384:(ADHD), a brain disorder that affects cognitive and motor control, have shown considerably different cortical thickening trajectories in contrast with typically developing children per MRI data. Cortical thickness is a common measure of brain maturation; the main difference in children with ADHD shows a delay in cortical thickness, specifically in the frontal lobe. Significant correlations in the trajectory of gray matter thickness and SWA suggest that SWA may be able to indicate levels of cortical maturation on an individual level. However, there has yet to be a study in which the diagnosis of ADHD can be given directly from SWA readings.
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EEG recordings of SWA. An increase in SWA peaks just before puberty and exponentially decreases from adolescence to adulthood in both longitudinal and cross-sectional studies of typically developing participants. This phenomenon is understood as memories and learned skills being metabolized during NREM sleep; the decrease in SWA is considered a reflection of synaptic rewiring and, therefore, an effect of behavioral maturation concluding. The critical period from childhood to emerging adulthood is also considered a sensitive period for mental disorders to manifest. For example, children with
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dreams occur more rarely compared to REM sleep because 90–95% of those who wake up in the middle of REM sleep will report that they have had a dream, but only 5–10% of those waking up in the middle of non-REM sleep will report they've had a dream. However, when asked for more general thought processes or feelings, 70% of people who awaken from NREM sleep reports of having dream-like feelings, which is characteristic of NREM dreams, potentially disproving that theory.
304:
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One theory suggests a model of hippocampal-neocortical dialogue. "Two stages of hippocampal activity have been proposed, the first being the recording of the memory during waking and the second involving the playback of the memory during NREM sleep. This process of reactivation of memory firing sequences is believed to gradually reinforce initially weak connections between neocortical sites allowing the original information to be activated in the
151:
slow spindles in the range of 11 – 13 Hz that are associated with increased activity in the superior frontal gyrus, and fast spindles in the range of 13 – 15 Hz that are associated with recruitment of sensorimotor processing cortical regions, as well as recruitment of the mesial frontal cortex and hippocampus. There is no clear answer as to what these sleep spindles mean, but ongoing research hopes to illuminate their function.
176:. This implies that the polysomnographic occurrence of REM sleep is not required for dreaming. Rather, the actual mechanisms that create REM sleep cause changes to one's sleep experience. Through these changes, by morning, a sub-cortical activation occurs during NREM that is comparable to the type that occurs during REM. It is this sub-cortical activation that results in dreaming during the NREM stage during the morning hours.
295:
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137:, associated with "deep" sleep, began to occur, while delta waves dominated in stage 4. In 2007, these were combined into just stage 3 for all of deep sleep. Dreaming is more common in this stage than in other stages of NREM sleep though not as common as in REM sleep. The content of SWS dreams tends to be disconnected, less vivid, and less memorable than those that occur during REM sleep. This is also the stage during which
432:(especially associated with N2 NREM sleep stage, but can also occur during N3 NREM sleep stage) are also crucial for declarative consolidation; indeed they are enhanced (increasing in density) after declarative learning, their increase is associated with a better memory performance (which has been proved using pharmacological manipulation of spindles' density, and measuring outcomes on learning tasks).
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with gamma activity, and - during NREM - this oscillatory theta-gamma produces the relocation of the memory representation, from the hippocampus to the cortex. On the other hand, sleep spindles increase occurs right after or in parallel to the theta augmentation, and is a necessary mechanism for the stabilization, the reinforcement and also the integration of the newly encoded memory trace.
471:, their brains exhibit similar behavior. It was found that certain species of birds have half their brain's hemisphere release brain waves similar to a human's during NREM sleep, and the other half of it fully conscious, allowing them to fly while sleeping. Certain species of dolphins also exhibit similar behavior as birds in order to be able to swim while sleeping.
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procedure was effective on the improvement of the later memory performance, indicates that during these stages, there is a reactivation of the memory traces and a subsequent consolidation, which are facilitated by the cues; importantly, this does not work if the cueing is presented when subjects are awake or in REM stages.
478:, after a 24-hour sleep deprivation, it was found that there was an increase of slow-wave activity in NREM sleep, which corresponds directly with the human brain which when sleep deprived, prioritizes NREM sleep over REM sleep, implying that the NREM sleep is responsible for regulating and compensating for missed sleep.
267:"). Many of these have a genetic component, and can be quite damaging to the person with the behavior or their bed partner. Parasomnias are most common in children, but most children have been found to outgrow them with age. However, if not outgrown, they can cause other serious problems with everyday life.
