62:, but changes in the father's brain occur alongside the mother. Research on this topic is continuing to expand as more researchers examine fathers. Many of the brain regions and networks responsible for parental behavior are responsible for parental behavior in human fathers after having a child. Changes in hormones, brain activation and brain structure (mainly changes in gray matter) are seen in both human mothers and fathers, with hormonal changes beginning in both males and females before the birth of their children, with changes continuing to develop after the birth of children.
250:
19:
509:) were found among these post-traumatically stressed mothers of toddlers compared to mothers of toddlers without PTSD in response to stressful parent-child interactions as well as, within a different sample, in response to menacing adult male-female interactions. In the latter study, this pattern of corticolimbic dysregulation was linked to less observed
257:
The amygdala and medial prefrontal cortex also contain receptors for the hormones which are most likely to be changing behavior at the time of pregnancy, and may be the sites where these changes occur. Increased activity has also been observed in the amygdala as the mother is responding to emotions
168:
Different areas/structures of the brain are associated with different factors which contribute to maternal behavior. One's own infant acts as a special stimulus which triggers activation of different areas of the brain. These brain areas together allow for maternal behavior and related systems.
143:
In the first few days after giving birth the levels of cortisol are high which correlates with maternal approach behavior and positive maternal attitudes. Mothers with high levels of cortisol were also found to be more vocal towards their children. Mothers who experienced adversity in their own
37:
towards infant cues, processing those cues and being motivated to engage socially with her infant and attend to the infant's needs in any context could be described as mothering behavior and is regulated by many systems in the maternal brain. Research has shown that hormones such as
269:(DLPFC) plays a role in the attention, cognitive flexibility and working memory of the mother. It helps the mother identify infant cues. In any environment and efficiently, it allows for the decision-making and action planning process involved in attending to the infant's cues.
728:
in the paternal brain has also been correlated with a more positive response to the infant's cry. Similar to mothers, fathers have a reduction of gray matter in the orbitofrontal cortex areas, and increase of gray matter in the hypothalamus and amygdala after having a child.
541:
Rat mothers provide high levels of maternal care (licking and grooming) to their offspring if they themselves received high maternal care as a pup from their own mothers. Rat mothers who received low levels of maternal care as pups have lower levels of expression of the
513:
during mother-child play. Decreased ventral-medial prefrontal cortex activity in violence-exposed mothers, in response to viewing their own and unfamiliar toddlers in video-clips of separation versus play, has also been associated with increased PTSD symptoms,
3297:
Seifritz E, Esposito F, Neuhoff JG, LĂĽthi A, Mustovic H, Dammann G, von
Bardeleben U, Radue EW, Cirillo S, Tedeschi G, Di Salle F (15 December 2003). "Differential sex-independent amygdala response to infant crying and laughing in parents versus nonparents".
492:
as associated with specific patterns of maternal neural activation in response to viewing silent video-stimuli of stressful parent-toddler interactions such as separation versus less-stressful ones such as play. Importantly, less medial
54:
are essential for the onset and the maintenance of maternal behavior in rats, and other mammals as well. Mothering behavior has also been classified within the basic drives (sexual desire, hunger and thirst, fear, power/dominance etc.).
389:
These changes in the brain may occur in order to promote appropriate mothering behavior. The mother's positive attitude towards the infant can be used as a predictor for the increase in gray matter in the above stated brain structures.
947:
Rosenblatt, JS; Olufowobi, A; Siegel, HI (April 1998). "Effects of pregnancy hormones on maternal responsiveness, responsiveness to estrogen stimulation of maternal behavior, and the lordosis response to estrogen stimulation".
3100:
Feldman, R; Gordon, I; Schneiderman, I; Weisman, O; Zagoory-Sharon, O (September 2010). "Natural variations in maternal and paternal care are associated with systematic changes in oxytocin following parent-infant contact".
558:
to their own mothers display higher amygdala sensitivity to negative emotional stimuli, like hearing their infant cry. Having more difficulty dealing with stress makes mothers less responsive to their infant's cues.
810:
Barrett, Jennifer; Fleming, Alison S. (1 April 2011). "Annual
Research Review: All mothers are not created equal: neural and psychobiological perspectives on mothering and the importance of individual differences".
2637:
Francis, DD; Young, LJ; Meaney, MJ; Insel, TR (May 2002). "Naturally occurring differences in maternal care are associated with the expression of oxytocin and vasopressin (V1a) receptors: gender differences".
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Belsky, J; Jaffee, SR; Sligo, J; Woodward, L; Silva, PA (March–April 2005). "Intergenerational transmission of warm-sensitive-stimulating parenting: a prospective study of mothers and fathers of 3-year-olds".
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Schechter, DS; Moser, DA; Paoloni-Giacobino, A; Stenz, A; Gex-Fabry, M; Aue, T; Adouan, W; Cordero, MI; Suardi, F; Manini, A; Sancho
Rossignol, A; Merminod, G; Ansermet, F; Dayer, AG; Rusconi Serpa, S (2015).
