Egypt in World War II

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contempt for philosophers, politicians, and thinkers ... It is for that reason that he wants to give it the means to crush all resistance, wherever it may come from. The individual exists only insofar as he places himself in the service of the German people. What does it matter if he suffers from hunger, thirst, woes of every kind? What does it matter if he is sacrificed, if he dies or is subjected to a thousand atrocities, provided the Hitlerian regime takes root in Germany? What does it matter if millions of others are also sacrificed so that German domination of the world can be established? .... I give thanks to God that I did not wait until the declaration of war to hate Hitler and his regime. In fact, I have hated them both since they made their appearance; I have resisted them with all my strength. I have always envisioned Hitler as a man whose conscience drips with blood, who considers nothing respectable or sacred, an enemy of the spirit, of humanity, of all the ideals of civilization. And now his acts and words confirm in everyone’s eyes what I had understood from the beginning of his fateful rise. It is therefore a duty more than a right for anyone who believes in spiritual, moral, and religious values, and in liberty, to stand up as the adversary of that man and that regime, and to mobilize every resource against both so that humanity may one day recover its civilization intact and its conscience in integrity.

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and topographical studies of terrain and climate conditions, and valuable projects for water resources in the desert such as digging wells and testing the water for soldiers to be deployed to these areas. In total, the government prepared 2,739,678 maps for the entire British army. The government also printed 669,060 banknotes for the National Bank of Egypt, which were used to purchase supplies for the British but were never paid back, eventually leading to a financial crisis. It also printed millions of stamps for the governments of Iraq, Syria and eastern Jordan; and around a million and a half consular stamps for the Greek government in exile in Egypt, as well as 17 million Syrian banknotes of various denominations that were needed for the Allies. The Egyptian medical industry was utilized by the Allies to treat injured Allied soldiers and fight diseases.

2911: 2920:, p. 65 "The one area where al-Muqattam was utterly condemnatory of Nazi policy was in regard to the racism and anti-semitism manifested by the new German regime. For al- Muqattam, Nazi theories about race and the effort to apply them in practice constituted a basic flaw in the Nazi project and placed an ugly stain upon Nazi Germany. As early as 1934-35, al-Muqattam was criticizing the new Nazi regime for its policies toward religious communities that legitimized the marginalization and persecution of Jews, stating that the Nazi premise that the inferior Jewish race was corrupting the superior German race was both intellectually baseless and politically intolerable ... Hence it was vital to oppose the racist ideology and anti-Semitic policies of the Nazi regime.". 244: 513:. Initially Maher obliged by the treaty; the Egyptian government broke off relations with Germany, confiscated German property, and interned German subjects. However, the government was not willing to declare war on Germany. The war was seen as a European conflict, disconnected from Egypt. King Farouk was keen for Egypt to remain neutral in the conflict, opposing the United Kingdom's continued dominance of Egyptian affairs. The return of British soldiers to Egyptian streets merely a handful of years after they had been removed or relocated to the Suez Canal Zone, increased the already powerful opposition in Egypt to the United Kingdom. Maher's continued unwillingness to declare war on Italy after the 772: 789: 579:(the Public Debt Commission, where Egypt paid its debts to European creditors) and the British purchase of Egyptian cotton to support the industry while trade with mainland Europe was cut off. In return, Egypt would cooperate with the British forces, supplying their troops and subsidizing their army with millions of dollars every year. Despite not declaring war, Britain found a compromise, where Britain would be supported by the Egyptian government without direct Egyptian military involvement. This cooperation would have continued, if not for Sabry dying in November 1940. 733:, a book which exposed extreme corruption within the government, especially implicating Nahhas and his wife. Not only was this a major blow to the government, it destroyed relations between Nahhas and Ebied, who were founders of the Wafd party and veterans of the 1919 revolution. Nahhas' legacy as the successor to the revolution after Sa'ad Zaghoul was in serious ruin by this time, especially after Ebied and 26 Wafdist politicians loyal to him formed a rival party. For his journalism, Ebied was arrested on May 9, 1944, until the end of Nahhas' premiership. 543: 992: 448:. While the constitution created a democratically elected parliament, the king still had significant political power, being able to appoint the prime minister and dissolve parliament. However, the United Kingdom was able to reserve for itself specific powers in Egypt regarding foreign policy, the deployment of British military personnel in the defense of Egypt and the Suez Canal, and the administration of Sudan. This became a point of contention among Egyptian nationalists who kept negotiating for a more independent Egypt. 1090: 980: 1106: 413: 1149: 659: 968: 82: 1409: 6671: 1006:"Who are these Aryans who boast of Aryan origin? After all, the Arab and Persian peoples— Egyptians, Iraqis, Syrians, Palestinians, Iranians— who are assumed not be Aryan are the ones who brought civilization as we know it to the world. These peoples lighted the human path to life, and from them the three monotheistic religions emerged, religions that the so-called Aryans accept and believe. So what is the advantage of these Aryan nations over them?" 6681: 840:. Egypt's contributions to the war effort re-opened points of contentions like the status of the Sudan, British troop presence in the country, and the Suez Canal. Meanwhile, American interests and involvement in Egypt were growing, signifying the end of the British "old order". The war, more specifically the 1942 Abdeen Palace incident, demonstrated to Egyptians that neither the king or the Wafd could challenge British influence. After the war, 1471:. A dummy pipeline was built, stage by stage, the construction of which would lead the Axis to believe the attack would occur much later than it in fact did, and much further south. To further the illusion, dummy tanks made of plywood frames placed over jeeps were constructed and deployed in the south. In a reverse feint, the tanks for battle in the north were disguised as supply lorries by placing a removable plywood superstructure over them. 129: 41: 463:, and the imperialist British. Each would wrestle for control over one another during this time. While anti-Wafdist parties existed, they did not have the prestige or popularity that the Wafd enjoyed. The British wanted to prevent another revolution while still preserving its influence, while the King and his conservative allies sought to preserve a strong Islamic monarchy against the modern secular liberal forces. 6691: 6701: 588: 812:, a massive inter-governmental organization. It was clear that Egypt would be excluded from the UN if it did not join the war. On February 24, 1945, Egypt declared war on Germany and Japan. Afterwards, as Maher walked down the halls of parliament, he was assassinated by an Egyptian nationalist furious at this 'capitulation' to British influence. Egypt joined the United Nations on October 24, 1945. 780:

exhausted its mandate. After Nahhas' tour of Egypt, Farouk claimed that he had acted in a semi-royal fashion, saying that "there could not be two kings of Egypt". Lampson remarked, 'God forbid. We have found that one is quite enough.' Relations between the king and Nahhas were beyond repair. On October 6, 1944, Nahhas was dismissed and Ali Maher and Ebeid were released from prison.

1122:, the commercial Egyptian Airline, joined the ranks of the British Forces. When British planes would crash in desert areas or other uninhabited locations, the responsibility of finding the aircraft and missing pilots fell on the Egyptian Camel Corps. Egyptian engineers were involved in de-mining fields, establishing and maintaining water pipelines between Sidi Abdel Qader and 1463:, Montgomery hoped to cut two corridors through the Axis minefields in the north. Armour would then pass through and defeat the German armour. Diversionary attacks in the south would keep the rest of the Axis forces from moving northwards. Montgomery expected a twelve-day battle in three stages — "The break-in, the dog-fight and the final break of the enemy." 1495: 1531:

his forces made a retreat necessary. However, the same day Rommel received a "victory or death" message from Hitler, halting the withdrawal. But the Allied pressure was too great, and the German forces had to withdraw on the night of 3–4 November. By 6 November, the Axis forces were in full retreat and over 30,000 soldiers had surrendered.

1420:, marked a significant turning point of World War II and was the first major victory by British Commonwealth forces over the German Army. The battle lasted from 23 October to 3 November 1942. Following the First Battle of El Alamein, which had stalled the Axis advance, British general Bernard Montgomery took command of the Eighth Army from 640:, the fascist rump puppet state of Nazi Germany. This angered King Farouk, who was not considered in this decision. A constitutional crisis emerged over whether or not the king needed to be consulted regarding severing relations with foreign countries. Sirri agreed to resign on February 1, but the crisis soon spiraled out of control. 1192:, the Italians dug in around Sidi Barrani and Sofafi, about 80 mi (130 km) west of the British defences at Mersa Matruh. The British anticipated that the Italian advance would stop at Sidi Barrani and Sofafi and began to observe the positions. British naval and air operations continued to harass the Italian army as the 916:, saying "If the world comes under the influence of Hitler, Mussolini, Franco, and their ilk, it will suffer a ghastly regression into the Dark Ages when the military knighthood was the law and war was the symbol of glory". al-Qadir argued that the West should abandon appeasement and should instead confront Germany. 1443:, threatening the vital Allied supply line across the Suez Canal. Faced with overextended supply lines and lack of reinforcements and yet well aware of massive Allied reinforcements arriving, Rommel decided to strike at the Allies while their build-up was still not complete. This attack on 30 August 1942 at 1518:

For the Allies in the south, after another abortive assault on the Miteirya Ridge, the attack was abandoned. Montgomery switched the focus of the attack to the north. There was a successful night attack over the 25-26th. Rommel's immediate counter-attack was without success. The Allies had lost 6,200

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Although Egypt remained formally neutral, it forces formed part of the British Military Operations Zone and some British forces were stationed there, many Egyptian Army units also fought alongside them. Some units like 9th, 10th, 11th and 12th Infantry Regiments, 16th and 12th Cavalry Regiments, 17th

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support helped defend Egypt from Axis air raids on the Suez Canal. The German air force dropped anti-naval mines on the canal to sink British ships. Egyptian troops were posted along the Canal every 200 meters in order to keep watch, remove and destroy anti-naval mines dropped by the Axis planes. The

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The second major Allied offensive of the battle was along the coast, initially to capture the Rahman Track and then take the high ground at Tel el Aqqaqir. The attack began on 2 November 1942. By the 3rd, Rommel had only 35 tanks fit for action. Despite containing the Allied advance, the pressure on

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Egypt supplied over 65,000 tons of wheat and maize, 6,000 tons of corn, 4,000 tons of barley, 800 tons of wheat bran, 68,003 tons of sugar and 107,679 tons of rice. The Egyptian Agency for Land Survey also provided a vital role in mapping out the land for the British. The agency undertook geological

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contained articles in which Hitler was denounced, one of them was an editorial which was published in 1939 and it contained the following quote: "Nazism by its very nature is contradictory to freedom of expression and freedom of opinion; it is based on the rule of force" and "The competition between

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was quickly appointed prime minister. Sirri promised to continue pro-British politics in parliament, but the state of Egyptian politics at the time was against him. Too deep in conservative politics to ally with the Wafd, and too pro-British to ally with the Italophile King Farouk, his fate was left

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if Egypt had sufficient troops to affect the course of the war, he would not have hesitated to declare war against Italy and Germany, but unfortunately Egypt had on her frontier only 5,000 men inadequately provided with transport. A declaration of war would, therefore, only be a spectacular gesture,

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Despite only having been created in 1937, the Egyptian Royal Air Force took part in defending the country. When the British Air Force encountered a shortage of pilots, Egyptian pilots took their place. A report published by the military delegation to Egypt in 1945, mentioned that in taking over the

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The Egyptian navy was involved in transporting troops, ammunition and other supplies, wounded and prisoners of war. In addition, they participated in rescue missions to the Allied naval fleets. Egyptian military intelligence collected intel on the Axis from nomadic tribes across the Egyptian-Libyan

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The Egyptian government did not do its best to stay neutral because of pro-fascist sympathies, but because of the game of political tug-of-war between Egyptian nationalists and British influence. Egypt was under no obligation to declare war on the enemies of Britain under the 1936 treaty. The front

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On 24 October, the Axis commander, General Stumme (Rommel was on sick leave in Austria), died of a heart attack while under fire. After a period of confusion, while Stumme's body was missing, General Ritter von Thoma took command of the Axis forces. Hitler initially instructed Rommel to remain at

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By 1944, World War II in North Africa had ended. King Farouk saw this as his chance to strike at Nahhas and the Wafd. The Wafd's message as the nationalist opposition to the British had been tarnished. Though Lampson saw the Wafd as an ally against the young King, he knew that the government had

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On February 2, Lampson demanded Farouk worked with the Wafdist leader Nahhas to form a coalition government to continue the British presence in Egypt. Lampson was convinced that the Wafd's anti-British rhetoric was only opposition politics, and at their heart, their liberal democratic values and

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until 1944, except in the case of a war, where instead Britain could increase their troop count. Egypt would also be obligated to materially assist Britain in the case of a war, though Egypt was not obligated to fight for Britain. This treaty gave Britain the legal right to fight World War II on

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Horse Artillery Regiment, and 22nd King's Own Artillery Regiment. Some other units also fought but its names are unknown. Beside these units, the Anti-Aircraft Artillery Regiments all over Egypt played a vital role in destroying Luftwaffe attacks on Alexandria, Cairo, Suez, and Northern Delta.

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at dawn and occupied. The British withdrew past Buq Buq on 14 September but continued to harass the Italian advance. The British continued to fall back, going to Alam Hamid on the 15th and Alam el Dab on the 16th. An Italian force of fifty tanks attempted a flanking move, which led the British

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Hitler is an intellectually limited man who does not like to delve deeply into problems or to reflect in any depth. He hates books and culture, he is superbly ignorant about what science and experience could offer him, and he resorts only to wild fantasies that have no precise aim. He has only

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On February 4, Lampson threatened Farouk, saying 'Unless I hear by 6 p.m. today that Nahas has been asked to form a Government His Majesty King Farouk must accept the consequences." The Egyptian response was a condemnation against British involvement in Egypt's internal affairs. At 9 P.M,

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The continuing British dominance of Egyptian affairs, including British efforts to exclude Egypt from the governance of Sudan, provoked fierce Egyptian nationalist opposition to the United Kingdom. Consequently, despite playing host to thousands of British troops following the outbreak of the

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The battle opened at 2140 hours on 23 October with a sustained artillery barrage. The initial objective was the Oxalic Line with the armour intending to advance over this and on to the Pierson Line. However, the minefields were not yet fully cleared when the assault began.

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The Commonwealth forces practised a number of deceptions in the months prior to the battle to wrong-foot the Axis command, not only as to the exact whereabouts of the forthcoming battle, but as to when the battle was likely to occur. This operation was codenamed,

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in Nazi Germany, writing "They live like a society of insects. They must behave like ants in an anthill or like bees in a hive." He criticized Egypt's pro-Allied neutrality stance and called for direct participation in the war against Germany. In a 1940 review of

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to secure pro-Allied governments. After Lampson ordered Farouk to sign his abdication statement, Farouk offered to call Nahhas to form a cabinet. Though Lampson could have sacked the king right then and there, he agreed to a Nahhas-led Wafd government in Egypt.

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Painting of German hands raised in surrender; bayonet holds banner with Arabic text reading "defeat of Germany." Includes Arabic translation of statement by Maj. Gen. B.F. Giles, CiC, UN forces in Middle East, about meaning of German defeat and saying Japan is

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and students protests in 1946 rocked the nation. Egyptian nationalism continued to grower more potent; the 1936 treaty would be annulled in 1951. The extreme divide between rich and poor led to increasing resentment towards the government. The Egyptian

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with Italy was seen as border incidents that would only weaken the British, and many Egyptians didn't feel like fighting for the British colonial empire. Lampson was furious at this, demanding in 1940 the withdrawal of Egyptian troops from the

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Despite not supplying troops on the frontlines, the Egyptian government were a key supporter of the British government during the war. The Egyptian government constructed the military barracks for the British troops, at the cost of 12 million

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Lampson arrived at Abdeen Palace with British soldiers and tanks and threatened the King with the bombardment of his palace, his abdication and exile from Egypt unless he conceded to the British demands. This was not an empty threat; Britain

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was an influential Egyptian political writer and intellectual. While he worked as an editor for Ar-risala, he wrote scathing articles on Hitler and fascism. While he attacked Nazi racism and Italy's invasion of Ethiopia before, his

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army was also involved in training British forces in joint exercises, with some British officers remarking that the Egyptian army saved them two divisions. The Egyptian army suffered 1,125 fatalities and 1,308 injuries in the war.

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Montgomery felt that the offensive was losing momentum and decided to regroup. There were a number of small actions but, by 29 October, the Axis line was still intact. Montgomery was still confident and prepared his forces for

539:, including those Italians in the service of the King. An unconfirmed story assets that Farouk told Lampson: "I'll get rid of my Italians when you get rid of yours". This remark was a reference to the ambassador's Italian wife. 624:

and the complete evacuation of British forces after the war. The Wafd blamed these problems on the British presence in the country, as the Egyptian people, spurred on by Ali Maher, protested their declining living conditions.

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Ruz al-Yusuf reacting to the outbreak of the Second World War. "History repeats itself: The end of Hitler at the hands of democracy." Britain, France, and Egypt portrayed as Allied Forces against Nazi Germany. September 9,

808:, which were boycotted by the Wafd, were a victory for anti-Wafdist parties. In Europe, it was clear the Germany would lose the war, so politicians looked at a post-war future. The countries that fought the Axis formed the 1498: 713:, then a young military officer who would later lead the Revolution of 1952 with Mohamed Naguib, declared the incident a blatant violation of Egyptian sovereignty, and wrote: "I am ashamed of our army's powerlessness". 1217:, which had been screening the attackers from a possible Italian counter-attack from the west, advanced northwards, cut the coast road between Sidi Barrani and Buq Buq, and sent armoured car patrols westwards. The 534:

were broken off, the Egyptian government refused to declare war on Italy. Another focus of grievance between the Egyptian government and the United Kingdom was the insistence that Farouk expel or intern

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broke with the Wafd Part after calling the agreement between Nahhas and Lampson a "second treaty" and objecting to corruption within the government. After his ouster, he spent the next year writing the

904:"called on the civilized world to join together to oppose Fascist imperialism". An al-Ahram editorial in April 1937 entitled "Italy and the Arabs: A New Orientation in Fascist Policy", stated that 1515:

home and continue his convalescence but then became alarmed at the deteriorating situation and asked Rommel to return to Africa if he felt able. Rommel left at once and arrived on 25 October.

