39:
548:
209:
271:
862:, Toussaint challenged the constitutionality of the IFHP on the basis of the proposed analogous grounds of disability and citizenship. The Court found neither of these grounds to be applicable to the claimant in question, but made a point of leaving open the question as to whether immigration status could be an analogous ground. If found to be an analogous ground, the applicant's exclusion from IFHP coverage could have been in violation of section 15(1) of the Charter.
776:. The heads of eight major professional associations including nurses, social workers, and physicians signed a letter opposing the cuts, demanding that pre-2012 refugee health provision be restored. These advocates argue that the differential treatment of refugees and refugee applicants depending on their country of origin is discriminatory. Ontario's Health Minister
906:
experienced by women with migrant status like downward social mobility, poor access to optimal nutrition, and limited social networks. Moreover, women with migrant status are more vulnerable to being refused care on the basis of their insurance status, thereby relying on informal networks of volunteers and willing physicians, dentists, and pharmacies.
670:, in the context of the provision of sign language, the Supreme Court found that the government should ensure that disadvantaged members of society have equal access to benefits. The Court noted that any finding to the contrary would result in a “thin and impoverished view… of equality”. In a later case about the provision of autism services,
923:
accessing proper health care. Concerns over privacy are also significant, as some women have expressed reluctance to using interpreters within the same, small ethnic community. However, proper interpreter training may help bridge the gaps between patient and health practitioner, as is the case in
British Columbia where the
914:
instances of maternal depression. Causes for these mental health issues are varied and include lack of social support, in addition to cultural and socioeconomic factors. Further, migrant and refugee women are more likely to succumb to postpartum depression due to the additional stressors of the migratory experience.
913:
care, where uninsured migrant women are shown to receive less overall coverage than their insured counterparts, in addition to paying for diagnostic, physician, and hospital fees, leading to less than optimal outcomes. Mental health issues among female Syrian refugees have been examined, specifically
951:
female refugees in Canada, instances of mental symptoms such as recurring nightmares, emotional detachment, hyper vigilance, and difficulty concentrating have been noted. Moreover, it has been observed that youth who have experienced living as refugees demonstrate higher levels of emotional problems
592:
is the provision of health services to refugees and refugee claimants. As early as 2009, health researchers identified particular medical needs and health vulnerabilities amongst these populations. Compared to other immigrants, they report more physical, emotional, and dental problems and, compared
1063:
Pottie, Kevin; Greenaway, Christina; Feightner, John; Welch, Vivian; Swinkels, Helena; Rashid, Meb; Narasiah, Lavanya; Kirmayer, Laurence J.; Ueffing, Erin; MacDonald, Noni E.; Hassan, Ghayda; McNally, Mary; Khan, Kamran; Buhrmann, Ralf; Dunn, Sheila; Dominic, Arunmozhi; McCarthy, Anne E.; Gagnon,
683:
Though a substantive equality approach to section 15 has had limited success in remedying health and other social and economic rights violations of disadvantaged groups, Colleen Flood, one of Canada's leading health law professors, argues that failed claims can contribute to furthering equality by
644:
does not include any express protection of the right to health. The
Canadian government has frequently argued in court that social and economic rights—including the right to health—are merely ‘policy objectives’ that are not subject to judicial intervention. The ICESCR Committee has voiced concern
1120:
International Human Rights instruments that acknowledge a “right to health” to which Canada is a party include: The 1966 International
Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights: art. 12, the 1965 International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination: art. 5 (e)
905:
Recent studies have identified significant gaps in health care coverage for female refugees, particularly in the areas of pregnancy and mental health care. Specifically, barriers to health care access such financial difficulty have been shown to intersect with other post migration difficulties
922:
Access to health care for refugees and other migrant populations has been constrained by language barriers, among other cultural factors. A 2012 study showed that roughly sixty percent of government-assisted refugees had no
English or French language skills, therefore acting as a deterrent to
720:
The
Canadian government introduced a series of changes in April 2012. As of its date of effect on 30 June 2012, IFHP divides asylum seekers into three categories with differing levels of health coverage depending upon the person's country of origin. There are now three baskets of services:
711:
Prior to June 2012, the IFHP provided refugees and asylum seekers with basic health care coverage as well as supplemental coverage including access to medication, dentistry, and vision care. Those whose application for refugee status were denied retained coverage until they were deported.
