English Poor Laws - Knowledge

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some 1,912 parish and corporation workhouses had been established in England and Wales, housing almost 100,000 paupers. Perhaps one million people were receiving some kind of parish poor relief by the end of the century. Although many parishes and pamphlet writers expected to earn money from the labour of the poor in workhouses, the vast majority of people obliged to take up residence in workhouses were ill, elderly, or children whose labour proved largely unprofitable. The demands, needs and expectations of the poor also ensured that workhouses came to take on the character of general social policy institutions, combining the functions of creche, and night shelter, geriatric ward and orphanage. In 1782,

934:. Despite the aspirations of the reformers, the New Poor Law was unable to make the Workhouse as bad as life outside. The primary problem was that in order to make the diet of the workhouse inmates "less eligible" than what they could expect outside, it would be necessary to starve the inmates beyond an acceptable level. It was for this reason that other ways were found to deter entrance to the workhouses. These measures ranged from the introduction of prison-style uniforms to the segregation of inmates into separate yards for men, women, boys, and girls. 604: 266:

then sworn to return to the place in which he was authorised to beg. An able-bodied beggar was to be whipped, and sworn to return to the place where he was born, or last dwelt for the space of three years, and there put himself to labour. Still no provision was made, though, for the healthy man simply unable to find work. All able-bodied unemployed were put into the same category. Those unable to find work had a stark choice: starve or break the law. In 1535, a bill was drawn up calling for the creation of a system of

687: 4796: 1092: 33: 171:, when an estimated 30–40% of the population died. The decline in population left surviving workers in great demand in the agricultural economy. Landowners had to face the choice of raising wages to compete for workers or letting their lands go unused. Wages for labourers rose, and this forced up prices across the economy as goods became more expensive to produce. An attempt to rein in prices, the ordinance (and subsequent acts, such the 990: 414: 774:(relief given outside of a workhouse) should be abolished – was never implemented. The report recommended separate workhouses for the aged, infirm, children, able-bodied females and able-bodied males. The report also stated that parishes should be grouped into unions in order to spread the cost of workhouses and a central authority should be established in order to enforce these measures. The 144: 733:, which subsidised low wages without relief. The report concluded that the existing Poor Laws undermined the prosperity of the country by interfering with the natural laws of supply and demand, that the existing means of poor relief allowed employers to force down wages, and, that poverty itself was inevitable. 1167:

these workers were provided with outdoor relief. One aspect of the Poor Law that continued to cause resentment was that the burden of poor relief was not shared equally by rich and poor areas but, rather, fell most heavily on those areas in which poverty was at its worst. This was a central issue in the

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presents the first revisionist analysis of the Poor Law in "The Myth of the Old Poor Law and the making of the New", commenting that the Old Poor Law did not reduce the efficiency of agricultural workers, lower wages, depress rents or compound the burden on rate payers. Blaug argues that Old Poor Law

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called for offenders to be burned through the ear for a first offence, and that persistent beggars should be hanged; however, the Act also made the first clear distinction between the "professional beggar" and those unemployed through no fault of their own. Early in her reign, Elizabeth I also passed

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of 1351) required that everyone who could work did; that wages were kept at pre-plague levels; and that food was not overpriced. Workers saw these shortage conditions as an opportunity to flee employers and become freemen, so Edward III passed additional laws to provide for the punishment of the wave

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in 1552 on the condition that the citizens of London pay for their maintenance. However, the city was unable to raise enough revenue from voluntary contributions, so it instituted the first definite compulsory Poor Rate in 1547, which replaced Sunday collections in church with a mandatory collection

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through Parliament in 1723. The act gave legislative authority for the establishment of parochial workhouses, by both single parishes and as joint ventures between two or more parishes. More importantly, the act helped to publicise the idea of establishing workhouses to a national audience. By 1776

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A pauper applicant had to prove a settlement. If he could not, he was removed to the parish nearest to his birthplace, or where he prove some connection; some paupers were moved hundreds of miles. Although the parishes he passed through en route had no responsibility for him, they were supposed to

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was passed that subjected vagrants to some of the more extreme provisions of the criminal law, namely two years servitude and branding with a "V" as the penalty for the first offence, and death for the second. Justices of the Peace were reluctant to apply the full penalty. In 1552, Edward VI passed

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also resulted in opposition. Some who gave evidence to the Royal Commission into the Operation of the Poor Laws suggested that the existing system had proved adequate and was more adaptable to local needs. This argument was strongest in the industrial North of England and in the textile industries

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there is evidence that some workhouses were used as makeshift hospitals for wounded servicemen. Numbers using the Poor Law system increased during the interwar years and between 1921 and 1938 despite the extension of unemployment insurance to virtually all workers except the self-employed. Many of

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to assign to the impotent poor an area within which they were to beg. Generally, the licences to beg for the impotent poor were limited to the disabled, sick, and elderly. An impotent person begging out of his area was to be imprisoned for two days and nights in the stocks, on bread and water, and

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as destroying the self-reliance of the poor. The effect of this renewed effort to deter outdoor relief was to reduce claimants by a third and to increase numbers in the work house by 12–15%. County councils were formed in 1888, and district councils in 1894. This meant that public housing, unlike

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was in some cases impossible without starving paupers, and the high cost of building workhouses incurred by rate payers meant that outdoor relief continued to be a popular alternative. Despite efforts to ban outdoor relief, parishes continued to offer it as a more cost-effective method of dealing

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where he last dwelled, is best known, or was born and there remain upon the pain aforesaid." Although this returned the burden of caring for the jobless to the communities producing more children than they could employ, it offered no immediate remedy to the problem of poverty; it was merely swept

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was set up in each county. However, this system was separate from the 1601 system which distinguished between the settled poor and 'vagrants'. There was much variation in the application of the law and there was a tendency for the destitute to migrate towards the more generous parishes, usually

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was published and was aimed at creating opposition to the workhouse system. and pamphlets were published spreading rumour and propaganda about Poor Law Commissioners and alleged infanticide inside of workhouses. Opposition to the Poor Law yielded some successes in delaying the development of

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has stated that England suffered rapid inflation at this time caused by population growth, the debasement of coinage and the inflow of American silver. Poor harvests in the period between 1595 and 1598 caused the numbers in poverty to increase, while charitable giving had decreased after the

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required all parish residents with ability to contribute to poor collections. Those who "of his or their forward willful mind shall obstinately refuse to give weekly to the relief of the poor according to his or their abilities" could be bound over to justices of the peace and fined £10.