4694: 709:, appealed to Farouk to resist the British, and pledged loyal officers to defend the palace. The incident was seen as a personal humiliation for Farouk, and a national humiliation for Egypt. 655:

popularity in Egypt would make them a strongest possible ally. However, Nahhas rejected a coalition government, knowing that an alliance with the conservatives would greatly limit his power.

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On the first night, the assault to create the northern corridor fell three miles short of the Pierson line. Further south, they had made better progress but were stalled at Miteirya Ridge.

4893: 4928: 1856: 2999: 985:"Upon Me and Upon My Enemies." Herr Hitler: "Could Samson have brought the temple down on his enemies and I cannot? . . . Is he better than I?!" Ruz al-Yusuf. October 2nd, 1938. Page 10 385:, particularly in India, British control of the Canal was the foundation for British control over Egypt as a whole. Four years later in 1879, the United Kingdom along with the other 1097:

The Egyptian military played a supportive role for the British during the war. It was Egyptian soldiers who received the first attack when Italy invaded in September 1940. Egyptian

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famously summed up the battle on 10 November 1942 with the words, "now this is not the end, it is not even the beginning of the end. But it is, perhaps, the end of the beginning."

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Painting of hand holding upraised sword. Cuff of sleeve is US, UK, Nationalist Chinese flags. Arabic text at bottom talks of 1943 Cairo Conference and 1944 resolve to defeat Japan.

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surrendered. In two hours, the first objectives had been captured; only a sector 2 mi (4 km) east of the harbour, held by a Blackshirt legion and the remains of the

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would become the dominant foreign power in Egypt and Sudan. In 1875, facing an economic emergency caused in large measure by his grand modernisation plans, Egypt's

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administration of the air power, the Egyptian army had saved Britain a thousand men that were deployed elsewhere in other areas. All engineers and pilots of

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border for the Allies. Responsibility for guarding prisoners of war was transferred to the Egyptian army, who collected, deported and guarded the prisoners.

4333: 3657: 3611: 867: 1152:"The Protectors of Islam enter Cairo". British propaganda newspaper showing captured Italian troops under British guard marching into Cairo, January 1942. 575:

was appointed prime minister, leading a coalition of anti-Wafdist parties. His government accomplished two concessions from Britain, the abolition of the

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Smith, Charles (1979). "4 February 1942: Its Causes and Its Influence on Egyptian Politics and on the Future of Anglo-Egyptian Relations, 1937–1945".

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Selby Force guarded the eastern approaches to Sidi Barrani, as the rest of the WDF attacked the fortified camps further inland. On 10 December, the

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discussed the possible involvement of Turkey in the war against Germany, though it was agreed Turkey would remain neutral. Egypt also hosted the

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Anti-Nazi poster used in Egypt: the text reads "My Struggle, by Adolf Hitler, the Sculptor", and depicts a bloody swastika and dead civilians.

5944: 3980: 397:, Britain invaded under the guise of stability. After the revolt was defeated, Britain became the de facto colonial overlord of Egypt, with 5003: 3913: 3778: 4913: 1527:. The endless small operations and the attrition by the Allied airforce had by then reduced Rommel's effective tank strength to only 102. 3995: 1054: 3642: 724:, with the Wafd winning 203 out of 264 seats, because of a boycott by the opposition. Ali Maher was arrested in April. Finance minister 5570: 5538: 4918: 4629: 4174: 4154: 3469: 1373:

could not hold the El Alamein position forever. Still, it took a large set piece battle from late October to early November 1942, the

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Political cartoons of Mussolini and Hitler "combined an overall message of menace and threat with one of ridicule and clownishness".

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was a 1939 editorial "The Crime of Nazism against Humanity." Zayyat viewed Nazism as a demonic power in contradiction to the

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was nothing but hypocrisy. The paper also denounced Germany's aggressive expansion before the war. The Egyptian journalist

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on the western side suddenly surrendered. The brigade continued advancing with the last of the Infantry tanks, an extra

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men against Axis losses of 2,500, but while Rommel had only 370 tanks fit for action, Montgomery still had over 900.

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Nazi Germany's expansion in Austria and Czechoslovakia further worried the press. Al-Muqattam also criticized the

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The Secret War for the Middle East: The Influence of Axis and Allied Intelligence Operations during World War II

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Aboul-Enein, Youssef Basil; Aboul-Enein, Basil H. (2013). "Egypt's Internal Struggle: To Declare War or Not?".

2843:"Egyptian Liberalism in an Age of "Crisis of Orientation": Al-Risāla's Reaction to Fascism and Nazism, 1933–39" 1976: 1890: 1551: 649: 555:, Egypt paying for the assumption of its defense by British forces; and the removal of Egyptian chief of staff 459:

Politically, Egyptian politics was divided into three main power brokers: the conservative palace, the liberal

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The leadership of the United Kingdom's General Bernard Montgomery at the Second Battle of El Alamein, or the

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Newspapers in Egypt regularly commented on the world affairs at the time, and consistently criticized both

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The war was a major moment in Egyptian history. An Egyptian prime minister had not been assassinated since

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was a virtually independent state, with ever-increasing territorial possessions in East Africa, chiefly

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remained in reserve, and the 7th Support Group blocked an approach from Rabia and Sofafi to the south.

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alarmed Egyptians, as Italy's naked aggression was denounced as imperialism. The Egyptian newspaper

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In total, 14 Egyptian ships were sunk during the war by U-boats, those included: one ship sunk by

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would command Egyptian forces in the Western Desert, and al-Misri was dismissed from his post.

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interdicting his supplies at sea, and the massive distances they had to cover in the desert,

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Egyptian soil, while it gave Egypt the right to remain technically neutral in the conflict.

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The British Defence of Egypt 1935–1940: Conflict and crisis in the Eastern Mediterranean

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managing the finances of Egypt. British involvement in politics pressured Egypt to join

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and the British military in 1942, the results of which would contribute directly to the

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World War II affected many lives in Egypt. Commonwealth graves of victims shown here in

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The World in World Wars: Experiences, Perceptions and Perspectives from Africa and Asia

3052: 2655: 2643: 2608: 2468: 2430: 2359: 2351: 2305: 2258: 2185: 2112: 2065: 2057: 1483: 1359: 1358:. He was decisively stopped by the newly arrived British commander, Lieutenant General 1253: 1023: 1018: 837: 710: 671: 572: 374: 1482:. They had laid around half a million mines, mainly anti-tank, in what was called the 6680: 6574: 6374: 6281: 6232: 6185: 6170: 6085: 6001: 5888: 5786: 5767: 5600: 5274: 5269: 5200: 5183: 5166: 4903: 4714: 4659: 4593: 4548: 4523: 4311: 4296: 4286: 3589: 3449: 3430: 3378: 3359: 3354:

Tripp, Charles (1993). "Ali Mahir and the politics of the Egyptian army, 1936–1942".

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For most of the 19th century, though nominally a self-governing vassal state of the

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MacGregor, Andrew (2006). "Europe's Battleground: Egypt in the Second World War".

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in 1910, starting a wave of post-war assassinations including ex-finance minister

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to do, Egypt remained formally neutral during the war, only declaring war on the

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A military history of modern Egypt: from the Ottoman Conquest to the Ramadan War

1439:

By July 1942, the German Afrika Korps under General Rommel had struck deep into

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later that month marked the effective end of the Axis threat in North Africa.

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deposed and exiled Isma'il, replacing him with his pliant son Tewfik. After a

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was stationed in Egypt. On January 6, 1942, Egypt broke off relations with

444:, which was Egypt's most popular and influential political party under the 390: 377:, the company established by Egypt to hold the 99-year lease to manage the 311: 287: 263: 2131: 1275:, was still resisting. The British continued advancing until they reached 1240:. The fighting continued for many hours, without substantial gains, until 967: 620:, saw this as their chance for regaining power, arguing for an end to the 81: 5703: 5434: 5424: 5217: 4709: 4669: 3001:

A History of Jewish-Muslim Relations: From the Origins to the Present Day

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By the start of the war, native power in Egypt was split in between King

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Confronting Fascism in Egypt: Dictatorship versus Democracy in the 1930s

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Confronting fascism in Egypt: dictatorship versus democracy in the 1930s

2659: 2627: 2472: 2448: 2355: 2323: 2309: 2277: 2262: 2238: 2189: 2165: 705:, a distinguished military officer and one of the future leaders of the 487:, British troops in Egypt were limited to the Suez Canal until 1956 and 5752: 5710: 4704: 4699: 3417: 3393: 3257:

Helal, Emad (2010). "Egypt's Overlooked Contribution to World War II".

