223:
12205:
12201:
12184:
12183:
12179:
12169:
12153:
12149:
12135:
12119:
12115:
12105:
12103:
12096:
12090:
12086:
12079:
12056:
12052:
12042:
12040:
12035:
12034:
12030:
11991:
11987:
11977:
11975:
11966:
11965:
11961:
11951:
11949:
11936:
11935:
11931:
11924:
11905:
11901:
11894:
11876:
11872:
11865:
11848:
11844:
11837:
11819:
11815:
11808:
11794:
11790:
11753:
11749:
11739:
11737:
11735:
11719:
11715:
11672:
11668:
11655:
11651:
11641:
11639:
11624:
11620:
11608:
11578:
11554:
11535:
11531:
11510:(12): 529–244.
11495:
11491:
11460:
11456:
11442:
11438:
11377:
11373:
11351:
11347:
11324:10.2307/1006537
11302:
11298:
11285:
11281:
11228:
11224:
11203:(3): 357–374 .
11191:
11187:
11180:
11162:
11158:
11151:
11135:
11131:
11121:
11119:
11108:
11104:
11094:
11092:
11088:
11081:
11073:
11069:
11059:
11057:
11038:O'Connor, J. J.
11035:
11031:
11024:
11006:
10999:
10970:
10966:
10935:
10931:
10921:
10905:
10901:
10869:
10860:
10853:
10845:. p. 248.
10830:
10826:
10815:
10799:
10795:
10764:
10760:
10749:
10745:
10702:
10698:
10681:
10674:
10665:
10663:
10644:
10640:
10592:
10585:
10552:
10543:
10533:
10531:
10524:
10504:
10497:
10458:
10449:
10441:
10435:
10424:
10416:
10407:
10360:
10353:
10346:
10330:
10326:
10316:
10314:
10306:
10305:
10301:
10291:
10289:
10257:
10253:
10204:
10195:
10156:
10152:
10116:
10109:
10062:
10049:
10040:10.1119/1.19352
9931:
9927:
9920:
9904:
9900:
9890:
9888:
9881:
9877:
9867:
9865:
9850:
9837:
9827:
9825:
9812:
9811:
9807:
9797:
9795:
9780:
9773:
9761:
9759:
9750:
9703:
9699:
9658:
9654:
9645:
9643:
9639:
9633:
9622:
9611:
9607:
9595:
9591:
9590:
9586:
9578:
9574:
9573:
9566:
9555:
9533:
9529:
9508:
9497:
9478:
9466:Reproduced in
9465:
9430:Translated in
9429:
9418:
9412:
9403:
9353:
9344:
9334:
9332:
9327:
9326:
9317:
9285:
9279:
9275:
9236:
9232:
9184:
9178:
9174:
9164:
9162:
9153:
9151:
9147:
9137:
9135:
9127:
9126:
9122:
9107:
9088:
9084:
9074:
9072:
9068:
9064:
9063:
9059:
9046:
9045:
9038:
9031:
9001:
8997:
8987:
8985:
8975:
8971:
8961:
8959:
8946:
8945:
8941:
8931:
8929:
8924:. 10 May 2013.
8922:Financial Times
8914:
8913:
8909:
8893:10.1038/518161a
8864:
8860:
8850:
8848:
8835:
8834:
8830:
8823:
8809:
8805:
8798:
8782:
8778:
8771:
8751:
8747:
8695:
8691:
8679:
8677:
8660:
8658:
8560:
8556:
8544:
8542:
8424:
8372:
8352:
8348:
8308:
8302:
8298:
8283:
8264:
8260:
8232:Physical Review
8227:
8223:
8216:
8197:
8193:
8183:
8181:
8166:
8162:
8152:
8150:
8141:
8140:
8136:
8126:
8124:
8115:
8114:
8110:
8100:
8098:
8090:
8086:
8081:
8080:
8076:
8069:
8053:
8049:
8042:
8019:
8010:
7986:10.1038/462291a
7955:
7951:
7944:
7936:. p. 134.
7924:
7920:
7863:
7856:
7649:
7645:
7638:
7616:
7612:
7605:
7589:
7585:
7531:
7527:
7517:
7515:
7487:
7483:
7473:
7471:
7457:
7453:
7409:
7405:
7397:
7377:(1–3): 84–100.
7364:
7358:
7354:
7347:
7332:Localized Waves
7327:
7323:
7316:
7300:
7296:
7283:
7239:
7231:. p. 170.
7211:
7185:
7181:
7171:
7169:
7150:
7141:
7131:
7129:
7119:
7115:
7108:
7092:
7088:
7081:
7067:
7063:
7056:
7038:
7034:
7027:
7000:
6996:
6941:
6937:
6781:
6777:
6767:
6765:
6761:
6755:
6751:
6707:
6698:. 19 July 2011.
6690:
6686:. 25 July 2011.
6678:
6674:
6670:
6663:
6647:
6643:
6604:(100): 105011.
6594:
6590:
6525:
6521:
6470:
6466:
6437:
6433:
6378:
6374:
6364:
6362:
6361:on 2 April 2010
6343:
6336:
6168:
6164:
6157:
6149:. p. 332.
6135:
6131:
6124:
6100:
6096:
6055:
6051:
6023:Physical Review
6018:
6014:
6004:
6002:
5983:
5979:
5915:
5911:
5896:
5873:
5866:
5859:
5841:
5837:
5830:
5810:
5806:
5796:
5794:
5792:
5768:
5759:
5752:
5732:
5725:
5715:
5713:
5680:(10): 890–921.
5664:
5660:
5653:
5631:
5627:
5620:
5602:
5598:
5582:
5580:
5570:
5569:
5565:
5550:
5531:
5527:
5518:
5510:. p. 280.
5490:
5488:
5476:
5468:
5464:
5459:
5434:
5427:
5418:
5416:
5412:
5406:
5395:
5384:
5380:
5371:
5363:. p. 184.
5346:
5325:
5304:
5281:
5277:
5248:(11): 995–997.
5232:
5228:
5217:
5215:
5192:
5188:
5179:
5150:10.1119/1.15422
5110:
5106:
5099:
5083:
5076:
5057:
5053:
4989:
4985:
4974:
4958:
4954:
4943:
4927:
4923:
4909:
4906:
4904:
4896:
4891:
4868:
4864:
4854:
4852:
4843:
4842:
4835:
4828:
4812:
4808:
4803:
4798:
4788:
4785:
4783:
4781:
4777:
4771:
4767:
4762:
4758:
4741:
4737:
4727:
4725:
4724:
4720:
4719:
4718:(approximately
4711:
4708:
4705:
4703:
4697:
4693:
4688:
4684:
4671:
4667:
4650:
4646:
4629:
4625:
4612:
4608:
4595:
4591:
4581:
4578:
4575:
4574:
4572:
4569:
4562:
4559:
4556:
4555:
4553:
4550:
4542:
4539:
4537:
4536:
4533:
4528:
4525:
4523:
4522:
4521:
4519:
4517:
4513:
4504:
4498:
4495:
4492:
4491:
4488:
4486:
4482:
4478:
4472:
4470:
4466:
4462:
4441:
4438:
4435:
4433:
4415:
4412:
4410:
4409:
4405:
4404:
4394:
4390:
4380:
4377:
4374:
4372:
4366:
4363:
4361:
4359:
4357:
4353:
4343:
4340:
4337:
4335:
4330:
4328:
4323:
4320:
4318:
4316:
4314:
4310:
4306:
4301:
4291:Velocity factor
4260:
4255:
4253:
4246:
4241:
4239:
4232:
4225:
4222:
4205:
4200:
4197:
4195:
4184:
4181:
4179:
4171:
4168:
4166:
4152:
4141:
4138:
4136:
4122:
4118:
4115:
4113:
4076:
4072:
4070:
4062:
4056:
4034:
3998:Hendrik Lorentz
3971:preferred frame
3944:
3938:
3913:
3907:
3901:
3899:
3885:
3883:
3873:
3871:
3864:
3854:
3821:
3819:
3783:Galileo Galilei
3775:
3746:Johannes Kepler
3691:emission theory
3672:
3659:
3656:
3654:
3636:
3632:
3629:
3627:
3605:
3602:
3599:
3597:
3579:
3576:
3573:
3571:
3565:
3550:
3547:
3544:
3542:
3519:
3515:
3512:
3509:
3507:
3458:
3454:
3451:
3448:
3446:
3426:
3423:
3421:
3418:, toothed wheel
3401:
3398:
3396:
3376:
3373:
3371:
3307:
3296:
3294:
3224:
3198:
3194:
3192:
3186:
3183:
3181:
3140:and wavelength
3122:
3107:
3104:
3102:
3084:
3082:
3072:
3066:
3055:
3045:
3026:
2980:
2977:Telescopic tube
2957:Diagram of the
2942:
2931:
2929:
2919:
2916:
2914:
2908:
2905:
2902:
2899:
2897:
2885:
2882:
2880:
2878:
2854:
2840:
2837:
2834:
2832:
2825:
2815:
2813:
2808:
2806:
2798:vector addition
2728:
2716:described below
2709:
2706:
2704:
2697:
2694:
2692:
2691:
2687:
2686:
2668:
2659:
2642:
2630:radar astronomy
2619:
2617:
2611:
2609:
2591:
2585:
2565:popular science
2554:of the universe
2536:
2529:
2525:
2492:
2454:
2452:
2442:
2440:
2428:
2426:
2398:
2387:
2371:
2353:does that in a
2297:
2252:
2225:
2214:
2199:
2175:
2169:
2156:GRB 090510
2153:gamma-ray burst
2149:quantum gravity
2134:
2129:
2126:Higgs mechanism
2094:quantum physics
2067:
2063:
2057:
2053:
2047:
2039:
2036:
2035:
2030:
2020:
1989:
1973:proper distance
1833:
1823:
1753:
1735:
1721:
1551:
1528:
1500:
1481:
1425:
1415:
1402:
1396:
1388:
1387:
1373:
1361:
1359:
1349:
1335:
1324:
1321:
1319:
1318:
1314:
1313:
1307:
1304:
1302:
1289:
1286:
1280:
1269:
1263:
1252:
1241:
1234:
1227:
1221:
1212:
1194:
1177:
1175:
1169:
1147:
1144:
1135:
1124:
1122:
1117:
1115:
1108:
1105:
1101:
1100:
1099:
1097:
1096:
1087:
1086:
1083:
1079:
1078:
1077:
1075:
1071:
1070:
1066:
1059:
1055:
1051:
1043:
1025:quantum effects
999:
987:
979:
967:
963:
945:
933:
930:Albert Einstein
925:
832:
818:
803:
762:
749:
748:
741:
740:
739:
649:
648:
645:
637:
636:
632:Aether theories
617:
616:
615:
596:
595:
576:
575:
570:
562:
561:
537:
536:
531:
523:
522:
468:
467:
464:
456:
455:
426:
425:
422:
357:
355:
340:
338:
317:
155:
152:
150:
137:
135:
122:
119:
116:
114:
96:
93:
91:
76:
64:
60:
39:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
15985:
15975:
15974:
15969:
15964:
15959:
15954:
15937:
15936:
15934:
15933:
15928:
15923:
15917:
15915:
15909:
15908:
15906:
15905:
15900:
15895:
15890:
15884:
15882:
15876:
15875:
15873:
15872:
15867:
15862:
15857:
15852:
15847:
15842:
15837:
15832:
15827:
15821:
15819:
15815:
15814:
15812:
15811:
15806:
15801:
15799:Speed of light
15796:
15791:
15785:
15783:
15779:
15778:
15776:
15775:
15770:
15765:
15759:
15757:
15755:
15754:
15748:
15745:
15744:
15742:
15741:
15736:
15730:
15728:
15724:
15723:
15716:
15715:
15708:
15701:
15693:
15684:
15683:
15673:
15670:
15669:
15667:
15666:
15659:
15654:
15649:
15644:
15639:
15634:
15629:
15624:
15619:
15614:
15609:
15604:
15599:
15594:
15589:
15587:Choquet-Bruhat
15584:
15579:
15574:
15569:
15564:
15559:
15554:
15549:
15544:
15539:
15534:
15529:
15524:
15519:
15514:
15508:
15506:
15502:
15501:
15498:
15497:
15495:
15494:
15487:
15486:
15481:
15476:
15469:
15468:
15463:
15458:
15453:
15448:
15439:Axisymmetric:
15436:
15435:
15430:
15424:
15413:
15412:
15407:
15402:
15397:
15392:
15387:
15378:Cosmological:
15375:
15373:
15367:
15366:
15364:
15363:
15358:
15353:
15347:
15345:
15339:
15338:
15336:
15335:
15330:
15319:frame-dragging
15316:
15311:
15306:
15303:Einstein rings
15299:Einstein cross
15292:
15281:
15280:
15275:
15269:
15264:
15259:
15246:
15236:
15235:
15230:
15225:
15220:
15214:
15212:
15208:
15207:
15205:
15204:
15202:Ernst equation
15199:
15194:
15189:
15184:
15179:
15174:
15172:BSSN formalism
15169:
15163:
15161:
15157:
15156:
15154:
15153:
15148:
15143:
15138:
15133:
15127:
15125:
15119:
15118:
15116:
15115:
15110:
15104:
15102:
15095:
15087:
15086:
15083:
15082:
15080:
15079:
15074:
15069:
15064:
15059:
15053:
15051:
15045:
15044:
15042:
15041:
15036:
15031:
15029:Ladder paradox
15026:
15021:
15016:
15011:
15006:
15001:
14995:
14993:
14989:
14988:
14986:
14985:
14979:
14977:
14973:
14972:
14970:
14969:
14964:
14959:
14954:
14949:
14944:
14939:
14934:
14932:Speed of light
14929:
14923:
14921:
14915:
14914:
14912:
14911:
14906:
14901:
14895:
14885:
14883:
14876:
14868:
14867:
14860:
14859:
14852:
14845:
14837:
14828:
14827:
14825:
14824:
14823:
14822:
14817:
14812:
14804:
14803:
14802:
14801:
14800:
14795:
14779:
14777:
14773:
14772:
14770:
14769:
14764:
14759:
14753:
14751:
14747:
14746:
14743:
14742:
14740:
14739:
14734:
14728:
14725:
14724:
14722:
14721:
14716:
14715:
14714:
14709:
14704:
14699:
14690:
14688:
14684:
14683:
14681:
14680:
14675:
14670:
14665:
14660:
14655:
14650:
14645:
14639:
14637:
14633:
14632:
14629:
14628:
14626:
14625:
14624:
14623:
14618:
14613:
14603:
14598:
14597:
14596:
14591:
14586:
14578:
14577:
14576:
14575:
14574:
14569:
14556:
14551:
14546:
14541:
14540:
14539:
14534:
14524:
14518:
14516:
14510:
14509:
14507:
14506:
14505:
14504:
14499:
14490:
14484:
14477:
14476:Motion records
14473:
14472:
14470:
14469:
14464:
14459:
14454:
14448:
14446:
14442:
14441:
14438:
14437:
14435:
14434:
14428:
14426:
14422:
14421:
14419:
14418:
14417:
14416:
14411:
14409:Regular season
14403:
14398:
14393:
14392:
14391:
14386:
14381:
14371:
14370:
14369:
14364:
14359:
14351:
14350:
14349:
14344:
14336:
14335:
14334:
14329:
14324:
14322:Regular season
14315:
14313:
14309:
14308:
14306:
14305:
14300:
14294:
14292:
14288:
14287:
14285:
14284:
14279:
14274:
14273:
14272:
14262:
14261:
14260:
14255:
14244:
14242:
14236:
14235:
14233:
14232:
14227:
14222:
14216:
14214:
14208:
14207:
14205:
14204:
14199:
14197:Figure skating
14194:
14189:
14184:
14179:
14174:
14173:
14172:
14167:
14159:
14154:
14149:
14144:
14143:
14142:
14137:
14132:
14122:
14116:
14110:
14106:
14105:
14103:
14102:
14097:
14092:
14087:
14081:
14079:
14075:
14074:
14072:
14071:
14064:
14057:
14051:
14049:
14043:
14042:
14035:
14034:
14027:
14020:
14012:
14003:
14002:
14000:
13999:
13998:
13997:
13983:
13982:
13981:
13968:
13967:
13966:
13960:
13959:
13958:
13953:
13948:
13943:
13935:
13934:
13933:
13928:
13913:
13911:
13907:
13906:
13904:
13903:
13898:
13892:
13887:Chirp signal (
13885:
13882:
13880:speed of light
13876:
13871:
13866:
13860:
13858:
13854:
13853:
13851:
13850:
13845:
13840:
13835:
13829:
13827:
13823:
13822:
13819:
13818:
13816:
13815:
13814:
13813:
13808:
13803:
13791:
13790:
13789:
13781:
13778:
13769:
13767:
13763:
13762:
13760:
13759:
13753:
13747:
13741:
13736:
13726:
13721:
13716:
13711:
13706:
13701:
13695:
13693:
13686:
13682:
13681:
13679:
13678:
13672:
13667:
13661:
13659:
13655:
13654:
13652:
13651:
13646:
13641:
13636:
13630:
13628:
13622:
13621:
13618:
13617:
13614:
13613:
13611:
13610:
13605:
13600:
13594:
13592:
13588:
13587:
13585:
13584:
13578:
13576:
13569:
13563:
13562:
13559:
13558:
13556:
13555:
13553:LIGO-Australia
13549:
13547:
13546:Past proposals
13543:
13542:
13540:
13539:
13534:
13528:
13526:
13522:
13521:
13519:
13518:
13512:
13510:
13506:
13505:
13503:
13502:
13497:
13492:
13487:
13481:
13479:
13475:
13474:
13472:
13471:
13464:Advanced Virgo
13461:
13456:
13446:
13441:
13436:
13431:
13420:
13418:
13411:
13403:
13402:
13399:
13398:
13396:
13395:
13390:(downsized to
13385:
13380:
13375:
13370:(downsized to
13364:
13362:
13361:Past proposals
13358:
13357:
13355:
13354:
13348:
13346:
13342:
13341:
13339:
13338:
13333:
13328:
13323:
13318:
13313:
13303:
13293:
13282:
13280:
13276:
13275:
13273:
13272:
13267:
13262:
13252:
13241:
13239:
13232:
13221:
13215:
13214:
13212:
13211:
13206:
13200:
13197:
13196:
13189:
13188:
13181:
13174:
13166:
13157:
13156:
13154:
13153:
13148:
13142:
13140:
13136:
13135:
13133:
13132:
13127:
13126:
13125:
13120:
13115:
13110:
13101:
13099:
13095:
13094:
13092:
13091:
13086:
13085:
13084:
13079:
13071:
13070:
13069:
13064:
13059:
13054:
13049:
13040:
13038:
13034:
13033:
13031:
13030:
13029:
13028:
13027:
13026:
13021:
13016:
13006:
13005:
13004:
12999:
12998:
12997:
12992:
12984:
12983:
12982:
12981:
12980:
12975:
12962:
12957:
12952:
12942:
12941:
12940:
12935:
12925:
12915:
12914:
12913:
12908:
12899:
12897:
12893:
12892:
12887:
12886:
12879:
12872:
12864:
12858:
12857:
12846:
12841:
12838:Speed of Light
12835:
12830:4 discussion (
12824:Speed of Light
12821:
12818:Speed of Light
12815:
12810:
12800:
12790:
12784:
12778:
12766:
12765:External links
12763:
12761:
12760:
12755:hep-th/0208093
12742:
12736:
12715:
12709:
12692:
12686:
12667:
12661:
12649:Jackson, J. D.
12645:
12641:Academic Press
12628:
12626:
12623:
12621:
12620:
12602:
12582:(863): 29–32.
12562:
12542:10.1086/143655
12511:
12489:
12467:
12442:
12402:
12401:
12400:
12361:Translated as
12322:
12320:
12317:
12315:
12312:
12309:
12308:
12306:
12305:
12283:
12232:
12211:Conover, Emily
12199:
12177:
12167:
12147:
12133:
12113:
12084:
12077:
12063:Wheeler, J. A.
12050:
12028:
11985:
11959:
11929:
11922:
11899:
11892:
11870:
11863:
11842:
11835:
11813:
11806:
11788:
11747:
11733:
11713:
11686:(6): 335–343.
11666:
11649:
11618:
11616:
11615:
11606:
11585:
11576:
11561:
11552:
11529:
11489:
11454:
11436:
11371:
11345:
11296:
11279:
11222:
11209:10.1086/352787
11185:
11178:
11156:
11149:
11129:
11102:
11091:on 4 July 2015
11067:
11029:
11022:
10997:
10992:10.1086/350861
10974:Ibn al-Haitham
10964:
10939:Neuroscientist
10929:
10919:
10899:
10885:(3): 254–278.
10858:
10851:
10824:
10813:
10793:
10788:10.1086/143021
10758:
10753:Electric Waves
10743:
10716:(2): 125–171.
10696:
10672:
10638:
10583:
10570:10.1086/358523
10541:
10522:
10516:. p. 43.
10495:
10447:
10433:
10405:
10351:
10344:
10324:
10299:
10251:
10193:
10150:
10107:
10047:
10045:
10044:
10026:(8): 681–714.
10013:
9977:(9): 812–815.
9964:
9925:
9918:
9898:
9875:
9835:
9805:
9771:
9769:
9768:
9748:
9722:(4): 365–372.
9697:
9652:
9631:
9605:
9584:
9564:
9553:
9527:
9495:
9401:
9378:10.1086/347594
9372:(2): 327–379.
9342:
9315:
9273:
9246:(2): 181–186.
9230:
9172:
9145:
9120:
9105:
9082:
9057:
9036:
9029:
8995:
8969:
8939:
8907:
8858:
8828:
8821:
8803:
8796:
8776:
8769:
8745:
8716:Usp. Fiz. Nauk
8689:
8687:
8686:
8667:
8647:
8604:
8578:(1): R34–R37.
8554:
8552:
8551:
8524:
8469:
8409:
8346:
8296:
8281:
8258:
8221:
8214:
8200:Milonni, P. W.
8191:
8160:
8134:
8108:
8088:
8084:
8074:
8067:
8047:
8040:
8008:
7949:
7942:
7918:
7880:hep-ph/0306245
7854:
7852:
7851:
7807:(10): 103516.
7790:
7753:
7717:(2): 409–424.
7700:
7643:
7636:
7610:
7603:
7583:
7525:
7481:
7451:
7403:
7352:
7345:
7339:. p. 26.
7321:
7314:
7294:
7292:
7291:
7281:
7251:
7237:
7215:
7209:
7191:Sakurai, J. J.
7179:
7139:
7113:
7106:
7086:
7079:
7061:
7054:
7048:. p. 54.
7032:
7025:
7007:Wheeler, J. A.
6994:
6957:(1): 167–185.
6935:
6933:
6932:
6888:(5): 695–699.
6873:
6824:
6775:
6749:
6747:
6746:
6700:
6688:
6668:
6661:
6641:
6588:
6519:
6489:hep-ph/0205340
6464:
6431:
6390:(3): 240–227.
6372:
6334:
6332:
6331:
6278:
6234:(16): 161102.
6217:
6162:
6155:
6147:Addison-Wesley
6129:
6122:
6110:Addison-Wesley
6094:
6067:(1): 137–139.
6049:
6012:
5977:
5909:
5894:
5864:
5857:
5835:
5828:
5804:
5790:
5757:
5750:
5723:
5658:
5651:
5641:(2 ed.).
5625:
5618:
5596:
5563:
5548:
5525:
5523:
5522:
5516:
5497:
5474:
5457:
5451:. p. 56.
5447:(3 ed.).
5425:
5404:
5378:
5376:
5375:
5369:
5359:(3 ed.).
5350:
5344:
5329:
5323:
5308:
5302:
5275:
5226:
5186:
5184:
5183:
5177:
5162:
5104:
5097:
5074:
5051:
4983:
4972:
4952:
4941:
4921:
4889:
4862:
4833:
4826:
4805:
4804:
4802:
4799:
4797:
4796:
4775:
4765:
4756:
4735:
4691:
4682:
4665:
4644:
4623:
4621:, for example.
4606:
4602:Doppler effect
4589:
4511:
4509:
4508:
4460:
4388:
4351:
4307:
4305:
4302:
4300:
4299:
4293:
4288:
4286:Speed of sound
4283:
4278:
4273:
4267:
4266:
4265:
4251:
4237:
4234:Physics portal
4221:
4218:
4175:of a second".
4151:
4148:
4055:
4048:
4033:
4030:
4014:Henri Poincaré
3979:the experiment
3940:Main article:
3937:
3934:
3926:resistanceless
3911:
3905:
3853:
3850:
3779:Isaac Beeckman
3774:
3771:
3750:René Descartes
3718:Book of Optics
3671:
3668:
3665:
3664:
3652:
3649:
3645:
3644:
3641:
3625:
3618:
3614:
3613:
3610:
3595:
3592:
3588:
3587:
3584:
3569:
3563:
3559:
3558:
3555:
3540:
3534:
3530:
3529:
3523:
3505:
3498:
3494:
3493:
3491:
3488:
3486:Heinrich Hertz
3483:
3479:
3478:
3476:
3473:
3472:Werner Siemens
3470:
3466:
3465:
3462:
3444:
3438:
3434:
3433:
3430:
3419:
3413:
3409:
3408:
3405:
3394:
3388:
3384:
3383:
3380:
3369:
3359:
3355:
3354:
3351:
3345:
3341:
3340:
3337:
3331:
3315:ancient Greece
3306:
3303:
3243:Interferometry
3223:
3222:Interferometry
3220:
3208:microwave oven
3130:standing waves
3121:
3118:
3070:
3064:
3053:
3043:
3025:
3022:
3010:François Arago
2979:
2978:
2975:
2972:
2969:
2966:
2962:
2949:±11 km/s.