496:, but as they would know their paupers, they were considered able to differentiate between the deserving and undeserving poor, making the system both more humane and initially more efficient. The population was then small enough for everyone to know everyone else's circumstances, so the 1479:

was a device "for dealing with the problems of structural unemployment and substandard wages in the lagging rural sector of a rapidly growing but still underdeveloped economy". Other areas of Poor Law which have concerned historians include the extent to which the Second

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supply food and drink and shelter for at least one night. An act of 1697 required beggars to wear a badge of red or blue cloth on the right shoulder with an embroidered letter "P" and the initial of their parish. However, this practice soon fell into disuse.

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or outdoor relief. Neither method was then deemed harsh. The act was intended to deal with beggars who were considered a threat to civil order. The act was passed at a time when poverty was considered necessary as fear of poverty made people work. In 1607 a

95:, passed in 1834, which significantly modified the system of poor relief. The New Poor Law altered the system from one which was administered haphazardly at a local parish level to a highly centralised system which encouraged the large-scale development of 341:

required towns to create "a competent stock of wool, hemp, flax, iron and other stuff" for the poor to work on and houses of correction for those who refused to work where recalcitrant or careless workers could be forced to work and punished accordingly.

366:& want, as they could be content to hazard their lives, and to sere one yeere for meat, drinke and apparell only, without wages, in hope thereby to amend their estates." With this, he may have been the first to suggest what became the institution of 525:. Unfortunately, the laws reduced the mobility of labour and discouraged the pauper from leaving his parish to find work. They also encouraged industry to create short contracts (e.g. 364 days) that did not make an employee eligible for poor relief. 1473:

has passed through several distinct phases. The "traditionalist" or "orthodox" account of the Poor Laws focuses upon the deficiencies of the Old Poor Law. This early historiography was influential in successfully overhauling the system.

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was passed in order to make the financial burden of pauperism be placed upon the whole unions rather than individual parishes. Most boards of guardians were middle class and committed to keeping poor rates as low as possible. After the

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and the building of workhouses in each union for the giving of poor relief. Although the legislation sought to reduce costs to rate payers, one area not reformed was the system's continued financing via "poor rates" on property owners.

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Additionally, the 1572 Act further enabled Justices of the Peace to survey and register the impotent poor, determine how much money was required for their relief, and then assess parish residents weekly for the appropriate amount. The

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to "Bees...led out by their Captaines to swarme abroad"; he recommends "deducting" the poor out of the realm. Hakluyt also broadens the scope and additionally recommends to empty the prisons and send them off to the New World.

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was set up to investigate what changes could be made to the Poor Law. The commission produced two conflicting reports but both investigations were largely ignored by the Liberal government when implementing their own scheme of

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had been the primary source of poor relief, but their dissolution resulted in poor relief moving from a largely voluntary basis to a compulsory tax that was collected at a parish level. Early legislation was concerned with

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which designated a position of "Collector of Alms" in each parish and created a register of licensed poor. Under the assumption that parish collections would now relieve all poor, begging was completely prohibited.

1389:, the Poor Law Commission granted some boards the right to continue providing relief under the Old Poor Law. However, the movement against the New Poor Law was short-lived, leading many to instead turn towards 2338: 769:

When the act was introduced however it had been partly watered down. The workhouse test and the idea of "less eligibility" were never mentioned themselves and the recommendation of the royal commission that

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and a decline in industries such as wool spinning and lace making. Boyer also contends that farmers were able to take advantage of the poor law system to shift some of their labour costs onto the tax payer.

544:, some twelve further towns and cities established similar corporations in the next two decades. As these corporations required private acts, they were unsuitable for smaller towns and individual parishes. 257:, a proclamation was issued, describing idleness as the "mother and root of all vices" and ordering that whipping should replace the stocks as the punishment for vagabonds. This change was confirmed in the 433:

was called to deal with the issues of increased poverty and vagrancy, among other things. This session culminated in the passage of several Acts referred to as the "Poor Laws of 1598". Among them were the

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In London, there was a great massing of the poor, and the Reformation threatened to eliminate some of the infrastructure used to provide for the poor. As a result, King Henry VIII consented to re-endow

1354:. The New Poor Law was seen as interference from Londoners with little understanding of local affairs. Opposition was unusually strong because committees had already been formed in opposition to the 667:

workhouses were already being built to reduce the spiralling cost of poor relief. Boyer suggests several possible reasons for the gradual increase in relief given to able-bodied males, including the

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was the first attempt to put control of the destitute and responsibility for their welfare on a statutory basis. Due to exceptional overcrowding, workhouses in Ireland stopped admissions during the

1330:, the overseer at Southwell, was to become a Poor Law Commissioner in the reformed system. The 1817 Report of the Select Committee on the Poor Laws condemned the Poor Law as causing poverty itself. 905:(an area the law had never considered during reviews), the system failed catastrophically as many found themselves temporarily unemployed, due to recessions or a fall in stock demands (so-called ' 850:

reforming legislation of the period". The act aimed to reduce the burden on rate payers and can be seen as an attempt by the Whig government to win the votes of the classes enfranchised by the

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and mentally ill and children became more humane. This was in part due to the expense of providing "mixed workhouses" as well as changing attitudes regarding the causes and nature of poverty.

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cheap grain into Britain which resulted in the price of bread increasing. As wages did not also increase, many agricultural labourers were plunged into poverty. Following peace in 1814, the

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Lewis C. Vollmar, Jr., "The Effect of Epidemics on the Development of English Law from the Black Death Through the Industrial Revolution," Journal of Legal Medicine, vol. 15 (1994), p. 385

1078: 600:. The work would go on to three subsequent editions in Nolan's lifetime (Nolan was elected an MP for Barnstaple in 1820), and stoked the discussion both within and outside of Parliament. 4139: 1323: 1127: 485:

was relatively unusual, and most workhouses developed later. The 1601 Law made parents and children responsible for each other, so elderly parents would live with their children.

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system of indentured service would be fully developed, and subsequent colonies would adopt the method with modifications suitable to their different conditions and times. English

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which prevented non-settled persons from being moved on unless they had applied for relief. An investigation of the history and current state of the Poor Laws was made by

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that established poor houses solely for the aged and infirm and introduced a system of outdoor relief for the able-bodied. This was the basis for the development of the

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for three days and three nights and have none other sustenance but bread and water and then shall be put out of Town. Every beggar suitable to work shall resort to the

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in 1714 several dozen small towns and individual parishes established their own institutions without any specific legal authorization. These were concentrated in the

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was a parish-based system; there were around 15,000 such parishes based upon the area around a parish church. The system allowed for despotic behaviour from the

878:. Conditions in workhouses were to be made harsh to discourage people from claiming. Workhouses were to be built in every parish, or in poor law unions. The 287:

for the poor. In 1555, London became increasingly concerned with the number of poor who could work, but yet could not find work, so it established the first

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laws dealing with the problems caused by vagrants and beggars. The history of the Poor Law in England and Wales is usually divided between two statutes: the

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were developed during the inter-war period, not as part of the Poor Law, but as part of the attempt to offer relief that was not affected by the stigma of