955:
A study on political violence asylum seekers detained in Canada also found that post-migration immigration status predicted the development of PTSD symptoms almost as strongly as rape or sexual assault. Financial and legal insecurity similarly predicted elevated rates of PTSD symptoms.
749:
emphasized the generosity of
Canadians and Canada's immigration system, stating that the government did “not want to ask Canadians to pay for benefits for protected persons and refugee claimants that are more generous than what they are entitled to themselves.” In a related case,
804:
very individual is equal before and under the law and has the right to the equal protection and equal benefit of the law without discrimination and, in particular, without discrimination based on race, national or ethnic origin, colour, religion, sex, age or mental or physical
626:. Some international human rights instruments acknowledge a right to health by general application and others through the protection of rights of specific groups such as women or children. In 1966, the right to health was recognized as a human right in article 12 of the
759:
The government also made cost and deterrence arguments in favour of reforming the legislation. These changes were estimated to save $ 100 million over five years. The government argued that the cuts would deter claimants who are drawn to the country for its health care.
744:
In defending the changes, the government explained its rationale as being to ensure equality between the health care received by refugees and that afforded to
Canadians such that refugees would not receive superior benefits. Former Citizenship and Immigration Minister
596:
In Canada, the federal government has been responsible for the provision of health care to refugees since 1957. Under international law, this responsibility falls under Canada's human rights obligations to recognize the right to health for all, including refugees.
1121:(iv), the 1979 Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women: arts. 11 (1) (f), 12 and 14 (2) (b), the 1989 Convention on the Rights of the Child: art. 24, and the 2006 Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities: art. 25.
939:
Steady declines in migrant health have been noted to occur within a few years of arrival in Canada, a phenomenon known as the "healthy immigrant effect," due largely to
Canadian immigration policy and medical evaluations of potential immigration candidates.
952:
and aggressive behaviors due to past traumas. It was further noted that instances of post arrival trauma, in the form of discrimination based on race or refugee status, have significant negative effects on mental outcomes for youth.
823:
The right to health has been litigated under
Charter provisions outside of section 15. In December 2013, the Canadian Doctors for Refugee Care (CDRC) and the Canadian Association of Refugee Lawyers (CARL) brought a challenge to the
828:
claiming that the government's cuts to refugee health care were unconstitutional. Specifically, CARL proposes that both “country of origin” and “immigration status” are discriminatory grounds under section 15(1) of the
Charter.
815:. It requires that the court satisfy two conditions: (1) the law creates a distinction based on an analogous or enumerated ground; and (2) the distinction creates a disadvantage by perpetuating prejudice or stereotyping.
735:
If the refugee claimant is from a designated country of origin, they will receive “very limited” health coverage. Some of the provinces have stepped in to cover services and medication no longer provided under the IFHP.
1703:
O’Mahony, Joyce Maureen; Donnelly, Tam Truong; Raffin Bouchal, Shelley; Este, David (April 2013). "Cultural Background and Socioeconomic Influence of Immigrant and Refugee Women Coping with Postpartum Depression".
645:
over Canada's lack of compliance to these international obligations. It argues that such submissions are incompatible with Canada's obligations to provide remedies to violations of Covenant rights in domestic law.
752:
121:
886:, the Court held that citizenship is an analogous ground since it was a personal characteristic “typically not within the control of the individual, and in this sense, is immutable.” In
858:
630:(ICESCR), which imposes an obligation on state parties to the Covenant to create “conditions which would assure to all medical service and medical attention in the event of sickness”.
880:. A number of cases have recognized that non-citizens, which capture many different types of immigration statuses, constitute an analogous ground under section 15(1). For example, in
1148:
International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights GA res. 2200A (XXI), 21 UN GAOR Supp. (No. 16) at 49, UN Doc. A/6316 (1966); 993 UNTS 3; 6 ILM 368 (1967), art. 12.
627:
1363:
Padmos, Andrew, Sandy Buchman, Jeff Poston, John Haggie, Robert Sutherland, Fred Phelps, and Lillian Linton. Letter to Hon. Jason Kenney. 18 May 2012. MS. Ottawa, Ontario
672:
844:
797:
661:
1561:
Newbold, K. Bruce; Cho, Jenny; McKeary, Marie (October 2013). "Access to Health Care: The Experiences of Refugee and Refugee Claimant Women in Hamilton, Ontario".
837:
1374:
1130:
Constitution of the World Health Organization (Official Records of the World Health Organization, no. 2, p. 100) and entered into force on 7 April 1948, art. 12.