2941:
2938:
2926:
2925:
2891:
2876:
2824:
2821:
2749:, such as the
2727:
2724:
2666:
2657:
2641:
2638:
2606:GPS satellites
2587:Main article:
2584:
2581:
2506:ground control
2491:
2488:
2425:
2422:
2386:
2383:
2370:
2367:
2365:, is emitted.
2250:
2223:
2217:front velocity
2212:
2206:group velocity
2197:
2191:phase velocity
2168:
2165:
2090:
2089:
2078:
2070:
2066:
2060:
2056:
2051:
2046:
2043:
2028:
2018:
1988:
1985:
1942:radio galaxies
1918:Hartman effect
1902:quantum states
1849:phase velocity
1822:
1819:
1720:
1717:
1627:Standard Model
1525:Lorentz factor
1475:Lorentz factor
1414:
1411:
1356:imperial units
1279:
1276:
1261:
1250:
1239:
1232:
1143:
1140:
1058:and the speed
992:space and time
892:time of flight
843:(and thus any
811:speed of light
805:
804:
802:
801:
794:
787:
779:
776:
775:
774:
773:
760:
743:
742:
738:
737:
732:
727:
722:
717:
712:
707:
702:
697:
692:
687:
682:
677:
672:
667:
662:
657:
651:
650:
644:
643:
642:
639:
638:
635:
634:
629:
624:
618:
614:
613:
610:
604:
603:
602:
601:
598:
597:
594:
593:
588:
583:
577:
569:
568:
567:
564:
563:
560:
559:
554:
549:
544:
538:
530:
529:
528:
525:
524:
521:
520:
515:
510:
505:
500:
495:
490:
485:
480:
475:
469:
463:
462:
461:
458:
457:
454:
453:
448:
443:
441:Speed of light
438:
433:
427:
421:
420:
419:
416:
415:
414:
413:
408:
403:
395:
394:
386:
385:
375:
374:
371:
363:
362:
353:
346:
345:
336:
333:nearest galaxy
328:
327:
324:
309:
308:
305:
298:
297:
291:
284:
283:
277:
265:
264:
258:
250:
249:
246:
239:
238:
232:
224:
223:
220:
213:
212:
206:
199:
198:
193:
187:
186:
182:
181:
178:
171:
170:
167:
160:
159:
148:
146:miles per hour
142:
141:
133:
127:
126:
112:
106:
105:
101:
100:
89:
83:
82:
78:
77:
63:minutes and 17
54:
44:Speed of light
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
15984:
15973:
15970:
15968:
15965:
15963:
15960:
15958:
15955:
15953:
15950:
15949:
15947:
15932:
15929:
15927:
15924:
15922:
15919:
15918:
15916:
15914:
15910:
15904:
15901:
15899:
15896:
15894:
15891:
15889:
15886:
15885:
15883:
15881:
15877:
15871:
15868:
15866:
15863:
15861:
15858:
15856:
15853:
15851:
15848:
15846:
15843:
15841:
15838:
15836:
15833:
15831:
15828:
15826:
15825:Time dilation
15823:
15822:
15820:
15816:
15810:
15807:
15805:
15802:
15800:
15797:
15795:
15792:
15790:
15787:
15786:
15784:
15780:
15774:
15771:
15769:
15766:
15764:
15761:
15760:
15758:
15753:
15750:
15749:
15746:
15740:
15737:
15735:
15732:
15731:
15729:
15725:
15721:
15714:
15709:
15707:
15702:
15700:
15695:
15694:
15691:
15681:
15671:
15665:
15664:
15660:
15658:
15655:
15653:
15650:
15648:
15645:
15643:
15640:
15638:
15635:
15633:
15630:
15628:
15625:
15623:
15620:
15618:
15615:
15613:
15610:
15608:
15605:
15603:
15600:
15598:
15595:
15593:
15590:
15588:
15585:
15583:
15580:
15578:
15575:
15573:
15572:Chandrasekhar
15570:
15568:
15565:
15563:
15560:
15558:
15555:
15553:
15550:
15548:
15545:
15543:
15540:
15538:
15535:
15533:
15532:Schwarzschild
15530:
15528:
15525:
15523:
15520:
15518:
15515:
15513:
15510:
15509:
15507:
15503:
15493:
15489:
15488:
15485:
15482:
15480:
15477:
15475:
15471:
15470:
15467:
15464:
15462:
15459:
15457:
15454:
15452:
15449:
15446:
15442:
15438:
15437:
15434:
15431:
15428:
15425:
15423:
15419:
15418:Schwarzschild
15415:
15414:
15411:
15408:
15406:
15403:
15401:
15398:
15396:
15393:
15391:
15388:
15385:
15381:
15377:
15376:
15374:
15372:
15368:
15362:
15359:
15357:
15354:
15352:
15349:
15348:
15346:
15340:
15334:
15331:
15328:
15324:
15320:
15317:
15315:
15314:Shapiro delay
15312:
15310:
15307:
15304:
15300:
15296:
15293:
15290:
15286:
15283:
15282:
15279:
15276:
15273:
15270:
15268:
15265:
15263:
15260:
15258:
15257:collaboration
15254:
15250:
15247:
15245:
15241:
15238:
15237:
15234:
15231:
15229:
15226:
15224:
15223:Event horizon
15221:
15219:
15216:
15215:
15213:
15209:
15203:
15200:
15198:
15195:
15193:
15190:
15188:
15185:
15183:
15180:
15178:
15175:
15173:
15170:
15168:
15167:ADM formalism
15165:
15164:
15162:
15158:
15152:
15149:
15147:
15144:
15142:
15139:
15137:
15134:
15132:
15129:
15128:
15126:
15120:
15114:
15111:
15109:
15106:
15105:
15103:
15099:
15096:
15094:
15088:
15078:
15075:
15073:
15072:Biquaternions
15070:
15068:
15065:
15063:
15060:
15058:
15055:
15054:
15052:
15050:
15046:
15040:
15037:
15035:
15032:
15030:
15027:
15025:
15022:
15020:
15017:
15015:
15012:
15010:
15007:
15005:
15002:
15000:
14999:Time dilation
14997:
14996:
14994:
14990:
14984:
14981:
14980:
14978:
14974:
14968:
14965:
14963:
14960:
14958:
14955:
14953:
14952:Proper length
14950:
14948:
14945:
14943:
14940:
14938:
14935:
14933:
14930:
14928:
14925:
14924:
14922:
14916:
14910:
14907:
14905:
14902:
14899:
14896:
14894:
14890:
14887:
14886:
14884:
14880:
14877:
14875:
14869:
14865:
14858:
14853:
14851:
14846:
14844:
14839:
14838:
14835:
14821:
14818:
14816:
14813:
14811:
14808:
14807:
14805:
14799:
14796:
14794:
14791:
14790:
14789:
14786:
14785:
14784:
14781:
14780:
14778:
14774:
14768:
14765:
14763:
14760:
14758:
14755:
14754:
14752:
14748:
14738:
14735:
14733:
14730:
14729:
14726:
14720:
14717:
14713:
14710:
14708:
14705:
14703:
14700:
14698:
14695:
14694:
14692:
14691:
14689:
14685:
14679:
14676:
14674:
14671:
14669:
14666:
14664:
14661:
14659:
14656:
14654:
14651:
14649:
14646:
14644:
14641:
14640:
14638:
14634:
14622:
14621:Transatlantic
14619:
14617:
14614:
14612:
14609:
14608:
14607:
14604:
14602:
14599:
14595:
14592:
14590:
14587:
14585:
14582:
14581:
14579:
14573:
14570:
14568:
14565:
14564:
14562:
14561:
14560:
14557:
14555:
14552:
14550:
14547:
14545:
14542:
14538:
14535:
14533:
14530:
14529:
14528:
14525:
14523:
14520:
14519:
14517:
14515:
14511:
14503:
14500:
14498:
14495:
14494:
14492:
14491:
14488:
14485:
14481:
14478:
14474:
14468:
14465:
14463:
14460:
14458:
14455:
14453:
14450:
14449:
14447:
14443:
14433:
14430:
14429:
14427:
14423:
14415:
14412:
14410:
14407:
14406:
14404:
14402:
14399:
14397:
14394:
14390:
14387:
14385:
14382:
14380:
14377:
14376:
14375:
14372:
14368:
14365:
14363:
14360:
14358:
14355:
14354:
14352:
14348:
14345:
14343:
14340:
14339:
14337:
14333:
14330:
14328:
14325:
14323:
14320:
14319:
14317:
14316:
14314:
14310:
14304:
14301:
14299:
14296:
14295:
14293:
14289:
14283:
14280:
14278:
14275:
14271:
14268:
14267:
14266:
14263:
14259:
14256:
14254:
14251:
14250:
14249:
14246:
14245:
14243:
14241:
14240:Weightlifting
14237:
14231:
14228:
14226:
14223:
14221:
14218:
14217:
14215:
14213:
14209:
14203:
14200:
14198:
14195:
14193:
14192:Speed skating
14190:
14188:
14185:
14183:
14180:
14178:
14175:
14171:
14168:
14166:
14163:
14162:
14160:
14158:
14155:
14153:
14150:
14148:
14145:
14141:
14138:
14136:
14133:
14131:
14128:
14127:
14126:
14123:
14121:
14118:
14117:
14114:
14111:
14107:
14101:
14098:
14096:
14093:
14091:
14088:
14086:
14083:
14082:
14080:
14076:
14070:
14069:
14065:
14063:
14062:
14058:
14056:
14053:
14052:
14050:
14048:
14047:World records
14044:
14040:
14033:
14028:
14026:
14021:
14019:
14014:
14013:
14010:
13995:
13994:other unknown
13991:
13990:cosmic string
13987:
13986:
13984:
13979:
13975:
13972:
13971:
13969:
13964:
13963:
13961:
13957:
13954:
13952:
13951:Neutron stars
13949:
13947:
13944:
13942:
13939:
13938:
13936:
13932:
13929:
13927:
13923:
13920:
13919:
13918:
13915:
13914:
13912:
13908:
13902:
13899:
13897:
13893:
13890:
13886:
13883:
13881:
13877:
13875:
13872:
13870:
13867:
13865:
13862:
13861:
13859:
13855:
13849:
13846:
13844:
13841:
13839:
13836:
13834:
13831:
13830:
13828:
13824:
13812:
13811:Binary pulsar
13809:
13807:
13804:
13802:
13798:
13795:
13794:
13792:
13788:
13787:
13782:
13779:
13777:
13774:
13773:
13771:
13770:
13768:
13764:
13757:
13754:
13751:
13748:
13745:
13742:
13740:
13737:
13734:
13730:
13727:
13725:
13722:
13720:
13717:
13715:
13712:
13710:
13707:
13705:
13702:
13700:
13697:
13696:
13694:
13690:
13687:
13683:
13677:: Gravity Spy
13676:
13673:
13671:
13668:
13666:
13665:Einstein@Home
13663:
13662:
13660:
13658:Data analysis
13656:
13650:
13647:
13645:
13642:
13640:
13637:
13635:
13632:
13631:
13629:
13627:
13623:
13609:
13606:
13604:
13601:
13599:
13596:
13595:
13593:
13589:
13583:
13580:
13579:
13577:
13573:
13570:
13564:
13554:
13551:
13550:
13548:
13544:
13538:
13535:
13533:
13530:
13529:
13527:
13523:
13517:
13514:
13513:
13511:
13507:
13501:
13498:
13496:
13493:
13491:
13488:
13486:
13483:
13482:
13480:
13476:
13469:
13465:
13462:
13460:
13457:
13454:
13450:
13449:Advanced LIGO
13447:
13445:
13442:
13440:
13437:
13435:
13432:
13429:
13425:
13422:
13421:
13419:
13415:
13412:
13410:
13404:
13393:
13389:
13386:
13384:
13381:
13379:
13376:
13373:
13369:
13366:
13365:
13363:
13359:
13353:
13350:
13349:
13347:
13343:
13337:
13334:
13332:
13329:
13327:
13324:
13322:
13319:
13317:
13314:
13311:
13307:
13304:
13301:
13297:
13294:
13291:
13287:
13284:
13283:
13281:
13277:
13271:
13268:
13266:
13263:
13260:
13256:
13253:
13250:
13246:
13243:
13242:
13240:
13236:
13233:
13231:
13228:Resonant mass
13225:
13222:
13220:
13216:
13210:
13207:
13205:
13202:
13201:
13198:
13194:
13187:
13182:
13180:
13175:
13173:
13168:
13167:
13164:
13152:
13149:
13147:
13144:
13143:
13141:
13137:
13131:
13128:
13124:
13121:
13119:
13116:
13114:
13111:
13109:
13106:
13105:
13103:
13102:
13100:
13096:
13090:
13087:
13083:
13080:
13078:
13075:
13074:
13072:
13068:
13065:
13063:
13060:
13058:
13055:
13053:
13050:
13048:
13045:
13044:
13042:
13041:
13039:
13035:
13025:
13024:transatlantic
13022:
13020:
13017:
13015:
13012:
13011:
13010:
13007:
13003:
13000:
12996:
12993:
12991:
12988:
12987:
12985:
12979:
12976:
12974:
12971:
12970:
12968:
12967:
12966:
12963:
12961:
12958:
12956:
12953:
12951:
12948:
12947:
12946:
12943:
12939:
12936:
12934:
12931:
12930:
12929:
12926:
12924:
12921:
12920:
12919:
12916:
12912:
12909:
12907:
12904:
12903:
12901:
12900:
12898:
12894:
12885:
12880:
12878:
12873:
12871:
12866:
12865:
12862:
12855:
12851:
12847:
12845:
12842:
12839:
12836:
12833:
12825:
12822:
12819:
12816:
12814:
12811:
12808:
12804:
12801:
12798:
12794:
12791:
12788:
12785:
12782:
12779:
12776:
12772:
12769:
12768:
12756:
12751:
12747:
12743:
12739:
12733:
12729:
12725:
12721:
12716:
12712:
12706:
12702:
12698:
12693:
12689:
12683:
12679:
12675:
12674:
12668:
12664:
12658:
12654:
12650:
12646:
12642:
12638:
12634:
12633:Brillouin, L.