643:. Social attitudes to poverty began to change after 1815 and overhauls of the system were considered. The Poor Law system was criticized as distorting the 504:. The system provided social stability yet by 1750 needed to be adapted to cope with population increases, greater mobility and regional price variations. 3404: 1119:

encouraged the Local Government Board to set up work projects when unemployment rates were high rather than use workhouses. The Conservatives passed the

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The origins of the English Poor Law system can be traced back to late medieval statutes dealing with beggars and vagrancy, but it was only during the

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No Part of the Mother Country, but Distinct Dominions – Law, State Formation and Governance in England, Massachusetts und South Carolina, 1630–1769

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in 1834. The few who opposed the bill were more concerned about the centralisation which it would bring rather than the underpinning philosophy of

564: 358:, a new method to alleviate the condition of the poor would be suggested and utilised considerably over time. Merchant and colonisation proponent 1825: 842:

is considered to be one of the most "far-reaching pieces of legislation of the entire Nineteenth Century" and "classic example of the fundamental

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The more immediate origins of the Elizabethan Poor Law system were deteriorating economic circumstances in sixteenth-century England. Historian

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Lees, Lynn Hollen. The Solidarities of Strangers: The English Poor Laws and the People, 1770–1948. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998.

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created a system administered at parish level, paid for by levying local rates on rate payers. Relief for those too ill or old to work, the '

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from sight, or moved from town to town. Moreover, no distinction was made between vagrants and the jobless; both were simply categorised as "

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meant that people who had accessed medical care funded by the poor rate were no longer disqualified from voting in elections. In 1886 the

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there was increasing welfare legislation. As this legislation required local authorities' support the Poor Law Board was replaced with a

4713: 4565: 3656: 1586: 4910: 3465: 1159:. According to Lees by slowly dismantling the system the Poor Law was "to die by attrition and surgical removals of essential organs". 4616: 477:, though these were usually private charitable institutions. Meanwhile, able-bodied beggars who had refused work were often placed in 283: 1447:

was sometimes used by landlords as a method of keeping the cost of poor relief down and removing surplus labour. Reforms after the

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artificially high. 1815 saw great social unrest as the end of the French Wars saw industrial and agricultural depression and high

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The 1601 act sought to deal with 'settled' poor who had found themselves temporarily out of work—it was assumed they would accept

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and the criticism of Henry Parker who was responsible for the Andover union as well as the tensions in Somerset House caused by

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that developed out of the codification of late-medieval and Tudor-era laws in 1587–1598. The system continued until the modern

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Enclosures, Common Rights, and Women: The Proletarianization of Families in the Late Eighteenth and Early Nineteenth Centuries

764:. The reformed workhouses were to be uninviting, so that anyone capable of coping outside them would choose not to be in one. 4556: 4477: 4432: 4376: 4357: 2276: 2241: 1233:

had been absorbed into this scheme. By 1936 only 13% of people were still receiving poor relief in some form of institution.

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Household and Family among the Poor: The Case of Two Essex Communities in the Late Eighteenth and Early Nineteenth Centuries

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The Poor Law system fell into decline at the beginning of the 20th century owing to factors such as the introduction of the

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of the Liberal government made several provisions to provide social services without the stigma of the Poor Law, including

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began to promote the idea of parochial workhouses. The society published several pamphlets on the subject, and supported

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took a year to write its report, the recommendations passed easily through Parliament support by both main parties the

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should have to enter a workhouse with conditions worse than that of the poorest free labourer outside of the workhouse.

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and others in 1921. Lansbury had in 1911 written a provocative attack on the workhouse system in a pamphlet entitled

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and largely implemented the findings of the royal commission which had presented its findings two years earlier. The

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which combined housing and care of the poor with a house of correction for petty offenders. Following the example of

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which were implemented outside of the Poor Law system and paved the way for the eventual abolition of the Poor Law.

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Boyer, George R. (1997). "Poor Relief, Informal Assistance, and Short Time during the Lancashire Cotton Famine".

1507:, government programs that seek to provide a minimum level of income, service or other support for certain people 1464: 1147:, and from that period fewer people were covered by the system. From 1911, the term "workhouse" was replaced by " 945:

Union workhouse were found to be inhumane and dangerous, prompted a government review and the replacement of the

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Smith, Richard (1996). “Charity, Self-interest and Welfare: Reflections from Demographic and Family History” in

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which formed in 1858 highlighted conditions in workhouses and led to workhouses being inspected more often. The

953:. Now, a committee of Parliament was to administer the Poor Law, with a cabinet minister as head. Despite this 5089: 5024: 4814: 3811:

Huzel, James, ”Malthus, the Poor Law, and Population in Early Nineteenth-Century England”, University of Kent,

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English Poor Law legislation can be traced back as far as 1536, when legislation was passed to deal with the

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Margaret Anne Crowther, The workhouse system, 1834–1929: the history of an English social institution, p. 69

167:, issued in 1349 and revised in 1350. The ordinance was issued in response to the 1348–1350 outbreak of the 5072: 5029: 4936: 4785: 2591: 1428: 1047: 1030: 858:

to oversee the national operation of the system. This included the forming together of small parishes into

854:. Despite being labelled an "amendment act" it completely overhauled the existing system and established a 725:

were undermining the position of the independent labourer. Two practices were of particular concern: the "

123: 3132: 274:, to be funded by a tax on income and capital. A law passed a year later allowed vagabonds to be whipped. 4931: 4849: 4839: 1865: 1424: 1283:

was felt to be too costly and was considered in academic circles as encouraging the underlying problems.

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Shaw-Taylor, Leigh. "Parliamentary Enclosure and the Emergence of an English Agricultural Proletariat."

3405:"The collection of Local Government Board held at the British Library of Political and Economic Science" 151:(pictured), when labour was in short supply, were concerned with making the able-bodied work.(also see: 5143: 5062: 5057: 4469: 1319: 1103:

The Poor Law system began to decline with the availability of other forms of assistance. The growth of

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health and income maintenance, developed outside the scope of the Poor Law. Poor Law policy after the

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or even subjected to beatings to mend their attitudes. Provision for the many able-bodied poor in the

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Sidney & Beatrice Webb, English Local Government: English Poor Law History Part 1, pp. 1–2, 24–25

1448: 1206: 1014: 938: 891: 813: 521:, which allowed relief only to established residents of a parish; mainly through birth, marriage and 359: 242: 17: 362:

noted the then-current domestic conditions; "there are at this day great numbers which live in such

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as well as being a more cost-effective method. Poor Law commissioners faced greatest opposition in

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and in 1816 a parliamentary select committee looked into altering the system which resulted in the

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is sometimes referred to as the "43rd Elizabeth" as it was passed in the 43rd year of the reign of

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The Labour Market and the Continuity of Social Policy after 1834: The Case of the Eastern Counties

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would be implemented soon afterwards, and evolve into a subsidized government endeavour with the

107: 4795: 4404: 4166: 2569: 5014: 4742: 4386: 1753:"Five Hundred Years of English Poor Laws, 1349–1834:Regulating the Working and Nonworking Poor" 1551: 1484: 1363: 1168: 1043: 1039: 998: 984: 879: 867: 737: 548: 469:', was in the form of a payment or items of food ('the parish loaf') or clothing also known as 422: 351: 320: 299:

where poor could receive shelter and work at cap-making, feather-bed making, and wire drawing.