2268:
Castro-Fornieles, J; Bargalló, N; Lázaro, L; Andrés, S; Falcon, C; Plana, MT; Junqué, C (January 2009). "A cross-sectional and follow-up voxel-based morphometric MRI study in adolescent anorexia nervosa".
1334:
Leuner, B; Mirescu, C; Noiman, L; Gould, E (2007). "Maternal experience inhibits the production of immature neurons in the hippocampus during the postpartum period through elevations in adrenal steroids".
2467:"Methylation of NR3C1 is related to maternal PTSD, parenting stress and maternal medial prefrontal cortical activity in response to child separation among mothers with histories of violence exposure"
75:
Different hormone levels in the maternal brain and the overall well being of the mother account for 40%–50% of differences in the mother's attachment to her infant. Mothers experience a decrease in
2799:
Lemche, E; Giampietro, VP; Surguladze, SA; Amaro, EJ; Andrew, CM; Williams, SC; Brammer, MJ; Lawrence, N; Maier, MA; Russell, TA; Simmons, A; Ecker, C; Joraschky, P; Phillips, ML (August 2006).
2449:
Moser, DA; Aue, T; Favez, N; Kutlikova, H; Suardi, F; Cordero, MI; Rusconi Serpa, S; Schechter, DS. "Violence-related PTSD and neural activation when seeing emotional male-female interactions".
1913:
Shingo, T; Gregg, C; Enwere, E; Fujikawa, H; Hassam, R; Geary, C; Cross, JC; Weiss, S (3 January 2003). "Pregnancy-stimulated neurogenesis in the adult female forebrain mediated by prolactin".
200:. All these hormones are involved in some way in activating maternal behavior in the brain. The following are other behavioral changes necessary for mothering that the MPOA is responsible for:
1814:
Darnaudéry M, Perez-Martin M, Del Favero F, Gomez-Roldan C, Garcia-Segura LM, Maccari S (August 2007). "Early motherhood in rats is associated with a modification of hippocampal function".
1378:
Rees, SL; Panesar, S; Steiner, M; Fleming, AS (March 2006). "The effects of adrenalectomy and corticosterone replacement on induction of maternal behavior in the virgin female rat".
2059:
Featherstone, RE; Fleming, AS; Ivy, GO (February 2000). "Plasticity in the maternal circuit: effects of experience and partum condition on brain astrocyte number in female rats".
111:
in the maternal brain correlate with maternal behaviors such as gazing, vocalization, positive affect, affectionate touch and other similar mother-infant relationship behaviors.
2225:
Protopopescu, X; Butler, T; Pan, H; Root, J; Altemus, M; Polanecsky, M; McEwen, B; Silbersweig, D; Stern, E (2008). "Hippocampal structural changes across the menstrual cycle".
1624:
Williams, MA; McGlone, F; Abbott, DF; Mattingley, JB (15 January 2005). "Differential amygdala responses to happy and fearful facial expressions depend on selective attention".
603:
species, including humans, the father plays a significant role in caring for his young. Similar to the changes that occur in the maternal brain, the same areas of the brain (
530:
and provide that same experience for their own children. Mothers that had negative experiences involving their families undergo neurobiological changes which lead to high
2694:
Kaffman, A; Meaney, MJ (March–April 2007). "Neurodevelopmental sequelae of postnatal maternal care in rodents: clinical and research implications of molecular insights".
2353:
Schechter, DS; Moser, D; Wang, Z; Marsh, R; Hao, XJ; Duan, Y; Yu, S; Gunter, B; Murphy, D; McCaw, J; Kangarlu, A; Willheim, E; Myers, M; Hofer, M; Peterson, BS (2012).
3149:
Fleming, AS; Corter, C; Stallings, J; Steiner, M (December 2002). "Testosterone and prolactin are associated with emotional responses to infant cries in new fathers".
3211:
Kozorovitskiy, Y; Hughes, M; Lee, K; Gould, E (September 2006). "Fatherhood affects dendritic spines and vasopressin V1a receptors in the primate prefrontal cortex".
1443:
Matthiesen, AS; Ransjö-Arvidson AB; Nissen E; Uvnäs-Moberg K. (2001). "Postpartum maternal oxytocin release by newborns: effects of infant hand massage and sucking".
2602:
Francis, D; Diorio, J; Liu, D; Meaney, MJ (5 November 1999). "Nongenomic transmission across generations of maternal behavior and stress responses in the rat".
397:. Postpartum increase in gray matter volumes may help the mother activate the motivation to perform maternal behavior in response to cue from their offspring.
2848:
Martorell, GA; Bugental, DB (December 2006). "Maternal variations in stress reactivity: implications for harsh parenting practices with very young children".