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occurs during both sleep states, and muscles are not paralyzed as in REM sleep. People who do not go through the sleeping stages properly get stuck in NREM sleep, and because muscles are not paralyzed a person may be able to sleepwalk. According to studies, the mental activity that takes place during
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NREM SWS, also known as slow wave activity (SWA), is regarded as highly important in brain development due not only to its homeostatic behavior but also because of its distinct correlation with age. Children sleep longer and deeper than adults. The difference in depth of sleep has been quantified by
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However, because the diaphragm is largely driven by the autonomous system, it is relatively spared of non-REM inhibition. As such, the suction pressures it generates stay the same. This narrows the upper airway during sleep, increasing resistance and making airflow through the upper airway turbulent
171:
Research has also shown that dreams during the NREM stage most commonly occur during the morning hours which is also the time period with the highest occurrence of REM sleep. This was found through a study involving subjects taking naps over specific intervals of time and being forcefully awakened,
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Sleep spindles are unique to NREM sleep. The most spindle activity occurs at the beginning and the end of NREM. Sleep spindles involve activation in the brain in the areas of the thalamus, anterior cingulate and insular cortices, and the superior temporal gyri. They have different lengths. There are
424:
Furthermore, the specific and crucial role of SWS (Slow-Wave Sleep, a stage of NREM sleep) in memory consolidation has been demonstrated in a study where, through electrical stimulations, slow oscillations were induced and boosted; because of this SWA increase, participants had a better performance
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NREM sleep has been demonstrated to be intimately correlated with declarative memory consolidation in various studies, where subject slept after a declarative memory-task; these who had a sleep imbued of NREM stages, had a better performance after the nap or the night, compared to subjects who have
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during SWS/NREM sleep due to the training from the previous day while the control group exhibited no increased blood flow and they had not received the training the prior day. The brain activity during sleep, according to this study, would show the events of the previous day do make a difference.
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The highest arousal thresholds (e.g. difficulty of awakening, such as by a sound of a particular volume) are observed in stage 3. A person will typically feel groggy when awakened from this stage, and indeed, cognitive tests administered after awakening from stage 3 indicate that mental performance
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It is suggested that dreaming involves two selfs: aggressive self (REM) and friendly self (NREM). It seems that in NREM dreams, the self is put in different situations, largely negative, but is found to respond in a way that befriends or embraces the unfamiliar. It is sometimes thought that in NREM
154:
K-complexes are single long delta waves that last for only a second. They are also unique to NREM sleep. They appear spontaneously across the early stages, usually in the second stage, much like the sleep spindles. However, unlike sleep spindles, they can be voluntarily induced by transient noises
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Increased theta activity represents the successful reestablishment of the memory after the cueing: if such an increase is observed, it means that the association between the cue and the memory trace is strong enough, and that the cue is presented in an effective way and time. Theta waves interacts
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independently of the hippocampus, and thus ensuring refreshed encoding capacity of the hippocampus." Maquet concluded that the areas of the brain involved with information processing and memory have increased brain activity during the slow wave sleep period. Events experienced in the previous day
839:
Cash, Sydney S.; Halgren, Eric; Dehghani, Nima; Rossetti, Andrea O.; Thesen, Thomas; Wang, ChunMao; Devinsky, Orrin; Kuzniecky, Ruben; Doyle, Werner; Madsen, Joseph R.; Bromfield, Edward; Erőss, Loránd; Halász, Péter; Karmos, George; Csercsa, Richárd; Wittner, Lucia; Ulbert, István (22 May 2009).
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and increased recollection of dreams occurring during that phase suggest that dreaming most commonly occurs during that stage, dreaming can also occur during NREM sleep, in which dreams tend to be more mundane in comparison. It was initially thought that NREM sleep is the absence of dreaming, or
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The occurrence of parasomnias is very common in the last stage of NREM sleep. Parasomnias are sleep behaviors that affect the function, quality, or timing of sleep, caused by a physiological activation in which the brain is caught between the stages of falling asleep and waking. The autonomous
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Visually scored delta activity (stages 3 and 4, SWS) as well as computerized delta activity measures increase after total and selective sleep deprivation. It is, however, still controversial if SWS amount is only a function of prior waking duration, or if it is related to the structure of the
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The importance of NREM sleep in memory consolidation has also been demonstrated using cueing; in this paradigm, while participants are sleeping and are in NREM sleep stages, cues are proposed (which can be, for example, aurally-presented sounds or words, odors, and so on). The fact that this
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and bizarre content. NREM sleep is characteristic of dreamer-initiated friendliness, compared to REM sleep where it is more aggressive, implying that NREM is in charge of simulating friendly interactions. The mental activity that occurs in NREM and REM sleep is a result of two different mind
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and noisy. For example, one way to determine whether a person is sleeping is to listen to their breathing - once the person falls asleep, their breathing becomes noticeably louder. Not surprisingly, the increased tendency of the upper airway to collapse during breathing in sleep can lead to
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Lustenberger, Caroline; Mouthon, Anne-Laure; Tesler, Noemi; Kurth, Salome; Ringli, Maya; Buchmann, Andreas; Jenni, Oskar G.; Huber, Reto (January 2017). "Developmental trajectories of EEG sleep slow wave activity as a marker for motor skill development during adolescence: a pilot study".
