Neuroanatomy - Knowledge

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sections in vertebrates are parallel to the ribs, which are orthogonal to the vertebral column, which represents the body axis both in animals and man. The brain also has an intrinsic longitudinal axis – that of the primordial elongated neural tube – which becomes largely vertical with the erect posture of Man, similarly as the body axis, except at its rostral end, as commented above. This explains that transverse spinal cord sections are roughly parallel to our ribs, or to the ground. However, this is only true for the spinal cord and the brainstem, since the forebrain end of the neural axis bends crook-like during early morphogenesis into the chiasmatic hypothalamus, where it ends; the orientation of true transverse sections accordingly changes, and is no longer parallel to the ribs and ground, but perpendicular to them; lack of awareness of this morphologic brain peculiarity (present in all vertebrate brains without exceptions) has caused and still causes much erroneous thinking on forebrain brain parts. Acknowledging the singularity of rostral transverse sections, tradition has introduced a different descriptor for them, namely

396:– back and belly – of the body; the belly of most animals is oriented towards the ground; the erect posture of humans places our ventral aspect anteriorly, and the dorsal aspect becomes posterior. The case of the head and the brain is peculiar, since the belly does not properly extend into the head, unless we assume that the mouth represents an extended belly element. Therefore, in common use, those brain parts that lie close to the base of the cranium, and through it to the mouth cavity, are called ventral – i.e., at its bottom or lower side, as defined above – whereas dorsal parts are closer to the enclosing cranial vault. Reference to the roof and floor plates of the brain is less prone to confusion, also allow us to keep an eye on the axial flexures mentioned above. Dorsal and ventral are thus relative terms in the brain, whose exact meaning depends on the specific location. 795: 365: 117: 2996: 3353: 2866: 3363: 356:, which are important for transmitting motor orders to the body's basic internal organs, thus controlling functions such as heartbeat, breathing, digestion, and salivation. Autonomic nerves, unlike somatic nerves, contain only efferent fibers. Sensory signals coming from the viscera course into the CNS through the somatic sensory nerves (e.g., visceral pain), or through some particular cranial nerves (e.g., chemosensitive or mechanic signals). 575:- in brown and black, allowing researchers to trace their paths up to their thinnest terminal branches in a slice of nervous tissue, thanks to the transparency consequent to the lack of staining in the majority of surrounding cells. Modernly, Golgi-impregnated material has been adapted for electron-microscopic visualization of the unstained elements surrounding the stained processes and cell bodies, thus adding further resolutive power. 704:(from axon terminals to soma), thus providing evidence of primary and collateral connections in the brain. These 'physiologic' methods (because properties of living, unlesioned cells are used) can be combined with other procedures, and have essentially superseded the earlier procedures studying degeneration of lesioned neurons or axons. Detailed synaptic connections can be determined by correlative electron microscopy. 31: 2878: 2424: 432:(axis roughly vertical, but including additional minor kinks at the pontine and cervical flexures) These flexural changes in axial dimension are problematic when trying to describe relative position and sectioning planes in the brain. There is abundant literature that wrongly disregards the axial flexures and assumes a relatively straight brain axis. 456:

the changed position of the axis. Due to the axial brain flexures, no section plane ever achieves a complete section series in a selected plane, because some sections inevitably result cut oblique or even perpendicular to it, as they pass through the flexures. Experience allows to discern the portions that result cut as desired.

383:). The axis of the CNS is often wrongly assumed to be more or less straight, but it actually shows always two ventral flexures (cervical and cephalic flexures) and a dorsal flexure (pontine flexure), all due to differential growth during embryogenesis. The pairs of terms used most commonly in neuroanatomy are: 499:

Horizontal sections by definition are aligned (parallel) with the horizon. In swimming, creeping and quadrupedal animals the body axis itself is horizontal, and, thus, horizontal sections run along the length of the spinal cord, separating ventral from dorsal parts. Horizontal sections are orthogonal

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contains exactly 302 neurons, always in the same places, making identical synaptic connections in every worm. Brenner's team sliced worms into thousands of ultrathin sections and photographed every section under an electron microscope, then visually matched fibers from section to section, to map out

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A section plane orthogonal to the axis of any elongated form in principle is held to be transverse (e.g., a transverse section of a finger or of the vertebral column); if there is no length axis, there is no way to define such sections, or there are infinite possibilities. Therefore, transverse body

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Commonly used terms for planes of orientation or planes of section in neuroanatomy are "sagittal", "transverse" or "coronal", and "axial" or "horizontal". Again in this case, the situation is different for swimming, creeping or quadrupedal (prone) animals than for Man, or other erect species, due to

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Certain viruses can replicate in brain cells and cross synapses. So, viruses modified to express markers (such as fluorescent proteins) can be used to trace connectivity between brain regions across multiple synapses. Two tracer viruses which replicate and spread transneuronal/transsynaptic are the

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is a special case of histochemistry that uses selective antibodies against a variety of chemical epitopes of the nervous system to selectively stain particular cell types, axonal fascicles, neuropiles, glial processes or blood vessels, or specific intracytoplasmic or intranuclear proteins and other

