Robert the Bruce - Knowledge

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castles in Moray, Aberdeen and Buchan were destroyed and their inhabitants killed. In less than a year Bruce had swept through the north and destroyed the power of the Comyns who had held vice-regal power in the north for nearly one hundred years. How this dramatic success was achieved, especially the taking of northern castles so quickly, is difficult to understand. Bruce lacked siege weapons and it's unlikely his army had substantially greater numbers or was better armed than his opponents. The morale and leadership of the Comyns and their northern allies appeared to be inexplicably lacking in the face of their direst challenge. He then crossed to

1768: 3460:. Riding with the heavy cavalry, de Bohun caught sight of Bruce, who was armed only with his battle axe. De Bohun lowered his lance and charged, and Bruce stood his ground. At the last moment, Bruce swiftly dodged the lance, rose in his saddle, and with one mighty swing of his axe, struck Bohun so hard that he split de Bohun's iron helmet and his head in two, a blow so powerful that it shattered the very weapon into pieces. Afterwards the King merely expressed regret that he had broken the shaft of his favourite axe. To this day, the story stands in folklore as a testament of the determination of the 1077:, and the young Robert Bruce. The future king was now twenty-two, and in joining the rebels he seems to have been acting independently of his father, who took no part in the rebellion and appears to have abandoned Annandale once more for the safety of Carlisle. It appears that Robert Bruce had fallen under the influence of his grandfather's friends, Wishart and Stewart, who had inspired him to resistance. With the outbreak of the revolt, Robert left Carlisle and made his way to Annandale, where he called together the knights of his ancestral lands and, according to the English chronicler 1876: 2348: 2434: 1392: 6484: 3326: 1480:

shortly after at Berwick following King Edward's orders to execute all followers of Robert de Bruce. Fraser was taken to London to suffer the same fate. Shortly before the fall of Kildrummy Castle, the Earl of Atholl made a desperate attempt to take Queen Elizabeth de Burgh, Margery de Bruce, as well as King Robert's sisters and Isabella of Fife. They were betrayed a few days later and also fell into English hands, Atholl to be executed in London and the women to be held under the harshest possible circumstances.

2130: 2360: 1366:(uttering the words "I mak siccar" ("I make sure")) and John Lindsay, went back into the church and finished Bruce's work. Barbour, however, tells no such story. The Flores Historiarum, which was written c. 1307, says Bruce and Comyn disagreed and Bruce drew his sword and struck Comyn over the head. Bruce supporters then ran up and stabbed Comyn with their swords. Bruce asserted his claim to the Scottish crown and began his campaign by force for the independence of Scotland. 1324:, who supported John Balliol. Comyn was the most powerful noble in Scotland and was related to many other powerful nobles both within Scotland and England, including relatives that held the earldoms of Buchan, Mar, Ross, Fife, Angus, Dunbar, and Strathearn; the Lordships of Kilbride, Kirkintilloch, Lenzie, Bedrule, and Scraesburgh; and sheriffdoms in Banff, Dingwall, Wigtown, and Aberdeen. He also had a powerful claim to the Scottish throne through his descent from 2308:. Under circumstances which are still disputed, Sir James and most of his companions were killed. The sources all agree that, outnumbered and separated from the main Christian army, a group of Scots knights led by Douglas was overwhelmed and wiped out. John Barbour describes how the surviving members of the company recovered Douglas' body together with the casket containing Bruce's heart. The heart, together with Douglas' bones, was then brought back to Scotland. 958: 3382: 1034:, which was not so much an attack against England as the Comyn Earl of Buchan and their faction attacking their Bruce enemies. Both his father and grandfather were at one time Governors of the Castle, and following the loss of Annandale to Comyn in 1295, it was their principal residence. Robert Bruce would have gained first-hand knowledge of the city's defences. The next time Carlisle was besieged, in 1315, Robert the Bruce would be leading the attack. 2169:— derived from English and Hainault chroniclers. None of the Scottish accounts of his death hint at leprosy. Penman states that it is very difficult to accept the notion of Robert as a functioning king serving in war, performing face-to-face acts of lordship, holding parliament and court, travelling widely and fathering several children, all while displaying the infectious symptoms of a leper. Along with suggestions of eczema, tuberculosis, syphilis, 566: 2409:

1819, the investigation took place. The cloth of gold shroud and the lead covering were found to be in a rapid state of decay since the vault had first been opened 21 months earlier. The body was raised up and placed on a wooden coffin board on the edge of the vault. It was found to be covered in two thin layers of lead, each around 5 millimetres (0.20 in) thick. The lead was removed and the skeleton was inspected by

1301: 2320:. In 1920, the heart was discovered by archaeologists and was reburied, but the location was not marked. In 1996, a casket was unearthed during construction work. Scientific study by AOC archaeologists in Edinburgh demonstrated that it did indeed contain human tissue and it was of appropriate age. It was reburied in Melrose Abbey in 1998, pursuant to the dying wishes of the King. 2443:

and finger bones—were allegedly removed from the skeleton. The published accounts of eyewitnesses such as Henry Jardine and James Gregory confirm the removal of small objects at this time. Robert the Bruce's remains were ceremonially re-interred in the vault in Dunfermline Abbey on 5 November 1819. They were placed in a new lead coffin, into which was poured 1,500 lbs of molten

792:, for whom he would also purchase books. A parliamentary briefing document of c. 1364 would also assert that Robert 'used continually to read, or have read in his presence, the histories of ancient kings and princes, and how they conducted themselves in their times, both in wartime and in peacetime; from these he derived information about aspects of his own rule.' 3398:

attempt. Inspired by this, Bruce returned to inflict a series of defeats on the English, thus winning him more supporters and eventual victory. The story serves to illustrate the maxim: "if at first you don't succeed, try try try again". Other versions have Bruce in a small house watching the spider try to make its connection between two roof beams.

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brothers. They would have had masters drawn from their parents' household to school them in the arts of horsemanship, swordsmanship, the joust, hunting and perhaps aspects of courtly behaviour, including dress, protocol, speech, table etiquette, music and dance, some of which may have been learned before the age of ten while serving as

1743:, whom Robert killed in personal combat. Edward continued his advance the following day and encountered the bulk of the Scottish army as they emerged from the woods of New Park. The English appear not to have expected the Scots to give battle here, and as a result had kept their forces in marching, rather than battle, order, with the 1802:. Buoyed by his military successes, Robert also sent his brother Edward to invade Ireland in 1315, in an attempt to assist the Irish lords in repelling English incursions in their kingdoms and to regain all the lands they had lost to the Crown (having received a reply to offers of assistance from Domhnall Ó Néill, king of 1863:

English and Scottish occupation. This was because a famine struck Ireland and the army struggled to sustain itself. They resorted to pillaging and razing entire settlements as they searched for supplies, regardless of whether they were English or Irish. Eventually it was defeated when Edward Bruce was killed at the

1747:− who would usually have been used to break up enemy spear formations − at the back, rather than the front, of the army. The English cavalry found it hard to operate in the cramped terrain and were crushed by Robert's spearmen. The English army was overwhelmed and its leaders were unable to regain control. 1277:, "in the keeping of such a man as he himself will be willing to answer for," suggesting that King Edward suspected Robert was not entirely trustworthy and may have been plotting behind his back. However, an identical phrase appears in an agreement between Edward and his lieutenant and lifelong friend, 2442:

The skeleton, lying on the wooden coffin board, was then placed upon the top of a lead coffin and the large crowd of curious people who had assembled outside the church were allowed to file past the vault to view the king's remains. It was at this point in the proceedings that some small relics—teeth

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have determined that Robert the Bruce did not have leprosy. They examined the original casting of the skull belonging to Robert the Bruce's descendant Lord Andrew Douglas Alexander Thomas Bruce, and a foot bone that had not been re-interred. They determined that skull and foot bone showed no signs of