237:
614:” has been recognized in a number of international rights instruments to which Canada is a party. It was first articulated in the 1946 Constitution of the
1479:
441:
756:, the Supreme Court cautioned that by extending universal health care regardless of immigration status, Canada “could become a health-care safe haven.”
1421:
Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, Part I of the Constitution Act, 1982, being Schedule B to The Canada Act 1982 (U.K.), 1982, c.11, art. 15(1).
1922:
Beiser, Morton; Hou, Feng (June 2016). "Mental Health Effects of Premigration Trauma and Postmigration Discrimination on Refugee Youth in Canada".
576:
132:
422:
1018:
McKeary, Marie; Newbold, Bruce (1 December 2010). "Barriers to Care: The Challenges for Canadian Refugees and their Health Care Providers".
1797:
449:
1064:
Anita J.; Rousseau, Cécile; Tugwell, Peter; Health, coauthors of the Canadian Collaboration for Immigrant and Refugee (6 September 2011).
1180:
United Nations Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, Concluding Observations on Canada, E/C12/1993 (10 June 1993), para 15.
882:
230:
1478:
Nell Toussaint v. Attorney General of Canada, Memorandum of fact and law of the intervenor, the Canadian CIvil Liberties Association,
1354:
Samson, Lindy, and Charles Hui. Cuts to Refugee Health Program Put Children and Youth at Risk. Canadian Paediatric Association, 2012.
303:
789:
640:
623:
417:
780:
called for the changes to be reversed stating that “this policy change will create a class system for health care in Canada.”
1870:"Violence against Women: An Exploration of the Physical and Mental Health Trends among Immigrant and Refugee Women in Canada"
619:
223:
593:
to those born in Canada, they have higher rates of infections and chronic diseases that are both treatable and preventable.
924:
866:
769:
427:
1512:"Scoping Review on Maternal Health among Immigrant and Refugee Women in Canada: Prenatal, Intrapartum, and Postnatal Care"
1053:
618:
as “the right to the enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health." Article 25 of the 1948
345:
83:
705:
569:
533:
1480:
http://ccla.org/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2011/06/Factum-Toussaint-v.-Attorney-General-of-Canada-November-2011-.pdf
892:, the Court held that “non-citizens suffer from political marginalization, stereotyping and historical disadvantage.”
389:
337:
293:
700:) before they are covered by provincial or territorial health insurance plans. The IFHP was introduced through an
505:
1598:"Perinatal Outcomes of Uninsured Immigrant, Refugee and Migrant Mothers and Newborns Living in Toronto, Canada"
1448:
Legal Challenges to Refugee Health Cuts Begin Today, Canadian Association of Refugee Lawyers, 17 December 2013
308:
254:
975:
Newbold, Bruce (1 June 2009). "The short-term health of Canada's new immigrant arrivals: evidence from LSIC".
2025:
1439:"Backgrounder: Legal Challenge to Cuts to Refugee Healthcare." Canadian Association of Refugee Lawyers. 2013.
1253:
562:
459:
454:
402:
370:
323:
313:
298:
99:
22:
666:
528:
355:
796:, but this right has been protected indirectly by Courts through the use of other provisions, such as the
1198:
Auton (Guardian ad litem of) v. British Columbia (Attorney General), 3 S.C.R. 657, 2004 SCC 78, para 27.
773:
77:
55:
1749:"Enter at your own risk: government changes to comprehensive care for newly arrived Canadian refugees"
928:
692:
In Canada, the provision of basic health care for refugees and refugee claimants is regulated by the
615:
350:
1967:"Effects of Post-migration Factors on PTSD Outcomes Among Immigrant Survivors of Political Violence"
1266:
490:
407:
1289:"Judgments to be Rendered in Leave Applications / Prochains jugements sur demandes d'autorisation"
825:
1288:
513:
72:
1160:"Judging Poverty: Using International Human Rights Law to Refine the Scope of Charter Rights"
1159:
1103:
832:
The CDRC/CARL challenge to the IFHP reforms is founded on two additional Charter provisions:
412:
397:
288:
280:
158:
809:
The current legal test for a section 15 equality analysis comes from Andrews as affirmed in
1654:"Maternal depression in Syrian refugee women recently moved to Canada: a preliminary study"
1210:"Charter Rights & Health Care Funding: A Typology of Canadian Health Rights Litigation"
910:
464:
375:
262:
163:
106:
38:
30:
8:
1278:"Refugee Health-care Cuts by Ottawa before the Courts." CBC News: Politics 30 Jan. 2014.