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increased in conjunction with the individual's performance through the 3D maze. Participants were then trained in the maze for 4 hours and later, during the various sleep cycles of NREM sleep, REM sleep and wakefulness, they were scanned twelve times using a
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Not much is known about NREM, so scientists have conducted studies in other animals to potentially understand more, in particular why the brain has evolved to have two distinct states. In their studies, it was found that between
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Crupi, Domenica; Hulse, Brad K.; Peterson, Michael J.; Huber, Reto; Ansari, Hidayath; Coen, Michael; Cirelli, Chiara; Benca, Ruth M.; Ghilardi, M. Felice; Tononi, Giulio; Tononi, G (October 2009).
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have more efficient and clearer memory recall the next day thus indicating that the memory regions of the brain are activated during SWS/NREM sleep instead of being dormant as previously thought.
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According to this model, enhancing only slow waves or only spindles, is not sufficient to improve memory function of sleep: both need to be increased to obtain an influence and this latter.
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Schreiner and Rasch (2017) proposed a model illustrating how the cueing beneficial effect on memory during sleep could function, which includes theta and gamma waves and sleep spindles.
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dominance during NREM. The reported differences between the REM and NREM activity are believed to arise from differences in the memory stages that occur during the two types of sleep.
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Fogel, Stuart M.; Smith, Carlyle T.; Cote, Kimberly A. (4 June 2007). "Dissociable learning-dependent changes in REM and non-REM sleep in declarative and procedural memory systems".
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Tucker, M; Hirota, Y; Wamsley, E; Lau, H; Chaklader, A; Fishbein, W (September 2006). "A daytime nap containing solely non-REM sleep enhances declarative but not procedural memory".
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Suzuki, Hiroyuki; Uchiyama, Makoto; Tagaya, Hirokuni; Ozaki, Akiko; Kuriyama, Kenichi; Aritake, Sayaka; Shibui, Kayo; Tan, Xin; Kamei, Yuichi; Kuga, Ryuichi (December 2004).
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in declarative memory tasks. Not only SWA helps learning, but it is also crucial, because its suppression has been demonstrated to impair declarative memory consolidation.
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Massimini, Marcello; Ferrarelli, Fabio; Huber, Reto; Esser, Steve K.; Singh, Harpreet; Tononi, Giulio (2005). "Breakdown of
Cortical Effective Connectivity during Sleep".
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NREM sleep was divided into four stages in the
Rechtschaffen and Kales (R&K) standardization of 1968. That has been reduced to three in the 2007 update by The
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sleep, the dreamers are "aware of being aware", also known as "secondary awareness", which allows them to make better decisions and potentially reflect on them.
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Generally, both REM and NREM are associated with an increased memory performance, because newly encoded memories are reactivated and consolidated during sleep.
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Importantly, in this working model, slow oscillations have the role of a 'time-giving pace maker', and seem to be a prerequisite for the success of cueing.
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appears. People aroused from this stage often believe that they have been fully awake. During the transition into stage-1 sleep, it is common to experience
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Gennaro, L; Bertini, M (1999). "Selective slow-wave sleep (SWS) deprivation and SWS rebound: do we need a fixed SWS amount per night?".
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because the intracellular calcium levels are lowered, as the removal of tonic innervation hyperpolarizes motoneurons, and consequently, muscle cells.
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is more associated with REM-sleep), even if establishing a clear-cut distinction between stages' influence on type of learning may not be possible.
495:
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2931:
278:(PSG) is a test used in the study of sleep; the test result is called a polysomnogram. Below are images of the NREM stages 1, 2 and 3.
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Kurth, Salome; Ringli, Maya; LeBourgeois, Monique K.; Geiger, Anja; Buchmann, Andreas; Jenni, Oskar G.; Huber, Reto (November 2012).
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is somewhat impaired for periods up to 30 minutes or so, relative to awakenings from other stages. This phenomenon has been called "
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289:, and body position, in that order. EEG is highlighted by the red box. Sleep spindles in the stage 2 figure are underlined in red.
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A study was done involving an experimental and a control group to have them learn to navigate a 3D maze. The blood flow in the
93:– occurs mostly in the beginning of sleep, with slow eye movement. This state is sometimes referred to as relaxed wakefulness.
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and other characteristics seen in each stage. Unlike REM sleep, there is usually little or no eye movement during these stages.
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During non-REM sleep, the tonic drive to most respiratory muscles of the upper airway is inhibited. This has two consequences:
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Mednick, S. C.; McDevitt, E. A.; Walsh, J. K.; Wamsley, E.; Paulus, M.; Kanady, J. C.; Drummond, S. P. A. (6 March 2013).
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Plihal, Werner; Born, Jan (July 1997). "Effects of Early and Late
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The figures represent 30-second epochs (30 seconds of data). They represent data from both eyes, EEG, chin, microphone,
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nervous system, cognitive process, and motor system are activated during sleep or while the person wakes up from sleep.
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data has shown that during NREM sleep the regional brain activity is influenced by the waking experience just passed.