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I will that as soone as I am trespassed out of this worlde that ye take my harte owte of my body, and embawme it, and take of my treasoure as ye shall thynke sufficient for that enterprise, both for your selfe and suche company as ye wyll take with you, and present my hart to the holy Sepulchre where

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Barbour and other sources relate that Robert summoned his prelates and barons to his bedside for a final council at which he made copious gifts to religious houses, dispensed silver to religious foundations of various orders, so that they might pray for his soul, and repented of his failure to fulfil

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in 1308 was ordered by Bruce to make sure all Comyn family support was extinguished. Buchan had a very large population because it was the agricultural capital of northern Scotland, and much of its population was loyal to the Comyn family even after the defeat of the Earl of Buchan. Most of the Comyn

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According to Barbour and Fordoun, in the late summer of 1305, in a secret agreement sworn, signed, and sealed, John Comyn agreed to forfeit his claim to the Scottish throne in favour of Robert Bruce upon receipt of the Bruce lands in Scotland should an uprising occur led by Bruce. Whether the details

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According to a legend, at some point while he was on the run after the 1306 Battle of Methven, Bruce hid in a cave where he observed a spider spinning a web, trying to make a connection from one area of the cave's roof to another. It tried and failed twice, but began again and succeeded on the third

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over it. Over the head of the body the lead was formed into the shape of a crown. Fragments of marble and alabaster had been found in the debris around the site of the vault several years earlier, which were linked to Robert the Bruce's recorded purchase of a marble and alabaster tomb made in Paris.

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and feretory chapel were roofless, and it was said that the nave was also in a sorry state, with the walls so extensively damaged that it was a danger to enter. In 1672 parts of the east end collapsed, while in 1716 part of the central tower is said to have fallen, presumably destabilising much that

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also stated that in 1327 the king was a victim of 'la grosse maladie', which is usually taken to mean leprosy. However, the ignorant use of the term 'leprosy' by fourteenth-century writers meant that almost any major skin disease might be called leprosy. The earliest mention of this illness is to be

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Even after John's accession, Edward continued to assert his authority over Scotland, and relations between the two kings soon deteriorated. The Bruces sided with King Edward against King John and his Comyn allies. Robert the Bruce and his father both considered John a usurper. Against the objections

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at the time the king made a truce with Sir Henry Mandeville on 12 July 1327. The writer of this letter reported that Robert was so feeble and struck down by illness that he would not live, 'for he can scarcely move anything but his tongue'. However, none of the several accounts of his last years by

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Edward II was dragged from the battlefield, hotly pursued by the Scottish forces, and only just escaped the heavy fighting. The historian Roy Haines describes the defeat as a "calamity of stunning proportions" for the English, whose losses were huge. In the aftermath of the defeat, Edward retreated

1103:. The Scottish lords were not to serve beyond the sea against their will and were pardoned for their recent violence in return for swearing allegiance to King Edward. The Bishop of Glasgow, James the Steward, and Sir Alexander Lindsay became sureties for Bruce until he delivered his infant daughter 716:

of his Scots-Norman peers and the Scoto-Norman portion of his family. He would also have spoken both the Gaelic language of his Carrick birthplace and his mother's family and the early Scots language. As the heir to a considerable estate and a pious layman, Robert would also have been given working

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and beaching area for the 'king's coble' (for fishing) alongside the "king's great ship". As most of mainland Scotland's major royal castles had remained in their razed state since around 1313–1314, Cardross manor was perhaps built as a modest residence sympathetic to Robert's subjects' privations

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ordered that the vault was to be secured from all further inspection with new stones and iron bars and guarded by the town constables and that once the walls of the new church were built up around the site, an investigation of the vault and the remains could take place. Accordingly, on 5 November

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before the site of the former abbey high altar. The vault was covered by two large, flat stones — one forming a headstone, and a larger stone 7 feet (210 cm) in length, with six iron rings or handles set in it. When these stones were removed, the vault was found to be 7 feet (210 cm) in