1139:
Universal Declaration of Human Rights, G.A. res. 217A (III), U.N. Doc A/810 at 71 (1948).
1054:"Appendix 16: Dental disease: evidence review for newly arriving immigrants and refugees"
318:
2002:
1947:
1896:
1869:
1845:
1820:
1773:
1748:
1729:
1680:
1653:
1624:
1597:
1578:
1538:
1511:
1332:
1307:
1090:
1065:
1035:
1000:
173:
153:
116:
1994:
1986:
1939:
1901:
1850:
1798:"Not so Universal Health Care: The Neglect of Immigrant and Refugee Health in Canada"
1778:
1721:
1685:
1629:
1582:
1543:
1337:
1221:
1095:
992:
948:
523:
365:
195:
190:
183:
111:
67:
61:
1951:
1733:
1395:
Cousins, Mel (4 May 2010). "Health Care and Human Rights after Auton and Chaoulli".
1004:
2006:
1978:
1931:
1891:
1881:
1840:
1832:
1768:
1760:
1713:
1675:
1665:
1619:
1609:
1570:
1533:
1523:
1404:
1327:
1319:
1209:
1085:
1077:
1039:
1027:
984:
888:
701:
360:
1935:
1574:
944:
793:
611:
178:
126:
1107:
270:
484:
1982:
1717:
1670:
1252:
Government of Canada, Citizenship and Immigration Canada, News Release, 2012:
988:
2019:
1990:
552:
213:
48:
1966:
684:
illuminating a problem and generating political support for its resolution.
1998:
1943:
1905:
1854:
1782:
1725:
1689:
1633:
1614:
1547:
1528:
1341:
1265:
Government of Canada, Citizenship and Immigration Canada, IFHP Info Sheet:
1225:
1099:
996:
877:
777:
746:
1886:
1510:
Khanlou, N.; Haque, N.; Skinner, A.; Mantini, A.; Kurtz Landy, C. (2017).
1254:
http://www.cic.gc.ca/english/department/media/releases/2012/2012-04-25.asp
1031:
680:
approach by requiring that protected benefits be ones “provided by law”.
1836:
1764:
1449:
1323:
1081:
1189:
Eldridge v. British Columbia (Attorney General) 2 S.C.R. 624, para 13.
870:
1408:
518:
927:
trained thirty interpreters in anticipation of the arrival of 3,500
1375:"Kenney defends cuts to extended health-care benefits for refugees"
843:
the right not to be subjected to cruel and unusual treatment under
811:
1702:
1602:
International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health
1267:
http://www.cic.gc.ca/english/refugees/outside/ifhp-info-sheet.asp
1066:"Evidence-based clinical guidelines for immigrants and refugees"
1469:'Toussaint v Canada (Attorney General)', 2011 FCA 213, para 81.
1460:'Toussaint v Canada (Attorney General)', 2011 FCA 213, para 79.
873:
1965:
Chu, Tracy; Keller, Allen S.; Rasmussen, Andrew (2013-10-01).
628:
International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
1652:
Ahmed, Asma; Bowen, Angela; Feng, Cindy Xin (December 2017).
1062:
1819:
Kirkbride, James B.; Hollander, Anna-Clara (16 June 2015).
704:
by the federal government in 1957, and has been managed by
1509:
687:
1868:
Guruge, Sepali; Roche, Brenda; Catallo, Cristina (2012).
1821:"Migration and risk of psychosis in the Canadian context"
1596:
Wilson-Mitchell, Karline; Rummens, Joanna (31 May 2013).
1491:'Andrews v. Law Society of British Columbia', 1 SCR 143.
909:
Disparities have further been identified in the area of
800:
equality guarantee. Cousins Section 15(1) provides that:
1747:
Arya, N.; McMurray, J.; Rashid, M. (20 November 2012).
1595:
783:
851:
1390:
1388:
731:
public health or public safety health care coverage.
876:, drew a comparison between immigration status and
836:the right to life and security of the person under
1964:
1867:
1818:
1746:
1560:
1385:
622:also mentions the right to health as part of the
2017:
664:equality provision have had limited success. In
1917:
1915:
1647:
1645:
1643:
1308:"Canada owes refugees adequate health coverage"
792:does not include any express protection of the
1651:
1500:'Lavoie v. Canada', 1 S.C.R. 769, 2002 SCC 23
1238:Order in Council PC 157-11/848, June 20, 1957.