3038: 2724:"Anglo-Egyptian Treaty | Terms, Significance, & Facts | Britannica" 2434: 2402: 2278:"DEUX ANNÉES D'HISTOIRE DE L'ÉGYPTE (8 octobre 1944 - 9 décembre 1946)" 2116: 2084: 1343: 1342:

Rommel's offensive was eventually stopped at the small railway halt of

1322: 1249: 1245: 1233: 1225: 920: 825: 488: 460: 441: 378: 3004:. Princeton, NJ Oxford: Princeton University Press. pp. 370–371. 2612: 2580: 2061: 509:, and parliament, led by the conservative anti-Wafdist prime minister 6591: 6063: 4664: 3898: 3771: 2204: 2009: 1985: 1857:

Military history of the British Commonwealth in the Second World War

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Egyptian flying instructor lecturing soldiers about Gladiators. 1940

128: 5264: 2596: 2378:"The Avalon Project : The Alexandria Protocol; October 7,1944" 1119: 901: 885: 381:. Seen by the United Kingdom as a vital connection to its maritime 278:, in reality Egypt was heavily under the coercive influence of the 4220: 2166:"A Note on Nahas Pasha's Government in Egypt, Feb. 1942—Oct. 1944" 1377:, to defeat the Germans forcing them to retreat westwards towards 3514: 2521:

Times, Sam Pope Brewer By Wireless To the New York (1945-02-25).

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The battle was Montgomery's greatest triumph. He took the title "

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The Axis were dug-in along two lines, called by the Allies the

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The Student Movement and national politics in Egypt: 1923–1973

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Relations between Nazi Germany and the Arab world § Egypt

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in August 1942. Success in the battle turned the tide in the

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sent his army to North Africa starting in February 1941 (see

1086:(EP), and fortifications and defense lines at 45,000,000 EP. 1069:

used the economic and political condition of Egypt to spread

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The Wafd, 1919–1952: Cornerstone of Egyptian political power

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The Wafd, 1919–1952: cornerstone of Egyptian political power

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Soldiers, spies, and statesmen : Egypt's road to revolt

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Party Politics in Egypt: The Wafd & its rivals 1919–1939

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British General Bernard Law Montgomery, victor of El Alamein

681:, north of the Suez Canal. Roosevelt was returning from the 559:

for pro-Axis sympathies. These demands led to a compromise;

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After the war, a delegation of Egyptian nationalists led by

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After Maher was forced to resign due to British influence,

2768:. Stanford, Calif: Stanford University Press. p. 62. 1428:. Some historians believe that the battle, along with the 3429:(1st ed.). Third World Centre for Research and Pub. 3339:"Military Ally or Liability: The Egyptian Army 1936–1942" 2787: 2785: 924:

fascism and Hitlerism is for the enslavement of people".

2677:. Al Saqi books. London: Al Saqi Books. pp. 62–77. 937:

and rejected the racist anti-Semitic ideology of Hitler.

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The International Journal of African Historical Studies

1164:, rather than for the strategic objectives sketched in 1049:

The Egyptian left were motivated and encouraged by the

373:, sold to the British government Egypt's shares in the 3237: 2998:

Muʾaddab, ʿAbd al-Wahhāb al-; Stora, Benjamin (2013).

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failed, and expecting a counterattack by Montgomery's

1899: 3261:. Vol. 5. Koninklijke Brill. pp. 217–247. 3190: 3178: 3166: 3147: 3135: 3123: 3108: 3093: 2817:"التنافس بين الفاشستية والهتلرية على استعباد الشعوب" 1579:, three ships sunk, and one survived with damage by 582: 517:

further frustrated Britain. During an argument with

3303:. Praeger Security International General Interest. 2523:"EGYPTIAN PREMIER SLAIN IN CHAMBER; DIES OF WOUNDS" 2021: 1013:, the famous Egyptian academic and twenty-one time 302:in the spring of 1945. Though escaping the fate of 153:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 3296: 1997: 1967:Smith, Colin; John, Bierman (September 26, 2002). 1911: 1236:ships, and artillery fire, started its advance at 600:with a shaky coalition of parties, a coalition of 416:Saad Zaghloul Pasha with members of Al Wafd party. 3853:Sarawak, Brunei, Labuan, and British North Borneo 2763: 906:Mussolini's attempt at outreach to the Arab world 434:formally recognised Egypt as an independent state 6717: 2206:Egypt from independence to revolution: 1919–1952 2085:"Lampson's Ultimatum to Faruq, 4 February, 1942" 716: 521:, the British ambassador, Maher explained that: 3033:, University of Texas Press, pp. 195–216, 375:Universal Company of the Maritime Canal of Suez 290:, in 1882, subsequently occupying the country. 4222:British Empire battles of the Second World War 3242:. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press. 2764:Gershoni, Israel; Jankowski, James P. (2010). 1160:began as a limited tactical operation towards 5117: 4206: 3516:History of World War II by region and country 3500: 2997: 2581:"Political Assassination in Egypt, 1910–1954" 1503:'Fight for Egypt', 1943 film about the battle 1224:The 16th Brigade, supported by a squadron of 643: 566: 466: 18:Military history of Egypt during World War II 3394:"Britain's Wartime Policy in Egypt, 1940-42" 2847:International Journal of Middle East Studies 2042:International Journal of Middle East Studies 856: 783: 334: 2673:Abdalla, Ahmed (1985). "1946: The Climax". 1055:Democratic Movement for National Liberation 424:requested for Egyptian independence at the 69:Learn how and when to remove these messages 5124: 5110: 4919:Japanese occupation of the Andaman Islands 4213: 4199: 3507: 3493: 500: 495: 3356:Contemporary Egypt: Through Egyptian eyes 3294: 3077:The Rise of Egyptian communism, 1939–1970 1966: 1568: 1388: 1197:prepared to confront an advance on Matruh 1051:Soviet Union's fight against Nazi Germany 736:During his premiership, Egypt hosted two 231:Learn how and when to remove this message 213:Learn how and when to remove this message 6741:World War II military history by country 3336: 3317: 3275: 2985: 2917: 2905: 2840: 2803: 2791: 2746: 1929: 1905: 1539: 1493: 1407: 1147: 1104: 1088: 787: 770: 657: 586: 541: 450: 411: 242: 2672: 2625: 2275: 2082: 1885:. Ithaca Press London. pp. 39–40. 526:causing ruin to 16 million inhabitants. 14: 6736:Military history of the British Empire 6718: 4519:Battle of the Strait of Otranto (1940) 3372: 3074: 2960: 2129: 1282: 1044: 815: 6150: 5961: 5784: 5625: 5144: 5105: 4787:Battle of Kowloon and New Territories 4194: 3488: 3443: 3424: 3391: 3353: 3256: 3196: 3184: 3172: 3160: 3141: 3129: 3117: 3102: 3024: 2879: 2759: 2757: 2755: 2699:"EGYPT ABROGATES TREATY WITH BRITAIN" 2520: 2485: 2400: 2202: 2039: 2027: 2003: 1917: 1554:" when he was raised to the peerage. 900:called it "white imperialism", while 896:member to be invaded. The newspapers 752:, stating the Allied objective to be 685:on his way home to the United States. 666:of Egypt (left) meets U.S. President 6700: 3031:Arab Responses to Fascism and Nazism 2823:(in Arabic). No. 89. 1935-03-18 2578: 1944:"The 'Abdin Incident After 70 Years" 1942:Dunn, Michael Collins (2012-02-03). 1941: 1880: 944:contained articles which criticized 409:, who were at war with the British. 151:adding citations to reliable sources 122: 75: 34: 6690: 2884:[Nazi island on humanity]. 2553: 1263:The second attack began just after 1137: 1076: 24: 5066:Battle of the Gulf of St. Lawrence 3392:Morsy, Laila Amin (January 1989). 3343:Army Quarterly and Defence Journal 2880:Zayat, Ahmed Hassan (1939-10-09). 2841:Gershoni, Israel (November 1999). 2752: 2644:10.1111/j.1467-7709.1996.tb00623.x 2033: 2016:Aboul-Enein & Aboul-Enein 2013 1992:Aboul-Enein & Aboul-Enein 2013 1454: 853:, just seven years after the war. 622:Egypt-British condominium in Sudan 341:History of Egypt under the British 318:, a confrontation between Egypt's 25: 6777: 6071:Role of the Egyptian Armed Forces 4258:Italian guerrilla war in Ethiopia 3463: 1397: 1202: 1172:was subjected to a "spectacular" 744:planned for the counterattack on 583:Hussein Sirri Pasha's premiership 50:This article has multiple issues. 6699: 6689: 6679: 6670: 6669: 5928:Refugees of the Syrian civil war 5131: 4914:Evacuation of British Somaliland 1337: 1017:nominee, criticized the lack of 990: 978: 966: 696:overthrew the government of Iran 595:With the suggestion of Lampson, 127: 80: 39: 6412:Identification card controversy 5091:Western Approaches Escort Force 4253:Recapture of British Somaliland 3202: 3068: 3018: 2991: 2954: 2923: 2873: 2834: 2809: 2716: 2691: 2666: 2619: 2572: 2547: 2514: 2479: 2441: 2394: 2370: 2316: 2269: 2231: 2196: 2158: 2123: 2076: 1350:. In July 1942 Rommel lost the 1330:. It was during this time that 738:Allied World War II conferences 591:British troops at Abdeen Palace 357:and a political elite class of 258:was a major battlefield in the 138:needs additional citations for 58:or discuss these issues on the 6756:British Empire in World War II 5318:Khedivate and Kingdom of Egypt 4949:Bombardment of Northern Malaya 4944:Bombardment of Andaman Islands 4625:Battle of the Heligoland Bight 4243:Invasion of British Somaliland 3476: (archived March 22, 2008) 3214:The Jerusalem Post | JPost.com 2453:Bulletin of International News 2243:Bulletin of International News 2170:Bulletin of International News 1960: 1935: 1874: 1552:Viscount Montgomery of Alamein 1156:The Italian invasion of Egypt 650:Abdeen Palace incident of 1942 432:. In 1922, the United Kingdom 286:in favour of Egypt's Khedive, 31:British Empire in World War II 13: 1: 5626: 4764:Liberation of the Netherlands 4248:Capture of Italian Somaliland 3358:. Routledge. pp. 45–71. 3280:. Stanford University Press. 2882:"جزيرة النازية على الإنسانية" 2209:. Syracuse University Press. 2136:. London: Verso. p. 10. 1867: 1489: 861: 717:Mostafa El-Nahas' premiership 561:General Henry Maitland Wilson 5945:Twin towns and sister cities 5785: 5457:Assassination of Anwar Sadat 5071:Battle of the Denmark Strait 4934:Battle of the Malacca Strait 2935:Confronting Fascism in Egypt 1534: 1177:rearguard to retire east of 890:Italy's invasion of Ethiopia 722:Elections were held in March 473:Italian invasion of Ethiopia 272:Second Battles of El Alamein 266:, being the location of the 7: 6473:Vehicle registration plates 6151: 6127:Water supply and sanitation 5962: 5145: 4804:Japanese invasion of Malaya 4277:Second Battle of El Alamein 3375:Cairo in the War: 1939–1945 2961:Mehlin, Hans (2020-04-01). 1850: 1404:Second Battle of El Alamein 1375:Second Battle of El Alamein 957:racial laws in Nazi Germany 740:in its capital, Cairo. The 707:Egyptian Revolution of 1952 577:Caisse de la Dette Publique 430:Egyptian Revolution of 1919 426:1919 Paris Peace Conference 329: 324:Egyptian Revolution of 1952 93:to comply with Knowledge's 10: 6782: 6132:Water resources management 5086:Western Local Escort Force 4838:Japanese invasion of Burma 4792:Battle of Hong Kong Island 4720:Clearing the Channel Coast 4509:Battle of the Ligurian Sea 4489:Battle of Cape Spartivento 4272:First Battle of El Alamein 3231: 3025:Ginat, Rami (2014-07-15), 2401:Morsy, Laila Amin (1994). 2340:10.1525/curh.1944.6.34.516 1401: 1352:First Battle of El Alamein 1286: 1206: 1141: 1109:Egyptian Camel Corps. 