49:
212:
164:
195:
184:
151:
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744:
1288:, visited Friesoythe on 15 April. He wrote in the Canadian Army official history, which was published in 1960, that "there is no record of how this came about". Responding to this, the historian Mark Zuehlke wrote that there were records of the events in the war diaries of several units, but that he did not believe Stacey's vagueness was an attempt at a cover-up. In his 1982 memoirs Stacey expanded upon the official history to comment that the only time he saw what could be considered a
1296:... at Friesoythe, the Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders of Canada ... lost their popular commanding officer ... as a result a great part of the town of Friesoythe was set on fire in a mistaken reprisal. This unfortunate episode only came to my notice and thus got into the pages of history because I was in Friesoythe at the time and saw people being turned out of their houses and the houses burned. How painfully easy it is for the business of "reprisals" to get out of hand!
995:, was killed in action 240 kilometres (150 mi) inside Germany on 30 March, several villages were razed by his irate troops, captured wounded Germans were shot on the spot and at least 45 Germans were executed after surrendering. An American artillery officer wrote home in April that "we should fire about a thousand rounds into every town. Do them good". At least one British battalion refused to take
751:
1229:
The
Argylls' war diary made no mention of their afternoon's activity, noting in passing that "many fires were raging". There is no record of the deliberate destruction at division, corps or army level. The war diary of the division's 8th Anti-Aircraft Regiment records "the Argylls were attacked
1180:
During the fighting around
Friesoythe and its aftermath, ten civilians from the town and another ten from the surrounding villages were killed. There were reports of civilians lying dead in the streets. According to one German assessment, 85–90 per cent of the town was destroyed during the reprisal.
1135:
Vokes was furious when he heard of Wigle's death. He wrote in his autobiography that "a first-rate officer of mine, for whom I had a special regard and affection, and in whom I had a particular professional interest because of his talent for command, was killed. Not merely killed, it was reported to
999:
prisoners, shooting those who surrendered; an officer of the battalion blamed this on SS "truculence" and a
British battalion commander summed up the risk-averse attitude within his unit: "At this stage of the war, no one was very keen to earn medals." A British pilot wrote: "It seemed a stupid time
1081:
captured on 9 April. The following day it repulsed several German counter-attacks before the town was declared cleared. Some German civilians joined the fighting and were believed to have killed several
Canadian soldiers. Vokes, believing the civilians needed to be taught a lesson, ordered the
924:
forces destroyed German buildings on several occasions, sometimes entire villages, and took other measures against German civilians. French troops took a similar, if more rigorous, approach to that of the
Americans. The British commanders disapproved of retaliations against civilians, and British
1171:
The
Canadian official history states that Friesoythe "was set on fire in a mistaken reprisal". The rubble was used to reinforce the local roads for the division's tanks and heavy transport, which had been unable to move up due to the main roads near the town being badly cratered, and the smaller
1126:
Frederick Wigle. The
Argylls conducted a flanking night march and launched a dawn assault on 14 April. The attack met only scattered resistance from a disorganized garrison, and the Argylls secured the town by 10:30. During the confused fighting, approximately 50 German soldiers caught
966:
There was frustration throughout the Allied ranks at the
Germans' continued resistance in a clearly hopeless cause, anger at the casualties they inflicted when the war was widely, and correctly, perceived to be almost over, and a general feeling that severe, even ruthless, treatment of German
1253: – the battalion commander, Wigle's brother-in-law, ordered that "every building which did not show a white flag be fired". Before it could be carried out, the order was countermanded and the village was spared. A Canadian force was also authorized to burn down the village of
859:
and it was substantially destroyed. Twenty German civilians died in
Friesoythe and the surrounding area during the two days of fighting and its aftermath. Similar, if usually less extreme, events occurred elsewhere in Germany as the Allies advanced in the closing weeks of the war.
1167:
later wrote, "the raging
Highlanders cleared the remainder of that town as no town has been cleared for centuries, we venture to say". The war diary of the 4th Canadian Armoured Brigade records, "when darkness fell Friesoythe was a reasonable facsimile of Dante's Inferno".
1300:
Vokes commented in his autobiography, written forty years after the event, that he had " feeling of no great remorse over the elimination of Friesoythe. Be that as it may." This position may have been motivated by a continued belief that the retaliatory actions were justified.
1385:
The Friesoythe Amtsgericht, or District Court, was closed on 11 April. If the District Court ceased to function on 11 April 1945, the evacuation of the bulk of the civilian population probably took place between 11 and 12 April. This was clearly a German
1115:, a potential bottleneck. If the Germans were to hold it, the bulk of the Canadians would be unable to continue their advance. Most of the population of 4,000 had evacuated to the countryside on 11–12 April. Several hundred paratroopers from Battalion Raabe of the German
1230:
in that town yesterday by German forces assisted by civilians and today the whole town is being systematically razed. A stern atonement ..." The 1st Battalion, The Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders (Princess Louise's) were awarded the
1107:, reaching the outskirts of Friesoythe, a strategic crossroads, on 13 April. As it was early spring, the ground was sodden and heavy vehicles could not operate off the main roads. This made Friesoythe, 32 km (20 mi) west of
871:
glosses over it. It is covered in the regimental histories of the units involved and several accounts of the campaign. Forty years later, Vokes wrote in his autobiography that he had "no great remorse over the elimination of Friesoythe."
1148:, Lieutenant-Colonel Mackenzie Robinson, obeyed but convinced him to not put this order in writing or issue a proclamation to the local civilians. Hastings writes that the earlier incident at Sögel contributed to Vokes's fury.