12630:
12629:
12617:
12614:(in French).
12613:
12612:
12607:
12603:
12598:
12593:
12589:
12585:
12581:
12577:
12576:
12571:
12567:
12563:
12559:
12555:
12551:
12547:
12543:
12539:
12535:
12531:
12527:
12523:
12522:
12517:
12512:
12508:
12504:
12503:
12498:
12494:
12490:
12486:
12483:(in French).
12482:
12481:
12476:
12472:
12468:
12465:: 90–92, 132.
12464:
12461:(in French).
12460:
12459:
12451:
12447:
12446:Fizeau, H. L.
12443:
12438:
12433:
12429:
12425:
12421:
12417:
12416:
12411:
12407:
12403:
12397:
12392:
12387:
12383:
12379:
12375:
12371:
12370:
12365:
12360:
12359:
12345:
12341:
12340:
12332:
12328:
12324:
12323:
12295:. 11 May 2018
12294:
12293:
12288:
12284:
12280:
12276:
12272:
12268:
12264:
12260:
12256:
12252:
12248:
12244:
12243:
12238:
12233:
12222:
12221:
12216:
12212:
12208:
12207:
12203:
12195:
12191:
12187:
12181:
12174:
12170:
12164:
12160:
12159:
12151:
12144:
12142:
12136:
12130:
12126:
12125:
12117:
12102:
12095:
12088:
12080:
12074:
12070:
12069:
12064:
12060:
12059:Taylor, E. F.
12054:
12038:
12032:
12024:
12020:
12016:
12012:
12008:
12004:
12000:
11996:
11989:
11973:
11969:
11963:
11947:
11943:
11939:
11933:
11925:
11919:
11915:
11914:
11909:
11903:
11895:
11889:
11884:
11883:
11874:
11866:
11860:
11856:
11852:
11846:
11838:
11832:
11827:
11826:
11817:
11809:
11803:
11799:
11792:
11784:
11780:
11776:
11772:
11768:
11764:
11763:
11758:
11751:
11736:
11730:
11726:
11725:
11717:
11709:
11705:
11701:
11697:
11693:
11689:
11685:
11681:
11677:
11670:
11663:
11659:
11653:
11637:
11633:
11629:
11622:
11614:
11609:
11603:
11599:
11594:
11593:
11586:
11584:
11579:
11573:
11569:
11568:
11562:
11560:
11555:
11549:
11545:
11544:
11538:
11537:
11533:
11525:
11521:
11517:
11513:
11509:
11506:
11505:
11500:
11493:
11485:
11481:
11477:
11473:
11469:
11465:
11458:
11449:
11448:
11440:
11432:
11428:
11424:
11420:
11416:
11412:
11407:
11402:
11398:
11397:10.1068/p6263
11394:
11390:
11386:
11382:
11375:
11367:
11363:
11359:
11355:
11349:
11341:
11337:
11333:
11329:
11325:
11321:
11317:
11313:
11312:
11307:
11300:
11292:
11291:
11283:
11275:
11271:
11267:
11263:
11259:
11255:
11251:
11247:
11243:
11239:
11238:
11233:
11226:
11218:
11214:
11210:
11206:
11202:
11198:
11197:
11189:
11181:
11175:
11171:
11167:
11160:
11152:
11146:
11142:
11141:
11133:
11117:
11113:
11106:
11087:
11080:
11079:
11071:
11056:
11052:
11051:
11046:
11043:
11039:
11033:
11025:
11019:
11015:
11011:
11004:
11002:
10993:
10989:
10985:
10981:
10980:
10975:
10968:
10960:
10956:
10952:
10948:
10944:
10940:
10933:
10927:
10922:
10916:
10912:
10911:
10903:
10893:
10888:
10884:
10880:
10879:
10874:
10867:
10865:
10863:
10854:
10848:
10844:
10843:Courier Dover
10840:
10839:
10834:
10828:
10821:
10816:
10810:
10806:
10805:
10797:
10789:
10785:
10781:
10777:
10773:
10769:
10762:
10754:
10747:
10739:
10735:
10731:
10727:
10723:
10719:
10715:
10711:
10707:
10700:
10692:
10688:
10687:
10679:
10677:
10662:
10658:
10654:
10653:
10648:
10642:
10635:
10631:
10627:
10623:
10618:
10613:
10609:
10608:10.1068/p6263
10605:
10601:
10597:
10590:
10588:
10579:
10575:
10571:
10567:
10563:
10559:
10558:
10550:
10548:
10546:
10529:
10525:
10519:
10515:
10511:
10510:
10502:
10500:
10491:
10487:
10483:
10479:
10475:
10471:
10467:
10463:
10456:
10454:
10452:
10440:
10436:
10430:
10423:
10422:
10414:
10412:
10410:
10401:
10397:
10393:
10389:
10385:
10381:
10377:
10373:
10369:
10365:
10358:
10356:
10347:
10341:
10337:
10336:
10328:
10313:
10309:
10303:
10288:
10284:
10280:
10276:
10272:
10268:
10267:
10262:
10255:
10247:
10243:
10239:
10235:
10231:
10227:
10223:
10219:
10215:
10211:
10210:
10202:
10200:
10198:
10189:
10185:
10181:
10177:
10173:
10169:
10165:
10161:
10154:
10145:
10140:
10136:
10132:
10128:
10124:
10123:Dorsey, N. E.
10120:
10114:
10112:
10103:
10099:
10094:
10089:
10085:
10081:
10077:
10073:
10072:
10067:
10060:
10058:
10056:
10054:
10052:
10041:
10037:
10033:
10029:
10025:
10021:
10020:
10014:
10010:
10006:
10002:
9998:
9994:
9990:
9985:
9980:
9976:
9972:
9971:
9965:
9961:
9957:
9953:
9949:
9945:
9941:
9940:
9934:
9933:
9929:
9921:
9915:
9911:
9910:
9902:
9886:
9879:
9863:
9859:
9855:
9848:
9846:
9844:
9842:
9840:
9823:
9819:
9815:
9809:
9793:
9789:
9785:
9778:
9776:
9757:
9753:
9749:
9745:
9741:
9737:
9733:
9729:
9725:
9721:
9717:
9716:
9711:
9706:
9705:
9701:
9693:
9689:
9685:
9681:
9677:
9673:
9669:
9668:
9663:
9656:
9638:
9634:
9632:92-822-2213-6
9628:
9621:
9620:
9615:
9609:
9601:
9594:
9588:
9577:
9571:
9569:
9561:
9556:
9550:
9546:
9541:
9540:
9531:
9523:
9519:
9518:
9513:
9506:
9504:
9502:
9500:
9492:
9488:
9483:
9475:
9471:
9461:
9456:
9452:
9448:
9444:
9440:
9439:
9434:
9426:
9425:
9416:
9410:
9408:
9406:
9397:
9393:
9388:
9383:
9379:
9375:
9371:
9367:
9366:
9361:
9357:
9351:
9349:
9347:
9330:
9324:
9322:
9320:
9311:
9307:
9303:
9299:
9295:
9291:
9284:
9277:
9269:
9265:
9261:
9257:
9253:
9249:
9245:
9241:
9234:
9226:
9222:
9218:
9214:
9210:
9206:
9202:
9198:
9194:
9190:
9183:
9176:
9160:
9156:
9149:
9134:
9130:
9124:
9116:
9112:
9108:
9102:
9098:
9097:
9092:
9086:
9067:
9061:
9053:
9049:
9043:
9041:
9032:
9026:
9022:
9018:
9014:
9010:
9006:
8999:
8984:
8980:
8973:
8957:
8953:
8949:
8943:
8927:
8923:
8918:
8911:
8903:
8899:
8894:
8889:
8885:
8881:
8877:
8873:
8869:
8862:
8846:
8842:
8838:
8832:
8824:
8818:
8814:
8807:
8799:
8793:
8789:
8788:
8780:
8772:
8766:
8763:. p. 5.
8762:
8758:
8757:
8749:
8741:
8737:
8729:
8725:
8721:
8717:
8709:
8705:
8704:
8699:
8693:
8676:
8672:
8668:
8657:
8653:
8648:
8644:
8640:
8636:
8632:
8628:
8624:
8620:
8616:
8615:
8610:
8605:
8601:
8597:
8593:
8589:
8585:
8581:
8577:
8573:
8572:
8567:
8563:
8562:
8558:
8540:
8536:
8535:
8534:Physics World
8530:
8525:
8521:
8517:
8513:
8509:
8505:
8501:
8497:
8493:
8488:
8483:
8479:
8475:
8470:
8466:
8462:
8458:
8454:
8450:
8446:
8442:
8438:
8434:
8430:
8423:
8419:
8415:
8410:
8406:
8402:
8398:
8397:10.1038/17561
8394:
8390:
8386:
8382:
8378:
8371:
8367:
8363:
8362:Harris, S. E.
8359:
8355:
8354:
8350:
8342:
8338:
8334:
8330:
8326:
8322:
8318:
8314:
8307:
8300:
8292:
8288:
8284:
8278:
8274:
8273:
8268:
8262:
8254:
8250:
8246:
8242:
8238:
8234:
8233:
8225:
8217:
8211:
8207:
8206:
8201:
8195:
8179:
8175:
8171:
8164:
8148:
8144:
8138:
8122:
8118:
8112:
8096:
8092:
8078:
8070:
8064:
8060:
8059:
8051:
8043:
8037:
8033:
8029:
8028:
8023:
8017:
8015:
8013:
8004:
8000:
7996:
7992:
7987:
7982:
7978:
7974:
7970:
7966:
7965:
7960:
7953:
7945:
7939:
7935:
7931:
7930:
7922:
7914:
7910:
7906:
7902:
7898:
7894:
7890:
7886:
7881:
7876:
7873:(1): 010402.
7872:
7868:
7861:
7859:
7848:
7844:
7840:
7836:
7832:
7828:
7824:
7820:
7815:
7810:
7806:
7802:
7801:
7796:
7791:
7787:
7783:
7779:
7775:
7771:
7767:
7764:(4): 043901.
7763:
7759:
7754:
7750:
7746:
7742:
7738:
7734:
7730:
7725:
7720:
7716:
7712:
7711:
7706:
7701:
7697:
7693:
7689:
7685:
7681:
7677:
7672:
7667:
7663:
7659:
7658:
7652:
7651:
7647:
7639:
7633:
7629:
7624:
7623:
7614:
7606:
7600:
7596:
7595:
7587:
7579:
7575:
7571:
7567:
7563:
7559:
7554:
7549:
7545:
7541:
7540:
7535:
7529:
7514:
7510:
7506:
7502:
7498:
7497:
7492:
7485:
7470:
7466:
7462:
7459:Chase, I. P.
7455:
7447:
7443:
7439:
7435:
7431:
7427:
7424:(5048): 468.