651:
levels are positively correlated with the amount of affection the father displays towards the child. In humans, and in other primate species, lower levels of
1581:
Killgore, WD; Yurgelun-Todd, DA (April 2004). "Activation of the amygdala and anterior cingulate during nonconscious processing of sad versus happy faces".
2182:
Noriuchi, M; Kikuchi, Y; Senoo, A (15 February 2008). "The functional neuroanatomy of maternal love: mother's response to infant's attachment behaviors".
993:"Fear and power-dominance drive motivation: neural representations and pathways mediating sensory and mnemonic inputs, and outputs to premotor structures"
550:. In human mothers, lower hippocampal volume has been associated with a lower ability to regulate emotions and stress, which can be linked with decreased
160:
Glucocorticoids are not essential for displaying maternal behaviors, but in mothers, the levels of glucocorticoids are elevated as to initiate lactation.
562:
Larger gray matter and increased activations of the following brain areas occur in mothers who had experienced higher quality maternal care as infants:
2404:"Comorbid dissociation dampens limbic activation in violence-exposed mothers with PTSD who are exposed to video-clips of their child during separation"
693:
receptors in this area of the paternal brain. With age, this effect is reversed, and is therefore believed to be driven by father-infant interactions.
1667:
Platek, SM; Kemp, SM (February 2009). "Is family special to the brain? An event-related fMRI study of familiar, familial, and self-face recognition".
1867:
Pawluski, JL; Galea, LA (12 October 2007). "Reproductive experience alters hippocampal neurogenesis during the postpartum period in the dam".
2729:
Bredy, TW; Grant, RJ; Champagne, DL; Meaney, MJ (November 2003). "Maternal care influences neuronal survival in the hippocampus of the rat".
2567:
Meaney, MJ (2001). "Maternal care, gene expression, and the transmission of individual differences in stress reactivity across generations".
1199:
Flemming, A.S; Steiner M; Andreson V (1987). "Hormonal and attitudinal correlates of maternal behavior during the early postparpregnancy".
2554:
The developmental and evolutionary psychology of intergenerational transmission of attachment in
Attachment and bonding: A new synthesis
863:
Endocrine regulation of parental behavior in rodents, Mammalian parenting: Biochemical, neurobiological and behavioral determinants
1284:"The relation between early life adversity, cortisol awakening response and diurnal salivary cortisol levels in postpartum women"
1040:
Provenzi, L.; Lindstedt, J.; De Coen, K.; Gasparini, L.; Peruzzo, D.; Grumi, S.; Arrigoni, F.; Ahlqvist-Björkroth, S. (2021).
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occur in the paternal brain. These hormonal changes occur through the father's interaction with the mother and his offspring.
2886:
Kim, Pilyoung; Leckman, James F.; Mayes, Linda C.; Newman, Michal-Ann; Feldman, Ruth; Swain, James E. (30 September 2009).
2304:
Raji, CA; Ho, AJ; Parikshak, NN; Becker, JT; Lopez, OL; Kuller, LH; Hua, X; Leow, AD; Toga, AW; Thompson, PM (March 2010).
258:
seen in negative (fearful) faces, positive faces or familiar faces that her baby makes. Primate mothers with damage to the
3454:
724:
in the paternal brain correlates with the effectiveness of the father's response to the baby's cry. Increased levels of
480:
Recent research has begun to look at how maternal psychopathology affects the maternal brain in relation to parenting.
3343:"Brain basis of early parent-infant interactions: psychology, physiology, and in vivo functional neuroimaging studies"
1131:"Hormonal and experiential correlates of maternal responsiveness during pregnancy and the puerperium in human mothers"
1096:"First-time fathers show longitudinal gray matter cortical volume reductions: evidence from two international samples"
2801:"Human attachment security is mediated by the amygdala: evidence from combined fMRI and psychophysiological measures"
1246:
3254:
Mak, GK; Weiss, S (June 2010). "Paternal recognition of adult offspring mediated by newly generated CNS neurons".
3192:
Kozorovitskiy, Y; et al. (2007). "Fatherhood influences neurogenesis in the hippocampus of
California mice".
2355:"An fMRI study of the brain responses of traumatized mothers to viewing their toddlers during separation and play"
2012:"The plasticity of human maternal brain: Longitudinal changes in brain anatomy during the early postpartum period"
1710:
Franzen, EA; Myers, RE (May 1973). "Neural control of social behavior: prefrontal and anterior temporal cortex".
1126:
2010:
Kim, Pilyoung; Leckman, James F.; Mayes, Linda C.; Feldman, Ruth; Wang, Xin; Swain, James E. (1 January 2010).
1532:"General and specific responsiveness of the amygdala during explicit emotion recognition in females and males"
29:
Parental experience, as well as changing hormone levels during pregnancy and postpartum, cause changes in the
878:
Oxytocin and maternal behavior, Mammalian parenting: biochemical, neurobiological and behavioral determinants
485:
2937:
2094:
McEwen, BS (July 2007). "Physiology and neurobiology of stress and adaptation: central role of the brain".