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in Latin). The rostrocaudal dimension of the brain corresponds to its length axis, which runs across the cited flexures from the caudal tip of the spinal cord into a rostral end roughly at the optic chiasma. In the erect Man, the directional terms "superior" and "inferior" essentially refer to this

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uses synthetic RNA probes that attach (hybridize) selectively to complementary mRNA transcripts of DNA exons in the cytoplasm, to visualize genomic readout, that is, distinguish active gene expression, in terms of mRNA rather than protein. This allows identification histologically (in situ) of the

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A coronal plane across the human head and brain is modernly conceived to be parallel to the face (the plane in which a king's crown sits on his head is not exactly parallel to the face, and exportation of the concept to less frontally endowed animals than us is obviously even more conflictive, but

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uses knowledge about biochemical reaction properties of the chemical constituents of the brain (including notably enzymes) to apply selective methods of reaction to visualize where they occur in the brain and any functional or pathological changes. This applies importantly to molecules related to

303:. These regions are often modular and serve a particular role within the general systemic pathways of the nervous system. For example, the hippocampus is critical for forming memories in connection with many other cerebral regions. The peripheral nervous system also contains afferent or efferent 478:

sections. Coronal sections divide the forebrain from rostral (front) to caudal (back), forming a series orthogonal (transverse) to the local bent axis. The concept cannot be applied meaningfully to the brainstem and spinal cord, since there the coronal sections become horizontal to the axial

268:(close contacts between two neurons, or between a neuron and a muscle cell; note also extrasynaptic effects are possible, as well as release of neurotransmitters into the neural extracellular space), and produce our memories, thoughts, and movements. Glial cells maintain homeostasis, produce 779:

to map the paths and connections of all of the 302 neurons in this species. The fruit fly is widely studied in part because its genetics is very well understood and easily manipulated. The mouse is used because, as a mammal, its brain is more similar in structure to our own (e.g., it has a

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of the cranium, which forms between the frontal and temporal/parietal bones, giving a sort of diadema configuration which is roughly parallel to the face). Coronal section planes thus essentially refer only to the head and brain, where a diadema makes sense, and not to the neck and body

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is being used as a genetic model for several human neurological diseases including the neurodegenerative disorders Parkinson's, Huntington's, spinocerebellar ataxia and Alzheimer's disease. In spite of the large evolutionary distance between insects and mammals, many basic aspects of

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dimension, being parallel to the axis. In any case, the concept of 'coronal' sections is less precise than that of 'transverse', since often coronal section planes are used which are not truly orthogonal to the rostral end of the brain axis. The term is etymologically related to the

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According to these considerations, the three directions of space are represented precisely by the sagittal, transverse and horizontal planes, whereas coronal sections can be transverse, oblique or horizontal, depending on how they relate to the brain axis and its incurvations.

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uses transgenic constitutive and site-specific expression (normally in mice) of blocked markers that can be activated selectively by illumination with a light beam. This allows researchers to study axonal connectivity in the nervous system in a very discriminative way.

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to fill selectively with a silver chromate precipitate a few neural cells (neurons or glia, but in principle, any cells can react similarly). This so-called silver chromate impregnation procedure stains entirely or partially the cell bodies and neurites of some neurons

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immunogenetic molecules, e.g., neurotransmitters. Immunoreacted transcription factor proteins reveal genomic readout in terms of translated protein. This immensely increases the capacity of researchers to distinguish between different cell types (such as neurons and

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to both transverse and sagittal sections, and in theory, are parallel to the length axis. Due to the axial bend in the brain (forebrain), true horizontal sections in that region are orthogonal to coronal (transverse) sections (as is the horizon relative to the face).

668:. Herpes simplex virus was used to trace the connections between the brain and the stomach, in order to examine the brain areas involved in viscero-sensory processing. Another study injected herpes simplex virus into the eye, thus allowing the visualization of the 416:

rostrocaudal dimension, because our body and brain axes are roughly oriented vertically in the erect position. However, all vertebrates develop a very marked ventral kink in the neural tube that is still detectable in the adult central nervous system, known as the

85:, or PNS). Breaking down and identifying specific parts of the nervous system has been crucial for figuring out how it operates. For example, much of what neuroscientists have learned comes from observing how damage or "lesions" to specific brain areas affects 887:

genetics, they have been a natural subject for studying the role of genes in the nervous system. The genome has been sequenced and published in 2000. About 75% of known human disease genes have a recognizable match in the genome of fruit flies.

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methods use a variety of dyes (horseradish peroxidase variants, fluorescent or radioactive markers, lectins, dextrans) that are more or less avidly absorbed by neurons or their processes. These molecules are selectively transported

651:, which relies on the restricted diffusion of water in tissue in order to produce axon images. In particular, water moves more quickly along the direction aligned with the axons, permitting the inference of their structure. 307:, which are bundles of fibers that originate from the brain and spinal cord, or from sensory or motor sorts of peripheral ganglia, and branch repeatedly to innervate every part of the body. Nerves are made primarily of the 339:(PNS) is made up of all the nerves and ganglia (packets of peripheral neurons) outside of the CNS that connect it to the rest of the body. The PNS is further subdivided into the somatic and autonomic nervous systems. The 605:

cells involved in the production of genetically-coded molecules, which often represent differentiation or functional traits, as well as the molecular boundaries separating distinct brain domains or cell populations.