7423:
7419:
7418:
7413:
7407:
7396:
7392:
7388:
7384:
7380:
7376:
7372:
7371:
7363:
7356:
7348:
7342:
7338:
7334:
7333:
7325:
7317:
7311:
7307:
7306:
7298:
7289:
7284:
7278:
7273:
7268:
7264:
7260:
7256:
7252:
7248:
7244:
7240:
7238:0-7923-2549-4
7234:
7230:
7226:
7225:
7220:
7216:
7212:
7206:
7202:
7198:
7197:
7192:
7188:
7187:
7183:
7167:
7163:
7159:
7155:
7148:
7146:
7144:
7128:
7124:
7117:
7109:
7103:
7099:
7098:
7090:
7082:
7076:
7072:
7065:
7057:
7051:
7047:
7043:
7036:
7028:
7022:
7018:
7014:
7013:
7008:
7004:
7003:Taylor, E. F.
6998:
6990:
6986:
6982:
6978:
6974:
6970:
6965:
6964:gr-qc/0107091
6960:
6956:
6952:
6951:
6946:
6939:
6929:
6925:
6921:
6917:
6913:
6909:
6905:
6901:
6896:
6891:
6887:
6883:
6882:Laser Physics
6879:
6874:
6870:
6866:
6862:
6858:
6854:
6850:
6846:
6842:
6838:
6834:
6830:
6825:
6821:
6817:
6813:
6809:
6805:
6801:
6797:
6793:
6789:
6784:
6783:
6779:
6760:
6753:
6743:
6739:
6735:
6731:
6727:
6723:
6719:
6715:
6714:
6706:
6701:
6697:
6693:
6689:
6685:
6681:
6677:
6676:
6672:
6664:
6658:
6654:
6653:
6645:
6637:
6633:
6629:
6625:
6621:
6617:
6612:
6607:
6603:
6599:
6592:
6584:
6580:
6575:
6570:
6565:
6560:
6556:
6552:
6547:
6542:
6538:
6534:
6530:
6523:
6515:
6511:
6507:
6503:
6499:
6495:
6490:
6485:
6481:
6477:
6476:
6468:
6460:
6456:
6451:
6446:
6442:
6435:
6428:
6423:
6419:
6415:
6411:
6407:
6403:
6398:
6397:gr-qc/0305099
6393:
6389:
6385:
6384:
6376:
6360:
6356:
6352:
6348:
6341:
6339:
6328:
6324:
6320:
6316:
6312:
6308:
6303:
6298:
6295:(2): 024028.
6294:
6290:
6289:
6284:
6279:
6275:
6271:
6267:
6263:
6259:
6255:
6251:
6247:
6242:
6237:
6233:
6229:
6228:
6223:
6218:
6213:
6208:
6204:
6200:
6195:
6190:
6186:
6182:
6181:
6176:
6171:
6170:
6166:
6158:
6152:
6148:
6143:
6142:
6133:
6125:
6119:
6115:
6111:
6107:
6106:
6098:
6090:
6086:
6082:
6078:
6074:
6070:
6066:
6062:
6061:
6053:
6045:
6041:
6037:
6033:
6029:
6025:
6024:
6016:
6000:
5996:
5992:
5988:
5981:
5973:
5969:
5965:
5961:
5957:
5953:
5949:
5945:
5940:
5935:
5931:
5927:
5926:
5921:
5913:
5905:
5901:
5897:
5895:0-19-850657-0
5891:
5887:
5886:
5881:
5877:
5871:
5869:
5860:
5854:
5850:
5846:
5839:
5831:
5825:
5821:
5817:
5816:
5808:
5793:
5787:
5783:
5779:
5775:
5774:
5766:
5764:
5762:
5753:
5747:
5743:
5739:
5738:
5730:
5728:
5711:
5710:
5705:
5696:
5691:
5687:
5683:
5679:
5675:
5674:
5669:
5662:
5654:
5648:
5644:
5640:
5636:
5629:
5621:
5615:
5611:
5607:
5600:
5593:
5591:
5579:
5578:
5573:
5567:
5559:
5555:
5551:
5549:0-691-12201-6
5545:
5541:
5540:
5535:
5529:
5519:
5513:
5509:
5508:Courier Dover
5505:
5504:
5498:
5487:
5483:
5479:
5475:
5472:
5460:
5454:
5450:
5446:
5442:
5437:
5436:
5432:
5430:
5411:
5407:
5405:92-822-2213-6
5401:
5394:
5393:
5388:
5382:
5372:
5366:
5362:
5358:
5357:
5351:
5347:
5341:
5337:
5336:
5330:
5326:
5320:
5316:
5315:
5309:
5305:
5299:
5295:
5291:
5290:
5284:
5283:
5279:
5271:
5267:
5263:
5259:
5255:
5251:
5247:
5243:
5242:
5237:
5230:
5213:
5209:
5205:
5201:
5199:
5190:
5180:
5174:
5170:
5169:
5163:
5159:
5155:
5151:
5147:
5143:
5139:
5135:
5131:
5130:
5125:
5121:
5117:
5113:
5112:
5108:
5100:
5094:
5090:
5089:
5081:
5079:
5070:
5066:
5062:
5055:
5047:
5043:
5039:
5035:
5031:
5027:
5023:
5019:
5014:
5009:
5006:(1): 93–123.
5005:
5001:
4997:
4993:
4987:
4980:
4975:
4969:
4965:
4964:
4956:
4949:
4944:
4938:
4934:
4933:
4925:
4918:
4916:
4902:
4892:
4886:
4882:
4878:
4877:
4872:
4866:
4851:. 29 May 2019
4850:
4846:
4840:
4838:
4829:
4823:
4819:
4818:
4810:
4806:
4779:
4769:
4760:
4753:
4749:
4748:proper length
4745:
4739:
4717:
4701:
4695:
4686:
4679:
4675:
4669:
4662:
4658:
4654:
4648:
4641:
4637:
4633:
4627:
4620:
4616:
4610:
4603:
4599:
4596:However, the
4593:
4515:
4469:
4468:
4464:
4457:
4456:energy states
4453:
4449:
4431:
4427:
4423:
4402:
4398:
4392:
4358:Exact value:
4355:
4315:Exact value:
4312:
4308:
4297:
4294:
4292:
4289:
4287:
4284:
4282:
4279:
4277:
4274:
4272:
4269:
4268:
4263:
4252:
4249:
4238:
4235:
4229:
4224:
4217:
4215:
4211:
4191:
4176:
4164:
4161:
4157:
4147:
4134:
4130:
4112: =
4111:
4107:
4103:
4098:
4096:
4092:
4088:
4084:
4079:3.0 km/s
4068:
4061:
4053:
4047:
4044:
4040:
4029:
4027:
4023:
4019:
4015:
4011:
4007:
4003:
3999:
3994:
3992:
3988:
3984:
3981:performed by
3980:
3976:
3972:
3968:
3959:
3955:
3953:
3949:
3943:
3933:
3929:
3927:
3923:
3919:
3910:
3904:
3897:
3893:
3881:
3880:Léon Foucault
3869:
3863:
3859:
3849:
3847:
3843:
3842:James Bradley
3838:
3834:
3833:
3827:
3817:
3812:
3808:
3800:
3796:
3794:
3789:
3784:
3780:
3770:
3768:
3764:
3759:
3755:
3754:lunar eclipse
3751:
3747:
3742:
3740:
3736:
3731:
3729:
3724:
3720:
3719:
3714:
3710:
3706:
3702:
3700:
3696:
3692:
3688:
3684:
3680:
3676:
3670:Early history
3650:
3647:
3646:
3642:
3626:
3623:
3619:
3616:
3615:
3611:
3596:
3593:
3590:
3589:
3585:
3570:
3564:
3561:
3560:
3556:
3541:
3538:
3535:
3532:
3531:
3528:
3524:
3506:
3499:
3496:
3495:
3492:
3489:
3487:
3484:
3481:
3480:
3477:
3474:
3471:
3468:
3467:
3463:
3445:
3442:
3439:
3436:
3435:
3431:
3420:
3417:
3414:
3411:
3410:
3406:
3395:
3392:
3389:
3386:
3385:
3381:
3370:
3367:
3363:
3360:
3357:
3356:
3353:inconclusive
3349:
3346:
3343:
3342:
3339:inconclusive
3335:
3332:
3329:
3328:
3324:
3318:
3316:
3312:
3302:
3292:
3288:
3282:
3279:
3274:
3272:
3269: =
3268:
3264:
3260:
3256:
3252:
3248:
3244:
3237:
3233:
3228:
3219:
3217:
3213:
3209:
3204:
3201:3.0 km/s
3178:
3176:
3171:
3167:
3163:
3159:
3155:
3152: =
3151:
3147:
3143:
3139:
3131:
3126:
3117:
3115:
3100:
3096:
3092:
3080:
3076:
3069:
3063:
3059:
3052:
3049:
3042:
3039:
3035:
3031:
3021:
3018:
3017:oscilloscopes
3015:Today, using
3013:
3011:
3006:
3001:
2998:
2993:
2991:
2990:Léon Foucault
2987:
2976:
2974:Remote mirror
2973:
2970:
2967:
2964:
2963:
2960:
2955:
2946:
2937:
2922:(3) AU/d
2913: =
2911:(4) AU/s
2896: =
2895:
2892:
2879: =
2875:
2871:
2870:
2869:
2867:
2863:
2857:
2851:
2848:
2830:
2820:
2804:
2799:
2795:
2794:James Bradley
2791:
2782:
2778:
2776:
2772:
2767:
2762:
2758:
2754:
2752:
2748:
2744:
2740:
2732:
2723:
2721:
2717:
2683:
2681:
2677:
2673:
2669:
2665:
2660:
2656:
2651:
2647:
2637:
2635:
2631:
2627:
2607:
2603:
2599:
2595:
2590:
2580:
2578:
2574:
2570:
2566:
2562:
2557:
2555:
2551:
2547:
2542:
2533:
2522:
2517:
2515:
2511:
2507:
2496:
2487:
2485:
2481:
2477:
2472:
2470:
2466:
2462:
2461:optical fibre
2450:
2421:
2419:
2415:
2411:
2407:
2403:
2396:
2392:
2382:
2380:
2376:
2366:
2364:
2360:
2356:
2352:
2348:
2343:
2341:
2337:
2332:
2330:
2326:
2322:
2317:
2315:
2311:
2307:
2303:
2295:
2290:
2288:
2283:
2279:
2274:
2272:
2268:
2264:
2260:
2256:
2249:
2245:
2241:
2231:
2227:
2222:
2218:
2211:
2207:
2203:
2196:
2192:
2188:
2184:
2180:
2174:
2164:
2162:
2157:
2154:
2150:
2145:
2141:
2140:
2132:
2127:
2123:
2119:
2116:described by
2114:
2109:
2107:
2103:
2099:
2095:
2076:
2068:
2064:
2058:
2054:
2049:
2044:
2041:
2034:
2033:
2032:
2027:
2024:
2017:
2014:
2010:
2006:
2002:
1998:
1994:
1984:
1982:
1978:
1974:
1970:
1969:Hubble sphere
1966:
1961:
1959:
1954:
1951:
1947:
1943:
1939:
1935:
1930:
1927:
1923:
1919:
1914:
1911:
1910:superposition
1907:
1903:
1899:
1895:
1890:
1888:
1884:
1883:closing speed
1879:
1877:
1873:
1869:
1865:
1860:
1858:
1854:
1850:
1846:
1842:
1838:
1832:
1828:
1818:
1816:
1812:
1808:
1804:
1800:
1796:
1792:
1783:
1779:
1777:
1773:
1769:
1765:
1760:
1756:
1751:
1747:
1743:
1738:
1733:
1729:
1726:
1716:
1714:
1710:
1706:
1702:
1698:
1694:
1693:energy levels
1690:
1685:
1683:
1679:
1674:
1672:
1668:
1664:
1660:
1656:
1652:
1648:
1644:
1640:
1636:
1632:
1628:
1624:
1620:
1616:
1612:
1608:
1604:
1600:
1595:
1593:
1589:
1585:
1581:
1577:
1573:
1569:
1565:
1561:
1557:
1549:
1545:
1539:
1535:
1531:
1526:
1522:
1518:
1517:time dilation
1514:
1508:
1504:
1499:
1491:
1487:
1479:
1476:
1471:
1467:
1465:
1461:
1457:
1453:
1449:
1444:
1442:
1438:
1434:
1430:
1424:
1420:
1410:
1408:
1399:
1391:
1385:
1381:
1380:natural units
1376:
1370:
1368:
1357:
1352:
1347:
1343:
1338:
1333:
1301:
1297:
1292:
1285:
1275:
1272:
1267:
1260:
1256:
1249:
1245:
1238:
1230:
1224:
1218:
1215:
1210:
1206:
1202:
1197:
1192:
1188:
1184:
1172:
1167:
1163:
1158:
1157:
1150:
1139:
1133:
1065:
1049:
1041:
1036:
1034:
1030:
1026:
1022:
1018:
1014:
1009:
1006:
1002:
997:
993:
990:interrelates
985:
977:
973:
961:
957:
953:
949:
943:
939:
931:
923:
919:
915:
911:
907:
903:
899:
895:
893:
889:
885:
881:
878:with distant
877:
876:communicating
873:
869:
865:
864:visible light
861:
858:All forms of
856:
854:
850:
846:
842:
838:
830:
826:
821:
816:
812:
800:
795:
793:
788:
786:
781:
780:
778:
777:
771:
761:
758:
753:
747:
746:
745:
744:
736:
733:
731:
728:
726:
723:
721:
718:
716:
713:
711:
708:
706:
703:
701:
698:
696:
693:
691:
688:
686:
683:
681:
678:
676:
673:
671:
668:
666:
663:
661:
658:
656:
653:
652:
641:
640:
633:
630:
628:
625:
623:
620:
619:
611:
609:
606:
605:
600:
599:
592:
591:Four-momentum
589:
587:
584:
582:
579:
578:
573:
566:
565:
558:
555:
553:
550:
548:
545:
543:
540:
539:
534:
527:
526:
519:
516:
514:
511:
509:
506:
504:
501:
499:
496:
494:
491:
489:
486:
484:
481:
479:
476:
474:
473:Time dilation
471:
470:
460:
459:
452:
449:
447:
444:
442:
439:
437:
434:
432:
429:
428:
418:
417:
412:
409:
407:
404:
402:
399:
398:
397:
396:
392:
388:
387:
384:
381:
380:
372:
369:
364:
354:
352:
347:
337:
334:
329:
325:
315:
310:
306:
304:
299:
296:
292:
290:
285:
282:
278:
275:
271:
266:
263:
259:
256:
251:
247:
245:
240:
237:
233:
230:
225:
221:
219:
214:
211:
207:
205:
200:
197:
194:
192:
188:
183:
179:
176:
172:
168:
165:
161:
149:
147:
143:
134:
132:
128:
113:
111:
107:
102:
90:
88:
84:
79:
74:
70:
58:
52:
47:
41:
37:
33:
19:
15818:Consequences
15798:
15662:
15356:Kaluza–Klein
15108:Introduction
15034:Twin paradox
14931:
14594:Power output
14584:by top speed
14567:by top speed
14549:Wheel-driven
14496:
14291:In Australia
14165:constructors
14066:
14059:
13993:
13977:
13879:
13878:Travel with
13864:Polarization
13783:
13685:Observations
13407:Ground-based
12990:by top speed
12973:by top speed
12955:wheel-driven
12945:Land vehicle
12905:
12831:
12774:
12723:
12700:
12672:
12652:
12636:
12615:
12609:
12606:Perrotin, J.