1530:
Derntl, B; Habel, U; Windischberger, C; Robinson, S; Kryspin-Exner, I; Gur, RC; Moser, E (4 August 2009).
3459:
526:
Women who had a positive experience involving their family in their childhood are more likely to be more
3015:
Fernandez-Duque, E; et al. (2009). "The biology of paternal care in human and non-human primates".
1042:"The Paternal Brain in Action: A Review of Human Fathers' fMRI Brain Responses to Child-Related Stimuli"
2935:
Mayes, L.C; Leckman, J.F (2007). "Parental representation and subclinical changes in postpartum mood".
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has also been associated with mothers who received low quality maternal care early in their own life.
1095:
489:
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2143:
1268:
572:
242:
231:
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Lonstein, JS; De Vries, GJ (August 2000). "Sex differences in the parental behavior of rodents".
1964:
Furuta, M; Bridges, RS (21 April 2005). "Gestation-induced cell proliferation in the rat brain".
394:
173:
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2138:
531:
120:
2888:"Perceived quality of maternal care in childhood and structure and function of mothers' brain"
2402:
Moser, DA; Aue, T; Wang, Z; Rusconi-Serpa, S; Favez, N.; Peterson, BS; Schechter, DS (2014).
588:
1922:
1747:"Alterations of the cortical representation of the rat ventrum induced by nursing behavior"
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551:
527:
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149:
34:
8:
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Bartels, A; Zeki, S (March 2004). "The neural correlates of maternal and romantic love".
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Heim, C; Nemeroff, CB (January 2009). "Neurobiology of posttraumatic stress disorder".
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Also in rats, the increased interaction with pups causes an increase in density in the
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In human mothers there was a correlation between increased gray matter volume in the
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Kim, P.; Rigo, P.; Mayes, L. C.; Feldman, R.; Leckman, J. F.; Swain, J. E. (2014).
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Newborns placed skin-to-skin with their mothers to study maternal oxytocin release.
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serve for processing the smell, touch and vocalization associated with the infant.
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893:"Motivational systems and the neural circuitry of maternal behavior in the rat"
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The volume of gray matter increases postpartum in the following brain regions:
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59:
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Maternal responsiveness in humans: Emotional, cognitive and biological factors
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of the paternal brain have been linked in some species to recognition of kin.
249:
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Wynne-Edwards, KE (September 2001). "Hormonal changes in mammalian fathers".
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Postpartum, new neuron production is suppressed due to decreased levels of
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Skin-to-skin contact with a newborn helps to increase the mother's oxytocin
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which are thought to suppress the production of new cells in the brain.
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and colleagues have studied specifically interpersonal violence-related
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such as enhancing spatial navigation learning and behaviors linked with
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This allows the mother to be more sensitive to her own infant's needs.
463:
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Swain, JE; Lorberbaum, JP; Kose, S; Strathearn, L (March–April 2007).
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may also be factors which trigger the maternal brain to change during
2728:
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644:
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etc.) are activated in the father, and hormonal changes occur in the
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538:. This causes lower maternal responsiveness to their infant's needs.
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postpartum in the rat maternal brain. Maternal experience increases
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mother rats. Mother-infant interaction is also thought to suppress
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Journal of Child
Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines
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Journal of Child
Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines
2224:
1912:
1282:
Gonzalez, A; Jenkins, JM; Steiner, M; Fleming, AS (January 2009).
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in both fathers and mothers, but not in non-parents. The level of
2303:
1333:
1125:
1039:
474:
2601:
946:
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due to the increased interaction of the mother with the infant.
518:
and decreased methylation of the glucocorticoid receptor gene.
451:
197:
2058:
675:. Just like in mothers, fathers also have increased levels of
308:
period cause changes in the structures of the maternal brain.
567:
3296:
340:(SBZ) which is responsible for producing the neurons of the
262:
have also been associated with disrupted maternal behavior.
1744:
1198:
428:
begin to change during pregnancy due to the high levels of
2689:
2687:
2181:
663:
In father rats, just as in the mother rats, a decrease in
2401:
2175:
1580:
931:
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753:
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Maternal experience alters behaviors which stem from the
1809:
1807:
1805:
1427:
2684:
2352:
2218:
2052:
1957:
1483:"Amygdala activation predicts gaze toward fearful eyes"
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Maternal
Behavior in Neill's physiology of reproduction
1176:
1174:
984:
2928:
2765:
2359:
Journal of Social
Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience
1194:
1192:
880:. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 260–280.
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have been linked to the display of paternal behavior.
3144:
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3048:
2847:
2841:
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1802:
865:. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 93–117.
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fathers have enhanced dendritic spine density in the
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1908:
1906:
1787:
1329:
1327:
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and positive emotional feelings towards the infant.