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A mid-sagittal plane divides the body and brain into left and right halves; sagittal sections, in general, are parallel to this median plane, moving along the medial-lateral dimension (see the image above). The term

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is made up of "afferent" neurons, which bring sensory information from the somatic (body) sense organs to the CNS, and "efferent" neurons, which carry motor instructions out to the voluntary muscles of the body. The

264:). Neurons are the information-processing cells of the nervous system: they sense our environment, communicate with each other via electrical signals and chemicals called neurotransmitters which generally act across 465:

refers etymologically to the median suture between the right and left parietal bones of the cranium, known classically as sagittal suture, because it looks roughly like an arrow by its confluence with other sutures

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Note that such descriptors (dorsal/ventral, rostral/caudal; medial/lateral) are relative rather than absolute (e.g., a lateral structure may be said to lie medial to something else that lies even more laterally).

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Dorsal and ventral: Dorsal refers more or less to the top or upper side of the brain, which is symbolized by the floor plate, and ventral to the bottom or lower side. These descriptors originally were used for

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of the nematode. Nothing approaching this level of detail is available for any other organism, and the information has been used to enable a multitude of studies that would not have been possible without it.

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or dendrites of neurons (axons in case of efferent motor fibres, and dendrites in case of afferent sensory fibres of the nerves), along with a variety of membranes that wrap around and segregate them into

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effectively revitalized the study of neuroanatomy by altering the papal policy and allowing human dissection. This resulted in a flush of new activity by artists and scientists of the Renaissance, such as

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Is a field that utilizes various imaging modalities and computational techniques to model and quantify the spatiotemporal dynamics of neuroanatomical structures in both normal and clinical populations.

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The cultural taboo on human dissection continued for several hundred years afterward, which brought no major progress in the understanding of the anatomy of the brain or of the nervous system. However,

617:" mutant mouse allows the combinatorial visualization of many different colors in neurons. This tags neurons with enough unique colors that they can often be distinguished from their neighbors with 883:

in 1906, and this work earned him the 1933 Nobel Prize in Medicine for identifying chromosomes as the vector of inheritance for genes. Because of the large array of tools available for studying

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McGovern, AE; Davis-Poynter, N; Rakoczy, J; Phipps, S; Simmons, DG; Mazzone, SB (2012). "Anterograde neuronal circuit tracing using a genetically modified herpes simplex virus expressing EGFP".

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In anatomy in general and neuroanatomy in particular, several sets of topographic terms are used to denote orientation and location, which are generally referred to the body or brain axis (see

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chose it as a model system for studying the way that genes control development, including neuronal development. One advantage of working with this worm is that the nervous system of the

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techniques used to study other tissues can be applied to the nervous system as well. However, there are some techniques that have been developed especially for the study of neuroanatomy.

143:, who appeared to have dissected the eye and related the brain to vision. He also suggested that the brain, not the heart, was the organ that ruled the body (what Stoics would call the 865:

behind each eye for visual processing. The brain of a fruit fly contains several million synapses, compared to at least 100 billion in the human brain. Approximately two-thirds of the

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which is considered the foundation of modern neuroanatomy. The subsequent three hundred and fifty some years has produced a great deal of documentation and study of the neural system.

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means crown). It is not clear what sort of crown was meant originally (maybe just a diadema), and this leads unfortunately to ambiguity in the section plane defined merely as coronal.

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persisted among ancient Greek philosophers and physicians for a very long time. Those who argued for the brain often contributed to the understanding of neuroanatomy as well.

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is a popular experimental animal because it is easily cultured en masse from the wild, has a short generation time, and mutant animals are readily obtainable.

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worm, where the body plan is quite simple: a tube with a hollow gut cavity running from the mouth to the anus, and a nerve cord with an enlargement (a

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was on rodent cortical tissue. Circuit reconstruction from data produced by this high-throughput method is challenging, and the Citizen science game

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Norgren RB, McLean JH, Bubel HC, Wander A, Bernstein DI, Lehman MN (March 1992). "Anterograde transport of HSV-1 and HSV-2 in the visual system".

1683:"A Dual Infection Pseudorabies Virus Conditional Reporter Approach to Identify Projections to Collateralized Neurons in Complex Neural Circuits" 1922: 719: 718:

Serial section electron microscopy has been extensively developed for use in studying nervous systems. For example, the first application of

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neurotransmitter production and metabolism, but applies likewise in many other directions chemoarchitecture, or chemical neuroanatomy.