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In 1325 Robert I acquired lands at Cardross in exchange for those of Old Montros in Angus, Scotland, with Sir David Graham. It was to be here in Cardoss that Robert would build the manor house that would serve as his favoured residence during the final years of his reign. The extant chamberlain's

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On 11 June 1304, Bruce and William Lamberton made a pact that bound them, each to the other, in "friendship and alliance against all men." If one should break the secret pact, he would forfeit to the other the sum of ten thousand pounds. The pact is often interpreted as a sign of their patriotism

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Tutors for the young Robert and his brothers were most likely drawn from unbeneficed clergy or mendicant friars associated with the churches patronised by their family. However, as growing noble youths, outdoor pursuits and great events would also have held a strong fascination for Robert and his

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Display case of artifacts pertaining to Robert the Bruce: 1) plaster cast of his skull; 2) foot bone (metatarsal); 3) fragment of the lead shroud; 4) iron handle from the stone slab covering the vault; 5) iron nail from the wooden coffin; 6) marble fragments of the tomb. Hunterian Museum and Art

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Initially, the Scot-Irish army seemed unstoppable as they defeated the English again and again and levelled their towns. However, the Scots failed to win over the non-Ulster chiefs or to make any other significant gains in the south of the island, where people couldn't see the difference between

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apologising for having called tenants of the monks to service in his army when there had been no national call-up. Bruce pledged that, henceforth, he would "never again" require the monks to serve unless it was to "the common army of the whole realm", for national defence. Bruce also married his

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was taken of the detached skull by artist William Scoular. The bones were measured and drawn, and the king's skeleton was measured to be 5 feet 11 inches (180 cm). It has been estimated that Bruce stood at around 6 feet 1 inch (185 cm) tall as a young man, which by

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he died utterly fulfilled, in that the goal of his lifetime's struggle — untrammelled recognition of the Bruce right to the crown — had been realised, and confident that he was leaving the kingdom of Scotland safely in the hands of his most trusted lieutenant, Moray until his infant son reached

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A strong force under Edward, Prince of Wales, captured Kildrummy Castle on 13 September 1306, taking prisoner the King's youngest brother, Nigel de Bruce, as well as Robert Boyd and Alexander Lindsay, and Sir Simon Fraser. Boyd managed to escape but both Nigel de Bruce and Lindsay were executed

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There were a number of Carrick, Ayrshire, Hebridean and Irish families and kindreds affiliated with the Bruces who might have performed such a service (Robert's foster-brother is referred to by Barbour as sharing Robert's precarious existence as an outlaw in Carrick in 1307–1308). This Gaelic

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Whereas we and you and our people and your people, free since ancient times, share the same national ancestry and are urged to come together more eagerly and joyfully in friendship by a common language and by common custom, we have sent you our beloved kinsman, the bearers of this letter, to

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In conjunction with the invasion, Bruce popularised an ideological vision of a "Pan-Gaelic Greater Scotia" with his lineage ruling over both Ireland and Scotland. This propaganda campaign was aided by two factors. The first was his marriage alliance from 1302 with the de Burgh family of the

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Reconstructions of the face of Robert the Bruce have been produced, including those by Richard Neave from the University of Manchester, Peter Vanezis from the University of Glasgow and Dr Martin McGregor (University of Glasgow) and Prof Caroline Wilkinson (Face Lab at Liverpool John Moores

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of nobles present in the English army, and two 19th Century antiquarians, Alexander Murison and George Chalmers, have stated that Bruce did not participate, and in the following month decided to lay waste to Annandale and burn Ayr Castle, to prevent it being garrisoned by the English.