1208:Flood, Colleen; Chen, Y. Y. (1 January 2010).
1017:
970:
968:
570:
231:
1912:
1640:
1430:'R v Kapp', 2008 SCC 41, 2 SCR 483, para 17.
1248:
1246:
1244:
753:Nell Toussaint v. Attorney General of Canada
450:Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada
818:
1563:Journal of Immigrant & Refugee Studies
965:
883:Andrews v. Law Society of British Columbia
577:
563:
423:Protecting Canada's Immigration System Act
238:
224:
1921:
1895:
1885:
1844:
1772:
1679:
1669:
1623:
1613:
1537:
1527:
1331:
1306:Stanbrook, Matthew B. (4 February 2014).
1305:
1241:
1207:
1089:
1971:Journal of Immigrant and Minority Health
1706:Journal of Immigrant and Minority Health
895:
768:Critics of the 2012 reforms include the
1924:Journal of Nervous & Mental Disease
1394:
974:
790:Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms
739:
688:Interim Federal Health Programme (IFHP)
641:Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms
624:right to an adequate standard of living
2018:
1372:
1157:
418:Immigration and Refugee Protection Act
1450:http://www.carl-acaadr.ca/articles/61
620:Universal Declaration of Human Rights
1825:Canadian Medical Association Journal
1795:
1753:Canadian Medical Association Journal
925:Provincial Health Services Authority
917:
867:Canadian Civil Liberties Association
770:Canadian Medical Association Journal
605:
428:Canadian immigration and refugee law
784:Legal challenges of right to health
763:
13:
852:Nell Toussaint v. Attorney General
706:Citizenship and Immigration Canada
600:
14:
2037:
900:
859:Nell Toussaint v Attorney General
656:Right to health claims under the
1164:Journal of Law and Social Policy
1158:Porter, Bruce (1 January 2000).
934:
694:Interim Federal Health Programme
648:
546:
294:History of immigration to Canada
269:
207:
37:
1958:
1861:
1812:
1796:Lake, Stephanie (Spring 2016).
1789:
1740:
1696:
1589:
1554:
1503:
1494:
1485:
1472:
1463:
1454:
1442:
1433:
1424:
1415:
1366:
1357:
1348:
1299:
1281:
1272:
1259:
1232:
1220:(3): 479–526, 2 p preceding i.
1201:
1192:
1183:
633:
1373:Wattie, Chris (29 June 2012).
1174:
1151:
1142:
1133:
1124:
1114:
1046:
1011:
856:Prior to the 2012 reforms, in
725:expanded health care coverage;
715:
304:Economic impact of immigration
1:
1874:Nursing Research and Practice
959:
460:Immigration and Refugee Board
455:Canada Border Services Agency
324:Provincial Nomination Program
299:Canada immigration statistics
1936:10.1097/NMD.0000000000000516
1658:BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth
1575:10.1080/15562948.2013.808390
667:Eldridge v. British Columbia
7:
774:Canadian Paediatric Society
10:
2042:
1020:Journal of Refugee Studies
346:History of nationality law
1983:10.1007/s10903-012-9696-1
1718:10.1007/s10903-012-9663-x
1671:10.1186/s12884-017-1433-2
989:10.1080/13557850802609956
728:health care coverage; and
676:, the Court narrowed the
673:Auton v. British Columbia
616:World Health Organization
819:CDRC and CARL litigation
491:Canadians of convenience
1293:Supreme Court of Canada
826:Federal Court of Canada
309:Permanent resident card
135:Diagnostic Services Act
1615:10.3390/ijerph10062198
977:Ethnicity & Health
807:
514:Demographics of Canada
133:Hospital Insurance and
122:Comparison with the US
896:Quality of healthcare
802:
413:Immigration Act, 1976
408:Citizenship Act, 1976
403:Citizenship Act, 1946
398:Immigration Act, 1869
289:Immigration to Canada
2026:Healthcare in Canada
1529:10.1155/2017/8783294
1516:Journal of Pregnancy
1214:Annals of Health Law
740:Government rationale
465:Public Safety Canada
376:Commonwealth citizen
371:Honorary citizenship
263:Canadian citizenship
84:Controlled Drugs and
78:Non-Insured Benefits
31:Healthcare in Canada
1887:10.1155/2012/434592
1837:10.1503/cmaj.150494
1802:UBC Medical Journal
1765:10.1503/cmaj.120938
1324:10.1503/cmaj.131861
1082:10.1503/cmaj.090313
590:Refugee health care
356:Oath of Citizenship
319:Temporary residency
314:Permanent residency
100:History of medicine
1397:McGill Law Journal
1379:The Globe and Mail
1032:10.1093/jrs/feq038
610:The concept of a “
529:Population by year
117:Father of medicare
56:Minister of Health
1759:(17): 1875–1876.