12579:
12573:
12525:
12519:
12516:Pease, F. G.
12506:
12500:
12484:
12478:
12462:
12456:
12419:
12413:
12396:the original
12373:
12367:
12351:. Retrieved
12344:the original
12337:
12297:. Retrieved
12290:
12249:(1): 16–21.
12246:
12240:
12224:. Retrieved
12220:Science News
12218:
12202:
12194:the original
12189:
12180:
12172:
12157:
12150:
12140:
12138:
12123:
12116:
12104:. Retrieved
12087:
12067:
12053:
12041:. Retrieved
12039:. BIPM. 1975
12031:
11998:
11994:
11988:
11976:. Retrieved
11962:
11950:. Retrieved
11946:the original
11932:
11911:
11902:
11881:
11873:
11854:
11845:
11824:
11816:
11797:
11791:
11766:
11760:
11750:
11738:. Retrieved
11723:
11716:
11683:
11679:
11669:
11652:
11640:. Retrieved
11636:the original
11621:
11591:
11566:
11542:
11532:
11507:
11502:
11492:
11467:
11463:
11457:
11446:
11439:
11388:
11384:
11374:
11357:
11348:
11315:
11309:
11299:
11289:
11282:
11241:
11235:
11225:
11200:
11194:
11188:
11169:
11159:
11139:
11132:
11120:. Retrieved
11115:
11105:
11093:. Retrieved
11086:the original
11077:
11070:
11058:. Retrieved
11048:
11032:
11009:
10983:
10977:
10973:
10967:
10942:
10938:
10932:
10909:
10902:
10882:
10876:
10837:
10827:
10803:
10796:
10771:
10767:
10761:
10752:
10746:
10713:
10709:
10699:
10685:
10666:25 September
10664:, retrieved
10651:
10641:
10599:
10595:
10561:
10555:
10532:. Retrieved
10528:the original
10508:
10465:
10461:
10439:the original
10420:
10367:
10363:
10334:
10327:
10315:. Retrieved
10311:
10302:
10290:. Retrieved
10270:
10264:
10254:
10213:
10207:
10163:
10159:
10153:
10134:
10130:
10075:
10069:
10023:
10017:
9974:
9968:
9943:
9937:
9928:
9908:
9901:
9889:. Retrieved
9878:
9866:. Retrieved
9862:the original
9857:
9826:. Retrieved
9822:the original
9808:
9798:25 September
9796:. Retrieved
9792:the original
9760:. Retrieved
9755:
9719:
9713:
9700:
9665:
9655:
9644:, retrieved
9618:
9608:
9599:
9587:
9538:
9530:
9521:
9515:
9473:
9442:
9436:
9422:
9369:
9363:
9356:Cohen, I. B.
9333:. Retrieved
9331:. BIPM. 1983
9293:
9289:
9276:
9243:
9239:
9233:
9192:
9188:
9175:
9163:. Retrieved
9161:. NASA. 2000
9158:
9148:
9136:. Retrieved
9123:
9095:
9085:
9073:. Retrieved
9060:
9012:
9008:
8998:
8986:. Retrieved
8982:
8972:
8960:. Retrieved
8956:the original
8951:
8942:
8930:. Retrieved
8921:
8910:
8875:
8871:
8861:
8849:. Retrieved
8845:the original
8840:
8831:
8812:
8806:
8786:
8779:
8761:Plenum Press
8755:
8748:
8739:
8735:
8719:
8715:
8707:
8701:
8692:
8678:. Retrieved
8659:. Retrieved
8655:
8618:
8612:
8575:
8569:
8566:Chiao, R. Y.
8557:
8543:. Retrieved
8539:the original
8532:
8477:
8473:
8432:
8428:
8380:
8376:
8349:
8316:
8312:
8299:
8271:
8261:
8236:
8230:
8224:
8204:
8194:
8182:. Retrieved
8178:the original
8173:
8163:
8151:. Retrieved
8146:
8137:
8125:. Retrieved
8120:
8111:
8099:. Retrieved
8094:
8077:
8057:
8050:
8031:
8026:
7968:
7962:
7952:
7928:
7921:
7870:
7866:
7804:
7798:
7761:
7757:
7714:
7708:
7661:
7655:
7646:
7621:
7613:
7593:
7586:
7543:
7537:
7528:
7516:. Retrieved
7494:
7484:
7472:. Retrieved
7464:
7454:
7421:
7415:
7406:
7395:the original
7374:
7368:
7355:
7331:
7324:
7304:
7297:
7286:
7258:
7223:
7219:Peres, Asher
7194:
7182:
7170:. Retrieved
7166:the original
7157:
7130:. Retrieved
7126:
7116:
7096:
7089:
7070:
7064:
7041:
7035:
7011:
6997:
6954:
6948:
6944:
6938:
6885:
6881:
6836:
6832:
6795:
6791:
6778:
6766:. Retrieved
6752:
6717:
6711:
6695:
6683:
6671:
6651:
6644:
6601:
6597:
6591:
6536:
6532:
6522:
6479:
6473:
6467:
6440:
6434:
6425:
6387:
6381:
6375:
6363:. Retrieved
6359:the original
6350:
6292:
6286:
6231:
6225:
6184:
6178:
6165:
6140:
6132:
6104:
6097:
6064:
6058:
6052:
6027:
6021:
6015:
6003:. Retrieved
5999:the original
5990:
5980:
5929:
5923:
5912:
5884:
5848:
5838:
5814:
5807:
5795:. Retrieved
5772:
5736:
5714:. Retrieved
5707:
5677:
5671:
5661:
5638:
5628:
5609:
5599:
5588:
5581:. Retrieved
5575:
5566:
5538:
5528:
5502:
5489:. Retrieved
5481:
5462:
5444:
5417:, retrieved
5391:
5381:
5355:
5334:
5313:
5288:
5278:
5245:
5239:
5235:
5229:
5216:. Retrieved
5212:the original
5203:
5197:
5189:
5167:
5136:(1): 18–21.
5133:
5127:
5107:
5087:
5069:the original
5064:
5054:
5003:
4999:
4992:Peres, Asher
4986:
4962:
4955:
4931:
4924:
4900:
4894:
4875:
4865:
4853:. Retrieved
4848:
4816:
4809:
4794:experiments.
4778:
4768:
4759:
4754:-compatible.
4738:
4694:
4685:
4677:
4668:
4656:
4652:
4647:
4626:
4609:
4592:
4514:
4463:
4444: cycles
4391:
4354:
4311:
4271:Light-second
4213:
4192:
4177:
4156:reproducible
4153:
4128:
4125:1.1 m/s
4109:
4099:
4063:
4051:
4042:
4035:
4021:
4017:
3995:
3964:
3948:Thomas Young
3945:
3930:
3908:
3902:
3865:
3837:Isaac Newton
3830:
3828:
3805:
3793:microseconds
3776:
3743:
3732:
3716:
3703:
3673:
3621:
3322:
3308:
3283:
3275:
3270:
3266:
3262:
3254:
3241:
3215:
3205:
3179:
3166:normal modes
3153:
3149:
3145:
3141:
3137:
3135:
3110:22 km/s
3067:
3061:
3057:
3050:
3040:
3033:
3029:
3027:
3014:
3002:
2994:
2983:
2965:Light source
2927:
2893:
2873:
2868:(IAU), was:
2855:
2852:
2826:
2787:
2755:
2747:Solar System
2737:
2719:
2684:
2675:
2671:
2663:
2654:
2649:
2645:
2643:
2598:transit time
2592:
2558:
2534:
2530:4–24 minutes
2526:4–24 minutes
2518:
2502:
2473:
2468:
2448:
2438:
2388:
2385:Small scales
2372:
2346:
2344:
2339:
2335:
2333:
2328:
2318:
2293:
2291:
2281:
2275:
2255:polarization
2247:
2243:
2239:
2237:
2220:
2209:
2194:
2178:
2176:
2161:Planck scale
2146:
2138:
2130:
2118:Proca theory
2112:
2110:
2091:
2025:
2015:
2008:
1990:
1962:
1955:
1931:
1915:
1896:, as in the
1893:
1891:
1886:
1880:
1875:
1871:
1867:
1863:
1861:
1856:
1844:
1836:
1834:
1813:such as the
1802:
1798:
1790:
1788:
1771:
1767:
1763:
1758:
1754:
1749:
1745:
1741:
1736:
1734:is given by
1731:
1727:
1722:
1686:
1677:
1675:
1670:
1666:
1662:
1645:is also the
1642:
1638:
1614:
1602:
1596:
1591:
1587:
1583:
1579:
1575:
1571:
1567:
1563:
1555:
1547:
1543:
1537:
1533:
1529:
1520:
1506:
1502:
1495:
1489:
1485:
1477:
1459:
1455:
1446:By adopting
1445:
1426:
1407:light-second
1397:
1389:
1374:
1371:
1350:
1336:
1299:
1290:
1287:
1270:
1258:
1247:
1236:
1228:
1222:
1219:
1213:
1204:
1195:
1182:
1170:
1148:
1145:
1121: km/s (
1037:
1010:
1004:
1000:
950:
896:
880:space probes
862:, including
857:
819:
810:
808:
465:Consequences
440:
411:Formulations
314:nearest star
195:
190:
55:On average,
40:
15926:Proper mass
15921:Proper time
15782:Foundations
15445:Kerr–Newman
15416:Spherical:
15285:Other tests
15228:Singularity
15160:Formulation
15122:Fundamental
14976:Formulation
14957:Proper time
14918:Fundamental
14697:Spaceflight
14462:Philippines
14414:Post-season
14327:Post-season
13985:Hypothesis
13962:Continuous
13566:Space-based
12832:In Our Time
12826:, BBC Radio
12746:Duff, M. J.
12566:Newcomb, S.
12043:9 September
11851:Galison, P.
11406:2318/132957
11318:(3): i–92.
11244:(1): 1–12.
10617:2318/132957
10317:15 February
10292:15 February
10119:Rosa, E. B.
9883:Fowler, M.
9762:10 February
9646:16 December
9091:Mack, Katie
8962:16 December
8722:(10): 385.
8712:Reprinted:
7703:Ellis, J.;
7518:11 February
7496:Nature News
7474:26 November
6365:26 November
6112:. pp.