944:, believed that destroying property was the most appropriate way of responding to resistance by German civilians. The division carried out actions against German property more often than any other Canadian formation.
1042:. The Canadian official history describes the circumstances as buoyant as it was recognized that the end of World War II in Europe was close. In early April the 4th Canadian (Armoured) Division, as part of
978:
An American officer wrote "The attitude of higher command seemed to be that these people ... should be made to feel the full significance of war and what their troops had done to other people." US general
847:
During the fighting, the battalion's commander was killed by a German soldier, but it was incorrectly rumoured that he had been killed by a civilian. Under this mistaken belief, the division's commander,
1257:
following what the historian Perry Briddiscombe calls "an unnamed transgression". They were talked out of this by a Canadian engineer unit as Mittelsten Thüle's civilians were running an army sawmill.
1127:
Wigle's tactical headquarters by surprise at around 08:30. A firefight broke out, resulting in the death of Wigle and several other soldiers. A rumour circulated that a local civilian had shot Wigle.
293:
1066:, suffering only one casualty. German prisoners included several 17-year-old youths with less than eight weeks of military experience. The Canadians were supported by B and C squadrons SAS with
863:
The rubble of the town was used to fill craters in local roads to make them passable for the division's tanks and heavy vehicles. A few days earlier, the division had destroyed the centre of
2559:
1047:
841:
547:
1151:
The Argylls had spontaneously begun to burn Friesoythe in reprisal for the death of their commander. After Vokes had issued his order, the town was systematically set on fire with
1119:
and anti-tank guns defended the town. The paratroopers repelled an attack by the Lake Superior Regiment, which suffered several killed and wounded; German casualties are unknown.
2435:
2666:
901:(SHAEF) publicly stated that the forces of the Western Allies would strictly adhere to international law in respect of their treatment of civilians. However, SHAEF's manual
868:
1277:
the sentence to life imprisonment saying, "There isn't a general or colonel on the Allied side that I know of who hasn't said, 'Well, this time we don't want any prisoners
509:
286:
514:
1086:
and took care not to issue written instructions. Soldiers of the division started referring to Vokes as "The Sod of Sögel". The Canadian Army official history states:
1140:... 'Mac,' I roared at him, 'I'm going to raze that goddam town. Tell 'em we're going to level the fucking place. Get the people the hell out of their houses first.
482:
2534:
1219:
You should know our soldiers were kind to the children of our enemies, and kind to those in adversity. And they were, on the whole, great ambassadors for Canada.
279:
540:
487:
2283:
1090:
Investigation established that German civilians had taken part in this fighting and had been responsible for the loss of Canadian lives. Accordingly, as a
462:
2794:
1407:
23, prohibits acts that "destroy or seize the enemy's property, unless such destruction or seizure be imperatively demanded by the necessities of war."
2799:
533:
1273:
in London, "I told them of Sögel and Friesoythe and of the prisoners and civilians that my troops had killed in Italy and Northwest Europe". Vokes
1209:
other buildings were destroyed. In 2010, the author Mark Zuehlke suggested that, "Not all of Friesoythe was burnt, but its centre was destroyed".
1082:
destruction of the centre of the town. This was accomplished with several truckloads of dynamite. Vokes was aware that these actions violated the
920:
The frequency and nature of retaliatory actions differed between national contingents within the Western Allied forces. Following SHAEF's policy,
1004:
spoke for many when he wrote "Why don't the silly bastards give up?" Some divisions had suffered their last fatality by mid-April. The historian
898:
2455:
2403:
2569:
1163:. The attack continued for over eight hours and Friesoythe was almost totally destroyed. As the commanding officer of the 1st Battalion,
1122:
Vokes ordered the resumption of the attack by the 1st Battalion, The Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders (Princess Louise's), commanded by
2645:
Intelligence Report, War Diary, General Staff, 4th Canadian Armoured Division, 1 April 1945 – 30 April 1945. Appendix 38
2527:"Convention (IV) respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its annex: Regulations concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land"
2839:
958:), and Soviet forces killed, raped and imprisoned large numbers of local civilians and destroyed property following guerrilla attacks.
557:
2431:
775:
897:, the first major German city to fall to them. Over the following six months they overran much of western Germany. In November the
867:
in another reprisal and also used the rubble to make the roads passable. Little official notice was taken of the incident and the
983:
wrote in his diary "In hundreds of villages ... most of the houses are heaps of stone ... I did most of it." When a
2829:
2819:
2772:
2745:
2722:
2699:
2516:
2489:
2420:
2387:
2364:
2264:
2233:
2206:
2168:
1365:
1310:
92:
2814:
988:
743:
2657:
1008:
wrote "The final Anglo-American drive across Germany offered ... many foolish little battles which wasted men's lives".
2526:
1396:
1083:
914:
821:
706:
303:
32:
2633:
358:
1344:
1235:
1116:
968:
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233:
227:
40:
1145:
2844:
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2314:
2824:
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and a warning, several houses in the centre of Sögel were ordered destroyed by the engineers to provide rubble.
1051:
619:
413:
987:
fired at one of Patton's officers, he ordered several German houses to be burnt. When the commander of the US
1373:
1369:
1361:
1234:"Friesoythe", as were the 1st Battalion, The Lake Superior Regiment (Motor) and the 1st Battalion,
825:
711:
48:
36:
440:
2648:
2225:
2182:
1197:
were destroyed and another 30 badly damaged. A few days later, a Canadian nurse wrote home that the
1123:
905:
stated that there were circumstances where commanders could take "stern measures" against civilians as a
653:
2809:
1160:
676:
604:
472:
450:
435:
2586:
2591:
2564:
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1189:
estimates the destruction to have been as high as 90 per cent. The town's website records that of 381
701:
2306:
1184:
1046:, moved out of the eastern Netherlands in the wake of Operation Plunder's success. On 4 April,
2804:
2259:. Toronto; Buffalo: For Osgoode Society for Canadian Legal History by University of Toronto Press.