1295:. 1 January 2001.
1076:(12): E824–E925.
918:Language barriers
606:International law
587:
586:
553:Canada portal
524:Canadian identity
248:
247:
214:Canada portal
62:Canada Health Act
2033:
2011:
2010:
1962:
1956:
1955:
1919:
1910:
1909:
1899:
1889:
1865:
1859:
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1848:
1816:
1810:
1809:
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1738:
1737:
1700:
1694:
1693:
1683:
1673:
1649:
1638:
1637:
1627:
1617:
1608:(6): 2198–2213.
1593:
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1558:
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1541:
1531:
1507:
1501:
1498:
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1428:
1422:
1419:
1413:
1412:
1409:10.7202/039650ar
1392:
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1335:
1303:
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1239:
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1229:
1205:
1199:
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1187:
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1155:
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1146:
1140:
1137:
1131:
1128:
1122:
1118:
1112:
1111:
1093:
1060:
1058:
1050:
1044:
1043:
1015:
1009:
1008:
972:
889:Lavoie v. Canada
764:Public criticism
702:Order in Council
579:
572:
565:
551:
550:
549:
351:Citizenship Test
273:
250:
249:
240:
233:
226:
212:
211:
210:
127:Indian hospitals
41:
18:
17:
2041:
2040:
2036:
2035:
2034:
2032:
2031:
2030:
2016:
2015:
2014:
1963:
1959:
1920:
1913:
1866:
1862:
1817:
1813:
1794:
1790:
1745:
1741:
1701:
1697:
1650:
1641:
1594:
1590:
1559:
1555:
1508:
1504:
1499:
1495:
1490:
1486:
1477:
1473:
1468:
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1459:
1455:
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1429:
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1420:
1416:
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1300:
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1242:
1237:
1233:
1206:
1202:
1197:
1193:
1188:
1184:
1179:
1175:
1156:
1152:
1147:
1143:
1138:
1134:
1129:
1125:
1119:
1115:
1056:
1052:
1051:
1047:
1016:
1012:
973:
966:
962:
937:
929:Syrian refugees
920:
903:
898:
854:
821:
794:right to health
786:
766:
742:
718:
690:
654:
636:
612:right to health
608:
603:
601:Right to health
583:
547:
545:
540:
539:
538:
508:
498:
497:
496:
479:
471:
470:
469:
444:
434:
433:
432:
392:
382:
381:
380:
340:
330:
329:
328:
283:
244:
208:
206:
201:
200:
149:
141:
140:
134:
102:
92:
91:
85:
73:Health Transfer
51:
12:
11:
5:
2039:
2029:
2028:
2013:
2012:
1977:(5): 890–897.
1957:
1930:(6): 464–470.
1911:
1860:
1831:(9): 637–638.
1811:
1788:
1739:
1712:(2): 300–314.
1695:
1639:
1588:
1569:(4): 431–449.
1553:
1502:
1493:
1484:
1471:
1462:
1453:
1441:
1432:
1423:
1414:
1403:(4): 717–738.
1384:
1365:
1356:
1347:
1298:
1280:
1271:
1258:
1240:
1231:
1200:
1191:
1182:
1173:
1150:
1141:
1132:
1123:
1113:
1045:
1026:(4): 523–545.
1010:
983:(3): 315–336.