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such as a knock at the door. The function of these K-complexes is unknown and further research needs to be conducted.
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people when sleeping on the back, as extra fat tissue may weigh down on the airway, closing it. This can lead to
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The AASM Manual for the
Scoring of Sleep and Associated Events: Rules, Terminology and Technical Specifications.
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1351:"Mapping the electrophysiological marker of sleep depth reveals skill maturation in children and adolescents"
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1076:"Brain-Mind States: I. Longitudinal Field Study of Sleep/Wake Factors Influencing Mentation Report Length"
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902:"Exploring the neural correlates of dream phenomenology and altered states of consciousness during sleep"
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Slow Wave Sleep (SWS) is a highly active state unlike a state of brain quiescence as previously thought.
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Stickgold, Robert; Malia, April; Fosse, Roar; Propper, Ruth; Hobson, J. Allan (1 March 2001).
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The 1968 categorization of the combined Sleep Stages 3–4 was reclassified in 2007 as Stage N3.
3104:
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Iber, C; Ancoli-Israel, S; Chesson, A; Quan, SF. for the
American Academy of Sleep Medicine.
1299:"Topographic Differences in the Adolescent Maturation of the Slow Wave EEG during NREM Sleep"
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111:– no eye movement occurs, and dreaming is very rare. The sleeper is quite easily awakened.
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generators, which also explains the difference in mental activity. In addition, there is a
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2348:"Dreamless: the silent epidemic of REM sleep loss: The silent epidemic of REM sleep loss"
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1886:"The beneficial role of memory reactivation for language learning during sleep: A review"
497:"Structural differences between REM and non-REM dream reports assessed by graph analysis"
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332:(SWS) is made up of the deepest stage of NREM, and is often referred to as deep sleep.
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their sleep was separated into naps including only REM sleep and only NREM sleep using
2254:"Interhemispheric asymmetry of the electroencephalographic sleep patterns in dolphins"
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there is usually a sharp rebound of SWS, suggesting there is a "need" for this stage.
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213:, a vibration of the tissues in the upper airway. This problem is exacerbated in
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133:(SWS). Stage 3 was formerly the transition between stage 2 and stage 4 where
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Borbély, Alexander A.; Tobler, Irene; Hanagasioglu, Mehmet (December 1984).
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2401:. US Dept of Health, Education, and Welfare; National Institutes of Health.
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1812:"Odor Cues During Slow-Wave Sleep Prompt Declarative Memory Consolidation"
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during the night. The PET scan demonstrated a higher blood flow in the
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2301:"Effect of sleep deprivation on sleep and EEG power spectra in the rat"
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Gais, Steffen; Mölle, Matthias; Helms, Kay; Born, Jan (1 August 2002).
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Although study participants' reports of intense dream vividness during
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NREM sleep is believed to be thought-like, whereas REM sleep includes
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Non-rapid eye movement sleep is known for its beneficial effect on
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1405:"EEG Sleep Slow-Wave Activity as a Mirror of Cortical Maturation"
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119:", which are short bursts of high frequency brain activity, and "
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129:– previously divided into stages 3 and 4, is deep sleep,
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1984:
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National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke
2554:
Westchester: American Academy of Sleep Medicine; 2007.
1711:
1577:
Walker, Matthew P.; Stickgold, Robert (January 2006).
1490:
1398:
1396:
1394:
1292:
1290:
1288:
900:
Mutz, Julian; Javadi, Amir-Homayoun (1 January 2017).
895:
893:
2396:
994:
Solms, Mark; Turnbull, Oliver; Sacks, Oliver (2018).
2136:"Evolutionary Origin of Distinct NREM and REM Sleep"
2479:
1809:
1391:
1344:
1342:
1285:
890:
758:"Representation of the Self in REM and NREM Dreams"
2510:
2033:
993:
756:McNamara, P.; McLaren, D.; Durso, K. (June 2007).
547:
545:
1766:Schreiner, Thomas; Rasch, Björn (November 2015).
436:A working model of sleep and memory stabilization
145:
3300:
1339:
1879:
1877:
1875:
1873:
1871:
1805:
1803:
1761:
1759:
1576:
542:
30:"Slow eyes" redirects here. For sloe eyes, see
27:Form of sleep involving negligible eye movement
2195:"Local Aspects of Avian Non-REM and REM Sleep"
1884:Schreiner, Thomas; Rasch, Björn (April 2017).
1883:
1765:
1533:
948:
2624:
2610:
1868:
1800:
1756:
52:stages 1–3, previously known as stages 1–4.
200:The rhythmic innervation results in weaker
2932:Rapid eye movement sleep behavior disorder
2617:
2603:
2352:Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences
1633:
1251:The World Journal of Biological Psychiatry
899:
731:. Harvard University. 2008. Archived from
56:(REM) is not included. There are distinct
2228:
2210:
2169:
2151:
2110:
2061:
2051:
2010:
1783:
1420:
1374:
1322:
1140:
1091:
962:
925:
873:
781:
632:
504:
453:
382:attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
115:recordings tend to show characteristic "
1202:
1163:
1034:"Physiological Context of Rem Dreaming"
14:
3301:
2532:Warren, Jeff (2007). "The Slow Wave".