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activates positive responses to the pup stimuli via
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In animals, structures of the mother's brain change
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745:
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741:
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176:(MPOA) of the hypothalamus contains receptors for
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2509:
2005:
2003:
2001:
1999:
1997:
1995:
1963:
1903:
1866:
1745:Xerri, C; Stern, JM; Merzenich, MM (March 1994).
1322:
754:Leuner, B; Glasper, ER; Gould, E (October 2010).
3436:
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1738:
1709:
1121:
1119:
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738:
546:receptor gene and lower synaptic density in the
521:
3392:"Neural Plasticity in Fathers of Human Infants"
3014:
1371:
1129:; Ruble, D; Krieger, H; Wong, PY (April 1997).
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1992:
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1480:
1432:. San Diego, CA: Elsevier. pp. 1921–1993.
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1222:
940:
348:is the hormone which mediates the increase in
3191:
3056:
2965:
2556:. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. pp. 169–198.
1860:
1617:
1574:
1423:
1421:
1419:
1417:
1275:
1201:Journal of Reproductive and Infant Psychology
1114:
712:Being exposed to crying babies activates the
114:
1966:Brain Research. Developmental Brain Research
1703:
1436:
689:. This increase correlates with increase in
432:experienced by the mother during this time.
3253:
2560:
2451:Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience
2261:
2087:
1660:
1523:
1219:
854:
839:
626:
70:
3185:
1793:
1414:
1180:
813:Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry
3415:
3366:
3204:
3036:
2911:
2824:
2651:
2492:
2482:
2378:
2329:
2297:
2142:
2035:
1835:
1770:
1557:
1547:
1506:
1146:
1067:
1057:
1008:
934:Motherhood in human and nonhuman primates
925:
908:
884:
869:
779:
623:to ensure display of parenting behavior.
991:Sewards, TV; Sewards, MA (August 2002).
248:
144:childhood, had higher daily patterns of
17:
860:
845:
215:stimulus salience (changes made by the
3437:
2974:Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews
2566:
2551:
2093:
1798:. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. pp. 31–60.
1681:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2008.12.027
997:Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews
932:Pryce C.R; Martin RD; Skuse D (1995).
1428:Numan M; Fleming A.S; Levy F (2006).
1183:The Neurobiology of Parental Behavior
1089:
1087:
890:
875:
287:
204:mother's affect (changes made by the
3029:10.1146/annurev-anthro-091908-164334
2731:The European Journal of Neuroscience
1481:Gamer, M; BĂĽchel, C (15 July 2009).
658:
311:
707:
411:
13:
1881:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2007.07.031
1763:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.14-03-01710.1994
1084:
848:Neurobiology of the parental brain
155:
123:correlates with a higher ratio of
14:
3471:
1978:10.1016/j.devbrainres.2005.01.008
1233:. Vol. 19. pp. 83–136.
594:
99:and interaction with the infant.
65:
3359:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2007.01731.x
2904:10.1111/j.1467-7687.2009.00923.x
2743:10.1111/j.1460-9568.2003.02965.x
2708:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2007.01730.x
2662:10.1046/j.0007-1331.2002.00776.x
2531:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2005.00852.x
2283:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2008.03.013
2153:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2003.11.003
1638:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2004.08.017
1595:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2003.12.033
1457:10.1046/j.1523-536x.2001.00013.x
1229:Corter, C; Flemming A.S (1990).
825:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2010.02306.x
3383:
2581:10.1146/annurev.neuro.24.1.1161
2457:
2442:
2395:
2346:
2271:Journal of Psychiatric Research
1474:
1033:
226:attention (changes made by the
163:
3115:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2010.01.013
2196:10.1016/j.biopsych.2007.05.018
1828:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2007.05.012
1499:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1883-09.2009
1300:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2008.08.012
267:dorsolateral prefrontal cortex
1:
3312:10.1016/s0006-3223(03)00697-8
2986:10.1016/S0149-7634(00)00036-1
2640:Journal of Neuroendocrinology
2616:10.1126/science.286.5442.1155
2569:Annual Review of Neuroscience
2306:"Brain structure and obesity"
1239:10.1016/s0065-3454(08)60201-6
1010:10.1016/S0149-7634(02)00020-9
732:
522:Early experiences and shaping
486:posttraumatic stress disorder
3408:10.1080/17470919.2014.933713
2938:Infant Mental Health Journal
2850:Journal of Family Psychology
2420:10.3109/10253890.2013.816280
1724:10.1016/0028-3932(73)90002-x
237:memory (changes made by the
7:
2073:10.1037/0735-7044.114.1.158
1751:The Journal of Neuroscience
1487:The Journal of Neuroscience
1392:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2005.08.012
1181:Numan, M; Insel, T (2003).