963:
961:
958:
943:In a study of
936:
933:
919:
916:
902:
901:Women's health
899:
897:
894:
853:
850:
849:
848:
841:
820:
817:
785:
782:
765:
762:
741:
738:
733:
732:
729:
726:
717:
714:
689:
686:
653:
647:
635:
632:
607:
604:
602:
599:
585:
584:
582:
581:
574:
567:
559:
556:
555:
542:
541:
537:
536:
534:Ethnic origins
531:
526:
521:
516:
510:
509:
504:
503:
500:
499:
495:
494:
487:
485:Lost Canadians
481:
480:
477:
476:
473:
472:
468:
467:
462:
457:
452:
446:
445:
440:
439:
436:
435:
431:
430:
425:
420:
415:
410:
405:
400:
394:
393:
388:
387:
384:
383:
379:
378:
373:
368:
363:
358:
353:
348:
342:
341:
336:
335:
332:
331:
327:
326:
321:
316:
311:
306:
301:
296:
291:
285:
284:
279:
278:
275:
274:
266:
265:
259:
258:
246:
245:
243:
242:
235:
228:
220:
217:
216:
203:
202:
199:
198:
193:
188:
187:
186:
176:
171:
166:
161:
156:
150:
147:
146:
143:
142:
139:
138:
129:
124:
119:
114:
109:
103:
98:
97:
94:
93:
90:
89:
86:Substances Act
80:
75:
70:
65:
58:
52:
47:
46:
43:
42:
34:
33:
27:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2038:
2027:
2024:
2023:
2021:
2008:
2004:
2000:
1996:
1992:
1988:
1984:
1980:
1976:
1972:
1968:
1961:
1953:
1949:
1945:
1941:
1937:
1933:
1929:
1925:
1918:
1916:
1907:
1903:
1898:
1893:
1888:
1883:
1879:
1875:
1871:
1864:
1856:
1852:
1847:
1842:
1838:
1834:
1830:
1826:
1822:
1815:
1807:
1803:
1799:
1792:
1784:
1780:
1775:
1770:
1766:
1762:
1758:
1754:
1750:
1743:
1735:
1731:
1727:
1723:
1719:
1715:
1711:
1707:
1699:
1691:
1687:
1682:
1677:
1672:
1667:
1663:
1659:
1655:
1648:
1646:
1644:
1635:
1631:
1626:
1621:
1616:
1611:
1607:
1603:
1599:
1592:
1584:
1580:
1576:
1572:
1568:
1564:
1557:
1549:
1545:
1540:
1535:
1530:
1525:
1521:
1517:
1513:
1506:
1497:
1488:
1481:
1475:
1466:
1457:
1451:
1445:
1436:
1427:
1418:
1410:
1406:
1402:
1398:
1391:
1389:
1380:
1376:
1369:
1360:
1351:
1343:
1339:
1334:
1329:
1325:
1321:
1317:
1313:
1309:
1302:
1294:
1290:
1284:
1275:
1268:
1262:
1255:
1249:
1247:
1245:
1235:
1227:
1223:
1219:
1215:
1211:
1204:
1195:
1186:
1177:
1170:(1): 117–162.
1169:
1165:
1161:
1154:
1145:
1136:
1127:
1117:
1109:
1105:
1101:
1097:
1092:
1087:
1083:
1079:
1075:
1071:
1067:
1055:
1049:
1041:
1037:
1033:
1029:
1025:
1021:
1014:
1006:
1002:
998:
994:
990:
986:
982:
978:
971:
969:
964:
957:
953:
950:
946:
941:
935:Mental health
932:
930:
926:
915:
912:
907:
893:
891:
890:
885:
884:
879:
875:
872:
868:
863:
861:
860:
846:
842:
839:
835:
834:
833:
830:
827:
816:
814:
813:
806:
801:
799:
795:
791:
781:
779:
775:
771:
761:
757:
755:
754:
748:
737:
730:
727:
724:
723:
722:
713:
709:
707:
703:
699:
695:
685:
681:
679:
675:
674:
669:
668:
663:
659:
651:
646:
643:
642:
631:
629:
625:
621:
617:
613:
598:
594:
591:
580:
575:
573:
568:
566:
561:
560:
558:
557:
554:
544:
543:
535:
532:
530:
527:
525:
522:
520:
517:
515:
512:
511:
507:
502:
501:
492:
488:
486:
483:
482:
475:
474:
466:
463:
461:
458:
456:
453:
451:
448:
447:
443:
438:
437:
429:
426:
424:
421:
419:
416:
414:
411:
409:
406:
404:
401:
399:
396:
395:
391:
386:
385:
377:
374:
372:
369:
367:
364:
362:
359:
357:
354:
352:
349:
347:
344:
343:
339:
334:
333:
325:
322:
320:
317:
315:
312:
310:
307:
305:
302:
300:
297:
295:
292:
290:
287:
286:
282:
277:
276:
272:
268:
267:
264:
261:
260:
256:
252:
251:
241:
236:
234:
229:
227:
222:
221:
219:
218:
215:
205:
204:
197:
194:
192:
189:
185:
182:
181:
180:
177:
175:
172:
170:
167:
165:
162:
160:
157:
155:
152:
151:
145:
144:
137:
136:
130:
128:
125:
123:
120:
118:
115:
113:
110:
108:
105:
104:
101:
96:
95:
88:
87:
81:
79:
76:
74:
71:
69:
66:
64:
63:
59:
57:
54:
53:
50:
49:Health Canada
45:
44:
40:
36:
35:
32:
29:
28:
24:
20:
19:
16:
1974:
1970:
1960:
1927:
1923:
1877:
1873:
1863:
1828:
1824:
1814:
1805:
1801:
1791:
1756:
1752:
1742:
1709:
1705:
1698:
1661:
1657:
1605:
1601:
1591:
1566:
1562:
1556:
1519:
1515:
1505:
1496:
1487:
1474:
1465:
1456:
1444:
1435:
1426:
1417:
1400:
1396:
1378:
1368:
1359:
1350:
1315:
1311:
1301:
1292:
1283:
1274:
1261:
1234:
1217:
1213:
1203:
1194:
1185:
1176:
1167:
1163:
1153:
1144:
1135:
1126:
1116:
1073:
1069:
1048:
1023:
1019:
1013:
980:
976:
954:
942:
938:
921:
908:
904:
887:
881:
878:non-citizens
864:
857:
855:
831:
822:
810:
808:
803:
787:
778:Deb Matthews
767:
758:
751:
747:Jason Kenney
743:
734:
719:
710:
708:since 1995.
697:
693:
691:
682:
677:
671:
665:
657:
655:
649:
639:
637:
634:Canadian law
609:
595:
589:
588:
506:Demographics
168:
131:
82:
60:
15:
1808:(2): 38–39.
805:disability.
716:2012 Reform
390:Legislation
361:Citizenship
338:Nationality
281:Immigration
159:Drug policy
1880:: 434592.
1664:(1): 240.
1381:. Reuters.
960:References
871:intervenor
845:section 12
798:section 15
662:section 15
164:Euthanasia
107:Physicians
1991:1557-1920
1583:145598514
1318:(2): 91.
1108:922409302
931:in 2016.
911:perinatal
869:, in its
838:section 7
519:Canadians
366:Passports
2020:Category
1999:22976794
1952:37354274
1944:27101023
1906:22685644
1855:25964389
1783:22927516
1734:27132727
1726:22711219
1690:28738869
1634:23727901
1548:28210508
1522:: 1–14.
1342:24446460
1226:21456397
1104:ProQuest
1100:20530168
1005:31358307
997:19263262
812:R v Kapp
772:and the
678:Eldridge
658:Charter'
442:Agencies
255:a series
253:Part of
174:HIV/AIDS
169:Refugees
154:Abortion
68:Medicare
23:a series
21:Part of
2007:7457672
1897:3363993
1846:4467922
1774:3503898
1681:5525250
1625:3717732
1539:5292182
1333:3903728
1091:3168666
1040:7833199
949:Iranian
650:Charter
196:Obesity
191:Smoking
184:Suicide
112:Nursing
2005:
1997:
1989:
1950:
1942:
1904:
1894:
1853:
1843:
1781:
1771:
1732:
1724:
1688:
1678:
1632:
1622:
1581:
1546:
1536:
1340:
1330:
1224:
1106:
1098:
1088:
1038:
1003:
995:
874:factum
478:Issues
179:Murder
148:Topics
2003:S2CID
1948:S2CID
1730:S2CID
1579:S2CID
1057:(PDF)
1036:S2CID
1001:S2CID
945:Tamil
840:; and
652:Cases
1995:PMID
1987:ISSN
1940:PMID
1902:PMID
1878:2012
1851:PMID
1779:PMID
1722:PMID
1686:PMID
1630:PMID
1544:PMID
1520:2017
1338:PMID
1312:CMAJ
1222:PMID
1096:PMID
1070:CMAJ
993:PMID
947:and
865:The
788:The
698:IFHP
638:The
1979:doi
1932:doi
1928:204
1892:PMC
1882:doi
1841:PMC
1833:doi
1829:187
1769:PMC
1761:doi
1757:184
1714:doi
1676:PMC
1666:doi
1620:PMC
1610:doi
1571:doi
1534:PMC
1524:doi
1405:doi
1328:PMC
1320:doi
1316:186
1086:PMC
1078:doi
1074:183
1061:in
1028:doi
985:doi
2022::
2001:.
1993:.
1985:.
1975:15
1973:.
1969:.
1946:.
1938:.
1926:.
1914:^
1900:.
1890:.
1876:.
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Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