2531:
2345:
1598:10.1146/annurev.psych.56.091103.070307
1248:
705:Biological Rhythms, Sleep and Hypnosis
658:Biological Rhythms, Sleep and Hypnosis
606:
2598:
2557:
1031:
1027:
1025:
702:
655:
197:The upper airway becomes more floppy.
2508:
2494:10.1001/archpsyc.1966.01730090014003
2397:Rechtschaffen, A; Kales, A (1968).
1493:Neurobiology of Learning and Memory
1166:"Intentionality and Self-Awareness"
188:
179:
24:
2390:
2053:10.1523/jneurosci.22-15-06830.2002
1679:Journal of Experimental Psychology
1203:Schenck, Carlos (2 October 2020).
1164:Perrett, Roy W. (September 2003).
1046:10.1016/b978-0-08-027400-3.50016-8
1022:
951:Journal of Experimental Psychology
823:
417:been awake or had more REM-sleep.
318:
270:
84:American Academy of Sleep Medicine
25:
3330:
1636:Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience
804:
239:Some examples of parasomnias are
2772:Obesity hypoventilation syndrome
2767:Central hypoventilation syndrome
1367:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2012.03.053
826:"NREM Sleep: Stages 1, 2, and 3"
707:. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
660:. New York: Palgrave MacMillan.
570:10.1111/j.0956-7976.2005.00793.x
311:
302:
293:
2927:Periodic limb movement disorder
2894:Non-24-hour sleep–wake disorder
2339:
2292:
2245:
2186:
2127:
2078:
2027:
1978:
1927:
1705:
1670:
1627:
1579:"Sleep, Memory, and Plasticity"
1570:
1527:
1484:
1242:
1211:
1196:
1157:
1116:
1067:
987:
942:
832:
817:
2482:Archives of General Psychiatry
2346:Naiman, Rubin (October 2017).
2103:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3127-12.2013
1040:, Elsevier, pp. 183–206,
798:
749:
721:
696:
674:
649:
600:
488:
224:
146:Sleep spindles and K-complexes
13:
1:
3199:Biphasic and polyphasic sleep
3007:Nocturnal clitoral tumescence
2869:Advanced sleep phase disorder
997:The Brain and the Inner World
906:Neuroscience of Consciousness
481:
2879:Delayed sleep phase disorder
2807:Excessive daytime sleepiness
2317:10.1016/0166-4328(84)90186-4
2270:10.1016/0006-8993(77)90835-6
1734:10.1126/science.179.4070.302
1207:. National Sleep Foundation.
38:Non-rapid eye movement sleep
7:
3012:Nocturnal penile tumescence
2884:Irregular sleep–wake rhythm
2040:The Journal of Neuroscience
1905:10.1016/j.bandl.2016.02.005
1586:Annual Review of Psychology
1450:Developmental Psychobiology
158:
10:
3335:
2874:Cyclic alternating pattern
2560:Current Psychiatry Reports
2305:Behavioural Brain Research
1536:Behavioural Brain Research
774:10.1037/1053-0797.17.2.113
391:
322:
228:
29:
3117:
3090:Behavioral sleep medicine
3077:
3025:
2955:
2907:
2899:Shift work sleep disorder
2855:
2847:Sleep state misperception
2797:
2737:
2728:
2665:
2636:
2572:10.1007/s11920-005-0053-0
2199:Frontiers in Neuroscience
2153:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.567618
1648:10.1162/jocn.1997.9.4.534
1548:10.1016/j.bbr.2007.02.037
1505:10.1016/j.nlm.2006.03.005
1263:10.3109/15622971003637736
506:10.1101/2020.01.28.922740
387:
77:
2647:Rapid eye movement (REM)
2212:10.3389/fnins.2019.00567
2003:10.1093/sleep/32.10.1273
1032:Cohen, David B. (1979),
607:Schulz, Hartmut (2008).
54:Rapid eye movement sleep
2968:Exploding head syndrome
2777:Obstructive sleep apnea
2428:10.1126/science.1117256
2140:Frontiers in Psychology
2091:Journal of Neuroscience
1839:10.1126/science.1138581
1205:"Sleep and Parasomnias"
1182:10.1111/1467-9329.00219
1142:10.1093/sleep/27.8.1486
866:10.1126/science.1169626
58:electroencephalographic
3283:Sleeping while on duty
2832:Idiopathic hypersomnia
1315:10.1093/sleep/34.3.325
1093:10.1093/sleep/24.2.171
530:Cite journal requires
3105:Neuroscience of sleep
2837:Night eating syndrome
2822:Kleine–Levin syndrome
2509:Rock, Andrea (2004).