392:
2155:
Citizen Soldiers: The U.S. Army From the Normandy Beaches to the Bulge to the Surrender of Germany
1254:
1077:
The division advanced a further 25 km (16 mi) to Sögel, which the 1st Battalion of
1274:
637:
599:
445:
1249: – the mayor surrendered the town but the first tank to enter was destroyed by a
1348:
1164:
1078:
886:
497:
2834:
1320:
1269:, a convicted German war criminal. Referring to his discussions about this Vokes said to the
1159:. In the side streets, soldiers threw petrol containers into buildings and ignited them with
937:
936:, and more frequently retaliated against German civilians than the British. The commander of
658:
344:
2481:
2282:. Vol. 3. Canadian Forces Heritage Publication. 15 January 2010. A-DH-267-000/AF-003.
1285:
381:
8:
2737:
2160:
1201:
on the edge of town was the only building left standing. In the suburb of Altenoythe, 120
1104:
929:
695:
683:
670:
594:
425:
407:
330:
324:
318:
2255:
Casual Slaughters and Accidental Judgements: Canadian War Crimes Prosecutions, 1944–1948
2670:
2501:
2397:
2294:
2253:
2148:
1315:
921:
609:
581:
574:
492:
2768:
2751:
2741:
2718:
2695:
2674:
2629:
2612:
2512:
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2416:
2383:
2360:
2339:
2260:
2229:
2218:
2202:
2164:
2153:
1156:
1043:
1039:
1022:
954:'s leadership was concerned about the threat of a German resistance movement (called
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910:
852:
643:
629:
624:
614:
588:
387:
372:
365:
351:
337:
271:
188:
2451:
2220:
Werwolf! : The History of the National Socialist Guerrilla Movement, 1944–1946
2198:
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894:
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477:
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200:
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2343:
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conducted retaliatory actions more frequently than their Western Allies. The
849:
790:
777:
689:
107:
94:
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2616:
2473:
1005:
992:
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soldiers and civilians was justified. On 15 April the British reached
951:
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833:
817:
525:
169:
86:
82:
54:
1245:, 16 km (10 mi) south-east of Friesoythe. After a German act of
1250:
1071:
1059:
975:
wrote that "the revelations of April ... sparked enduring outrage".
430:
1266:
813:
78:
2379:
1289:
996:
837:
2029:
1091:
1055:
1016:
1001:
971:, where the inmates had been reduced to cannibalism. The historian
947:
906:
856:
1265:
In early 1946 Vokes heard an appeal against the death sentence of
864:
2659:
The Victory Campaign: The Operations in North-west Europe 1944–45
2626:
British Special Forces The Story of Britain's Undercover Soldiers
1501:
1499:
1497:
1246:
1198:
1034:
In mid-March 1945 the Western Allies prepared to cross the River
955:
2734:
The Long Left Flank: the Hard Fought Way to the Reich, 1944–1945
1881:
1983:
1981:
1979:
1780:
1681:
1679:
1242:
1112:
1063:
984:
156:
1511:
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1397:
1907 Convention Respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land
2667:
Official History of the Canadian Army in the Second World War
1845:
1484:
1482:
1480:
1478:
1465:
1463:
1035:
2041:
1976:
1676:
2125:
2065:
1586:
1562:
1241:
On 16 April The Lincoln and Welland Regiment attacked
2089:
1993:
1642:
1640:
1627:
1625:
1475:
1460:
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2765:
On To Victory: The Canadian Liberation of the Netherlands
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1964:
1930:
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1926:
1924:
1922:
1920:
1893:
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1833:
1831:
1528:
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me, but sniped in the back". Vokes wrote, "I summoned my
2503:
Fragments of War: Stories from Survivors of World War II
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1792:
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1768:
1766:
1764:
1762:
1734:
1732:
1730:
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1426:
1424:
1422:
2611:. Ottawa: Lincoln and Welland Regiment, Canadian Army.
2332:
Warpath; the Story of the Algonquin Regiment, 1939–1945
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1622:
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1598:
1574:
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2053:
1917:
1905:
1828:
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301:
2179:
Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders of Canada War Diary
2005:
1952:
1940:
1857:
1759:
1749:
1747:
1727:
1691:
1664:
1436:
1419:
2077:
1224:
Major-General Christopher Vokes in his autobiography
2560:"One More River to Cross: The Canadians in Holland"
1804:
2687:
2553:. Ottawa, ON: Library and Archives Canada. RG24/8.
2551:Lincoln and Welland Regiment War Diary, April 1945
2500:
2252:
2217:
2152:
2017:
1744:
2177:
1851:
1816:
1175:
1058:in the division, made an assault crossing of the
2786:
2549:
2429:
2357:The town of Friesoythe in the Twentieth Century)
2313:
2101:
2047:
1987:
1685:
2353:Die Stadt Friesoythe im zwanzigsten Jahrhundert
1360:The Lake Superior Regiment (Motor) was part of
1326:
1048:The Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders of Canada
899:Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force
842:The Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders of Canada
1284:The Canadian Army official historian, Colonel
1172:roads being inadequate to stand their weight.