1187:, he did little to damage the Scots' fighting ability, and in January 1302 he agreed to a nine-month truce. It was around this time that Robert the Bruce submitted to Edward, along with other nobles, even though he had been on the side of the Scots until then. There were rumours that 850:

According to historians such as Barrow and Penman, it is also likely that when Robert and Edward Bruce reached the male age of consent of twelve and began training for full knighthood, they were sent to reside for a period with one or more allied English noble families, such as the

1834:. Thus, lineally and geopolitically, Bruce attempted to support his anticipated notion of a pan-Gaelic alliance between Scottish-Irish Gaelic populations, under his kingship. This is revealed by a letter he sent to the Irish chiefs, where he calls the Scots and Irish collectively 1984:. There does not seem to be any evidence as to what the king himself or his physicians believed his illness to be. Nor is there any evidence of an attempt in his last years to segregate the king in any way from the company of friends, family, courtiers, or foreign diplomats. 1254:. With the country now under submission, all the leading Scots, except for William Wallace, surrendered to Edward in February 1304. John Comyn, who was by now Guardian again, submitted to Edward. The laws and liberties of Scotland were to be as they had been in the days of 2265:("Here lies the invincible blessed King Robert / Whoever reads about his feats will repeat the many battles he fought / By his integrity he guided to liberty the Kingdom of the Scots: May he now live in Heaven"). Ten alabaster fragments from the tomb are on display in the 1262:

despite both having already surrendered to the English. Homage was again obtained from the nobles and the burghs, and a parliament was held to elect those who would meet later in the year with the English parliament to establish rules for the governance of Scotland. The

1867:. The Irish Annals of the period described the defeat of the Bruces by the English as one of the greatest things ever done for the Irish nation due to the fact it brought an end to the famine and pillaging wrought upon the Irish by both the Scots and the English. 2311:

Bruce's dying wish was that when he passed, his heart be removed and taken to the Holy Land. His heart never made it though, as all efforts to take the heart failed, and so they brought the heart back to Scotland where it was then buried, in a lead container, at

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people who were with him refer to any sign of a skin ailment. Barbour writes of the king's illness that "it began through a benumbing brought on by his cold lying", during the months of wandering from 1306 to 1309. It has been proposed alternatively that he had

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25 March 1306 with all formality and solemnity. The royal robes and vestments that Robert Wishart had hidden from the English were brought out by the bishop and set upon King Robert. The bishops of Moray and Glasgow were in attendance, as were the earls of

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Wilkinson, C, Roughley, M, Moffat, R, Monckton, D and MacGregor, M (2019) In Search of Robert Bruce, Part I: Craniofacial Analysis of the Skull excavated at Dunfermline in 1819. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports, 24. pp. 556-564. ISSN 2352-409X

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where the English garrison surrendered. Bruce hurried from Dumfries to Glasgow, where his friend and supporter Bishop Robert Wishart granted him absolution and subsequently adjured the clergy throughout the land to rally to Bruce. Nonetheless, Bruce was

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Although the Bruces were by now back in possession of Annandale and Carrick, in August 1296 Robert Bruce, Lord of Annandale, and his son, Robert Bruce, Earl of Carrick and future king, were among the more than 1,500 Scots at Berwick who swore an oath of

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As many of these personal and leadership skills were bound up within a code of chivalry, Robert's chief tutor was surely a reputable, experienced knight, drawn from his grandfather's crusade retinue. This grandfather, known to contemporaries as

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on 23 July 1292, which reports the opinion that "if you had the earl of Carrick, the Steward of Scotland and his brother ... you would think your business done". On 7 July, Bruce and his friends made terms with Edward by a treaty called the

2245:. A canopy chapel or "hearse" of imported Baltic wood was erected over the grave. Robert I's body, in a wooden coffin, was then interred within a stone vault beneath the floor, underneath a box tomb of white Italian marble purchased in 2023:. Thence he sailed to the mainland to visit his son and his bride, both mere children, now installed at Turnberry Castle, the head of the earldom of Carrick and once his own main residence. He journeyed overland, being carried on a 1669:

The eight years of exhausting but deliberate refusal to meet the English on even ground have caused many to consider Bruce one of the great guerrilla leaders of any age. This represented a transformation for one raised as a feudal

1094:(to whom Bruce was related), in the summer of 1297; but instead of complying, Bruce continued to support the revolt against Edward I. That Bruce was in the forefront of inciting rebellion is shown in a letter written to Edward by 1175:

as sole Guardian. Soules was appointed largely because he was part of neither the Bruce nor the Comyn camps and was a patriot. He was an active Guardian and made renewed efforts to have King John returned to the Scottish throne.