6005:27 November
5780:. pp.
5716:27 November
5419:16 December
5218:16 November
4479:698 yd
4298:(fictional)
4296:Warp factor
4131:, the 15th
4095:caesium-133
4067:Louis Essen
4008:. Based on
3844:discovered
3763:Snell's law
3735:Roger Bacon
3643:−0.006 ppm
3490:200 000 000
3475:260 000 000
3189:9 km/s
3162:Louis Essen
3132:in a cavity
3075:capacitance
2888:(10) s
2739:Outer space
2640:Measurement
2569:Julian year
2561:light-years
2550:of galaxies
2484:fibre optic
2361:, known as
2167:In a medium
1898:EPR paradox
1601:(with
1566:approaches
1128: mi/s)
928:. In 1905,
849:information
586:Proper mass
581:Proper time
423:Foundations
360: years
349:across the
343: years
81:Exact value
15946:Categories
15931:4-momentum
15903:Light cone
15893:World line
15597:Zel'dovich
15505:Scientists
15484:Alcubierre
15291:of Mercury
15289:precession
15218:Black hole
15101:Background
15093:relativity
15062:World line
15057:Light cone
14882:Background
14874:relativity
14864:Relativity
14806:Organisms
14750:Structures
14559:Motorcycle
14522:Spacecraft
14357:Individual
14342:Individual
13988:Colliding
13917:Stochastic
13889:chirp mass
13784:Proposed:
13675:Zooniverse
12965:motorcycle
12923:Spacecraft
12803:Subluminal
12618:: 731–734.
12406:Halley, E.
12299:6 February
12226:6 February
12106:11 January
12001:(4): 196.
11978:13 October
11642:13 October
11504:Ann. Phys.
11385:Perception
11122:12 January
11060:12 January
10986:(1): 119.
10833:Sarton, G.
10596:Perception
10534:29 January
10273:(4): 231.
10137:(6): 433.
9946:(9): 847.
9868:13 January
9828:28 October
9524:: 637–660.
9138:11 October
9115:1180972461
9075:4 February
8680:9 February
8671:Gbur, Greg
8661:9 February
8545:8 December
8418:Hau, L. V.
8414:Dutton, Z.
8366:Dutton, Z.
8358:Hau, L. V.
8267:Wolf, Emil
8184:8 November
8153:7 November
8127:7 November
8101:7 November
7814:2109.07850
7546:(10): 93.
7046:BiblioLife
6482:(2): 403.
6302:2005.03121
6241:1707.06101
6194:1710.05834
6187:(2): L13.
4871:Penrose, R
4855:8 February
4801:References
4640:supernovae
4087:krypton-86
4058:See also:
3918:Leyden jar
3888: km/s
3876: km/s
3856:See also:
3824: km/s
3675:Empedocles
3612:+0.14 ppm
3586:+0.14 ppm
3309:Until the
2803:arcseconds
2457: km/s
2395:processors
2359:shock wave
2355:dielectric
2349:). When a
2325:slow light
2321:dispersion
2183:plane wave
2171:See also:
2092:In modern
1983:artifact.
1981:coordinate
1950:projection
1932:So-called
1825:See also:
1730:and speed
1713:anisotropy
1417:See also:
1220:Sometimes
1193:redefined
1191:Paul Drude
1019:of waves,
870:viewed on
675:FitzGerald
660:Sommerfeld
612:Precursors
557:Light cone
552:World line
307:3.26 years
289:light-year
18:Lightspeed
15880:Spacetime
15727:Overviews
15567:Robertson
15552:Friedmann
15547:Eddington
15537:de Sitter
15371:Solutions
15249:detectors
15244:astronomy
15211:Phenomena
15146:Geodesics
15049:Spacetime
14992:Phenomena
14687:Endurance
14616:Submerged
14457:Palestine
14312:In the US
14270:1998–2018
14258:1998–2018
14253:1993–1997
14212:Athletics
13974:Supernova
13869:Spin-flip
13495:TENKO-100
13372:MiniGRAIL
13336:Weber bar
13265:MiniGRAIL
13219:Detectors
13098:Endurance
13073:Aircraft
13019:submerged
12807:Greg Egan
12728:IOS Press
12558:123010613
12327:Rømer, O.
12279:117581000
12271:0031-921X
11708:0002-9505
11415:0301-0066
11366:763848561
11332:0065-9746
11274:118187860
11258:0003-9519
11217:144035661
11095:12 August
10945:: 58–64.
10738:253895826
10730:1432-0657
10649:(2001) ,
10578:145400212
10564:(1): 24.
10490:120300510
10400:121444888
10246:121261770
10009:117454437
9984:0705.3996
9744:121374703
9692:123424704
9684:1476-4687
9396:145428377
9335:23 August
9268:121966516
9165:22 August
9159:StarChild
8732:, and in
8412:Liu, C.;
8341:0002-9505
8291:261134839
8003:205051022
7847:237532210
7839:2470-0010
7696:119339066
7553:1109.4897
7513:211730430
7272:1302.1864
7172:20 August
7132:21 August
6920:1054-660X
6895:0706.0553
6869:119892992
6861:0950-0340
6636:118346408
6611:1002.1284
6546:0806.0339
6514:118684485
6422:119530637
6327:220514677
6274:206300556
6089:123023118
5972:119431247
5964:1367-2630
5709:Fourmilab
5491:21 August
5294:CRC Press
5270:0002-9505
5158:0002-9505
5038:0034-6861
4917:in Paris.
4632:neutrinos
4598:frequency
4483:2 ft
4187: m/s
4144: m/s
3991:isotropic
3777:In 1629,
3679:Aristotle
3504:constants
3325:(in m/s)
3234:; Right:
3212:antinodes
3079:capacitor
2712: m/s
2486:signals.
2480:microwave
2451:is about
2447:and that
2402:gigahertz
2391:computers
2234:velocity.
2187:frequency
2065:μ
2055:ε
1906:entangled
1811:paradoxes
1807:causality
1748:is zero,
1725:rest mass
1689:isotropic
1599:spacetime
1310: m/s
1168:had used
1156:celeritas
976:rest mass
898:Ole Rømer
884:computing
868:starlight
847:carrying
725:Ehrenfest
695:Minkowski
665:Michelson
533:Spacetime
366:from the
351:Milky Way
331:from the
326:4.2 years
318:1.3
312:from the
15972:Velocity
15913:Dynamics
15680:Category
15557:Lemaître
15522:Einstein
15512:Poincaré
15472:Others:
15456:Taub–NUT
15422:interior
15344:theories
15342:Advanced
15309:redshift
15124:concepts
14942:Rapidity
14920:concepts
14719:Aircraft
14636:Distance
14554:On rails
14527:Aircraft
14467:Thailand
14425:In India
14367:All-Star
14332:All-Star
14202:Swimming
14182:Juggling
14095:Shortest
14085:Heaviest
13976:or from
13894:Carried
13884:h strain
13874:Redshift
13848:Graviton
13756:GW200105
13750:GW190814
13744:GW190521
13739:GW190412
13729:GW170817
13724:GW170814
13719:GW170608
13714:GW170104
13709:GW151226
13644:NANOGrav
13591:Proposed
13525:Proposed
13485:TAMA 300
13388:Graviton
13345:Proposed
13286:EXPLORER
13245:NAUTILUS
13230:antennas
13139:See also
13130:Aircraft
13037:Distance
12960:on rails
12928:Aircraft
12651:(1975).
12635:(1960).
12568:(1886).
12550:17816642
12509:: 71–77.
12495:(1878).
12473:(1862).
12448:(1849).
12408:(1694).
12353:10 March
12329:(1676).
12065:(1992).
11952:14 March
11910:(1982).
11908:Pais, A.
11853:(2003).
11783:98374065
11484:20759821
11431:11747908
11423:19817156
11356:(1959).
11266:41133639
10959:84148912
10835:(1993).
10634:11747908
10626:19817156
10125:(1907).
9891:21 April
9637:archived
9616:(2006),
9358:(1940).
9310:12149700
9225:10157934
9217:17781305
9093:(2021).
8932:25 April
8926:Archived
8902:25673397
8656:BBC News
8635:10917523
8512:14668857
8457:11206540
8420:(2001).
8202:(2004).
8024:(2004).
7995:19924200
7913:31249827
7905:17358459
7786:15323762
7749:15388873
7578:17652398
7446:41065207
7412:Rees, M.
7247:28854083
7221:(1993).
7009:(1992).
6742:21770570
6583:28179844
6539:(1): 5.
6266:29099221
5904:44694623
5882:(2000).
5558:57283944
5536:(2005).
5410:archived
5389:(2006),
5196:"Why is
5124:"E = mc"
4873:(2004).
4653:measured
4630:Because
4487:5
4475: mi
4347:) AU/day
4220:See also
4002:contract
3975:isotropy
3699:infinite
3663:(exact)
3620:Evenson
3557:+12 ppm
3344:<1667
3330:<1638
3247:coherent
3036:and the
2862:best fit
2766:diameter
2632:and the
2622: mi
2556:itself.
2510:Apollo 8
2445: km
2287:rubidium
2202:envelope
2135:10
2021:and the
1740:, where
1607:symmetry
1542:, where
1298:(SI) as
1264:for the
1253:for the
1242:for the
1201:Einstein
972:observer
908:'s moon
770:Category
720:von Laue
690:Poincaré
680:Herglotz
655:Einstein
572:Dynamics
370:to Earth
335:to Earth
316:to Sun (
257:to Earth
231:to Earth
191:Distance
177:per year
57:sunlight
15752:History
15622:Hawking
15617:Penrose
15602:Novikov
15582:Wheeler
15527:Hilbert
15517:Lorentz
15474:pp-wave
15295:lensing
15091:General
14872:Special
14611:Sailing
14601:British
14514:Vehicle
14170:drivers
14147:Cycling
14125:Cricket
14100:Tallest
14039:Records
13996:sources
13980:sources
13978:unknown
13797:B-modes
13766:Methods
13731:(first
13608:TianQin
13575:Planned
13509:Planned
13326:GEOGRAV
13296:ALLEGRO
13014:sailing
13002:British
12918:Vehicle
12584:Bibcode
12530:Bibcode
12424:Bibcode
12378:Bibcode
12251:Bibcode
12023:1841238
12003:Bibcode
11688:Bibcode
11512:Bibcode
11340:1006537
10776:Bibcode
10470:Bibcode
10372:Bibcode
10275:Bibcode
10218:Bibcode
10188:4101717
10168:Bibcode
10080:Bibcode
10028:Bibcode
9989:Bibcode
9948:Bibcode
9724:Bibcode
9447:Bibcode
9248:Bibcode
9197:Bibcode
9189:Science
8988:16 July
8880:Bibcode
8841:Pingdom
8643:4358601
8600:9909684
8580:Bibcode
8520:4320280
8492:Bibcode
8465:1894748
8437:Bibcode
8405:4423307
8385:Bibcode
8321:Bibcode
8241:Bibcode
7973:Bibcode
7885:Bibcode
7819:Bibcode
7766:Bibcode
7729:Bibcode
7676:Bibcode
7558:Bibcode
7426:Bibcode
7379:Bibcode
7288:copied.
6969:Bibcode
6900:Bibcode
6841:Bibcode
6820:1449261
6800:Bibcode
6722:Bibcode
6616:Bibcode
6574:5255913
6551:Bibcode
6494:Bibcode
6455:Bibcode
6443:(PhD).
6402:Bibcode
6307:Bibcode
6246:Bibcode
6199:Bibcode
6069:Bibcode
6032:Bibcode
5944:Bibcode
5932:: 114.
5797:23 July
5782:172–173
5682:Bibcode
5583:1 March
5250:Bibcode
5138:Bibcode
5046:7481797
5018:Bibcode
4901:defined
4726:365.256
4723:⁄
4716:radians
4585:
4573:
4566:
4554:
4548:
4520:
4502:
4448:caesium
4430:Penrose
4408:⁄
4369: π
4160:caesium
3900:√
3832:Opticks
3713:Alhazen
3687:Ptolemy
3464:−0.60%
3407:+0.40%
3366:Huygens
3334:Galileo
3305:History
2915:173.144
2881:499.004
2843: m
2771:Jupiter
2690:⁄
2682:below.