893:western border, and by the end of October had
1364:which also included: 21st Armoured Regiment (
1137:
541:
287:
2432:"Chronik – 1930 bis 1948 | Stadt Friesoythe"
2215:
2131:
2071:
1887:
1517:
1505:
1488:
1469:
1182:
1130:
913:attacks, although this was in breach of the
555:
2609:History of The Lincoln and Welland Regiment
2450:
2350:
1999:
1970:
1786:
2478:Armageddon: the Battle for Germany 1944–45
2415:. Hamilton: Argyll Regimental Foundation.
2402:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
1343:The other battalions in the brigade were:
1103:The Canadian advance continued across the
548:
534:
294:
280:
2795:Battles of World War II involving Germany
2359:] (in German). Friesoythe: Schepers.
2242:
1798:
836:-held town of Friesoythe, and one of its
2800:Battles of World War II involving Canada
2731:
2531:International Committee of the Red Cross
2472:
2189:
1721:
1658:
1646:
1631:
1616:
1604:
1592:
1580:
1568:
1556:
1544:
1532:
1454:
1292:committed by Canadian soldiers was when
1098:
1015:
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2642:
2623:
2498:
2329:
2147:
2059:
2011:
1934:
1911:
1839:
1810:
1709:
1442:
1430:
763:Friesoythe within Lower Saxony, Germany
2787:
2685:
2655:
2606:
2584:
2438:from the original on 11 September 2018
2410:
2373:
2119:
2095:
1958:
1946:
1899:
1863:
1774:
1753:
1738:
1697:
1670:
2708:
2557:
2289:from the original on 6 December 2017.
2250:
2083:
2023:
1875:
1822:
1311:Allied war crimes during World War II
1074:, who were acting as reconnaissance.
938:4th Canadian (Armoured) Division
529:
275:
2537:from the original on 27 January 2018
2525:
2107:
1372:); and 28th Armoured Regiment (
932:served in the predominately British
855:, ordered that the town be razed in
2185:. pp. 10–11. RG 24, v. 15,005.
1146:GSO1 (head of the operations staff)
1052:10th Canadian Infantry Brigade
1011:
961:
822:Western Allies' invasion of Germany
812:was the destruction of the town of
305:Western Allied invasion of Germany
57:flag at Friesoythe on 16 April 1945
13:
2840:Western Allied invasion of Germany
2413:Black Yesterdays; the Argylls' War
2315:"4th Canadian (Armoured) Division"
1366:The Governor General's Foot Guards
1079:The Lake Superior Regiment (Motor)
925:troops carried out few reprisals.
820:on 14 April 1945, during the
750:
234:7th German Parachute Division
33:Western Allied invasion of Germany
14:
2856:
880:
16:World War II battle and war crime
2382: ed.). San Jose; New York.
2244:Die Enzyklopädie, 20. Aufl. V. 7
1368:); 22nd Armoured Regiment (
1345:The Lincoln and Welland Regiment
1236:The Lincoln and Welland Regiment
969:Bergen-Belsen concentration camp
830:4th Canadian (Armoured) Division
749:
742:
228:4th Canadian (Armoured) Division
210:
193:
182:
162:
149:
47:
41:European theatre of World War II
2351:Cloppenburg, Ferdinand (2003).
1389:
1379:
1354:
1337:
1062:River and captured the town of
2767:. Vancouver: Greystone Books.
2686:Stacey, Charles Perry (1982).
2656:Stacey, Charles Perry (1960).
1193:houses in the town proper, 231
1176:Civilian casualties and damage
869:Canadian Army official history
1:
2643:Sirluck, E. (14 April 1945).
2036:Canadian Forces Heritage 2017
1374:The British Columbia Regiment
1370:The Canadian Grenadier Guards
1362:4th Canadian Armoured Brigade
826:end of World War II in Europe
712:End of World War II in Europe
2830:Canadian World War II crimes
2820:20th century in Lower Saxony
2461:. p. 16. Archived from
2276:Part Two. Infantry Regiments
2216:Briddiscombe, Perry (1998).
1413:
1327:Notes, citations and sources
1212:
7:
2815:April 1945 events in Europe
2649:Library and Archives Canada
2246:. Leipzig: Brockhaus. 1996.
2226:University of Toronto Press
2183:Library and Archives Canada
1304:
1260:
1117:7th Parachute Division
10:
2861:
2732:Williams, Jeffery (1988).
2411:Fraser, Robert L. (1996).
2140:
1271:Canadian High Commissioner
1029:at Sögel on 10 April 1945.
875:
266:20 German civilians killed
2669:. Vol. III. Ottawa:
2624:Seymour, William (2005).
2592:The Canadian Encyclopedia
2585:Morton, Desmond (2016) .
2565:The Canadian Encyclopedia
2558:Marsh, James H. (2015) .
1131:Destruction of Friesoythe
771:
737:
730:
569:
313:
265:
252:
239:
220:
175:
142:
61:
53:Canadian soldiers with a
46:
30:
25:
2651:. RG 24, vol. no. 13794.
1331:
2499:Hibbert, Joyce (1985).
2330:Cassidy, G. L. (1948).
2251:Brode, Patrick (1997).
1025:(right) with Brigadier
903:Combating the Guerrilla
885:By September 1944, the
600:Siegfried Line campaign
132:Destruction of the town
2845:Cloppenburg (district)
2763:Zuehlke, Mark (2010).
2607:Rogers, R. L. (1989).
2374:Foster, Tony (2000) .