897:Developmental Psychobiology
138:
102:
10:
3476:
3455:Developmental neuroscience
2862:10.1037/0893-3200.20.4.641
2108:10.1152/physrev.00041.2006
772:10.1016/j.tins.2010.07.003
756:"Parenting and plasticity"
554:as a mother. Mothers with
115:Estradiol and progesterone
1213:10.1080/02646838708403495
891:Numan, M (January 2007).
631:An increase in levels of
135:, than at the beginning.
3194:Society for Neuroscience
3103:Psychoneuroendocrinology
2484:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00690
1816:Psychoneuroendocrinology
1794:Rosenblatt, J.S (2002).
1288:Psychoneuroendocrinology
1059:10.3390/brainsci11060816
627:Paternal hormonal effect
573:superior temporal sulcus
320:and increased levels of
243:medial prefrontal cortex
232:medial prefrontal cortex
121:mother-infant attachment
71:Maternal hormonal effect
58:Less is known about the
2471:Frontiers in Psychology
2061:Behavioral Neuroscience
2016:Behavioral Neuroscience
1935:10.1126/science.1076647
1549:10.1186/1471-2202-10-91
760:Trends in Neurosciences
22:Maternal affection, by
3163:10.1006/hbeh.2002.1840
3071:10.1006/hbeh.2001.1699
1148:10.1006/hbeh.1997.1376
962:10.1006/hbeh.1998.1441
850:. Amsterdam: Academic.
442:Other changes such as
254:
148:levels, and were less
26:
3300:Biological Psychiatry
3151:Hormones and Behavior
3059:Hormones and Behavior
2892:Developmental Science
2184:Biological Psychiatry
2096:Physiological Reviews
1796:Handbook of parenting
1380:Hormones and Behavior
1135:Hormones and Behavior
950:Hormones and Behavior
861:Bridges, R.S (1990).
589:Postpartum depression
579:middle frontal cortex
497:activity and greater
252:
21:
3017:Annu. Rev. Anthropol
2780:(1 Suppl 1): 13–24.
556:insecure attachments
552:maternal sensitivity
528:maternally sensitive
511:maternal sensitivity
488:(PTSD) and comorbid
174:Medial Preoptic Area
150:maternally sensitive
35:maternal sensitivity
3396:Social Neuroscience
3256:Nature Neuroscience
3213:Nature Neuroscience
2805:Human Brain Mapping
2371:10.1093/scan/nsr069
2310:Human Brain Mapping
1927:2003Sci...299..117S
1757:(3 Pt 2): 1710–21.
936:. New York: Karger.
846:Bridges, R (2008).
536:insecure attachment
338:subventricular zone
79:and an increase in
24:Edward Hodges Baily
3460:Neuroendocrinology
2951:10.1002/imhj.20136
2552:Belsky, J (2005).
2239:10.1002/hipo.20468
1349:10.1002/hipo.20278
1185:. Springer-Verlag.
288:Postpartum changes
255:
27:
2817:10.1002/hbm.20206
2519:Child Development
2322:10.1002/hbm.20870
910:10.1002/dev.20198
876:Insel, T (1990).
714:prefrontal cortex
702:prefrontal cortex
687:prefrontal cortex
659:In animal fathers
613:prefrontal cortex
503:entorhinal cortex
495:prefrontal cortex
422:prefrontal cortex
312:In animal mothers
260:prefrontal cortex
239:nucleus accumbens
228:nucleus accumbens
221:nucleus accumbens
210:prefrontal cortex
3467:
3430:
3429:
3419:
3387:
3381:
3380:
3370:
3338:
3332:
3331:
3294:
3288:
3287:
3251:
3245:
3244:
3208:
3202:
3201:
3189:
3183:
3182:
3146:
3135:
3134:
3097:
3091:
3090:
3054:
3043:
3042:
3040:
3012:
3006:
3005:
2969:
2963:
2962:
2932:
2926:
2925:
2915:
2883:
2874:
2873:
2845:
2839:
2838:
2828:
2796:
2790:
2789:
2769:
2763:
2762:
2726:
2720:
2719:
2691:
2682:
2681:
2655:
2634:
2628:
2627:
2610:(5442): 1155–8.
2599:
2593:
2592:
2564:
2558:
2557:
2549:
2543:
2542:
2513:
2507:
2506:
2496:
2486:
2461:
2455:
2454:
2446:
2440:
2439:
2399:
2393:
2392:
2382:
2350:
2344:
2343:
2333:
2301:
2295:
2294:
2265:
2259:
2258:
2222:
2216:
2215:
2179:
2173:
2172:
2146:
2126:
2120:
2119:
2091:
2085:
2084:
2056:
2050:
2049:
2039:
2028:10.1037/a0020884
2007:
1990:
1989:
1961:
1955:
1954:
1921:(5603): 117–20.