2461:Sleep Research Online
1785:10.1093/cercor/bhu139
1422:10.1093/cercor/bhq129
1237:previous sleep period
1220:Sleep Research Online
1006:10.4324/9780429481239
703:Green, Simon (2011).
656:Green, Simon (2011).
558:Psychological Science
454:NREM in other animals
359:parahippocampal gyrus
263:, and sexsomnia (or "
3259:Sleep and creativity
1864:on 25 February 2019.
1038:Sleep & Dreaming
400:memory consolidation
141:most commonly occur.
123:" during this stage.
48:, is, collectively,
3254:Sleep and breathing
2710:Sensorimotor rhythm
2420:2005Sci...309.2228M
2414:(5744): 2228–2232.
1956:10.1038/nature05278
1948:2006Natur.444..610M
1831:2007Sci...315.1426R
1825:(5817): 1426–1429.
1726:1973Sci...179..302F
858:2009Sci...324.1084C
852:(5930): 1084–1087.
685:Understanding sleep
428:On the other hand,
202:muscle contractions
3264:Sleep and learning
3017:Nocturnal emission
2917:Nightmare disorder
2782:Periodic breathing
2364:10.1111/nyas.13447
1893:Brain and Language
690:2012-06-18 at the
625:10.5664/jcsm.27124
408:memory improvement
406:(while procedural
404:declarative memory
97:disappear and the
3296:
3295:
3274:Sleep deprivation
3113:
3112:
2543:978-0-679-31408-0
2524:978-0-7382-0755-1
2513:The Mind at Night
2097:(10): 4494–4504.
2046:(15): 6830–6834.
1997:(10): 1273–1284.
1942:(7119): 610–613.
1778:(11): 4169–4179.
1720:(4070): 302–304.
1462:10.1002/dev.21446
918:10.1093/nc/nix009
714:978-0-230-25265-3
667:978-0-230-25265-3
402:, especially for
345:sleep deprivation
247:(sleep talking),
243:(sleep walking),
44:), also known as
16:(Redirected from
3326:
3314:Sleep physiology
3269:Sleep and memory
3209:Circadian rhythm
2956:Benign phenomena
2858:Circadian rhythm
2735:
2734:
2619:
2612:
2605:
2596:
2595:
2591:
2547:
2536:. Random House.
2528:
2516:
2505:
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2402:
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2065:
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2014:
1982:
1976:
1975:
1931:
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1924:
1890:
1881:
1866:
1865:
1863:
1857:. Archived from
1816:
1807:
1798:
1797:
1787:
1763:
1754:
1753:
1709:
1703:
1702:
1691:10.1037/h0030914
1674:
1668:
1667:
1631:
1625:
1624:
1622:
1616:. Archived from
1583:
1574:
1568:
1567:
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1525:
1524:
1488:
1482:
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1444:
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1215:
1209:
1208:
1200:
1194:
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1161:
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1144:
1135:(8): 1486–1490.
1120:
1114:
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1095:
1071:
1065:
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1029:
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991:
985:
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973:10.1037/h0048189
966:
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939:
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897:
888:
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836:
830:
829:
821:
815:
814:
811:Psychology Today
807:"Sleep Spindles"
802:
796:
795:
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753:
747:
746:
741:
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719:
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678:
672:
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653:
647:
646:
636:
613:J Clin Sleep Med
604:
598:
597:
549:
540:
539:
533:
528:
526:
518:
508:
492:
394:Sleep and memory
315:
306:
297:
189:Muscle movements
180:Self in dreaming
21:
3334:
3333:
3329:
3328:
3327:
3325:
3324:
3323:
3299:
3298:
3297:
3292:
3187:Procrastination
3140:Four-poster bed
3109:
3073:
3067:Polysomnography
3045:Sleep induction
3021:
2992:Sleep paralysis
2951:
2903:
2862:
2859:
2851:
2793:
2752:Mouth breathing
2730:Sleep disorders
2724:
2661:
2652:Quiescent sleep
2632:
2630:sleep disorders
2623:
2544:
2525:
2517:. Basic Books.
2393:
2391:Further reading
2388:
2387:
2344:
2340:
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2191:
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1983:
1979:
1932:
1928:
1888:
1882:
1869:
1861:
1814:
1808:
1801:
1772:Cerebral Cortex
1764:
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1710:
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1671:
1632:
1628:
1620:
1581:
1575:
1571:
1532:
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1489:
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1438:
1409:Cerebral Cortex
1401:
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1056:
1030:
1023:
1016:
992:
988:
964:10.1.1.308.6874
947:
943:
898:
891:
837:
833:
822:
818:
803:
799:
754:
750:
738:
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727:
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692:Wayback Machine
679:
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330:Slow-wave sleep
327:
325:Slow-wave sleep
321:
319:Slow-wave sleep
308:
299:
276:Polysomnography
273:
271:Polysomnography
261:sleep paralysis
233:
227:
191:
182:
174:polysomnography
161:
148:
131:slow-wave sleep
80:
72:parasympathetic
46:quiescent sleep
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
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3214:Comfort object
3211:
3206:
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3097:
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3085:Sleep medicine
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3079:
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2607:
2599:
2593:
2592:
2566:(3): 196–200.