2195:The Guns at Last Light
1852:A&SHC archive 1945
1349:The Algonquin Regiment
1298:
1221:
1185:Brockhaus Enzyklopädie
1183:
1165:The Algonquin Regiment
1096:
1044:II Canadian Corps
1031:
176:Commanders and leaders
2825:Collective punishment
2709:Vokes, Chris (1985).
2048:L&WR archive 1945
1988:Stadt Friesoythe 2018
1686:Canadian Soldier 2019
1321:Collective punishment
1294:
1217:
1099:Battle for Friesoythe
1088:
1019:
1000:to die." One British
253:Casualties and losses
2482:Macmillan Publishers
2161:Simon & Schuster
2098:, pp. 558, 722.
1890:, pp. 259, 295.
1789:, pp. 165, 189.
989:3rd Armored Division
810:razing of Friesoythe
791:53.02056°N 7.85861°E
108:53.02056°N 7.85861°E
26:Razing of Friesoythe
2690:A Date With History
2587:"Christopher Vokes"
2468:on 27 January 2018.
2376:Meeting of Generals
2149:Ambrose, Stephen E.
2122:, pp. 163–164.
1902:, pp. 435–437.
1878:, pp. 194–195.
1595:, pp. 581–582.
1571:, pp. 493–494.
1520:, pp. 268–270.
1508:, pp. 258–259.
1457:, pp. 106–107.
1161:phosphorus grenades
1105:Westphalian Lowland
930:First Canadian Army
787: /
707:Invasion of Germany
104: /
2694:. Ottawa: Deneau.
2317:. Canadian Soldier
1316:List of war crimes
1124:Lieutenant-Colonel
1032:
922:United States Army
2810:Conflicts in 1945
2774:978-1-55365-430-8
2747:978-0-7737-2194-4
2724:978-0-9692109-0-0
2701:978-0-88879-086-6
2518:978-0-919670-95-2
2491:978-0-333-90836-5
2456:"Legion Magazine"
2454:(May–June 2010).
2452:Granatstein, J.L.
2422:978-0-9681380-0-7
2389:978-0-595-13750-3
2366:978-3-00-012759-5
2266:978-0-8020-4204-0
2235:978-0-8020-0862-6
2208:978-0-349-14048-3
2197:. Great Britain:
2170:978-0-684-81525-1
2132:Briddiscombe 1998
2072:Briddiscombe 1998
1888:Briddiscombe 1998
1712:, pp. 263–4.
1518:Briddiscombe 1998
1506:Briddiscombe 1998
1489:Briddiscombe 1998
1470:Briddiscombe 1998
1084:Hague Conventions
1040:Operation Plunder
1023:Christopher Vokes
942:Christopher Vokes
915:Hague Conventions
853:Christopher Vokes
806:
805:
796:53.02056; 7.85861
720:
719:
523:
522:
270:
269:
189:Christopher Vokes
138:
137:
128:Canadian victory
113:53.02056; 7.85861
2852:
2778:
2759:
2728:
2705:
2693:
2682:
2664:
2652:
2639:
2620:
2603:
2601:
2599:
2581:
2579:
2577:
2572:on 29 March 2018
2568:. Archived from
2554:
2546:
2544:
2542:
2522:
2506:
2495:
2469:
2467:
2460:
2447:
2445:
2443:
2426:
2407:
2401:
2393:
2370:
2347:
2326:
2324:
2322:
2310:
2304:
2300:
2298:
2290:
2288:
2281:
2270:
2258:
2247:
2239:
2223:
2212:
2186:
2174:
2158:
2135:
2129:
2123:
2117:
2111:
2105:
2099:
2093:
2087:
2081:
2075:
2069:
2063:
2057:
2051:
2045:
2039:
2033:
2027:
2021:
2015:
2009:
2003:
2000:Cloppenburg 2003
1997:
1991:
1985:
1974:
1971:Granatstein 2010
1968:
1962:
1956:
1950:
1944:
1938:
1932:
1915:
1909:
1903:
1897:
1891:
1885:
1879:
1873:
1867:
1861:
1855:
1849:
1843:
1837:
1826:
1820:
1814:
1808:
1802:
1796:
1790:
1787:Cloppenburg 2003
1784:
1778:
1772:
1757:
1751:
1742:
1736:
1725:
1719:
1713:
1707:
1701:
1695:
1689:
1683:
1674:
1668:
1662:
1656:
1650:
1644:
1635:
1629:
1620:
1614:
1608:
1602:
1596:
1590:
1584:
1578:
1572:
1566:
1560:
1554:
1548:
1542:
1536:
1530:
1521:
1515:
1509:
1503:
1492:
1486:
1473:
1467:
1458:
1452:
1446:
1440:
1434:
1428:
1408:
1406:
1402:
1393:
1387:
1383:
1377:
1358:
1352:
1341:
1280:
1255:Mittelsten Thüle
1225:
1208:
1204:
1196:
1192:
1188:
1143:
1139:
1068:Operation Howard
1012:Battle for Sögel
962:Allied attitudes
940:, Major-General
802:
801:
799:
798:
797:
792:
788:
785:
784:
783:
780:
753:
752:
746:
728:
727:
564:
562:
550:
543:
536:
527:
526:
308:
306:
296:
289:
282:
273:
272:
245:Three battalions
215:
214:
213:
205:
199:Fred Wigle
198:
197:
196:
187:
186:
185:
168:
166:
165:
155:
153:
152:
119:
118:
116:
115:
114:
109:
105:
102:
101:
100:
97:
69:13–14 April 1945
63:
62:
51:
23:
22:
2860:
2859:
2855:
2854:
2853:
2851:
2850:
2849:
2805:1945 in Germany
2785:
2784:
2781:
2775:
2748:
2725:
2711:Vokes: My Story
2702:
2671:Queen's Printer
2662:
2636:
2597:
2595:
2575:
2573:
2540:
2538:
2519:
2492:
2465:
2458:
2441:
2439:
2423:
2395:
2394:
2390:
2367:
2320:
2318:
2302:
2301:
2292:
2291:
2286:
2279:
2267:
2236:
2209:
2171:
2143:
2138:
2130:
2126:
2118:
2114:
2106:
2102:
2094:
2090:
2082:
2078:
2070:
2066:
2058:
2054:
2046:
2042:
2034:
2030:
2022:
2018:
2010:
2006:
1998:
1994:
1986:
1977:
1969:
1965:
1957:
1953:
1945:
1941:
1933:
1918:
1910:
1906:
1898:
1894:
1886:
1882:
1874:
1870:
1862:
1858:
1850:
1846:
1838:
1829:
1821:
1817:
1809:
1805:
1797:
1793:
1785:
1781:
1773:
1760:
1752:
1745:
1737:
1728:
1720:
1716:
1708:
1704:
1696:
1692:
1684:
1677:
1669:
1665:
1657:
1653:
1645:
1638:
1630:
1623:
1615:
1611:
1603:
1599:
1591:
1587:
1579:
1575:
1567:
1563:
1555:
1551:
1543:
1539:
1531:
1524:
1516:
1512:
1504:
1495:
1487:
1476:
1468:
1461:
1453:
1449:
1441:
1437:
1429:
1420:
1416:
1411:
1404:
1400:
1394:
1390:
1384:
1380:
1359:
1355:
1342:
1338:
1334:
1329:
1307:
1278:
1263:
1227:
1223:
1215:
1206:
1202:
1194:
1190:
1178:
1141:
1133:
1111:, on the River
1101:
1030:
1014:
964:
934:21st Army Group
895:captured Aachen
883:
878:
844:, captured it.
795:
793:
789:
786:
781:
778:
776:
774:
773:
767:
766:
765:
764:
761:
760:
759:
758:
754:
733:
726:
723:
722:
721:
716:
565:
560:
558:
556:
554:
524:
519:
309:
304:
302:
300:
211:
209:
201:
194:
192:
191:
183:
181:
163:
161:
150:
148:
112:
110:
106:
103:
98:
95:
93:
91:
90:
89:
52:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2858:
2848:
2847:
2842:
2837:
2832:
2827:
2822:
2817:
2812:
2807:
2802:
2797:
2780:
2779:
2773:
2760:
2746:
2729:
2723:
2706:
2700:
2683:
2653:
2640:
2634:
2628:. Leo Cooper.
2621:
2604:
2582:
2555:
2547:
2523:
2517:
2496:
2490:
2470:
2448:
2427:
2421:
2408:
2388:
2371:
2365:
2348:
2327:
2311:
2271:
2265:
2248:
2240:
2234:
2213:
2207:
2191:Atkinson, Rick
2187:
2181:. Ottawa, ON:
2175:
2169:
2144:
2142:
2139:
2137:
2136:
2134:, p. 295.
2124:
2112:
2100:
2088:
2086:, p. 105.
2076:
2074:, p. 258.
2064:
2062:, p. 312.
2052:
2040:
2028:
2016:
2004:
2002:, p. 189.
1992:
1975:
1963:
1961:, p. 259.
1951:
1949:, p. 722.
1939:
1937:, p. 309.
1916:
1914:, p. 307.
1904:
1892:
1880:
1868:
1866:, p. 431.
1856:
1844:
1842:, p. 308.
1827:
1815:
1803:
1801:, p. 730.
1799:Brockhaus 1996
1791:
1779:
1777:, p. 437.
1758:
1743:
1741:, p. 558.
1726:
1724:, p. 276.
1714:
1702:
1700:, p. 557.
1690:
1675:
1673:, p. 527.
1663:
1661:, p. 491.
1651:
1649:, p. 500.
1636:
1634:, p. 492.
1621:
1619:, p. 499.
1609:
1607:, p. 598.
1597:
1585:
1583:, p. 568.
1573:
1561:
1559:, p. 604.
1549:
1547:, p. 599.
1537:
1535:, p. 597.
1522:
1510:
1493:
1491:, p. 257.
1474:
1472:, p. 256.
1459:
1447:
1445:, p. 117.
1435:
1433:, p. 305.