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neurogenetics have turned out to be relevant to humans. For instance, the first biological clock genes were identified by examining

684:. By using pseudorabies viruses with different fluorescent reporters, dual infection models can parse complex synaptic architecture. 3790: 798:

Nervous system of a generic bilaterian animal, in the form of a nerve cord with segmental enlargements, and a "brain" at the front

420:. The latter bends the rostral part of the CNS at a 180-degree angle relative to the caudal part, at the transition between the 3321: 2258: 348:

can work with or without the control of the CNS (that's why it is called 'autonomous'), and also has two subdivisions, called

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also provides support on the molecular level for the brain's cells, vehiculating substances to and from the blood vessels.

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Card, J. P. (2001). "Pseudorabies virus neuroinvasiveness: A window into the functional organization of the brain".

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nervous system is extremely stereotyped from one individual worm to the next. This has allowed researchers using

1947:; Thomson, JN; Brenner, S (1986). "The Structure of the Nervous System of the Nematode Caenorhabditis elegans". 3134: 2209: 1386: 353: 17: 3753: 3091: 2882: 2607: 3333: 3258: 3253: 3248: 2761: 2582: 2224: 380: 1298: 284:

in response to changes in calcium concentration. Wound scars in the brain largely contain astrocytes. The

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By expressing variable amounts of red, green, and blue fluorescent proteins in the brain, the so-called "

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Markatos, K.; Chytas, D.; Tsakotos, G.; Karamanou, M.; Piagkou, M.; Mazarakis, A.; Johnson, E. (2020).

916: 735: 636: 349: 260:. Both neurons and glial cells come in many types (see, for example, the nervous system section of the 236:, a physician and professor at Oxford University, coined the term neurology when he published his text 218: 1854: 1742:"Serial Block-Face Scanning Electron Microscopy to Reconstruct Three-Dimensional Tissue Nanostructure" 1207:

Ginn, S. R.; Lorusso, L. (2008). "Brain, Mind, and Body: Interactions with Art in Renaissance Italy".

3709: 3371: 2796: 2771: 2640: 336: 101: 82: 1888: 621:, enabling researchers to map the local connections or mutual arrangement (tiling) between neurons. 4072: 3582: 3010: 2735: 2710: 2635: 2542: 2447: 2343: 2214: 921: 648: 640: 345: 4204: 4109: 3985: 3413: 2572: 2283: 2278: 931: 847: 762: 753:, there are many other animals whose brains and nervous systems have received extensive study as 618: 300: 3512: 513:

Modern developments in neuroanatomy are directly correlated to the technologies used to perform

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have segregated, defined nervous systems. Their neuroanatomy is therefore better understood. In

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Galen on the Brain: Anatomical Knowledge and Physiological Speculation in the Second Century AD

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Neher, A (2009). "Christopher Wren, Thomas Willis and the Depiction of the Brain and Nerves".

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The vertebrate nervous system is divided into the central and peripheral nervous systems. The

81:, or CNS) and the series of nerves that connect the CNS to the rest of the body (known as the 4199: 4099: 3758: 3592: 3129: 2909: 2870: 2630: 2625: 2432: 2323: 2244: 951: 841: 771:. Each of these has its own advantages and disadvantages as a model system. For example, the 601: 1792: 4067: 3602: 3567: 3544: 3502: 3426: 3286: 2929: 2851: 2602: 2442: 2413: 2308: 2063: 1958: 1833: 1694: 754: 661: 559: 285: 257: 3189: 533:

is a technique used to enhance the contrast of particular features in microscopic images.

517:. Therefore, it is necessary to discuss the various tools that are available. Many of the 8: 4011: 3748: 3699: 3647: 3301: 3169: 3027: 2965: 2948: 2745: 2645: 2522: 2492: 2477: 776: 697: 590: 132: 3194: 2067: 1962: 1698: 972:

Atta, H. M. (1999). "Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus: The Oldest Known Surgical Treatise".

4104: 4021: 3890: 3722: 3624: 3607: 3532: 3316: 3204: 2821: 2715: 2655: 2378: 2358: 1909: 1717: 1682: 1618: 1570: 1543: 1524: 1481: 1433: 1406: 1369: 1326: 1279: 1232: 1117: 1040: 997: 876: 784:, yet its genes can be easily modified and its reproductive cycle is relatively fast). 701: 681: 175: 140: 62: 2086: 2051: 1768: 1741: 1649: 96:. For information about the typical structure of the Homo sapiens nervous system, see 3880: 3830: 3637: 3572: 3478: 3463: 3362: 3212: 3146: 3124: 3032: 2978: 2958: 2740: 2675: 2650: 2502: 2462: 2182: 2160: 2141: 2122: 2091: 2001: 1974: 1914: 1798: 1773: 1722: 1663: 1653: 1610: 1606: 1575: 1516: 1512: 1473: 1438: 1407:"Revealing the secrets of neuronal circuits with recombinant rabies virus technology" 1361: 1330: 1318: 1283: 1271: 1224: 1156: 1125: 1109: 1078: 1068: 1032: 989: 870: 193: 38:

and organisation of the nervous system. Pictured here is a cross-section showing the

1544:"Anterograde transneuronal viral tracing of central viscerosensory pathways in rats" 1528: 1485: 1373: 1236: 1001: 680:. An example of a tracer virus which replicates from the synapse to the soma is the 4037: 3490: 3356: 3291: 3086: 2902: 2781: 2665: 2592: 2507: 2388: 2338: 2210:

Mouse, Rat, Primate and Human Brain Atlases (UCLA Center for Computational Biology)

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The first known written record of a study of the anatomy of the human brain is an

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At the organ level, the nervous system is composed of brain regions, such as the

281: 201: 58: 2114: 1251: 1192: 272:, and provide support and protection for the brain's neurons. Some glial cells ( 61:, whose nervous system consists of a distributed network of cells, animals with 4042: 3738: 3366: 3184: 3156: 3141: 3119: 2806: 2776: 2705: 2680: 2670: 2517: 2497: 2487: 2373: 2293: 2174: 1314: 1098:"Herophilus of Chalcedon: An assessment of his place in the history of anatomy" 985: 941: 817: 583: 563: 536: 313: 222: 209: 136: 120: 93: 92:

For information about the composition of non-human animal nervous systems, see

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of Alexandria were perhaps the most influential with their studies involving

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has been studied because of its importance in genetics. In the early 1970s,

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refers to being close, or relatively closer, to the midline (the descriptor

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Kuypers HG, Ugolini G (February 1990). "Viruses as transneuronal tracers".

1477: 1442: 1365: 1322: 1275: 1228: 1160: 1082: 1036: 993: 946: 911: 713: 624: 547:), and neuronal shapes and sizes, in various regions of the nervous system 539:

uses aniline basic dyes to intensely stain the acidic polyribosomes in the

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Ginger, M.; Haberl, M.; Conzelmann, K.-K.; Schwarz, M.; Frick, A. (2013).

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is the opposite (a position more or less separated away from the midline).

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refers in general anatomy to the front of the body (towards the nose, or

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brainmaps.org: High-Resolution Neuroanatomically-Annotated Brain Atlases

1121: 1097: 4077: 4047: 3825: 3632: 2846: 2547: 2219: 2029: 854: 826: 273: 188:, likewise, argued strongly for the brain as the organ responsible for 180: 171: 163: 155: 66: 1145:"Herophilus and Erasistratus, pioneers of human anatomical dissection" 69:, the nervous system is segregated into the internal structure of the 4087: 3875: 3815: 3743: 3612: 3549: 3522: 3507: 3306: 3296: 3281: 2973: 2791: 2482: 936: 758: 568: 483:

of the craneum and this to the position where crowns are worn (Latin

425: 421: 1067:. Studies in Ancient Medicine. Vol. 26. Brill. pp. 1–313. 1062: 3912: 3678: 3587: 3517: 3453: 3444: 2700: 2233:, Diffusion Tensor Imaging Atlas of the Brain's White Matter Tracts 807: 803: 614: 530: 514: 167: 86: 1455: 794: 647:

non-invasively in healthy human subjects. An important example is

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every neuron and synapse in the entire body, to give a complete

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Wullimann, Mario F.; Rupp, Barbar; Reichert, Heinrich (1996).

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The brain is small and simple in some species, such as the

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over long distances in response to stimulation, and release

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Pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified

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Neuroanatomy of the zebrafish brain: a topological atlas

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At the tissue level, the nervous system is composed of

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Rose, F (2009). "Cerebral Localization in Antiquity".

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refers to the tail end of the body (towards the tail;

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is the study of the structure and organization of the

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mutants that showed disrupted daily activity cycles.

424:(axis ending rostrally at the optic chiasma) and the 166:

human brains, affirming the distinction between the

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Journal of Evolution of Medical and Dental Sciences

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list of distinct cell types in the adult human body