2555:
2548:
2542:
2529:
2523:
2506:
2488:(3): 238–248.
2477:
2456:
2403:
2392:
2389:
2386:
2385:
2338:
2311:(3): 171–182.
2291:
2264:(3): 581–584.
2258:Brain Research
2244:
2185:
2126:
2077:
2026:
1977:
1926:
1867:
1799:
1755:
1704:
1685:(3): 361–366.
1669:
1642:(4): 534–547.
1626:
1623:on 2019-02-18.
1592:(1): 139–166.
1569:
1526:
1499:(2): 241–247.
1483:
1436:
1415:(3): 607–615.
1390:
1361:(2): 959–965.
1338:
1309:(3): 325–333.
1284:
1257:(sup1): 9–15.
1241:
1210:
1195:
1176:(3): 222–235.
1156:
1115:
1086:(2): 171–179.
1066:
1054:
1021:
1014:
986:
957:(5): 339–346.
941:
889:
831:
824:Jordan, Paul.
816:
797:
768:(2): 113–126.
748:
720:
713:
695:
673:
666:
648:
599:
564:(2): 130–136.
541:
532:|journal=
486:
485:
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437:
434:
430:sleep spindles
392:Main article:
389:
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323:Main article:
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117:sleep spindles
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32:Prunus spinosa
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3041:
3040:Sleep hygiene
3038:
3036:
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3024:
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2997:Sleep inertia
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2947:Sleep-talking
2945:
2943:
2942:Sleep driving
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735:on 2018-10-04
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619:(2): 99–103.
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352:Brain imaging
348:
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341:
339:
338:sleep inertia
333:
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316:
314:
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257:night terrors
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73:
68:
67:hallucinatory
63:
59:
55:
51:
47:
43:
39:
33:
19:
18:Non-REM sleep
3160:Sleeping bag
2937:Sleepwalking
2922:Night terror
2651:
2639:sleep cycles
2563:
2559:
2551:
2533:
2512:
2485:
2481:
2467:(2): 67–72.
2464:
2460:
2411:
2407:
2398:
2358:(1): 77–85.
2355:
2351:
2341:
2308:
2304:
2294:
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2257:
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2202:
2198:
2188:
2143:
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2129:
2094:
2090:
2080:
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1994:
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1939:
1935:
1929:
1896:
1892:
1859:the original
1822:
1818:
1775:
1771:
1717:
1713:
1707:
1682:
1678:
1672:
1639:
1635:
1629:
1618:the original
1589:
1585:
1572:
1542:(1): 48–61.
1539:
1535:
1529:
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1128:
1118:
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1059:, retrieved
1037:
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909:
905:
849:
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834:
819:
810:
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743:
737:. Retrieved
733:the original
723:
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523:cite journal
490:
473:
463:and certain
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415:
412:
397:
378:
356:
349:
342:
334:
328:
309:
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280:
274:
249:sleep eating
241:somnambulism
238:
234:
207:
192:
183:
170:
162:
153:
149:
126:
108:
103:hypnic jerks
90:
81:
45:
41:
37:
36:
3319:Parasomnias
3244:Second wind
3219:Dream diary
3095:Sleep study
3035:Sleep diary
2987:Hypnopompia
2982:Sleep onset
2973:Hypnic jerk
2812:Hypersomnia
2762:Catathrenia
2757:Sleep apnea
2667:Brain waves
2637:Stages of
1456:(1): 5–14.
1226:(1): 15–9.
368:hippocampus
301:Stage N2:
225:Parasomnias
219:sleep apnea
139:parasomnias
135:delta waves
121:K-complexes
95:Alpha waves
3303:Categories
3278:Sleep debt
3224:Microsleep
3204:Chronotype
3118:Daily life
3002:Somnolence
2978:Hypnagogia
2909:Parasomnia
2827:Narcolepsy
2739:Anatomical
2720:Theta wave
2690:Gamma wave
2685:Delta wave
2675:Alpha wave
2146:: 567618.
1899:: 94–105.