1417:
1415:
1412:
1410:
1409:
1388:
1378:
1353:
1335:
1333:
1330:
1328:
1325:
1324:
1323:
1318:
1313:
1306:
1303:
1286:Charles Stacey
1262:
1259:
1216:
1214:
1211:
1205:houses and 110
1177:
1174:
1132:
1129:
1100:
1097:
1050:, part of the
1021:Major-General
1020:
1013:
1010:
963:
960:
907:rapid response
887:Western Allies
882:
881:Allied tactics
879:
877:
874:
804:
803:
769:
768:
762:
756:
755:
748:
747:
741:
740:
739:
738:
735:
734:
731:
724:
718:
717:
715:
714:
709:
704:
699:
692:
687:
680:
673:
668:
661:
656:
654:Hürtgen Forest
651:
646:
641:
634:
633:
632:
627:
622:
617:
612:
602:
597:
592:
585:
578:
570:
567:
566:
553:
552:
545:
538:
530:
521:
520:
518:
517:
512:
501:
500:
495:
490:
485:
480:
475:
470:
465:
460:
453:
448:
443:
438:
433:
428:
423:
416:
411:
404:
397:
396:
395:
390:
378:
377:
376:
369:
362:
355:
348:
341:
334:
322:
314:
311:
310:
299:
298:
291:
284:
276:
268:
267:
263:
262:
259:
255:
254:
250:
249:
246:
242:
241:
237:
236:
230:
223:
222:
221:Units involved
218:
217:
207:
178:
177:
173:
172:
159:
145:
144:
140:
139:
136:
135:
134:
133:
125:
121:
120:
77:
75:
71:
70:
67:
59:
58:
44:
43:
28:
27:
21:
20:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2857:
2846:
2843:
2841:
2838:
2836:
2833:
2831:
2828:
2826:
2823:
2821:
2818:
2816:
2813:
2811:
2808:
2806:
2803:
2801:
2798:
2796:
2793:
2792:
2790:
2783:
2776:
2770:
2766:
2761:
2757:
2753:
2749:
2743:
2739:
2735:
2730:
2726:
2720:
2716:
2715:Gallery Books
2712:
2707:
2703:
2697:
2692:
2691:
2684:
2680:
2676:
2672:
2668:
2661:
2660:
2654:
2650:
2646:
2641:
2637:
2635:9781844153626
2631:
2627:
2622:
2618:
2614:
2610:
2605:
2594:
2593:
2588:
2583:
2571:
2567:
2566:
2561:
2556:
2552:
2548:
2536:
2532:
2528:
2524:
2520:
2514:
2510:
2509:Dundurn Press
2505:
2504:
2497:
2493:
2487:
2483:
2479:
2475:
2474:Hastings, Max
2471:
2464:
2457:
2453:
2449:
2437:
2434:(in German).
2433:
2428:
2424:
2418:
2414:
2409:
2405:
2399:
2391:
2385:
2381:
2377:
2372:
2368:
2362:
2358:
2354:
2349:
2345:
2341:
2337:
2336:Ryerson Press
2333:
2328:
2316:
2312:
2308:
2296:
2285:
2278:
2277:
2272:
2268:
2262:
2257:
2256:
2249:
2245:
2241:
2237:
2231:
2227:
2222:
2221:
2214:
2210:
2204:
2200:
2196:
2192:
2188:
2184:
2180:
2176:
2172:
2166:
2162:
2157:
2156:
2150:
2146:
2145:
2133:
2128:
2121:
2116:
2109:
2104:
2097:
2092:
2085:
2080:
2073:
2068:
2061:
2056:
2049:
2044:
2037:
2032:
2025:
2020:
2014:, p. 84.
2013:
2008:
2001:
1996:
1989:
1984:
1982:
1980:
1973:, p. 16.
1972:
1967:
1960:
1955:
1948:
1943:
1936:
1931:
1929:
1927:
1925:
1923:
1921:
1913:
1908:
1901:
1896:
1889:
1884:
1877:
1872:
1865:
1860:
1853:
1848:
1841:
1836:
1834:
1832:
1824:
1819:
1812:
1807:
1800:
1795:
1788:
1783:
1776:
1771:
1769:
1767:
1765:
1763:
1755:
1750:
1748:
1740:
1735:
1733:
1731:
1723:
1722:Williams 1988
1718:
1711:
1706:
1699:
1694:
1687:
1682:
1680:
1672:
1667:
1660:
1659:Hastings 2004
1655:
1648:
1647:Hastings 2004
1643:
1641:
1633:
1632:Hastings 2004
1628:
1626:
1618:
1617:Hastings 2004
1613:
1606:
1605:Atkinson 2015
1601:
1594:
1593:Atkinson 2015
1589:
1582:
1581:Atkinson 2015
1577:
1570:
1569:Hastings 2004
1565:
1558:
1557:Atkinson 2015
1553:
1546:
1545:Atkinson 2015
1541:
1534:
1533:Atkinson 2015
1529:
1527:
1519:
1514:
1507:
1502:
1500:
1498:
1490:
1485:
1483:
1481:
1479:
1471:
1466:
1464:
1456:
1455:Hastings 2004
1451:
1444:
1439:
1432:
1427:
1425:
1423:
1418:
1398:
1392:
1382:
1375:
1371:
1367:
1363:
1357:
1350:
1346:
1340:
1336:
1322:
1319:
1317:
1314:
1312:
1309:
1308:
1302:
1297:
1293:
1291:
1287:
1282:
1276:
1272:
1268:
1258:
1256:
1252:
1248:
1244:
1239:
1237:
1233:
1232:battle honour
1226:
1220:
1210:
1200:
1187:
1186:
1173:
1169:
1166:
1162:
1158:
1157:Wasp Carriers
1154:
1153:flamethrowers
1149:
1147:
1128:
1125:
1120:
1118:
1114:
1110:
1106:
1095:
1093:
1087:
1085:
1080:
1075:
1073:
1069:
1065:
1061:
1057:
1054:, one of two
1053:
1049:
1045:
1041:
1037:
1028:
1027:Robert Moncel
1024:
1018:
1009:
1007:
1003:
998:
994:
990:
986:
982:
981:George Patton
976:
974:
973:Rick Atkinson
970:
959:
957:
953:
949:
948:Soviet forces
945:
943:
939:
935:
931:
926:
923:
918:
916:
912:
908:
904:
900:
896:
892:
888:
873:
870:
866:
861:
858:
854:
851:
850:Major-General
845:
843:
839:
835:
832:attacked the
831:
827:
823:
819:
815:
811:
800:
772:Coordinates:
770:
745:
736:
729:
713:
710:
708:
705:
703:
700:
698:
697:
693:
691:
690:Colmar Pocket
688:
686:
685:
681:
679:
678:
674:
672:
669:
667:
666:
662:
660:
657:
655:
652:
650:
647:
645:
642:
640:
639:
638:Market Garden
635:
631:
628:
626:
623:
621:
618:
616:
613:
611:
608:
607:
606:
605:Channel Coast
603:
601:
598:
596:
593:
591:
590:
586:
584:
583:
579:
577:
576:
572:
571:
568:
563:
559:Western Front
551:
546:
544:
539:
537:
532:
531:
528:
516:
513:
511:
508:
507:
506:
505:
499:
496:
494:
491:
489:
486:
484:
481:
479:
476:
474:
471:
469:
466:
464:
461:
459:
458:
454:
452:
449:
447:
444:
442:
439:
437:
434:
432:
429:
427:
424:
422:
421:
417:
415:
414:Aschaffenburg
412:
410:
409:
405:
403:
402:
398:
394:
391:
389:
386:
385:
384:
383:
379:
375:
374:
370:
368:
367:
363:
361:
360:
356:
354:
353:
349:
347:
346:
342:
340:
339:
335:
333:
332:
328:
327:
326:
323:
321:
320:
316:
315:
312:
307:
297:
292:
290:
285:
283:
278:
277:
274:
264:
260:
257:
256:
251:
247:
244:
243:
238:
235:
231:
229:
225:
224:
219:
208:
206:
204:
190:
180:
179:
174:
171:
160:
158:
147:
146:
141:
131:
130:
129:
126:
123:
122:
117:
88:
84:
80:
76:
73:
72:
68:
65:
64:
60:
56:
50:
45:
42:
38:
37:Western Front
34:
29:
24:
19:
2835:Razed cities
2782:
2764:
2733:
2710:
2689:
2658:
2644:
2625:
2608:
2596:. Retrieved
2590:
2574:. Retrieved
2570:the original
2563:
2550:
2539:. Retrieved
2530:
2502:
2477:
2463:the original
2440:. Retrieved
2430:Friesoythe.
2412:
2375:
2356:
2352:
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31:Part of the
18:
2736:. Toronto:
2507:. Toronto:
2334:. Toronto:
2321:21 November
2303:|work=
2224:. Toronto:
2120:Stacey 1982
2096:Stacey 1960
1959:Rogers 1989
1947:Stacey 1960
1900:Fraser 1996
1864:Fraser 1996
1775:Foster 2000
1754:Morton 2016
1739:Stacey 1960
1698:Stacey 1960
1671:Stacey 1960
1386:initiative.
1251:Panzerfaust
1155:mounted on
1072:Paddy Mayne
857:retaliation
794: /
561:(1944–1945)
345:Blockbuster
111: /
2789:Categories
2713:. Ottawa:
2598:24 January
2541:26 January
2480:. London:
2442:14 January
2084:Brode 1997
2024:Vokes 1985
1876:Vokes 1985
1823:Marsh 2015
1267:Kurt Meyer
1144:" Vokes's
838:battalions
814:Friesoythe
782:07°51′31″E
779:53°01′14″N
757:Friesoythe
732:Friesoythe
696:Reichswald
483:Düsseldorf
468:Friesoythe
382:Lumberjack
359:Flashpoint
99:07°51′31″E
96:53°01′14″N
79:Friesoythe
2679:317352926
2576:13 August
2398:cite book
2380:iUniverse
2344:937425850
2305:ignored (
2295:cite book
2108:ICRC 1907
1414:Citations
1290:war crime
1213:Aftermath
1109:Oldenburg
997:Waffen-SS
911:guerrilla
891:Germany's
684:Blackcock
504:Logistics
488:Stuttgart
473:Nuremberg
451:Heilbronn
436:Paderborn
426:Frankfurt
408:Undertone
331:Veritable
325:Rhineland
319:Blackcock
2756:25747884
2738:Stoddart
2617:13090416
2535:Archived
2476:(2004).
2436:Archived
2284:Archived
2193:(2015).
2151:(1997).
1305:See also
1275:commuted
1261:Post-war
1092:reprisal
1056:brigades
1002:corporal
677:Nordwind
644:Lorraine
625:Boulogne
615:Le Havre
582:Chastity
575:Overlord
510:American
463:Dortmund
441:Würzburg
240:Strength
232:Part of
226:Part of
74:Location
2141:Sources
1247:perfidy
1199:convent
1070:led by
956:Werwolf
876:Context
659:Scheldt
620:Dunkirk
589:Dragoon
515:British
493:Hamburg
478:Lippach
420:TF Baum
393:Cologne
388:Remagen
373:Archway
366:Varsity
352:Plunder
338:Grenade
261:Unknown
258:Unknown
248:700 men
216:Unknown
203:†
170:Germany
87:Germany
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124:Result
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1332:Notes
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1036:Rhine
865:Sögel
725:Place
671:Bulge
665:Queen
595:Paris
2769:ISBN
2752:OCLC
2742:ISBN
2719:ISBN
2696:ISBN
2675:OCLC
2630:ISBN
2613:OCLC
2600:2018
2578:2018
2543:2018
2513:ISBN
2486:ISBN
2444:2018
2417:ISBN
2404:link
2384:ISBN
2361:ISBN
2340:OCLC
2323:2019
2307:help
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2203:ISBN
2165:ISBN
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