1942 910:Muhammad Zaki Abd al-Qadir 882:Second Italo-Ethiopian War 865: 849:would collapse during the 647: 644:The Abdeen Palace Incident 606:Liberal-Constitutionalists 567:Hassan Sabry's premiership 532:Italian-Egyptian relations 485:1936 Anglo-Egyptian Treaty 467:1936 Anglo-Egyptian Treaty 446:1923 Egyptian constitution 338: 28: 6731:Military history of Egypt 6665: 6491: 6163: 6159: 6146: 6027:Impact on the environment 6017:Entrepreneurship policies 5970: 5957: 5793: 5780: 5634: 5621: 5589: 5491: 5157: 5153: 5140: 5076:Newfoundland Escort Force 5061:Battle of the River Plate 5044: 4957: 4772: 4650:Battle of the Netherlands 4396:Evacuation of Spitsbergen 4381:Battle of the Barents Sea 4362: 4282:Italian invasion of Egypt 4228: 4135: 3886: 3749: 3703: 3625: 3522: 3480:Text of Cairo Declaration 3410:10.1080/00263208908700768 3318:Morewood, Steven (2005). 3276:Gershoni, Israel (2010). 3210:"Hitler's little helpers" 2888:(in Arabic). No. 327 2859:10.1017/S0020743800057093 2486:Terry, Janice J. (1982). 2419:10.1080/00263209408700985 2101:10.1080/00263207508700285 2083:Warburg, Gabriel (1975). 2054:10.1017/S0020743800051291 1969:Alamein: War Without Hate 1787: 1617: 1365:With British forces from 1312:coming from victories at 1015:Nobel Prize in Literature 857:Domestic opinion in Egypt 784:Ahmed Maher's premiership 634:Greek government of exile 515:Italian invasion of Egypt 335:Egypt before World War II 314:), Egypt experienced the 6746:Politics of World War II 5798:Administrative divisions 5474:2011 Egyptian revolution 5415:1952 Egyptian revolution 5211:Lighthouse of Alexandria 5009:Invasion of Central Iran 4924:Indian Ocean raid (1944) 4749:Battle of the Reichswald 4401:Faroe Islands occupation 3444:Lucas, Phillips (1972). 3373:Cooper, Artemis (1989). 3337:Rothwell, Steve (1998). 2626:Vitalis, Robert (1996). 2579:Reid, Donald M. (1982). 2276:Colombe, Marcel (1947). 1881:Deeb, Marius K. (1979). 1862:Egypt in the Middle Ages 106:may contain suggestions. 91:may need to be rewritten 6002:Egyptian stock exchange 4843:Arakan Campaign 1942–43 4725:Operation Market Garden 4695:Evacuation of Gibraltar 4604:Battle of Grand Harbour 4454:Attack on Mers-el-Kébir 4415:Reinforcement of Greece 3377:. Hamish Hamilton Ltd. 2294:10.3406/polit.1947.5488 2176:(24): 1005–1009. 1944. 1356:Battle of Alam el Halfa 1258:2nd Royal Tank Regiment 1256:, and support from the 1158:(13–18 September 1940), 768:in the following year. 758:Second Cairo Conference 754:unconditional surrender 618:Mostafa el-Nahhas Pasha 501:Ali Maher's premiership 496:The Egyptian government 371:Isma'il the Magnificent 162:"Egypt in World War II" 6333:International rankings 5338:Egyptian–Ethiopian War 5081:Mid-Ocean Escort Force 4479:Battle of Cape Passero 4474:Battle of Cape Matapan 3425:Terry, Janice (1982). 3398:Middle Eastern Studies 3075:Botman, Selma (1988). 2943:10.2307/j.ctvqsdtzf.16 2407:Middle Eastern Studies 2203:Selma, Botman (1991). 2130:Kandil, Hazem (2012). 2089:Middle Eastern Studies 1569:Egyptian fleet damages 1504: 1426:North African Campaign 1413: 1389:Egyptian participation 1188:Despite prodding from 1153: 1110: 1094: 1039: 794: 776: 742:First Cairo Conference 686: 592: 547: 456: 440:in Arabic) formed the 417: 316:Abdeen Palace Incident 260:North African campaign 252: 6751:20th century in Egypt 6726:Egypt in World War II 5938:Terrorism and tourism 5396:1948 Arab–Israeli War 5228:Library of Alexandria 5004:Invasion of Khuzestan 4889:Indian Ocean disaster 4759:Liberation of Belgium 4739:Battle of the Scheldt 4514:Battle of Skerki Bank 4391:Occupation of Iceland 4322:Operation Sonnenblume 2459:(21): 867–888. 1944. 2334:(34): 516–539. 1944. 2249:(16): 709–726. 1942. 1585:German submarine U-81 1583:, nine ships sunk by 1581:German submarine U-77 1577:German submarine U-83 1540:Churchill's summation 1525:Operation Supercharge 1502: 1411: 1310:Deutsches Afrikakorps 1298:Operation Sonnenblume 1289:Operation Sonnenblume 1194:7th Armoured Division 1174:artillery bombardment 1151: 1108: 1092: 1032: 926:Ahmad Hasan al-Zayyat 800:, the leaders of the 791: 774: 766:League of Arab States 668:Franklin D. Roosevelt 661: 590: 545: 454: 415: 246: 6649:World Heritage Sites 6468:Units of measurement 5923:Proposed new capital 5669:Environmental issues 5430:United Arab Republic 5323:Muhammad Ali dynasty 4899:Cocos Islands mutiny 4894:Indian Ocean retreat 4539:Operation Abstention 4484:Battle of Cape Spada 4386:Evacuation of Norway 4354:Operation Postmaster 4339:Battle of Madagascar 2963:"Nomination archive" 1430:Battle of Stalingrad 1219:7th Armoured Brigade 1215:4th Armoured Brigade 1185:halted the advance. 946:Nazi racial ideology 748:, and announced the 546:Western Desert Front 351:Muhammad Ali dynasty 294:conflict, as it was 276:Anglo-Egyptian Sudan 147:improve this article 6321:Freedom of religion 6216:Mass sexual assault 5581:Timekeeping devices 5479:2013 Rabaa massacre 5452:Egyptian–Libyan War 5036:Capture of Damascus 5021:Invasion of Lebanon 4929:Indian Ocean strike 4744:Operation Blackcock 4685:Operation Steinbock 4544:Operation Agreement 4327:Occupation of Libya 3965:Carpathian Ruthenia 2382:avalon.law.yale.edu 2282:Politique étrangère 1461:Operation Lightfoot 1332:Einsatzgruppe Egypt 1320:, and in a classic 1283:German intervention 1279:by February, 1941. 1273:1st Libyan Division 1045:Egyptian Socialists 959:, going on to say: 935:Abrahamic religions 816:Egypt after the war 762:Alexandria Protocol 670:(right) aboard the 597:Hussein Sirri Pasha 483:. According to the 481:Italian East Africa 6511:Art (contemporary) 6191:Capital punishment 6081:Telecommunications 5758:Towns and villages 5726:Qattara Depression 5539:Muslim Brotherhood 5509:Cigarette industry 5369:British occupation 5280:Crusader invasions 5250:Rashidun Caliphate 4992:Capture of Baghdad 4982:Siege of Habbaniya 4977:Battle of Fallujah 4939:Bombing of Sumatra 4848:Recapture of Burma 4733:Battle of Nijmegen 4655:Dunkirk evacuation 4589:Raid on Alexandria 4579:Operation Vigorous 4569:Operation Pedestal 4534:Battle off Zuwarah 4469:Battle of Cape Bon 4459:Battle of Calabria 4317:Operation Skorpion 3555:French West Africa 3535:British Somaliland 3420:– via JSTOR. 3039:10.7560/757455-011 2728:www.britannica.com 2632:Diplomatic History 2527:The New York Times 1635:Fatouhel el Rahman 1505: 1414: 1360:Bernard Montgomery 1304:Germany's General 1254:infantry battalion 1154: 1111: 1095: 1024:Hermann Rauschning 1019:freedom of thought 838:Muslim Brotherhood 806:The 1945 elections 795: 777: 726:Makram Ebied Pasha 711:Gamal Abdel Nasser 687: 677:, anchored in the 630:the fall of Greece 593: 548: 457: 436:. The delegation ( 418: 391:nationalist revolt 349:, Egypt under the 253: 6713: 6712: 6661: 6660: 6657: 6656: 6585:Football stadiums 6516:Botanical gardens 6395:Catholic dioceses 6287:Gender inequality 6211:Human trafficking 6142: 6141: 6076:Tallest buildings 6037:Military industry 5953: 5952: 5894:Political parties 5847:Islamic extremism 5835:Foreign relations 5776: 5775: 5617: 5616: 5613: 5612: 5357:French occupation 5275:Fatimid Caliphate 5270:Ikhshidid dynasty 5099: 5098: 5031:Invasion of Syria 5026:Capture of Beirut 4904:Indian Ocean raid 4860:Invasion of India 4826:Fall of Singapore 4814:Defence of Johore 4715:Operation Windsor 4660:Battle of Britain 4645:Battle of Belgium 4594:Raid on Souda Bay 4564:Operation Harpoon 4549:Operation Albumen 4524:Battle of Taranto 4464:Campobasso Convoy 4312:Operation Brevity 4307:Capture of Tobruk 4297:Siege of Giarabub 4287:Operation Compass 4188: 4187: 3779:Dutch East Indies 3617:Southern Rhodesia 3550:French Somaliland 3384:978-1-84854-885-5 3287:978-0-8047-6343-1 3268:978-90-04-18545-6 3249:978-1-61251-336-2 3086:978-0-8156-2443-1 3048:978-0-292-75746-2 3011:978-0-691-15127-4 2775:978-0-8047-6343-1 2684:978-0-86356-117-7 2554:Nations, United. 