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which bypassed the Poor Law system. The Poor Law system was not formally abolished until the

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Sidney & Beatrice Webb, English Local Government: English Poor Law History Part 1, p. 52

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Sidney & Beatrice Webb, English Local Government: English Poor Law History Part 1, p. 51

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Sidney & Beatrice Webb, English Local Government: English Poor Law History Part 1, p. 50

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Sidney & Beatrice Webb, English Local Government: English Poor Law History Part 1, p. 48

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Sidney & Beatrice Webb, English Local Government: English Poor Law History Part 1, p. 47

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Annotated text of an Act of 1598 of which the 1601 Act was a revision (scroll down to (H))

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The workhouse movement began at the end of the 17th century with the establishment of the

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criticized the New Poor Law's workhouses for splitting mothers and their infant children.

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E. P. Thompson, The Making of the English Working Class, at 147. Full text available at

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argued for a disciplinary, punitive approach to social problems, whilst the writings of

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http://www.museumofreading.org.uk/collections/album/pdfs/battle%20hospital%20-%2070.pdf

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was responsible for several measures which largely killed off the Poor Law system. The

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In the early 1580s, with the development of English colonisation schemes, initially in

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In 1948 the Poor Law system was finally abolished with the introduction of the modern

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were both issued to try to prevent people receiving relief outside of the workhouse.

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Governing Rural England: Tradition and Transformation in Local Government, 1780–1840

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Redemptioners and indentured servants in the colony and commonwealth of Pennsylvania

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also was allowed an exemption from the law and continued to provide outdoor relief.

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Mercantilism Reimagined: Political Economy in Early Modern Britain and Its Empire

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Farm Wages and Living Standards in the Industrial Revolution: England, 1670–1869

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laws directly aimed at providing relief for the poor. For example, in 1563, her

180:, passed in 1388, placed restrictions on the movement of labourers and beggars. 5009: 4981: 4971: 4951: 4890: 4653:'Poor Relief and English Economic Development before the Industrial Revolution' 1488: 1440: 1372: 1288: 1284: 1214: 1051: 1018: 1010: 994: 980: 950: 871: 859: 795: 771: 757: 710: 628: 556: 522: 470: 100: 4504:

The Solidarities of Strangers: The English Poor Laws and the People, 1770–1948

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situated in the towns. This led to the Settlement Act 1662 also known as the

508: 466: 338: 333: 312: 247: 152: 76: 69: 2268: 1752: 1451:

resulted in the abolition of Boards of Guardians in the jurisdiction of the

1107:

provided help for its members without recourse to the Poor Law system. Some

701:

was set up following the widespread destruction and machine breaking of the

4874: 4360: 4329: 1492: 1436: 1386: 1367: 1334: 1280: 1056: 958: 839: 791: 722: 714: 640: 489: 454: 271: 267: 237:, ordering that "vagabonds, idle and suspected persons shall be set in the 226: 195: 44:, some had already been built under the existing system. This workhouse in 3790: 2952:"The 1832 Royal Commission of Inquiry into the operation of the Poor Laws" 2816:"The 1832 Royal Commission of Inquiry into the operation of the Poor Laws" 1279:

Opposition to the Poor Law grew at the beginning of the 19th century. The

916:

The abuses and shortcomings of the system are documented in the novels of

4900: 4869: 2152: 1108: 1025:. The Poor Law had been altered in 1834 because of increasing costs. The 931: 702: 644: 536:, founded by the Bristol Poor Act in 1696. The corporation established a 220: 216: 207: 148: 115: 88: 61: 3133:"Administrative Units Typology | Status definition: Poor Law Union" 2316: 2222:

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Various reasons prevented the application of some of the act's terms.

4946: 4864: 2107: 1378: 1156: 1091: 882:

were to be responsible for overseeing the implementation of the act.

875: 825: 761: 729:" system, where overseers hired out paupers as cheap labour, and the 726: 656: 632: 537: 501: 497: 482: 292: 96: 37: 32: 4652: 4520: 4484: 4413: 4295: 4286: 4274: 4140:"The Irish poor law | Public Record Office of Northern Ireland" 2775: 3158:"Savings on the poor rates made by the 1834 Poor Law Amendment Act" 2614:

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1504: 1423:

although Irish legislation was heavily influenced by the English

1416: 1338:

where outdoor relief was a more effective method of dealing with

1266: 1225:

was set up in 1934 to deal with those not covered by the earlier

1132: 1060: 902: 541: 363: 4262: 3634: 3184:"Did the treatment of the poor improve after the 1834 Poor Law?" 1079:

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as Secretary. The royal commission's primary concerns were with

219:

work, especially while labour was in short supply following the

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the following year, with one important change: it directed the

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4564:

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When the new amendment was applied to the industrial North of

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229:

attempts to tackle the problem originated during the reign of

4280: 705:. The report was prepared by a commission of nine, including 636: 608: 607:

Advertisement for builders to build a new Workhouse in north

560: 3937:"Richard Oastler's opposition to the Poor Law Amendment Act" 143: 4582:

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3041:

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1832 Royal Commission into the Operation of the Poor Laws

693:

argued for greater centralization of the Poor Law system.

682:

1832 Royal Commission into the Operation of the Poor Laws

110:

and the availability of other sources of assistance from

4397:

Economic History Review, 2nd series 54 (2001): 477–505.

1419:

were distinct from the English Poor Law system covering

4665:

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became the leaders of the Anti-Poor Law campaign. The

1046:

led a crusade against outdoor relief supported by the

4717:. Vol. 22 (11th ed.). 1911. pp. 74–80. 4516:

European Review of Economic History 2 (1998): 101–40.

4465:

The Treatment of Poverty in Cambridgeshire, 1597–1834

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dissolution of the monasteries and religious guilds.

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Workhouse records on The National Archives' website.