1724:, governor of the castle), while in May, Bruce again raided England and subdued the Isle of Man. News of the agreement regarding Stirling Castle reached the English king in late May, and he decided to speed his march north from 1638:. The following year, the clergy of Scotland recognised Bruce as king at a general council. The support given him by the church, in spite of his excommunication, was of great political importance. On 1 October 1310, Bruce wrote 978:

to answer the charges. This the Scottish king did, but the final straw was Edward's demand that the Scottish magnates provide military service in England's war against France. This was unacceptable; the Scots instead formed an

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Edward I marched north again in the spring of 1306. On his way, he granted the Scottish estates of Bruce and his adherents to his own followers and had published a bill excommunicating Bruce. In June Bruce was defeated at the

1114:, the Bruce's possessions were excepted from the Lordships and lands that Edward assigned to his followers. The reason for this is uncertain, though Fordun records Robert fighting for Edward, at Falkirk, under the command of 5197:

https://www.nms.ac.uk/explore-our-collections/stories/scottish-history-and-archaeology/robert-the-bruce/#:~:text=Death%20of%20Robert%20Bruce&text=On%20his%20deathbed%2C%20Robert%20had,and%20buried%20at%20Melrose%20Abbey

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learned of Edward's intention and warned Bruce by sending him twelve pence and a pair of spurs. Bruce took the hint, and he and a squire fled the English court during the night. They made their way quickly for Scotland.

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as joint Guardians, but they could not see past their personal differences. As a nephew and supporter of King John, and as someone with a serious claim to the Scottish throne, Comyn was Bruce's enemy. In 1299,

2063:. Robert's final wish reflected conventional piety, and was perhaps intended to perpetuate his memory. After his death his heart was to be removed from his body and, accompanied by a company of knights led by 970:

of the Scots, Edward I agreed to hear appeals on cases ruled on by the court of the Guardians that had governed Scotland during the interregnum. A further provocation came in a case brought by Macduff, son of

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No man holds his own flesh and blood in hatred and I am no exception. I must join my own people and the nation in which I was born. I ask that you please come with me and you will be my councillors and close

941:, resigned his earldom of Carrick to his eldest son, Robert, the future king, so as to protect the Bruce's kingship claim while their middle lord (Robert the Bruce's father) now held only English lands. 3789:

and some 4 miles (6 kilometres) east of the modern village of Cardross; however, historic cultivated land, quarry and canal works at Mains of Cardross may also point to a possible location for Robert's

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length, 22 inches (56 cm) wide and 18 inches (46 cm) deep. Within the vault, inside the remnants of a decayed oak coffin, there was a body entirely enclosed in lead, with a decayed shroud of

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It remains unclear just what caused the death of Robert, a month before his fifty-fifth birthday. Contemporary accusations that Robert had leprosy, the "unclean sickness" — the present-day, treatable

808:, and to history as "Bruce the Competitor", seems to have been an immense influence on the future king. Robert's later performance in war certainly underlines his skills in tactics and single combat. 1191:

would return to regain the Scottish throne. Soules, who had probably been appointed by John, supported his return, as did most other nobles. But it was no more than a rumour and nothing came of it.

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M. Strickland, "A Law of Arms or a Law of Treason? Conduct in War in Edward I's Campaigns in Scotland, 1296–1307", Violence in Medieval Society, ed. R.W. Kaeuper (Woodbridge, 2000), pp. 64–66.