2143:978-1-84467-961-4 1948:MEI Editor's Blog 1848: 1847: 1545:Winston Churchill 1500: 1469:Operation Bertram 1422:Claude Auchinleck 1418:Battle of Alamein 1346:, 150 miles from 1269:2,000 Blackshirts 1209:Operation Compass 894:League of Nations 828:, prime minister 750:Cairo Declaration 679:Great Bitter Lake 614:Ahmad Maher Pasha 557:Aziz Ali al-Misri 537:Italians in Egypt 519:Sir Miles Lampson 361:. Ultimately the 241: 240: 233: 223: 222: 215: 197: 121: 120: 95:quality standards 73: 16:(Redirected from 6773: 6703: 6702: 6693: 6692: 6683: 6673: 6672: 6478:Waste management 6243:Academic grading 6161: 6160: 6148: 6147: 6120:Railway stations 6098:Cultural tourism 5997:Economic regions 5959: 5958: 5782: 5781: 5623: 5622: 5292:Mamluk Sultanate 5223:Diocese of Egypt 5206:Battle of Actium 5155: 5154: 5142: 5141: 5126: 5119: 5112: 5103: 5102: 4972:Invasion of Iraq 4909:Battle of Ceylon 4875:Battle of Kohima 4870:Battle of Imphal 4729:Battle of Arnhem 4680:Operation Gisela 4635:Battle of France 4574:Operation Scylla 4554:Operation Excess 4215: 4208: 4201: 4192: 4191: 3939:Military history 3693:Native Americans 3509: 3502: 3495: 3486: 3485: 3459: 3440: 3421: 3388: 3369: 3350: 3333: 3314: 3302: 3291: 3272: 3253: 3225: 3224: 3222: 3221: 3206: 3200: 3194: 3188: 3182: 3176: 3170: 3164: 3158: 3145: 3139: 3133: 3127: 3121: 3115: 3106: 3100: 3091: 3090: 3072: 3066: 3065: 3064: 3063: 3022: 3016: 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Conference 326:a decade later. 264:Second World War 236: 229: 218: 211: 207: 204: 198: 196: 155: 131: 123: 116: 113: 107: 84: 76: 65: 43: 42: 35: 21: 6781: 6780: 6776: 6775: 6774: 6772: 6771: 6770: 6716: 6715: 6714: 6709: 6653: 6644:Public holidays 6634:National anthem 6487: 6400:Coptic Churches 6343:Egyptian Arabic 6253:Medical schools 6155: 6138: 6054:Nuclear program 5966: 5949: 5879:Nationality law 5872:Supreme Council 5857:Law enforcement 5789: 5772: 5748:Sinai Peninsula 5731:Red Sea Riviera 5630: 5609: 5585: 5487: 5374:1919 revolution 5362:Revolt of Cairo 5287:Ayyubid dynasty 5265:Tulunid dynasty 5149: 5136: 5130: 5100: 5095: 5040: 4987:Battle of Basra 4953: 4809:Battle of Jitra 4768: 4754:St Nazaire Raid 4690:Operation Diver 4584:Operation White 4499:Duisburg Convoy 4420:Battle of Crete 4358: 4349:Battle of Dakar 4334:Southern Africa 4302:Siege of Tobruk 4224: 4219: 4189: 4184: 4180:Pacific Islands 4175:Solomon Islands 4155:Gilbert Islands 4137: 4131: 4110:Channel Islands 3882: 3745: 3699: 3621: 3518: 3513: 3474:Wayback Machine 3466: 3456: 3437: 3385: 3366: 3330: 3311: 3288: 3269: 3250: 3234: 3229: 3228: 3219: 3217: 3208: 3207: 3203: 3195: 3191: 3183: 3179: 3171: 3167: 3159: 3148: 3140: 3136: 3128: 3124: 3116: 3109: 3101: 3094: 3087: 3073: 3069: 3061: 3059: 3049: 3023: 3019: 3012: 2996: 2992: 2984: 2980: 2971: 2969: 2959: 2955: 2947: 2945: 2929: 2928: 2924: 2916: 2912: 2904: 2900: 2891: 2889: 2878: 2874: 2839: 2835: 2826: 2824: 2815: 2814: 2810: 2802: 2798: 2790: 2783: 2776: 2762: 2753: 2745: 2741: 2732: 2730: 2722: 2721: 2717: 2708: 2706: 2697: 2696: 2692: 2685: 2671: 2667: 2624: 2620: 2577: 2573: 2564: 2562: 2552: 2548: 2539: 2537: 2519: 2515: 2500: 2484: 2480: 2447: 2446: 2442: 2399: 2395: 2386: 2384: 2376: 2375: 2371: 2328:Current History 2322: 2321: 2317: 2274: 2270: 2237: 2236: 2232: 2217: 2201: 2197: 2164: 2163: 2159: 2144: 2128: 2124: 2081: 2077: 2038: 2034: 2026: 2022: 2014: 2010: 2002: 1998: 1990: 1986: 1979: 1965: 1961: 1952: 1950: 1940: 1936: 1928: 1924: 1916: 1912: 1904: 1900: 1893: 1879: 1875: 1870: 1853: 1599:sunk/damaged by 1571: 1542: 1537: 1494: 1492: 1484:Devil's gardens 1457: 1455:The Allied plan 1406: 1400: 1391: 1340: 1291: 1285: 1268: 1264: 1241: 1237: 1211: 1205: 1157: 1146: 1140: 1084:Egyptian Pounds 1079: 1067:Hillel Schwartz 1047: 1003: 1002: 1001: 1000: 999: 995: 987: 986: 983: 975: 974: 971: 870: 864: 859: 851:1952 revolution 818: 786: 719: 652: 646: 585: 569: 511:Ali Maher Pasha 503: 498: 469: 393:led by officer 343: 337: 332: 237: 226: 225: 224: 219: 208: 202: 199: 156: 154: 144: 132: 117: 111: 108: 98: 85: 44: 40: 33: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 6779: 6769: 6768: 6766:1940s in Egypt 6763: 6761:1930s in Egypt 6758: 6753: 6748: 6743: 6738: 6733: 6728: 6711: 6710: 6708: 6707: 6697: 6687: 6677: 6666: 6663: 6662: 6659: 6658: 6655: 6654: 6652: 6651: 6646: 6641: 6636: 6631: 6626: 6621: 6620: 6619: 6614: 6609: 6604: 6594: 6589: 6588: 6587: 6582: 6580:Football clubs 6572: 6571: 6570: 6565: 6555: 6550: 6549: 6548: 6543: 6533: 6528: 6523: 6518: 6513: 6508: 6503: 6497: 6495: 6489: 6488: 6486: 6485: 6480: 6475: 6470: 6465: 6460: 6459: 6458: 6453: 6452: 6451: 6441: 6440: 6439: 6434: 6429: 6419: 6414: 6409: 6404: 6403: 6402: 6397: 6387: 6382: 6372: 6367: 6362: 6357: 6356: 6355: 6350: 6345: 6335: 6330: 6329: 6328: 6323: 6313: 6308: 6307: 6306: 6301: 6291: 6290: 6289: 6279: 6278: 6277: 6267: 6266: 6265: 6260: 6255: 6250: 6245: 6235: 6230: 6225: 6224: 6223: 6218: 6213: 6203: 6198: 6193: 6188: 6183: 6178: 6176:Animal welfare 6173: 6167: 6165: 6157: 6156: 6144: 6143: 6140: 6139: 6137: 6136: 6135: 6134: 6124: 6123: 6122: 6117: 6112: 6102: 6101: 6100: 6090: 6089: 6088: 6078: 6073: 6068: 6067: 6066: 6059:Power stations 6056: 6051: 6050: 6049: 6039: 6034: 6029: 6024: 6019: 6014: 6009: 6007:Egyptian pound 6004: 5999: 5994: 5989: 5988: 5987: 5977: 5971: 5968: 5967: 5955: 5954: 5951: 5950: 5948: 5947: 5942: 5941: 5940: 5930: 5925: 5920: 5919: 5918: 5911:Prime Minister 5908: 5907: 5906: 5896: 5891: 5886: 5881: 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Frank Cass. 3315: 3309: 3292: 3286: 3273: 3267: 3254: 3248: 3233: 3230: 3227: 3226: 3201: 3199:, p. 242. 3189: 3187:, p. 232. 3177: 3175:, p. 229. 3165: 3163:, p. 226. 3146: 3144:, p. 227. 3134: 3132:, p. 228. 3122: 3120:, p. 225. 3107: 3105:, p. 224. 3092: 3085: 3067: 3047: 3017: 3010: 2990: 2988:, p. 136. 2978: 2967:NobelPrize.org 2953: 2922: 2910: 2898: 2872: 2853:(4): 551–576. 2833: 2808: 2806:, p. 134. 2796: 2781: 2774: 2751: 2739: 2715: 2690: 2683: 2665: 2638:(2): 211–239. 2618: 2597:10.2307/217848 2591:(4): 625–651. 2571: 2560:United Nations 2546: 2513: 2498: 2478: 2440: 2393: 2369: 2315: 2288:(2): 201–224. 2268: 2230: 2215: 2195: 2157: 2142: 2122: 2075: 2048:(4): 453–479. 2032: 2020: 2018:, p. 177. 2008: 1996: 1994:, p. 164. 1984: 1977: 1959: 1934: 1932:, p. 176. 1922: 1910: 1898: 1891: 1872: 1871: 1869: 1866: 1865: 1864: 1859: 1852: 1849: 1846: 1845: 1842: 1839: 1834: 1830: 1829: 1826: 1823: 1818: 1814: 1813: 1810: 1807: 1802: 1798: 1797: 1794: 1791: 1786: 1781: 1777: 1776: 1773: 1770: 1765: 1760: 1756: 1755: 1752: 1749: 1744: 1740: 1739: 1736: 1733: 1728: 1724: 1723: 1720: 1717: 1712: 1708: 1707: 1704: 1701: 1699:Sabah al Kheir 1696: 1692: 1691: 1688: 1685: 1680: 1676: 1675: 1672: 1669: 1664: 1660: 1659: 1656: 1653: 1651:Hefz el Rahman 1648: 1644: 1643: 1640: 1637: 1632: 1628: 1627: 1624: 1621: 1616: 1611: 1607: 1606: 1603: 1600: 1597: 1594: 1570: 1567: 1541: 1538: 1536: 1533: 1491: 1488: 1456: 1453: 1402:Main article: 1399: 1398:Allied victory 1396: 1390: 1387: 1339: 1336: 1287:Main article: 1284: 1281: 1207:Main article: 1204: 1203:Italian defeat 1201: 1142:Main article: 1139: 1136: 1128:Western desert 1078: 1075: 1046: 1043: 996: 989: 988: 984: 977: 976: 972: 965: 964: 963: 962: 961: 940:The newspaper 863: 860: 858: 855: 834:Hasan al-Banna 817: 814: 810:United Nations 785: 782: 756:of Japan. The 718: 715: 703:Mohamed Naguib 648:Main article: 645: 642: 584: 581: 568: 565: 553:Western Desert 502: 499: 497: 494: 468: 465: 407:Ottoman Empire 363:United Kingdom 347:Ottoman Empire 336: 333: 331: 328: 280:United Kingdom 239: 238: 221: 220: 135: 133: 126: 119: 118: 88: 86: 79: 74: 48: 47: 45: 