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Journal of Economic History (1964) 24: 229–45. JSTOR

3530:"GCSE Bitesize – The Liberal reforms 1906–1914" 1971:

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1658:. Institutions.org.uk. 6 August 2007. Archived from 1350:

where in 1837 there was high unemployment during an

442:. These laws were further refined and formalized by 27:

Laws regarding poverty in England, 16th–19th century

4045:"Attack on the Workhouse at Stockport (1842 Riots)" 3710: 3708: 1775: 1773: 1248:came into force in 1948 and created the modern day 957:occurred over inhumane treatment of paupers in the 473:. Some aged people might be accommodated in parish 4757: 4673:English Poor Law History. Part I: The Old Poor Law 3959:"The state of the Huddersfield Union (April 1838)" 3489:"Britain 1906–18 | Gallery 2 | Timeline" 1968: 1855:, Cardiff University. Retrieved on April 11, 2009. 1826:"What was the Economy Like After the Black Death?" 1650: 1648: 1521:History of the welfare state in the United Kingdom 1455:and their replacement by County Boards of Health. 198:that the Poor Law system was codified. Before the 5135: 4602:Journal of the Liverpool Medical History Society 4498:. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2000. 4134: 4132: 4067:"Research: Guide to the records of the Poor Law" 3887: 3885: 3705: 3075: 3073: 2810: 2808: 2735: 2733: 2731: 2692:"Causes of the Discontent and Distress, 1812–22" 2228:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 273–293. 1846:: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown ( 1770: 1708: 1706: 1113:Medical Relief Disqualification Removal Act 1885 565:Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge 4279:Journal of Economic History 23 (1963): 151–84. 4216:Blaug, Mark, "The Poor Law Report Reexamined", 4023:"Printed attacks on the Poor Law Amendment Act" 2993: 2991: 2741:"Changing attitudes towards poverty after 1815" 2467: 2465: 2376: 2374: 2372: 2370: 2368: 1645: 1612: 1610: 1608: 1581: 1579: 1577: 1575: 1573: 1571: 1569: 1542: 1540: 1538: 1536: 760:", that relief should only be available in the 651:being passed. 1817 also saw the passing of the 4618:Poverty and Policy in Tudor and Stuart England 4525:Journal of Economic History 47 (1987): 603–25. 4507:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998. 4352:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990 4160: 3632: 3601:"Ss Mary & John Churchyard::the workhouse" 3217:. The Workhouse: The story of an institution. 3212: 2838:"Rural Unrest in the 1830s: the "Swing" riots" 2263:. London: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 38–41. 1683: 4743: 4129: 3882: 3826:"Principles of a sound system of Poor Relief" 3070: 2974:"Principles of a sound system of Poor Relief" 2805: 2728: 2404:"A Short Explanation of the English Poor Law" 2292: 2215: 1890: 1887:Byrne, Joseph Patrick, The black death, p. 66 1828:. Archived from the original on 30 April 2007 1742:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998 1703: 1679: 1677: 717:(or "bastardy"), reflecting the influence of 4261: 4212: 4210: 3081:"The Poor Law Amendment Act: 14 August 1834" 2988: 2462: 2365: 1605: 1566: 1533: 1381:was attacked by a crowd of rioters. As many 1358:, leaders of the Ten Hours campaign such as 1073:Decline and abolition of the Poor Law system 4406:Common Rights to Land in England, 1475–1839 2594:. Freepages.genealogy.rootsweb.ancestry.com 2305:Medieval & Renaissance Drama in England 740:be governed by two overarching principles: 4911:Committee for the Relief of the Black Poor 4750: 4736: 4579:. Newton Abbot: David & Charles, 1971. 4440:The New Poor Law in the Nineteenth Century 4246:. Newton Abbot: David & Charles, 1971. 4115:"Ennistymon Union – The Poor Law Act" 3428: 3426: 3326:"The Huddersfield workhouse scandal: 1848" 1944:. Probertencyclopaedia.com. Archived from 1812:. New York: Barnes & Noble. pp. 32–46. 1804: 1802: 1674: 1111:also provided help for their members. The 500:would be unable to claim on the parishes' 345: 4459:. London: Longmans, Green, and Co., 1911. 4337: 4220:, Vol. 24, No. 2 (June 1964), pp. 229–45. 4207: 3513: 2570:"History of St Peter's Hospital, Bristol" 2260:Identity and Agency in England, 1500–1800 2143: 2141: 1720:. Economic History Foundation. 7 May 2002 1187:Poverty in the interwar years (1918–1939) 964: 721:, and the fear that the practices of the 4723:'A scene in the Westminster Union, 1878' 3714: 2862:. Homepage.newschool.edu. Archived from 2801:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2298: 2221: 2008: 1638:G. R. Elton, "An Early Tudor Poor Law", 1265: 1229:passed by the Liberals, and by 1937 the 1090: 1066: 988: 834:was passed in 1834 by the government of 685: 602: 412: 142: 31: 5101:Timeline of the English Poor Law system 4534:. 2nd edition. London: Macmillan, 1985. 4300:Social History 15 (1990): 217–28. JSTOR 4165:. www.workhouses.org.uk. Archived from 3981:Popular Opposition to the 1834 Poor Law 3423: 3350:. Swallowcliffehall.com. Archived from 3304:"The Andover Workhouse scandal, 1845–6" 2336: 1820: 1818: 1799: 1511:Timeline of the English poor law system 1396: 571:in his successful efforts to steer the 159:The earliest medieval Poor Law was the 14: 5136: 4561:, 2nd edition. London: Longmans, 1986. 