3437:(the "Black Douglas"), who had spent time hiding out in caves within his manor of Lintalee, which was then occupied by the English. The entire account may in fact be a version of a literary 1851:

The diplomacy worked to a certain extent, at least in Ulster, where the Scots had some support. The Irish chief, Domhnall Ó Néill, for instance, later justified his support for the Scots to

1543:. At the same time, James Douglas made his first foray for Bruce into south-western Scotland, attacking and burning his own castle in Douglasdale. Leaving his brother Edward in command in 3562:(1948) features, during the "Stick-to-it-ivity" song sequence, an animated retelling of how a spider inspired Robert the Bruce to lead his third and successful revolt against the English. 3498: 491:, confirming the re-establishment of an independent Scottish kingdom. The battle marked a significant turning point, with Robert's armies now free to launch devastating raids throughout 1696:. In response, Edward II planned a major military campaign with the support of Lancaster and the barons, mustering a large army of between 15,000 and 20,000 men. In the spring of 1314, 1646:

Parish in an unsuccessful attempt to establish peace between Scotland and England. Over the next three years, one English-held castle or outpost after another was captured and reduced:

1281:. A further sign of Edward's distrust occurred on 10 October 1305, when Edward revoked his gift of Sir Gilbert de Umfraville's lands to Bruce that he had made only six months before. 5501: 441:

to the Scottish throne. After submitting to Edward I in 1302 and returning to "the king's peace", Robert inherited his family's claim to the Scottish throne upon his father's death.

1167:, was appointed as a third, neutral Guardian to try to maintain order between Bruce and Comyn. The following year, Bruce finally resigned as joint Guardian and was replaced by Sir 7216: 1794:

Freed from English threats, Scotland's armies could now invade northern England. Bruce also drove back a subsequent English expedition north of the border and launched raids into

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May not have been a daughter of Robert. Recorded are the names Christina de Cairns and Christina Flemyng. Possibly identical to a certain Christina of Carrick attested in 1329.

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was queen dowager) are unlikely but not impossible. Bruce and his followers returned to the Scottish mainland in February 1307 in two groups. One, led by Bruce and his brother

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While the Bruces' bid for the throne had ended in failure, the Balliols' triumph propelled the eighteen-year-old Robert the Bruce onto the political stage in his own right.

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Hic jacet invictus Robertus Rex benedictus qui sua gesta legit repetit quot bella peregit ad libertatem perduxit per probitatem regnum scottorum: nunc vivat in arce polorum

4462:"The Law of the Throne: Tanistry and the Introduction of the Law of Primogeniture: A Note on the Succession of the Kings of Scotland from Kenneth MacAlpin to Robert Bruce" 869:'s Chamber". While there remains little firm evidence of Robert's presence at Edward's court, on 8 April 1296, both Robert and his father were pursued through the English 2047:

was visited. Early in April, he arrived at the shrine of St Ninian at Whithorn. He fasted four or five days and prayed to the saint, before returning by sea to Cardross.

2237:. The funeral was a grand affair, with 478 stone (3,040 kg) of wax having been purchased for the making of funerary candles. A file of mourners on foot, including 1843:

negotiate with you in our name about permanently strengthening and maintaining inviolate the special friendship between us and you, so that with God's will our nation (

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in Ireland; second, Bruce himself, on his mother's side of Carrick, was descended from Gaelic royalty in Scotland as well as Ireland. Bruce's Irish ancestors included

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and Sir Walter Logan, were welcomed cordially by King Alfonso. In August 1330 the Scots contingent formed part of the Castilian army besieging the frontier castle of

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When a projected international crusade failed to materialise, Sir James Douglas and his company, escorting the casket containing Bruce's heart, sailed to Spain where

877:. This raises the possibility that young Robert the Bruce was on occasion resident in a royal centre which Edward I himself would visit frequently during his reign. 5610:'Sixteenth Century Swords Found in Ireland' by G. A. Hayes-McCoy, in "The Journal of the Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland", Vol. 78, No. 1 (July 1948), p. 44 1348:

According to Barbour, Comyn betrayed his agreement with Bruce to King Edward I, and when Bruce arranged a meeting for 10 February 1306 with Comyn in the Chapel of