1910:
1901:
1900:
1864:
1858:
1857:
1839:
1811:
1800:
1799:
1791:
1785:
1784:
1774:
1742:
1736:
1735:
1712:Neuropsychologia
1707:
1701:
1700:
1669:Neuropsychologia
1664:
1658:
1657:
1621:
1615:
1614:
1578:
1572:
1571:
1561:
1551:
1536:BMC Neuroscience
1527:
1521:
1520:
1510:
1478:
1472:
1471:
1440:
1434:
1433:
1425:
1412:
1411:
1375:
1369:
1368:
1331:
1320:
1319:
1279:
1273:
1272:
1266:
1262:
1260:
1252:
1226:
1217:
1216:
1196:
1187:
1186:
1178:
1169:
1168:
1150:
1123:
1112:
1111:
1109:
1107:
1101:academic.oup.com
1098:
1091:
1082:
1081:
1071:
1061:
1037:
1031:
1030:
1012:
988:
982:
981:
944:
938:
937:
929:
923:
922:
912:
888:
882:
881:
873:
867:
866:
858:
852:
851:
843:
837:
836:
807:
794:
793:
783:
751:
708:In human fathers
566:middle temporal
516:parenting stress
482:Daniel Schechter
437:substantia nigra
412:In human mothers
402:substantia nigra
400:Postpartum, the
378:substantia nigra
3475:
3474:
3470:
3469:
3468:
3466:
3465:
3464:
3435:
3434:
3433:
3388:
3384:
3353:(3–4): 262–87.
3339:
3335:
3306:(12): 1367–75.
3295:
3291:
3268:10.1038/nn.2550
3252:
3248:
3209:
3205:
3190:
3186:
3147:
3138:
3098:
3094:
3055:
3046:
3013:
3009:
2970:
2966:
2933:
2929:
2884:
2877:
2846:
2842:
2797:
2793:
2770:
2766:
2727:
2723:
2702:(3–4): 224–44.
2692:
2685:
2653:10.1.1.319.5416
2635:
2631:
2600:
2596:
2565:
2561:
2550:
2546:
2514:
2510:
2462:
2458:
2447:
2443:
2400:
2396:
2351:
2347:
2302:
2298:
2266:
2262:
2223:
2219:
2180:
2176:
2144:10.1.1.214.3081
2127:
2123:
2092:
2088:
2057:
2053:
2008:
1993:
1962:
1958:
1911:
1904:
1865:
1861:
1812:
1803:
1792:
1788:
1743:
1739:
1708:
1704:
1665:
1661:
1622:
1618:
1579:
1575:
1528:
1524:
1479:
1475:
1441:
1437:
1426:
1415:
1376:
1372:
1332:
1323:
1280:
1276:
1264:
1263:
1254:
1253:
1249:
1227:
1220:
1197:
1190:
1179:
1172:
1124:
1115:
1105:
1103:
1093:
1092:
1085:
1038:
1034:
989:
985:
945:
941:
930:
926:
889:
885:
874:
870:
859:
855:
844:
840:
808:
797:
752:
739:
735:
710:
677:glucocorticoids
661:
637:glucocorticoids
629:
597:
534:reactivity and
524:
501:activity (i.e.
444:menstrual cycle
414:
383:globus pallidus
322:glucocorticoids
314:
290:
278:parietal cortex
166:
158:
156:Glucocorticoids
141:
117:
105:
73:
68:
12:
11:
5:
3473:
3463:
3462:
3457:
3452:
3447:
3432:
3431:
3402:(5): 522–535.
3382:
3333:
3289:
3246:
3225:10.1038/nn1753
3203:
3184:
3157:(4): 399–413.
3136:
3109:(8): 1133–41.
3092:
3044:
3007:
2964:
2945:(3): 281–295.
2927:
2898:(4): 662–673.
2875:
2840:
2791:
2764:
2737:(10): 2903–9.
2721:
2683:
2629:
2594:
2559:
2544:
2508:
2456:
2441:
2394:
2345:
2296:
2260:
2217:
2174:
2137:(3): 1155–66.
2121:
2102:(3): 873–904.
2086:
2051:
2022:(5): 695–700.
1991:
1956:
1902:
1859:
1801:
1786:
1737:
1702:
1659:
1616:
1589:(4): 1215–23.
1573:
1522:
1493:(28): 9123–6.
1473:
1435:
1413:
1370:
1321:
1274:
1265:|journal=
1247:
1218:
1188:
1170:
1113:
1083:
1046:Brain Sciences
1032:
983:
939:
924:
883:
868:
853:
838:
819:(4): 368–397.
795:
766:(10): 465–73.