3681: 3554:. Learningcurve.gov.uk. Archived from 3491:. Learningcurve.gov.uk. Archived from 3464:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title ( 3285: 2714:"The Battle of Waterloo: 18 June 1815" 2495:"Population Growth in the Age of Peel" 2256: 2164:Philip J. Stern, Carl Wennerlind Eds. 2138: 1385:were determined to continue under the 971:Poor Law policy after the New Poor Law 176:of escapee workers. In addition, the 147:The Poor Laws in the aftermath of the 4731: 4558:Poverty and Vagrancy in Tudor England 4315: 4069:. Nationalarchives.ie. Archived from 3407:. Library-2.lse.ac.uk. Archived from 3261:"Unemployment in Nottingham (1837–8)" 2796: 2761: 2181:. Elizabethan-era.org.uk. 17 May 2007 1966: 1191:Board of Guardians (Default) Act 1926 1095:David Lloyd George, architect of the 663:. By 1820, before the passing of the 327:, was also inclined to severity. The 138: 4231:Poverty and Public Health, 1815–1948 4025:. Historyhome.co.uk. 19 January 2009 4003:. Historyhome.co.uk. 19 January 2009 3961:. Historyhome.co.uk. 19 January 2009 3939:. Historyhome.co.uk. 19 January 2009 3917:. Historyhome.co.uk. 19 January 2009 3895:. Historyhome.co.uk. 19 January 2009 3870:. Historyhome.co.uk. 19 January 2009 3758:. Thepotteries.org. 30 November 2008 3659:. Eh.net. 7 May 2002. Archived from 3306:. Victorianweb.org. 12 November 2002 3221:from the original on 28 October 2021 3215:"The 1842 Outdoor Labour Test Order" 3023:. Historyhome.co.uk. 19 January 2009 3001:. Historyhome.co.uk. 19 January 2009 2910:. Historyhome.co.uk. 19 January 2009 2840:. Historyhome.co.uk. 19 January 2009 2743:. Victorianweb.org. 12 November 2002 2716:. Historyhome.co.uk. 19 January 2009 2694:. Historyhome.co.uk. 19 January 2009 2628:. Victorianweb.org. 12 November 2002 2519:. Victorianweb.org. 12 November 2002 2497:. Historyhome.co.uk. 19 January 2009 2475:. Historyhome.co.uk. 19 January 2009 2428:. Victorianweb.org. 12 November 2002 2384:. Historyhome.co.uk. 19 January 2009 1900:. Victorianweb.org. 12 November 2002 1815: 1589:. Eh.net. 7 May 2002. Archived from 676:The Royal Commission on the Poor Law 2954:. Victorianweb.org. 8 November 2002 2932:. Victorianweb.org. 7 November 2002 2888:. Victorianweb.org. 14 October 2002 2818:. Victorianweb.org. 8 November 2002 2672:. Victorianweb.org. 11 October 2002 2450:. Victorianweb.org. 1 November 2002 1975:. Oxford University Press. p. 1922:. Witheridge-historical-archive.com 1620:. Victorianweb.org. 8 November 2002 1262:Opposition to the English Poor Laws 79:, although there were much earlier 24: 5111:List of poor law unions in England 4403:Clark, Gregory and Anthony Clark. 4306:The Aged Poor in England and Wales 4253: 4047:. Victorianweb.org. 5 October 2006 3052:"The Poor Law Amendment Act, 1834" 3021:"The New Poor Law, 14 August 1834" 2976:. Victorianweb.org. 22 August 2002 2473:"Justifying the relief of poverty" 1783:. Kingsnorton.info. Archived from 1767:Akron Law Review 30 (1996): 73–128 1295:, and the growth of illegitimacy. 40:developed in the period after the 25: 5155: 4689: 4427:. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994. 3739: 3657:"Encyclopedia: English Poor Laws" 2225:Poor Relief in England, 1350-1600 1587:"Encyclopedia: English Poor Laws" 1548:"British social policy 1601–1948" 1516:Social care in the United Kingdom 1458: 1377:workhouses, and one workhouse in 1205:were officially abolished by the 1197:supporting the miners during the 580:finally succeeded in passing the 233:. In 1495, Parliament passed the 183: 5116:List of poor law unions in Wales 4967:Outdoor Relief Prohibitory Order 4794: 4678:Webb, Sidney and Beatrice Webb. 4671:Webb, Sidney and Beatrice Webb. 4318:Explorations in Economic History 4236: 4223: 4194: 4181: 4154: 4107: 4085: 4059: 4037: 4015: 3993: 3973: 3951: 3929: 3907: 3860: 3840: 3828:. Historyhome.co.uk. 4 July 2009 3818: 3805: 3779: 3770: 3748: 3733: 3675: 3383:"William Morris: Life and Times" 3137:A Vision of Britain through Time 2650:. Victorianweb.org. 4 March 2002 2448:"Parishes in southern Yorkshire" 1246:National Health Service Act 1946 896:Outdoor Relief Prohibitory Order 818:Outdoor Relief Prohibitory Order 250:", to be punished and moved on. 5096:Historiography of the Poor Laws 4627:The English Poor Law, 1531–1782 4576:The English Poor Law, 1780–1930 4456:The Village Labourer, 1760–1832 4288:The Poor Law Report Re-examined 4244:The English Poor Law, 1780–1930 4218:The Journal of Economic History 3717:The workhouse system, 1834–1929 3715:Crowther, M.A. (2 March 1983). 3649: 3626: 3615: 3593: 3584: 3570: 3544: 3522: 3507: 3481: 3472: 3397: 3375: 3366: 3340: 3328:. History Home. 19 January 2009 3318: 3296: 3279: 3253: 3233: 3206: 3176: 3150: 3125: 3099: 3044: 3035: 3013: 2966: 2944: 2922: 2900: 2878: 2852: 2830: 2790: 2755: 2706: 2684: 2662: 2640: 2618: 2606: 2584: 2562: 2553: 2531: 2509: 2487: 2440: 2426:"The 1601 Elizabethan Poor Law" 2418: 2396: 2356: 2330: 2250: 2193: 2171: 2158: 2122: 2113: 2097: 2088: 2079: 2070: 2061: 2052: 2043: 2021: 2002: 1993: 1960: 1934: 1912: 1898:"The 1601 Elizabethan Poor Law" 1881: 1872: 1858: 1808:Cartwright, Frederick F. 1991. 1465:Historiography of the Poor Laws 1193:was passed in response to some 1050:, an organization which viewed 801: 534:Bristol Corporation of the Poor 401: 5090:Christmas Day in the Workhouse 5025:Huddersfield workhouse scandal 4815:Vagabonds and Beggars Act 1494 4758:Poor laws of the British Isles 4368:The Making of the New Poor Law 2337:Szreter, Simon (6 June 2022). 2155:, Vol. X, No. 2, August, 1901. 1745: 1732: 1632: 1433:Poor Relief (Ireland) Act 1838 444:the next session of Parliament 334:Act for the Relief of the Poor 323:, Edward VI's successor after 200:Dissolution of the Monasteries 13: 1: 5121:List of Irish poor law unions 4659:, 2nd series 48 (1995): 1–22. 4385:(Routledge-Cavendish, 2009). 1967:Baker, John Hamilton (2003). 