38: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6778: 6767: 6764: 6762: 6759: 6757: 6754: 6752: 6749: 6747: 6744: 6742: 6739: 6737: 6734: 6732: 6729: 6727: 6724: 6723: 6721: 6706: 6698: 6696: 6688: 6686: 6682: 6678: 6676: 6668: 6667: 6664: 6650: 6647: 6645: 6642: 6640: 6637: 6635: 6632: 6630: 6627: 6625: 6622: 6618: 6615: 6613: 6610: 6608: 6605: 6603: 6600: 6599: 6598: 6595: 6593: 6590: 6586: 6583: 6581: 6578: 6577: 6576: 6573: 6569: 6566: 6564: 6561: 6560: 6559: 6556: 6554: 6551: 6547: 6544: 6542: 6539: 6538: 6537: 6534: 6532: 6529: 6527: 6524: 6522: 6519: 6517: 6514: 6512: 6509: 6507: 6506:Art (ancient) 6504: 6502: 6499: 6498: 6496: 6494: 6490: 6484: 6481: 6479: 6476: 6474: 6471: 6469: 6466: 6464: 6461: 6457: 6454: 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5203: 5202: 5199: 5195: 5192: 5190: 5187: 5186: 5185: 5182: 5178: 5175: 5174: 5173: 5170: 5168: 5165: 5164: 5162: 5160: 5156: 5152: 5148: 5143: 5139: 5134: 5127: 5122: 5120: 5115: 5113: 5108: 5107: 5104: 5092: 5089: 5087: 5084: 5082: 5079: 5077: 5074: 5072: 5069: 5067: 5064: 5062: 5059: 5057: 5056: 5052: 5051: 5049: 5047: 5043: 5037: 5034: 5032: 5029: 5027: 5024: 5022: 5019: 5017: 5016:Syria–Lebanon 5014: 5013: 5010: 5007: 5005: 5002: 5000: 4997: 4996: 4993: 4990: 4988: 4985: 4983: 4980: 4978: 4975: 4973: 4970: 4968: 4965: 4964: 4962: 4960: 4956: 4950: 4947: 4945: 4942: 4940: 4937: 4935: 4932: 4930: 4927: 4925: 4922: 4920: 4917: 4915: 4912: 4910: 4907: 4905: 4902: 4900: 4897: 4895: 4892: 4890: 4887: 4885: 4884: 4880: 4879: 4876: 4873: 4871: 4868: 4866: 4863: 4861: 4858: 4856: 4853: 4852: 4849: 4846: 4844: 4841: 4839: 4836: 4834: 4831: 4830: 4827: 4824: 4822: 4819: 4818: 4815: 4812: 4810: 4807: 4805: 4802: 4800: 4797: 4796: 4793: 4790: 4788: 4785: 4783: 4780: 4779: 4777: 4775: 4771: 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3945: 3942: 3940: 3937: 3936: 3935: 3932: 3930: 3927: 3925: 3922: 3920: 3917: 3915: 3912: 3910: 3907: 3905: 3902: 3900: 3897: 3895: 3892: 3891: 3889: 3885: 3879: 3876: 3874: 3871: 3869: 3866: 3864: 3861: 3859: 3856: 3854: 3851: 3849: 3846: 3844: 3841: 3839: 3836: 3834: 3831: 3829: 3826: 3824: 3821: 3819: 3816: 3812: 3809: 3808: 3807: 3804: 3802: 3799: 3797: 3794: 3790: 3787: 3785: 3782: 3781: 3780: 3777: 3773: 3770: 3769: 3768: 3765: 3763: 3760: 3758: 3755: 3754: 3752: 3748: 3742: 3739: 3737: 3734: 3732: 3729: 3727: 3726:Latin America 3724: 3722: 3719: 3717: 3714: 3712: 3709: 3708: 3706: 3704:South America 3702: 3694: 3691: 3689: 3686: 3684: 3681: 3679: 3676: 3674: 3671: 3669: 3666: 3665: 3664: 3663:United States 3661: 3659: 3656: 3654: 3651: 3649: 3646: 3644: 3641: 3639: 3636: 3634: 3631: 3630: 3628: 3626:North America 3624: 3618: 3615: 3613: 3610: 3608: 3605: 3603: 3600: 3596: 3593: 3591: 3588: 3587: 3586: 3583: 3581: 3578: 3576: 3573: 3571: 3568: 3566: 3563: 3561: 3558: 3556: 3553: 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Pan Books. 3447: 3442: 3438: 3436:9780861990009 3432: 3428: 3423: 3419: 3415: 3411: 3407: 3403: 3399: 3395: 3390: 3386: 3380: 3376: 3371: 3367: 3365:9780203413166 3361: 3357: 3352: 3348: 3344: 3340: 3335: 3331: 3325: 3321: 3316: 3312: 3310:9780275986018 3306: 3301: 3300: 3293: 3289: 3283: 3279: 3274: 3270: 3264: 3260: 3255: 3251: 3245: 3241: 3236: 3235: 3215: 3211: 3205: 3198: 3193: 3186: 3181: 3174: 3169: 3162: 3157: 3155: 3153: 3151: 3143: 3138: 3131: 3126: 3119: 3114: 3112: 3104: 3099: 3097: 3088: 3082: 3078: 3071: 3058: 3054: 3050: 3044: 3040: 3036: 3032: 3028: 3021: 3013: 3007: 3003: 3002: 2994: 2987: 2986:Gershoni 2010 2982: 2968: 2964: 2957: 2944: 2940: 2936: 2932: 2926: 2919: 2918:Gershoni 2010 2914: 2908:, p. 95. 2907: 2906:Gershoni 2010 2902: 2887: 2883: 2876: 2868: 2864: 2860: 2856: 2852: 2848: 2844: 2837: 2822: 2818: 2812: 2805: 2804:Gershoni 2010 2800: 2794:, p. 69. 2793: 2792:Gershoni 2010 2788: 2786: 2777: 2771: 2767: 2760: 2758: 2756: 2749:, p. 65. 2748: 2747:Gershoni 2010 2743: 2729: 2725: 2719: 2704: 2700: 2694: 2686: 2680: 2676: 2669: 2661: 2657: 2653: 2649: 2645: 2641: 2637: 2633: 2629: 2622: 2614: 2610: 2606: 2602: 2598: 2594: 2590: 2586: 2582: 2575: 2561: 2557: 2550: 2536: 2532: 2528: 2524: 2517: 2509: 2505: 2501: 2499:0-86199-000-5 2495: 2491: 2490: 2482: 2474: 2470: 2466: 2462: 2458: 2454: 2450: 2444: 2436: 2432: 2428: 2424: 2420: 2416: 2413:(1): 91–122. 2412: 2408: 2404: 2397: 2383: 2379: 2373: 2365: 2361: 2357: 2353: 2349: 2345: 2341: 2337: 2333: 2329: 2325: 2319: 2311: 2307: 2303: 2299: 2295: 2291: 2287: 2283: 2279: 2272: 2264: 2260: 2256: 2252: 2248: 2244: 2240: 2234: 2226: 2222: 2218: 2216:0-8156-2530-8 2212: 2208: 2207: 2199: 2191: 2187: 2183: 2179: 2175: 2171: 2167: 2161: 2153: 2149: 2145: 2139: 2135: 2134: 2126: 2118: 2114: 2110: 2106: 2102: 2098: 2094: 2090: 2086: 2079: 2071: 2067: 2063: 2059: 2055: 2051: 2047: 2043: 2036: 2030:, p. 81. 2029: 2024: 2017: 2012: 2006:, p. 78. 2005: 2000: 1993: 1988: 1980: 1974: 1970: 1963: 1949: 1945: 1938: 1931: 1930:Morewood 2005 1926: 1920:, p. 65. 1919: 1914: 1908:, p. 24. 1907: 1906:Morewood 2005 1902: 1894: 1888: 1884: 1877: 1873: 1863: 1860: 1858: 1855: 1854: 1843: 1840: 1838: 1835: 1833:6 August 1942 1832: 1831: 1827: 1824: 1822: 1819: 1817:6 August 1942 1816: 1815: 1811: 1808: 1806: 1803: 1801:1 August 1942 1800: 1799: 1795: 1792: 1790: 1785: 1782: 1779: 1778: 1774: 1771: 1769: 1766: 1764: 1761: 1758: 1757: 1753: 1750: 1748: 1745: 1742: 1741: 1737: 1734: 1732: 1729: 1727:28 March 1943 1726: 1725: 1721: 1718: 1716: 1713: 1711:20 March 1943 1710: 1709: 1705: 1702: 1700: 1697: 1694: 1693: 1689: 1686: 1684: 1681: 1678: 1677: 1673: 1670: 1668: 1665: 1663:22 April 1942 1662: 1661: 1657: 1654: 1652: 1649: 1647:19 April 1942 1646: 1645: 1641: 1638: 1636: 1633: 1631:16 April 1942 1630: 1629: 1625: 1622: 1620: 1615: 1612: 1610:16 April 1942 1609: 1608: 1604: 1601: 1598: 1595: 1592: 1591: 1588: 1586: 1582: 1578: 1573: 1566: 1564: 1560: 1555: 1553: 1548: 1546: 1532: 1528: 1526: 1520: 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Ghali 813: 811: 807: 803: 799: 790: 781: 773: 769: 767: 763: 759: 755: 751: 747: 743: 739: 734: 732: 727: 723: 714: 712: 708: 704: 700: 697: 693: 684: 680: 676: 675: 669: 665: 660: 656: 651: 641: 639: 635: 631: 626: 623: 619: 615: 611: 607: 603: 598: 589: 580: 578: 574: 564: 562: 558: 554: 544: 540: 538: 533: 528: 527: 522: 520: 516: 512: 508: 493: 490: 486: 482: 478: 477:Italian Libya 474: 464: 462: 453: 449: 447: 443: 439: 435: 431: 427: 423: 422:Sa'ad Zaghoul 414: 410: 408: 404: 403:World War One 400: 399:Evelyn Baring 396: 392: 388: 384: 380: 376: 372: 368: 364: 360: 356: 352: 348: 342: 327: 325: 321: 317: 313: 309: 305: 301: 297: 291: 289: 285: 281: 277: 273: 269: 265: 261: 257: 250: 249:Marsa Matrouh 245: 235: 232: 217: 214: 206: 195: 192: 188: 185: 181: 178: 174: 171: 167: 164: – 163: 159: 158:Find sources: 152: 148: 142: 141: 136:This article 134: 130: 125: 124: 115: 105: 101: 96: 92: 89:This article 87: 83: 78: 77: 72: 70: 63: 62: 57: 56: 51: 46: 37: 36: 32: 27: 19: 6531:Coat of arms 6501:Architecture 6390:Christianity 6370:Prostitution 6316:Human rights 6275:Abaza family 6263:Universities 6228:Demographics 6181:Billionaires 5825:Constitution 5820:Conscription 5803:Governorates 5684:Halfaya Pass 5554:1954–present 5514:Constitution 5469:2010s Crisis 5381:World War II 5380: 5343:Urabi revolt 5260:Islamization 5194:31st Dynasty 5189:27th Dynasty 5054: 4883:Indian Ocean 4882: 4675:Channel Dash 4618: 4494:Cigno Convoy 4449:Convoy AN 14 4442: 4408: 4374: 4364: 4266:North Africa 4265: 4236: 4122:Vatican City 4041:Soviet Union 3789:West Sumatra 3658:Newfoundland 3612:South Africa 3607:Sierra Leone 3585:North Africa 3539: 3445: 3426: 3404:(1): 64–94. 3401: 3397: 3374: 3355: 3346: 3342: 3319: 3298: 3277: 3258: 3239: 3218:. 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