1355:NeuroImage
1061:2021-10-01
739:2009-03-11
482:References
310:Stage N3:
292:Stage N1:
253:nightmares
245:somniloquy
231:Parasomnia
215:overweight
99:theta wave
3288:Sleepover
3239:Power nap
3234:Nightwear
3100:Melatonin
3062:Somnology
3027:Treatment
2860:disorders
2799:Dyssomnia
2705:PGO waves
2700:Mu rhythm
2695:K-complex
2680:Beta wave
2657:Slow-wave
2221:1662-453X
2162:1664-1078
1972:205211103
1190:0034-0006
1102:1550-9109
959:CiteSeerX
578:0956-7976
515:213047813
265:sleep sex
165:REM sleep
3155:Mattress
3130:Bunk bed
3050:Hypnosis
2842:Nocturia
2817:Insomnia
2588:36303702
2580:15935133
2473:11382903
2452:38498750
2444:16195466
2380:13797279
2372:28810072
2286:31725807
2239:31231182
2180:33381062
2121:23467365
2072:12151563
2021:19848357
1964:17086200
1913:27036946
1855:19788434
1847:17347444
1794:24962994
1750:38500177
1656:23968216
1606:16318592
1564:25712742
1556:17400305
1521:17606945
1513:16647282
1470:27401676
1431:20624840
1385:22498654
1333:21358849
1271:20509827
1232:11382878
1151:15683138
1110:11247053
981:13428941
936:30042842
884:19461004
792:19169371
762:Dreaming
688:Archived
643:18468306
594:20281361
586:15686579
469:dolphins
364:PET scan
287:oximetry
159:Dreaming
86:(AASM).
62:Dreaming
3182:Bedtime
3177:Bedroom
3172:Bedding
3167:Bed bug
3150:Hammock
3055:Lullaby
2889:Jet lag
2789:Snoring
2747:Bruxism
2502:5903415
2436:3843726
2416:Bibcode
2408:Science
2333:4017517
2325:6525241
2230:6560081
2205:: 567.
2171:7767968
2112:3744388
2063:6758170
2012:2753806
1944:Bibcode
1921:3377186
1827:Bibcode
1819:Science
1742:4345657
1722:Bibcode
1714:Science
1699:4326302
1664:3300300
1614:7530260
1478:7044019
1376:4444061
1324:3041708
1279:2998703
927:6007136
875:3715654
854:Bibcode
846:Science
783:2629609
634:2335403
465:mammals
211:snoring
127:Stage 3
109:Stage 2
91:Stage 1
3249:Siesta
3135:Daybed
2963:Dreams
2586:
2578:
2540:
2521:
2500:
2471:
2450:
2442:
2434:
2378:
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2331:
2323:
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2237:
2227:
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2160:
2119:
2109:
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2019:
2009:
1970:
1962:
1936:Nature
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1911:
1853:
1845:
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934:
924:
882:
872:
790:
780:
711:
664:
641:
631:
592:
584:
576:
513:
388:Memory
373:cortex
343:After
78:Stages
3309:Dream
3192:Story
3145:Futon
3078:Other
2626:Sleep
2584:S2CID
2448:S2CID
2432:JSTOR
2376:S2CID
2329:S2CID
2282:S2CID
1991:Sleep
1968:S2CID
1917:S2CID
1889:(PDF)
1862:(PDF)
1851:S2CID
1815:(PDF)
1746:S2CID
1660:S2CID
1621:(PDF)
1610:S2CID
1582:(PDF)
1560:S2CID
1517:S2CID
1474:S2CID
1303:Sleep
1275:S2CID
1170:Ratio
1129:Sleep
1080:Sleep
590:S2CID
511:S2CID
467:like
461:birds
50:sleep
2628:and
2576:PMID
2538:ISBN
2519:ISBN
2498:PMID
2469:PMID
2440:PMID
2368:PMID
2356:1406
2321:PMID
2274:PMID
2235:PMID
2217:ISSN
2176:PMID
2158:ISSN
2117:PMID
2068:PMID
2017:PMID
1960:PMID
1909:PMID
1843:PMID
1790:PMID
1738:PMID
1695:PMID
1652:PMID
1602:PMID
1552:PMID
1509:PMID
1466:PMID
1427:PMID
1381:PMID
1329:PMID
1267:PMID
1228:PMID
1186:ISSN
1147:PMID
1106:PMID
1098:ISSN
1050:ISBN
1010:ISBN
977:PMID
932:PMID
910:2017
880:PMID
788:PMID
709:ISBN
662:ISBN
639:PMID
582:PMID
574:ISSN
536:help
476:rats
42:NREM
3229:Nap
3125:Bed
2568:doi
2490:doi
2424:doi
2412:309
2360:doi
2313:doi
2266:doi
2262:134
2225:PMC
2207:doi
2166:PMC
2148:doi
2107:PMC
2099:doi
2058:PMC
2048:doi
2007:PMC
1999:doi
1952:doi
1940:444
1901:doi
1897:167
1835:doi
1823:315
1780:doi
1730:doi
1718:179
1687:doi
1644:doi
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1540:180
1501:doi
1458:doi
1417:doi
1371:PMC
1363:doi
1319:PMC
1311:doi
1259:doi
1178:doi
1137:doi
1088:doi
1042:doi
1002:doi
969:doi
922:PMC
914:doi
870:PMC
862:doi
850:324
778:PMC
770:doi
629:PMC
621:doi
566:doi
501:doi
474:In
340:."
283:EKG
255:or
113:EEG
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