1526: 1439:and increasingly resorted to 1255: 1223:Unemployment Assistance Board 253:In 1530, during the reign of 5073:National Assistance Act 1948 4937:Poor Law (Scotland) Act 1845 4543:, Berlin: LIT, 2013: 149–59. 4269:. London: John Murray. 1920. 4142:. Proni.gov.uk. 21 July 2009 3893:"The Anti-Poor Law Movement" 2382:"The Old Poor Law 1795–1834" 2299:McDonald, Marcia A. (1995). 2234:10.1017/CBO9781139057547.014 1550:. .rgu.ac.uk. Archived from 1491:was abolished following the 1429:Poor Law (Scotland) Act 1845 1306:In the period following the 1209:, and between 1929 and 1930 1059:concerning the elderly, the 1048:Charity Organisation Society 1031:Union Chargeability Act 1865 736:The commission proposed the 547:Starting with the parish of 270:to deal with the problem of 124:National Assistance Act 1948 7: 4932:Poor Law Amendment Act 1834 4850:Relief of the Poor Act 1782 4840:Relief of the Poor Act 1696 4610:Journal of Economic History 4531:The Old Poor Law, 1795–1834 4309:. London: MacMillan, 1894. 3813:The Economic History Review 3789:. Mdx.ac.uk. Archived from 2764:The Economic History Review 1498: 1425:Poor Law Amendment Act 1834 1227:National Insurance Act 1911 1121:Unemployed Workmen Act 1905 1087:Interwar poverty in Britain 808:Poor Law Amendment Act 1834 665:Poor Law Amendment Act 1834 653:Public Works Loans Act 1817 87:passed during the reign of 72:emerged in the late 1940s. 10: 5160: 5053:Royal Commission (1905–09) 4668:. London: J. Murray, 1926. 4630:. London: Macmillan, 1990. 4588:, (2017) Creative Dreams, 4552:. London: Routledge, 1930. 4470:Cambridge University Press 4443:. London: Macmillan, 1976. 2151:, p. 5. Supplement to the 1469:The historiography of the 1462: 1400: 1299:argued that there was an " 1259: 1076: 1070: 1027:Workhouse Visiting Society 1013:. This was because of the 974: 968: 941:, where conditions in the 811: 805: 679: 563:. From the late 1710s the 405: 297:King's Palace at Bridewell 280:St. Bartholomew's Hospital 187: 133: 5081: 5038: 5020:Andover workhouse scandal 4995: 4962:Outdoor Labour Test Order 4919: 4883: 4807: 4792: 4763: 4675:. London: Longmans, 1927. 4621:. London: Longmans, 1988. 4567:The Industrial Revolution 3241:From Pauperism to Poverty 3107:"The Poor Law Commission" 2930:"The Speenhamland System" 2797:Boyer, George R. (1990). 2517:"The 1662 Settlement Act" 2201:"Regions & Districts" 1449:Irish War of Independence 1207:Local Government Act 1929 1015:Andover workhouse scandal 939:Andover workhouse scandal 892:Outdoor Labour Test Order 870:did not ban all forms of 814:Outdoor Labour Test Order 235:Vagabonds and Beggars Act 4163:"The Workhouse Web Site" 3635:"The Workhouse Web Site" 1618:"The Poor Law: overview" 1487:and the extent to which 1411:The Poor Law systems of 1348:West Riding of Yorkshire 1333:The introduction of the 1322:, now maintained by the 1312:Bingham, Nottinghamshire 36:Although many deterrent 5048:Liberal welfare reforms 5030:Union Chargeability Act 4927:Royal commission (1832) 4714:Encyclopædia Britannica 4681:English poor law policy 4657:Economic History Review 4437:Fraser, Derek, editor. 3637:. www.workhouses.org.uk 3603:. Ssmjchurchyard.org.uk 3289:The People of the Abyss 2860:"Nassau William Senior" 2269:10.1057/9780230523104_2 2147:Karl Frederick Geiser, 2009:Rathbone, Mark (2005). 1640:Economic History Review 1250:National Health Service 1242:National Assistance Act 1240:and the passing of the 1179:Smash Up the Workhouse! 1097:Liberal welfare reforms 1083:Liberal welfare reforms 927:The People of the Abyss 619:it became difficult to 431:a session of Parliament 396:Transportation Act 1717 346:A new colonial solution 118:, as well as piecemeal 108:Liberal welfare reforms 5015:Local Government Board 4764:Poor laws by territory 4330:10.1006/exeh.1996.0663 3915:"The Factory Question" 3514:Englander, D. (1998). 2626:"Gilbert's Act (1782)" 2257:Hindle, Steve (2004). 2017:. History Today: 8–13. 1853:The Plague and England 1690:The Workhouse Web Site 1485:Poor Law Amendment Act 1364:Joseph Rayner Stephens 1276: 1169:Poplar Rates Rebellion 1100: 1044:Local Government Board 1040:Local Government Board 1002: 999:Poor Law Commissioners 985:Local Government Board 965:After the New Poor Law 880:Poor Law Commissioners 868:Poor Law Amendment Act 832:Poor Law Amendment Act 767: 694: 612: 582:Relief of the Poor Act 426: 423:Elizabeth I of England 169:Black Death in England 161:Ordinance of Labourers 156: 53: 5040:Decline and abolition 4381:Charlesworth, Lorie. 4095:. BBC. 1 January 2001 3868:"The Good Old System" 3286:London, Jack (1903). 3190:. BBC. Archived from 2572:. Buildinghistory.org 1401:Further information: 1340:cyclical unemployment 1291:focused attention on 1269: 1094: 1077:Further information: 1067:Decline and abolition 1023:Poor Law Commissioner 992: 975:Further information: 907:cyclical unemployment 812:Further information: 742: 707:Nassau William Senior 691:Nassau William Senior 689: 635:to keep the price of 606: 590:Poor Removal Act 1795 569:Sir Edward Knatchbull 559:and in the county of 494:overseers of the poor 416: 408:Old Scottish Poor Law 263:justices of the peace 146: 35: 4860:Overseer of the poor 4845:Poor Relief Act 1722 4835:Poor Relief Act 1662 4830:Poor Relief Act 1601 4825:Poor Relief Act 1597 4585:Tales from the 'Pool 4161:Peter Higginbotham. 3685:(26 November 2002). 3633:Peter Higginbotham. 3213:Peter Higginbotham. 2031:. Localhistories.org 1684:Peter Higginbotham. 