147:) and that the senses were dependent on the brain. 1149:Vesalius: Acta Internationales Historiae Medicinae 1950:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 1176:"Galen and his contribution to anatomy: a review" 726:has been developed to aid research in that area. 4191: 1739: 2136:Patestas, Maria A.; Gartner, Leslie P. (2016). 2135: 2113: 2022:"Flybrain: An online atlas and database of the 1541: 639:has been used extensively to investigate brain 139:, interest in the brain began with the work of 1498: 720:serial block-face scanning electron microscopy 608: 372:of the head in a patient with benign familial 359: 3398: 2910: 2252: 2049: 729: 631: 2787:Intraoperative neurophysiological monitoring 2206:, an annual journal of clinical neuroanatomy 2154: 598:) in various regions of the nervous system. 443:means a position precisely at the midline). 3412: 1535: 1209:Journal of the History of the Neurosciences 1206: 1017:Journal of the History of the Neurosciences 3405: 3391: 2924: 2917: 2903: 2259: 2245: 2052:"Clock Mutants of Drosophila melanogaster" 833: 3923:Social (pragmatic) communication disorder 2085: 2075: 1908: 1767: 1757: 1716: 1706: 1569: 1559: 1432: 1422: 1191: 787: 3791:Basic interpersonal communicative skills 2181:(29th ed.). McGraw-Hill Education. 2121:(9th ed.). Williams & Wilkins. 1296: 793: 363: 270:myelin (oligodendrocytes, Schwann cells) 115: 29: 3858: 1991: 1142: 14: 4192: 2173: 1882: 1095: 654: 491:there is an implicit reference to the 184:. The Greek physician and philosopher 3857: 3779: 3653:High-context and low-context cultures 3424: 3386: 2898: 2240: 1889:"Specification of the nervous system" 1343: 1173: 1060: 4002:Computer processing of body language 3780: 2877: 2225:Brain Architecture Management System 1680: 1635: 1542:Rinaman L, Schwartz G (March 2004). 1056: 1054: 1014: 971: 765:, and a species of roundworm called 687: 4017:List of facial expression databases 4007:Emotion recognition in conversation 1996:". In Brenner S, Miller JH (eds.). 1102:Bulletin of the History of Medicine 965: 276:) can even propagate intercellular 24: 2227:, several atlases of brain anatomy 927:List of regions in the human brain 25: 4216: 3901:Childhood disintegrative disorder 2767:Development of the nervous system 2197: 2140:(2nd ed.). Wiley Blackwell. 1051: 1008: 700:(from soma to axon terminals) or 578: 225:, and culminating in the work of 34:Neuroanatomy is the study of the 3361: 3352: 3351: 2994: 2876: 2865: 2864: 2422: 2266: 2159:(8th ed.). Wolters Kluwer. 2117:; Carpenter, Malcolm B. (1996). 1855:"WormBook: The online review of 1387:Mushroom Bodies of the Fruit Fly 744: 524: 2050:Konopka, RJ; Benzer, S (1971). 2043: 2014: 1985: 1936: 1925:from the original on 2011-07-17 1876: 1847: 1830:"Atlas of the Drosophila Brain" 1822: 1811:from the original on 2013-06-15 1784: 1733: 1674: 1629: 1586: 1492: 1449: 1398: 1380: 1337: 861:with three divisions and large 707: 3425: 2119:Carpenter's Human Neuroanatomy 2000:. Elsevier. pp. 251–256. 1740:Denk, W; Horstmann, H (2004). 1561:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.5329-03.2004 1470:10.1016/j.jneumeth.2012.05.035 1290: 1243: 1200: 1167: 1136: 1089: 243: 57:. In contrast to animals with 13: 1: 2608:Social cognitive neuroscience 2157:Snell's Clinical Neuroanatomy 1650:10.1016/S0065-3527(01)56004-2 1346:Journal of Medical Humanities 1268:10.1080/00015458.2020.1759887 3334:Standard anatomical position 3259:Glossary of plant morphology 3254:Glossary of dinosaur anatomy 3249:Anatomical terms of location 2583:Molecular cellular cognition 2056:Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A 1759:10.1371/journal.pbio.0020329 1708:10.1371/journal.pone.0021141 1607:10.1016/0361-9230(92)90038-Y 1513:10.1016/0166-2236(90)90071-H 958: 381:Anatomical terms of location 7: 3918:Nonverbal learning disorder 3496:Speech-independent gestures 3469:Facial Action Coding System 2802:Neurodevelopmental disorder 2777:Neural network (biological) 2772:Neural network (artificial) 2155:Splittgerber, Ryan (2019). 1883:Hobert, Oliver (2005). The 1548:The Journal of Neuroscience 904: 609:Genetically encoded markers 541:rough endoplasmic reticulum 360:Orientation in neuroanatomy 89:or other neural functions. 10: 4221: 3658:Interpersonal relationship 3459:Body-to-body communication 2329:Computational neuroscience 2220:BrainInfo for Neuroanatomy 2138:A Textbook of Neuroanatomy 2106: 1887:Research Community (ed.). 