2573:parsecs
2304:of the
2271:diamond
2102:photons
1946:quasars
1661:), the
1649:and of
1609:called
1532:= (1 −
1317:⁄
1300:exactly
1207:in his
1176:√
1112:
1098:
1092:
1076:
1027:). The
1015:(e.g.,
906:Jupiter
705:Abraham
685:Lorentz
608:History
244:equator
175:parsecs
166:per day
59:takes 8
15663:others
15652:Thorne
15642:Misner
15627:Taylor
15612:Geroch
15607:Ehlers
15577:Zwicky
15395:Kasner
14707:Person
14693:Space
14384:Season
14379:Career
14277:Junior
14090:Oldest
14078:People
13970:Burst
13896:energy
13826:Theory
13692:Events
13603:DECIGO
13444:GEO600
13417:Active
13321:ALTAIR
13255:AURIGA
13238:Active
13104:Space
13043:Space
12828:
12734:
12707:
12684:
12659:
12575:Nature
12556:
12548:
12277:
12269:
12165:
12131:
12075:
12021:
11974:. 1967
11920:
11890:
11861:
11833:
11804:
11781:
11731:
11706:
11660:
11604:
11574:
11550:
11482:
11447:Optiks
11429:
11421:
11413:
11364:
11338:
11330:
11272:
11264:
11256:
11215:
11176:
11147:
11020:
10957:
10917:
10849:
10811:
10736:
10728:
10632:
10624:
10576:
10520:
10488:
10431:
10398:
10392:100591
10390:
10342:
10244:
10236:
10186:
10160:Nature
10100:
10007:
9916:
9742:
9690:
9682:
9667:Nature
9629:
9551:
9394:
9308:
9266:
9223:
9215:
9113:
9103:
9071:. NASA
9027:
8900:
8872:Nature
8819:
8794:
8767:
8710:: 451.
8641:
8633:
8614:Nature
8598:
8518:
8510:
8474:Nature
8463:
8455:
8429:Nature
8403:
8377:Nature
8339:
8289:
8279:
8212:
8065:
8038:
8001:
7993:
7964:Nature
7940:
7911:
7903:
7845:
7837:
7784:
7747:
7694:
7634:
7601:
7576:
7511:
7444:
7417:Nature
7343:
7312:
7279:
7263:Optica
7245:
7235:
7229:Kluwer
7207:
7203:–232.
7104:
7077:
7071:Optics
7052:
7023:
6987:
6926:
6918:
6867:
6859:
6818:
6740:
6659:
6634:
6581:
6571:
6512:
6427:today.
6420:
6325:
6272:
6264:
6153:
6120:
6087:
5970:
5962:
5902:
5892:
5855:
5826:
5788:
5748:
5649:
5616:
5556:
5546:
5514:
5469:
5465:
5455:
5402:
5367:
5342:
5321:
5300:
5268:
5175:
5156:
5095:
5044:
5036:
4970:
4939:
4897:
4887:
4883:–411.
4824:
4570:
4568:≈ 0.98
4551:
4505:
4485:, and
4422:second
4384:) pc/y
4214:New SI
4091:second
3739:Witelo
3723:vision
3683:Euclid
3622:et al.
3432:+5.1%
3099:Dorsey
3091:ampere
2751:radius
2743:vacuum
2552:, and
2499:scale.
2410:memory
2399:
2298:
2269:, and
2219:
2208:
2193:
1926:tunnel
1853:X-rays
1847:. The
1697:nuclei
1633:, and
1625:, the
1552:
1482:
1403:
1386:where
1342:second
1332:second
1130:; the
900:first
845:signal
841:energy
837:matter
815:vacuum
768:
730:Tolman
715:Planck
700:Fizeau
670:Morley
646:People
303:parsec
248:134 ms
222:3.3 ns
65:
61:
15962:Light
15657:Weiss
15637:Bondi
15632:Hulse
15562:Milne
15466:discs
15410:Milne
15405:Gödel
15262:Virgo
14502:Sound
14497:Light
14493:Wave
14483:Speed
14452:Japan
14405:WNBA
14282:Youth
14265:Women
14120:Chess
13670:PyCBC
13459:KAGRA
13428:ACIGA
13383:SFERA
13368:GRAIL
13331:AGATA
13306:NIOBE
12911:sound
12906:light
12902:Wave
12896:Speed
12750:arXiv
12554:S2CID
12453:(PDF)
12347:(PDF)
12334:(PDF)
12275:S2CID
12097:(PDF)
12019:S2CID
11779:S2CID
11740:4 May
11480:S2CID
11427:S2CID
11336:JSTOR
11270:S2CID
11262:JSTOR
11213:S2CID
11089:(PDF)
11082:(PDF)
10955:S2CID
10774:: 1.
10734:S2CID
10630:S2CID
10574:S2CID
10486:S2CID
10442:(PDF)
10425:(PDF)
10396:S2CID
10388:JSTOR
10242:S2CID
10238:98433
10234:JSTOR
10184:S2CID
10102:98293
10098:JSTOR
10005:S2CID
9979:arXiv
9740:S2CID
9688:S2CID
9640:(PDF)
9623:(PDF)
9596:(PDF)
9579:(PDF)
9419:(PDF)
9392:S2CID
9306:S2CID
9286:(PDF)
9264:S2CID
9221:S2CID
9185:(PDF)
9069:(PDF)
8851:5 May
8738:[
8639:S2CID
8516:S2CID
8482:arXiv
8461:S2CID
8425:(PDF)
8401:S2CID
8373:(PDF)
8309:(PDF)
7999:S2CID
7909:S2CID
7875:arXiv
7843:S2CID
7809:arXiv
7745:S2CID
7719:arXiv
7692:S2CID
7666:arXiv
7574:S2CID
7548:arXiv
7509:S2CID
7442:S2CID
7398:(PDF)
7365:(PDF)
7267:arXiv
7017:74–75
6989:48166
6985:S2CID
6959:arXiv
6928:61962
6924:S2CID
6890:arXiv
6865:S2CID
6768:7 May
6762:(PDF)
6708:(PDF)
6632:S2CID
6606:arXiv
6541:arXiv
6510:S2CID
6484:arXiv
6445:arXiv
6418:S2CID
6392:arXiv
6323:S2CID
6297:arXiv
6270:S2CID
6236:arXiv
6189:arXiv
6114:52–59
6085:S2CID
5968:S2CID
5934:arXiv
5820:19–20
5413:(PDF)
5396:(PDF)
5042:S2CID
5008:arXiv
4704:0.017
4450:-133
4401:light
4397:metre
4304:Notes
3525:−280
3382:−27%
3362:Rømer
3278:radio
3251:laser
2898:0.002
2594:Radar
2418:chips
2267:glass
2263:water
2122:grams
1707:(see
1663:local
1330:of a
1203:used
956:field
914:paper
872:Earth
853:space
735:Dirac
268:from
253:from
227:from
218:metre
180:0.307
73:Earth
15592:Kerr
15542:Weyl
15441:Kerr
15301:and
15255:and
15253:LIGO
14389:Game
14362:Team
14353:NHL
14347:Team
14338:NFL
14318:NBA
14130:Test
13992:and
13956:EMRI
13649:PPTA
13639:IPTA
13634:EPTA
13582:LISA
13478:Past
13434:CLIO
13424:AIGO
13378:TIGA
13352:TOBA
13310:IGEC
13300:IGEC
13290:IGEC
13279:Past
13259:IGEC
13249:IGEC
12732:ISBN
12705:ISBN
12682:ISBN
12657:ISBN
12546:PMID
12355:2020
12301:2022
12267:ISSN
12228:2022
12190:BIPM
12163:ISBN
12129:ISBN
12108:2010
12101:NIST
12073:ISBN
12045:2009
11980:2010
11972:BIPM
11954:2021
11942:BIPM
11918:ISBN
11888:ISBN
11859:ISBN
11831:ISBN
11802:ISBN
11742:2020
11729:ISBN
11704:ISSN
11658:ISBN
11644:2010
11602:ISBN
11572:ISBN
11548:ISBN
11419:PMID
11411:ISSN
11362:OCLC
11328:ISSN
11254:ISSN
11196:Isis
11174:ISBN
11145:ISBN
11124:2010
11097:2017
11062:2010
11018:ISBN
10979:Isis
10915:ISBN
10847:ISBN
10809:ISBN
10726:ISSN
10668:2015
10622:PMID
10557:Isis
10536:2019
10518:ISBN
10429:ISBN
10340:ISBN
10319:2010
10294:2010
9914:ISBN
9893:2010
9870:2010
9830:2009
9800:2009
9764:2022
9680:ISSN
9648:2021
9627:ISBN
9549:ISBN
9365:Isis
9337:2009
9213:PMID
9167:2009
9140:2010
9111:OCLC
9101:ISBN
9077:2010
9025:ISBN
8990:2024
8964:2010
8934:2014
8898:PMID
8853:2010
8817:ISBN
8792:ISBN
8765:ISBN
8682:2022
8663:2022
8631:PMID
8596:PMID
8547:2008
8508:PMID
8453:PMID
8337:ISSN
8287:OCLC
8277:ISBN
8210:ISBN
8186:2011
8155:2017
8129:2017
8103:2017
8087:O, D
8063:ISBN
8036:ISBN
7991:PMID
7938:ISBN
7901:PMID
7835:ISSN
7782:PMID
7632:ISBN
7599:ISBN
7544:2012
7520:2022
7476:2009
7341:ISBN
7310:ISBN
7277:ISBN
7243:OCLC
7233:ISBN
7205:ISBN
7174:2008
7134:2009
7102:ISBN
7075:ISBN
7050:ISBN
7021:ISBN
6916:ISSN
6857:ISSN
6816:OSTI
6770:2010
6738:PMID
6657:ISBN
6579:PMID
6367:2009
6262:PMID
6151:ISBN
6118:ISBN
6007:2009
5960:ISSN
5900:OCLC
5890:ISBN
5853:ISBN
5824:ISBN
5799:2009
5786:ISBN
5746:ISBN
5718:2009
5647:ISBN
5614:ISBN
5585:2022
5554:OCLC
5544:ISBN
5512:ISBN
5493:2009
5486:NIST
5453:ISBN
5421:2021
5400:ISBN
5365:ISBN
5340:ISBN
5319:ISBN
5298:ISBN
5266:ISSN
5220:2009
5173:ISBN
5154:ISSN
5093:ISBN
5034:ISSN
4968:ISBN
4937:ISBN
4885:ISBN
4857:2022
4822:ISBN
4657:seen
4617:and
4613:See
4452:atom
4426:NIST
3985:and
3894:and
3860:and
3685:and
3648:1983
3617:1972
3591:1958
3582:3000
3562:1950
3553:4000
3533:1926
3497:1907
3482:1893
3469:1875
3437:1862
3412:1849
3387:1729
3364:and
3358:1675
3097:and
3095:Rosa
3046:and
3003:The
2995:The
2988:and
2661:and
2521:Mars
2514:Moon
2508:and
1975:per
1944:and
1829:and
1550:from
1473:The
1421:and
1367:foot
1164:and
954:and
809:The
710:Born
301:one
295:year
293:1.0
287:one
279:8.3
260:1.3
255:Moon
234:119
216:one
208:1.0
204:foot
202:one
196:Time
34:and
15647:Yau
15272:GEO
14248:Men
13801:CMB
13799:of
12616:131
12592:doi
12538:doi
12432:doi
12386:doi
12259:doi
12011:doi
11771:doi
11696:doi
11520:doi
11508:178
11472:doi
11401:hdl
11393:doi
11320:doi
11246:doi
11205:doi
10988:doi
10976:".
10947:doi
10887:doi
10784:doi
10718:doi
10693:–9.
10661:266
10657:265
10612:hdl
10604:doi
10566:doi
10478:doi
10380:doi
10368:247
10283:doi
10226:doi
10214:204
10176:doi
10164:159
10139:doi
10088:doi
10076:194
10036:doi
9997:doi
9956:doi
9732:doi
9720:103
9672:doi
9455:doi
9382:hdl
9374:doi
9298:doi
9256:doi
9205:doi
9193:265
9017:doi
8888:doi
8876:518
8724:doi
8623:doi
8619:406
8588:doi
8500:doi
8478:426
8445:doi
8433:409
8393:doi
8381:397
8329:doi
8249:doi
8237:104
7981:doi
7969:462
7893:doi
7827:doi
7805:104
7774:doi
7737:doi
7715:402
7684:doi
7628:182
7566:doi
7501:doi
7434:doi
7422:211
7387:doi
7375:209
7201:231
6977:doi
6955:298
6908:doi
6849:doi
6808:doi
6796:250
6730:doi
6718:106
6624:doi
6569:PMC
6559:doi
6502:doi
6410:doi
6315:doi
6293:102
6254:doi
6232:119
6207:doi
6185:848
6077:doi
6040:doi
6028:116
5952:doi
5690:doi
5471:...
5463:...
5258:doi
5238:".
5146:doi
5026:doi
4910:458
4907:792
4905:299
4895:...
4881:410
4791:.73
4789:763
4786:650
4752:TDB
4728:898
4709:098
4706:202
4702:of
4543:000
4540:400
4538:152
4529:229
4526:896
4524:149
4499:127
4473:282
4471:186
4442:770
4439:631
4436:192
4416:458
4413:792
4411:299
4381:500
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