1397:Scotland and Ireland 1149:Poor Law Institution 1117:Chamberlain Circular 1021:failure to become a 1009:was replaced with a 890:with pauperism. The 649:Sturges-Bourne's Act 519:Poor Relief Act 1662 479:Houses of Correction 463:Poor Relief Act 1601 448:Poor Relief Act 1601 436:Poor Relief Act 1597 419:Poor Relief Act 1601 392:penal transportation 374:, in his preface to 370:. At the same time 291:(predecessor to the 284:St. Thomas' Hospital 178:Statute of Cambridge 173:Statute of Labourers 91:(1558–1603) and the 5005:Poor Law Commission 4855:House of correction 4501:Lees, Lynn Hollen. 4365:Brundage, Anthony. 3742:The right to strike 3558:on 20 November 2008 3354:on 6 September 2009 3164:. 17 September 2002 3087:. 23 September 2002 1810:Disease and History 1738:Lees, Lynn Hollen. 1718:EH.net Encyclopedia 1714:"English Poor Laws" 1483:contributed to the 1383:Boards of Guardians 1352:economic depression 1221:" disappeared. The 1195:Boards of Guardians 1007:Poor Law Commission 993:Infighting between 977:Poor Law Commission 947:Poor Law Commission 856:Poor Law Commission 776:Poor Law Commission 731:Speenhamland system 586:Speenhamland system 514:House of Correction 446:, primarily in the 289:House of Correction 4997:Changes after 1834 4987:Scottish poorhouse 4957:Board of guardians 4801:Nantwich workhouse 4612:61 (2001): 640–62. 4605:, Volume 11 (2000) 4510:Lindert, Peter H. 4264:The Slippery Slope 3113:. 12 November 2002 2999:"Less eligibility" 2541:. Thepotteries.org 2343:History and Policy 1920:"Poor Law Origins" 1686:"The New Poor Law" 1403:Scottish poor laws 1356:Ten Hours Movement 1316:Becher's workhouse 1277: 1211:Poor Law Guardians 1145:National Insurance 1105:friendly societies 1101: 1003: 790:. The bill gained 695: 669:enclosure movement 613: 573:Workhouse Test Act 440:Vagabonds Act 1597 427: 368:indentured service 329:Vagabonds Act 1572 319:The government of 308:Vagabonds Act 1547 259:Vagabonds Act 1530 157: 139:Medieval Poor Laws 128:11 & 12 Geo. 6 112:friendly societies 54: 52:, dates from 1780. 5144:English Poor Laws 5129: 5128: 4802: 4771:England and Wales 4651:Solar, Peter M. " 4573:Rose, Michael E. 4519:MacKinnon, Mary. 4483:Humphries, Jane. 4478:978-1-108-00234-9 4433:978-0-19-820481-7 4421:Eastwood, David. 4377:978-0-8135-0855-9 4358:978-0-521-36479-9 4346:Boyer, George R. 4242:Rose, Michael E. 4073:on 5 October 2006 3683:Morgan, Kenneth O 3663:on 5 January 2010 3267:. 7 November 2002 3265:The Victorian Web 3239:Williams, Karel, 3194:on 28 August 2008 3162:The Victorian Web 3111:The Victorian Web 3085:The Victorian Web 3058:. 19 January 2009 2866:on 6 January 2011 2592:"Edward Reynolds" 2278:978-0-230-52310-4 2243:978-1-107-01508-1 1593:on 5 January 2010 1431:. In Ireland the 1421:England and Wales 1314:. The second was 1301:iron law of wages 1135:legislation. The 202:during the Tudor 66:England and Wales 60:were a system of 58:English Poor Laws 16:(Redirected from 5151: 5068:Interwar poverty 4942:Less eligibility 4800: 4798: 4752: 4745: 4738: 4729: 4728: 4718: 4710: 4708:"Poor Law" 4642:Sokoll, Thomas. 4546:Pinchbeck, Ivy. 4391:Clark, Gregory. 4387:author's summary 4343: 4341: 4311:Internet Archive 4303:Booth, Charles. 4270: 4268: 4247: 4240: 4234: 4227: 4221: 4214: 4205: 4198: 4192: 4185: 4179: 4178: 4176: 4174: 4158: 4152: 4151: 4149: 4147: 4136: 4127: 4126: 4124: 4122: 4111: 4105: 4104: 4102: 4100: 4089: 4083: 4082: 4080: 4078: 4063: 4057: 4056: 4054: 4052: 4041: 4035: 4034: 4032: 4030: 4019: 4013: 4012: 4010: 4008: 4001:"Book of Murder" 3997: 3991: 3977: 3971: 3970: 3968: 3966: 3955: 3949: 3948: 3946: 3944: 3933: 3927: 3926: 3924: 3922: 3911: 3905: 3904: 3902: 3900: 3889: 3880: 3879: 3877: 3875: 3864: 3858: 3844: 3838: 3837: 3835: 3833: 3822: 3816: 3809: 3803: 3802: 3800: 3798: 3783: 3777: 3774: 3768: 3767: 3765: 3763: 3752: 3746: 3745: 3740:Ewing, Keith D. 3737: 3731: 3730: 3712: 3703: 3702: 3700: 3698: 3679: 3673: 3672: 3670: 3668: 3653: 3647: 3646: 3644: 3642: 3630: 3624: 3619: 3613: 3612: 3610: 3608: 3597: 3591: 3588: 3582: 3581: 3574: 3568: 3567: 3565: 3563: 3548: 3542: 3541: 3539: 3537: 3526: 3520: 3519: 3511: 3505: 3504: 3502: 3500: 3485: 3479: 3476: 3470: 3469: 3463: 3455: 3453: 3451: 3445: 3439:. Archived from 3438: 3430: 3421: 3420: 3418: 3416: 3411:on 28 March 2004 3401: 3395: 3394: 3392: 3390: 3379: 3373: 3370: 3364: 3363: 3361: 3359: 3344: 3338: 3337: 3335: 3333: 3322: 3316: 3315: 3313: 3311: 3300: 3294: 3293: 3283: 3277: 3276: 3274: 3272: 3257: 3251: 3237: 3231: 3230: 3228: 3226: 3210: 3204: 3203: 3201: 3199: 3180: 3174: 3173: 3171: 3169: 3154: 3148: 3147: 3145: 3143: 3129: 3123: 3122: 3120: 3118: 3103: 3097: 3096: 3094: 3092: 3077: 3068: 3067: 3065: 3063: 3048: 3042: 3039: 3033: 3032: 3030: 3028: 3017: 3011: 3010: 3008: 3006: 2995: 2986: 2985: 2983: 2981: 2970: 2964: 2963: 2961: 2959: 2948: 2942: 2941: 2939: 2937: 2926: 2920: 2919: 2917: 2915: 2904: 2898: 2897: 2895: 2893: 2886:"Edwin Chadwick" 2882: 2876: 2875: 2873: 2871: 2856: 2850: 2849: 2847: 2845: 2834: 2828: 2827: 2825: 2823: 2812: 2803: 2802: 2794: 2788: 2787: 2759: 2753: 2752: 2750: 2748: 2737: 2726: 2725: 2723: 2721: 2710: 2704: 2703: 2701: 2699: 2688: 2682: 2681: 2679: 2677: 2666: 2660: 2659: 2657: 2655: 2648:"Lord Liverpool" 2644: 2638: 2637: 2635: 2633: 2622: 2616: 2610: 2604: 2603: 2601: 2599: 2588: 2582: 2581: 2579: 2577: 2566: 2560: 2557: 2551: 2550: 2548: 2546: 2535: 2529: 2528: 2526: 2524: 2513: 2507: 2506: 2504: 2502: 2491: 2485: 2484: 2482: 2480: 2469: 2460: 2459: 2457: 2455: 2444: 2438: 2437: 2435: 2433: 2422: 2416: 2415: 2413: 2411: 2400: 2394: 2393: 2391: 2389: 2378: 2363: 2360: 2354: 2353: 2351: 2349: 2334: 2328: 2327: 2325: 2323: 2296: 2290: 2289: 2287: 2285: 2254: 2248: 2247: 2219: 2213: 2212: 2210: 2208: 2203:. 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