1638:Advances in Virus Research 1315:10.1016/j.wneu.2019.06.008 986:10.1177/000313489906501222 917:Outline of the human brain 839: 736:Computational neuroscience 733: 730:Computational neuroanatomy 711: 637:Magnetic resonance imaging 632:Non-invasive brain imaging 111: 4149: 4123: 4063: 4056: 4030: 3994: 3958: 3931: 3868: 3864: 3853: 3786: 3775: 3731: 3708: 3671: 3623: 3558: 3437: 3433: 3420: 3372:Index of anatomy articles 3347: 3274: 3236: 3203: 3155: 3107: 3057: 3041: 3003: 2992: 2936: 2860: 2797:Neurodegenerative disease 2754: 2641:Evolutionary neuroscience 2616: 2556: 2431: 2420: 2292: 2274: 1358:10.1007/s10912-009-9085-5 1221:10.1080/09647040701575900 1029:10.1080/09647040802025052 337:peripheral nervous system 150:The debate regarding the 102:peripheral nervous system 83:peripheral nervous system 4073:Behavioral communication 3021:morphological plasticity 3011:Bacterial cell structure 2762:Brain–computer interface 2711:Neuromorphic engineering 2636:Educational neuroscience 2543:Nutritional neuroscience 2448:Clinical neurophysiology 2344:Integrative neuroscience 1998:Encyclopedia of Genetics 1424:10.3389/fncir.2013.00002 922:Outline of brain mapping 649:diffusion tensor imaging 508: 346:autonomic nervous system 3513:Interpersonal synchrony 3414:Nonverbal communication 2573:Behavioral neuroscience 1901:10.1895/wormbook.1.12.1 1595:Brain Research Bulletin 1501:Trends in Neurosciences 1256:Acta Chirurgica Belgica 1193:10.14260/jemds/2015/651 1143:Reveron, R. R. (2014). 932:Medical image computing 848:Drosophila melanogaster 835:Drosophila melanogaster 619:fluorescence microscopy 529:In biological systems, 4110:Monastic sign lexicons 3801:Emotional intelligence 3339:Transcendental anatomy 3244:Anatomical terminology 2568:Affective neuroscience 2349:Molecular neuroscience 2304:Behavioral epigenetics 2077:10.1073/pnas.68.9.2112 1994:Caenorhabditis elegans 1971:10.1098/rstb.1986.0056 1411:Front. Neural Circuits 869:brain is dedicated to 813:Caenorhabditis elegans 799: 789:Caenorhabditis elegans 376: 341:somatic nervous system 323:(CNS) consists of the 321:central nervous system 174:, and identifying the 124: 79:central nervous system 47: 27:Branch of neuroscience 4100:Impression management 3016:cellular morphologies 2631:Cultural neuroscience 2626:Consumer neuroscience 2468:Neurogastroenterology 2324:Cellular neuroscience 2179:Clinical Neuroanatomy 1297:Splavski, B. (2019). 952:Computational anatomy 879:started to work with 842:Drosophila connectome 840:Further information: 797: 602:In situ hybridization 367: 204:, and other animals. 119: 77:(together called the 33: 4115:Verbal communication 4068:Animal communication 3986:Targeted advertising 3503:Haptic communication 3287:Anatomical variation 2970:Microscopic anatomy 2603:Sensory neuroscience 2443:Behavioral neurology 2414:Systems neuroscience 1797:. Birkhuser Verlag. 1681:Card, J. P. (2011). 664:type1 (HSV) and the 662:Herpes simplex virus 560:potassium dichromate 435:Medial and lateral: 399:Rostral and caudal: 286:extracellular matrix 258:extracellular matrix 4124:Non-verbal language 4012:Gesture recognition 3859:Further information 3749:Emotion recognition 3700:Silent service code 3302:Form classification 3170:Neanderthal anatomy 3028:Colonial morphology 2966:Comparative anatomy 2949:Superficial anatomy 2746:Social neuroscience 2646:Global neurosurgery 2523:Neurorehabilitation 2493:Neuro-ophthalmology 2478:Neurointensive care 2309:Behavioral genetics 2068:1971PNAS...68.2112K 1992:Hodgkin J (2001). " 1963:1986RSPTB.314....1W 1699:2011PLoSO...621141C 1096:Potter, P. (1976). 777:electron microscopy 655:Viral-based methods 591:Immunocytochemistry 219:Berengario da Carpi 133:Edwin Smith Papyrus 4150:Art and literature 4105:Meta-communication 4093:Passive-aggressive 4022:Sentiment analysis 3723:Non-verbal leakage 3317:History of anatomy 3004:Bacteria and fungi 2822:Neuroimmune system 2716:Neurophenomenology 2656:Neural engineering 2379:Neuroendocrinology 2359:Neural engineering 2231:White Matter Atlas 1458:J Neurosci Methods 1303:World Neurosurgery 1174:Ajita, R. (2015). 1061:Rocca, J. (2003). 877:Thomas Hunt Morgan 800: 757:, including mice, 682:pseudorabies virus 470:; arrow in Latin). 