736:
734:
731:
709:
706:
660:
657:
628:
625:
621:paternal brain
617:olfactory bulb
599:In only 6% of
596:
595:Paternal brain
593:
583:
582:
576:
570:
544:glucocorticoid
523:
520:
413:
410:
387:
386:
380:
375:
370:
342:olfactory bulb
313:
310:
289:
286:
247:
246:
235:
224:
213:
165:
162:
157:
154:
140:
137:
131:at the end of
116:
113:
107:The levels of
104:
101:
72:
69:
67:
66:Maternal brain
64:
60:paternal brain
31:parental brain
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3472:
3461:
3458:
3456:
3453:
3451:
3448:
3446:
3443:
3442:
3440:
3427:
3423:
3418:
3413:
3409:
3405:
3401:
3397:
3393:
3386:
3378:
3374:
3369:
3364:
3360:
3356:
3352:
3348:
3344:
3337:
3329:
3325:
3321:
3317:
3313:
3309:
3305:
3301:
3293:
3285:
3281:
3277:
3273:
3269:
3265:
3261:
3257:
3250:
3242:
3238:
3234:
3230:
3226:
3222:
3219:(9): 1094–5.
3218:
3214:
3207:
3199:
3195:
3188:
3180:
3176:
3172:
3168:
3164:
3160:
3156:
3152:
3145:
3143:
3141:
3132:
3128:
3124:
3120:
3116:
3112:
3108:
3104:
3096:
3088:
3084:
3080:
3076:
3072:
3068:
3065:(2): 139–45.
3064:
3060:
3053:
3051:
3049:
3039:
3034:
3030:
3026:
3022:
3018:
3011:
3003:
2999:
2995:
2991:
2987:
2983:
2980:(6): 669–86.
2979:
2975:
2968:
2960:
2956:
2952:
2948:
2944:
2940:
2939:
2931:
2923:
2919:
2914:
2909:
2905:
2901:
2897:
2893:
2889:
2882:
2880:
2871:
2867:
2863:
2859:
2855:
2851:
2844:
2836:
2832:
2827:
2822:
2818:
2814:
2811:(8): 623–35.
2810:
2806:
2802:
2795:
2787:
2783:
2779:
2775:
2774:CNS Spectrums
2768:
2760:
2756:
2752:
2748:
2744:
2740:
2736:
2732:
2725:
2717:
2713:
2709:
2705:
2701:
2697:
2690:
2688:
2679:
2675:
2671:
2667:
2663:
2659:
2654:
2649:
2646:(5): 349–53.
2645:
2641:
2633:
2625:
2621:
2617:
2613:
2609:
2605:
2598:
2590:
2586:
2582:
2578:
2574:
2570:
2563:
2555:
2548:
2540:
2536:
2532:
2528:
2525:(2): 384–96.
2524:
2520:
2512:
2504:
2500:
2495:
2490:
2485:
2480:
2476:
2472:
2468:
2460:
2452:
2445:
2437:
2433:
2429:
2425:
2421:
2417:
2414:(5): 493–50.
2413:
2409:
2405:
2398:
2390:
2386:
2381:
2376:
2372:
2368:
2365:(8): 969–79.
2364:
2360:
2356:
2349:
2341:
2337:
2332:
2327:
2323:
2319:
2316:(3): 353–64.
2315:
2311:
2307:
2300:
2292:
2288:
2284:
2280:
2277:(3): 331–40.
2276:
2272:
2264:
2256:
2252:
2248:
2244:
2240:
2236:
2233:(10): 985–8.
2232:
2228:
2221:
2213:
2209:
2205:
2201:
2197:
2193:
2190:(4): 415–23.
2189:
2185:
2178:
2170:
2166:
2162:
2158:
2154:
2150:
2145:
2140:
2136:
2132:
2125:
2117:
2113:
2109:
2105:
2101:
2097:
2090:
2082:
2078:
2074:
2070:
2067:(1): 158–72.
2066:
2062:
2055:
2047:
2043:
2038:
2033:
2029:
2025:
2021:
2017:
2013:
2006:
2004:
2002:
2000:
1998:
1996:
1987:
1983:
1979:
1975:
1971:
1967:
1960:
1952:
1948:
1944:
1940:
1936:
1932:
1928:
1924:
1920:
1916:
1909:
1907:
1898:
1894:
1890:
1886:
1882:
1878:
1874:
1870:
1863:
1855:
1851:
1847:
1843:
1838:
1833:
1829:
1825:
1822:(7): 803–12.
1821:
1817:
1810:
1808:
1806:
1797:
1790:
1782:
1778:
1773:
1768:
1764:
1760:
1756:
1752:
1748:
1741:
1733:
1729:
1725:
1721:
1718:(2): 141–57.
1717:
1713:
1706:
1698:
1694:
1690:
1686:
1682:
1678:
1675:(3): 849–58.
1674:
1670:
1663:
1655:
1651:
1647:
1643:
1639:
1635:
1632:(2): 417–25.
1631:
1627:
1620:
1612:
1608:
1604:
1600:
1596:
1592:
1588:
1584:
1577:
1569:
1565:
1560:
1555:
1550:
1545:
1541:
1537:
1533:
1526:
1518:
1514:
1509:
1504:
1500:
1496:
1492:
1488:
1484:
1477:
1470:
1466:
1462:
1458:
1454:
1450:
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