377: 295:in mammals or the 125: 63:bilateral symmetry 48: 4187: 4186: 4183: 4182: 4179: 4178: 4175: 4174: 3881:Asperger syndrome 3849: 3848: 3831:Social competence 3771: 3770: 3767: 3766: 3573:Emotional prosody 3479:Subtle expression 3464:Facial expression 3380: 3379: 3213:Amphibian anatomy 3205:Other vertebrates 3147:Arthropod cuticle 3125:Insect morphology 3120:Gastropod anatomy 3033:Lichen morphology 2959:brain morphometry 2892: 2891: 2741:Paleoneurobiology 2676:Neuroepistemology 2651:Neuroanthropology 2617:Interdisciplinary 2503:Neuropharmacology 2463:Neuroepidemiology 2147:978-1-118-67746-9 2007:978-0-12-227080-2 1186:(26): 4509–4517. 1074:978-90-474-0143-8 980:(12): 1190–1192. 871:visual processing 688:Dye-based methods 108:of neuroanatomy. 16:(Redirected from 4212: 4061: 4060: 4038:Ray Birdwhistell 3866: 3865: 3855: 3854: 3781:Broader concepts 3777: 3776: 3754:First impression 3435: 3434: 3422: 3421: 3407: 3400: 3393: 3384: 3383: 3365: 3355: 3354: 3292:Anatomical plane 3190:Elephant anatomy 3087:Plant morphology 2998: 2919: 2912: 2905: 2896: 2895: 2880: 2879: 2868: 2867: 2782:Detection theory 2666:Neurocriminology 2593:Neurolinguistics 2508:Neuroprosthetics 2426: 2389:Neuroinformatics 2339:Imaging genetics 2261: 2254: 2247: 2238: 2237: 2192: 2170: 2151: 2132: 2100: 2099: 2089: 2079: 2047: 2041: 2040: 2038: 2037: 2028:. 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3195:Giraffe anatomy 3151: 3115:Decapod anatomy 3103: 3099:Soil morphology 3082:Plant life-form 3053: 3037: 2999: 2990: 2932: 2923: 2893: 2888: 2856: 2842:Neurotechnology 2837:Neuroplasticity 2832:Neuromodulation 2827:Neuromanagement 2750: 2721:Neurophilosophy 2618: 2612: 2598:Neuropsychology 2559: 2552: 2513:Neuropsychiatry 2473:Neuroimmunology 2458:Neurocardiology 2434: 2427: 2418: 2409:Neurophysiology 2399:Neuromorphology 2354:Neural decoding 2295: 2288: 2270: 2265: 2200: 2195: 2189: 2175:Waxman, Stephen 2167: 2148: 2129: 2109: 2104: 2103: 2048: 2044: 2035: 2033: 2026:nervous system" 2020: 2019: 2015: 2008: 1990: 1986: 1957:(1165): 1–340. 1941: 1937: 1928: 1926: 1881: 1877: 1868: 1866: 1853: 1852: 1848: 1839: 1837: 1828: 1827: 1823: 1814: 1812: 1805: 1789: 1785: 1738: 1734: 1679: 1675: 1660: 1634: 1630: 1591: 1587: 1540: 1536: 1497: 1493: 1454: 1450: 1403: 1399: 1385: 1381: 1342: 1338: 1295: 1291: 1248: 1244: 1205: 1201: 1172: 1168: 1141: 1137: 1094: 1090: 1075: 1059: 1052: 1013: 1009: 970: 966: 961: 956: 907: 857:have a central 844: 838: 792: 749:Aside from the 747: 738: 732: 716: 710: 690: 670:optical pathway 657: 634: 611: 581: 527: 511: 407:in Latin), and 362: 354:parasympathetic 314:nerve fascicles 297:mushroom bodies 246: 238:Cerebri Anatome 114: 59:radial symmetry 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 4218: 4208: 4207: 4205:Nervous system 4202: 4185: 4184: 4181: 4180: 4177: 4176: 4173: 4172: 4170: 4169: 4164: 4159: 4153: 4151: 4147: 4146: 4144: 4143: 4138: 4133: 4127: 4125: 4121: 4120: 4118: 4117: 4112: 4107: 4102: 4097: 4096: 4095: 4090: 4085: 4080: 4070: 4064: 4058: 4054: 4053: 4051: 4050: 4045: 4043:Charles Darwin 4040: 4034: 4032: 4028: 4027: 4025: 4024: 4019: 4014: 4009: 4004: 3998: 3996: 3992: 3991: 3989: 3988: 3983: 3978: 3973: 3968: 3962: 3960: 3956: 3955: 3953: 3952: 3947: 3937: 3935: 3929: 3928: 3926: 3925: 3920: 3915: 3910: 3909: 3908: 3903: 3898: 3893: 3888: 3883: 3872: 3870: 3862: 3861: 3851: 3850: 3847: 3846: 3844: 3843: 3838: 3833: 3828: 3823: 3818: 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M. Bourgery 113: 110: 94:nervous system 55:nervous system 26: 18:Neuroanatomist 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4217: 4206: 4203: 4201: 4198: 4197: 4195: 4168: 4165: 4163: 4160: 4158: 4155: 4154: 4152: 4148: 4142: 4139: 4137: 4134: 4132: 4131:Sign language 4129: 4128: 4126: 4122: 4116: 4113: 4111: 4108: 4106: 4103: 4101: 4098: 4094: 4091: 4089: 4086: 4084: 4081: 4079: 4076: 4075: 4074: 4071: 4069: 4066: 4065: 4062: 4059: 4055: 4049: 4046: 4044: 4041: 4039: 4036: 4035: 4033: 4029: 4023: 4020: 4018: 4015: 4013: 4010: 4008: 4005: 4003: 4000: 3999: 3997: 3993: 3987: 3984: 3982: 3979: 3977: 3976:Freudian slip 3974: 3972: 3971:Lie detection 3969: 3967: 3964: 3963: 3961: 3957: 3951: 3950:Mirror neuron 3948: 3946: 3942: 3941:Limbic system 3939: 3938: 3936: 3934: 3930: 3924: 3921: 3919: 3916: 3914: 3911: 3907: 3906:Rett syndrome 3904: 3902: 3899: 3897: 3894: 3892: 3889: 3887: 3884: 3882: 3879: 3878: 3877: 3874: 3873: 3871: 3867: 3863: 3856: 3852: 3842: 3839: 3837: 3836:Social skills 3834: 3832: 3829: 3827: 3824: 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