6640: 900:, died in 1290. It is also around this time that Robert would have been knighted, and he began to appear on the political stage in the Bruce dynastic interest. 4652: 937:, resigned his lordship of Annandale and transferred his claim to the Scottish throne to his son, antedating this statement to 7 November. In turn, that son, 8223: 3997: 2035:: houses were built there, and supplies brought to that place, as though the king's condition had deteriorated. At the end of March 1329, he was staying at 7209: 3306:

when the eastern half of the abbey church was rebuilt in the first half of the 19th century. In 1974 the Bruce Memorial Window was installed in the north

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accounts for 1328 detail a manor house at Cardross with king's and queen's chambers and glazed windows, a chapel, kitchens, bake- and brew-houses, falcon

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has statues of Bruce and Wallace in niches flanking the main entrance. The building also contains several frescos depicting scenes from Scots history by

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Edward I responded to King John's alliance with France and the attack on Carlisle by invading Scotland at the end of March 1296 and taking the town of

1598:. Looping back via the hinterlands of Inverness and a second failed attempt to take Elgin, Bruce finally achieved his landmark defeat of Comyn at the 5650: 701:, and though the earls of Carrick had achieved some feudalisation, the society of Carrick at the end of the thirteenth century remained emphatically 5131: 2173:, cancer or stroke, a diet of rich court food has also been suggested as a possible contributory factor in Robert's death. His Milanese physician, 998:

refused, and the Bruce family withdrew temporarily from Scotland, while the Comyns seized their estates in Annandale and Carrick, granting them to

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The exact location of Cardross manor house is uncertain. Excavations of 2008–2009 identified the likely site of the manor house at "Pillanflatt",

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Robert the Bruce would most probably have become trilingual at an early age. He would have been schooled to speak, read and possibly write in the

7202: 3409: 5402: 1266:, Edward's nephew, was to head up the subordinate government of Scotland. While all this took place, William Wallace was finally captured near 3302:

The site of the tomb in Dunfermline Abbey was marked by large carved stone letters spelling out "King Robert the Bruce" around the top of the

2391:

On 17 February 1818, workmen breaking ground on the new parish church to be built on the site of the choir of Dunfermline Abbey uncovered a

2007:; this was possibly in search of a miraculous cure, or to make his peace with God. With Moray by his side, Robert set off from his manor at 6522: 3359:

A statue of Robert Bruce stands in the High Street in Lochmaben and another in Annan (erected 2010) in front of the town's Victorian hall.

3110: 2493: 1292:, held huge estates and property in Scotland and a barony and some minor properties in England, and a strong claim to the Scottish throne. 781:

would both assert that they had read a history of his reign 'commissioned by King Robert himself.' In his last years, Robert would pay for

4969: 1053:, and installed Englishmen to govern the country. The campaign had been very successful, but the English triumph would be only temporary. 721:, the language of charter lordship, liturgy and prayer. This would have afforded Robert and his brothers access to basic education in the 8233: 6633: 1927:

through a long war, repeated famines and livestock pandemics. Before Cardross became habitable in 1327, Robert's main residence had been

1062: 5929: 5904: 3764:

has a claim, as a possession of the Bruce family, but is not supported by a medieval source. Contemporary claims of the Bruce estate at

748:

Barbour reported that Robert read aloud to his band of supporters in 1306, reciting from memory tales from a twelfth-century romance of

8238: 7986: 2534: 1212: 3934: 1623:, the last major stronghold of the Comyns and their allies. Bruce then ordered harryings in Argyle and Kintyre, in the territories of 1030:

was a direct attack on the Bruces. On 26 March 1296, Easter Monday, seven Scottish earls made a surprise attack on the walled city of

8243: 5052:

from Froissart's Chronicles, translated by John Bourchier, Lord Berners (1467–1533), E.M. Brougham, News Out Of Scotland, London 1926

1341: 464:). Bruce moved quickly to seize the throne, and was crowned king of Scots on 25 March 1306. Edward I's forces defeated Robert in the 5258: 8188: 5678: 3699: 3265: 2334: 1440:. His wife and daughters and other women of the party were sent to Kildrummy in August under the protection of Bruce's brother, 6626: 3760:, describes Robert as a layman of Carrick, indicating Carrick / Turnberry was either his primary residence, or place of birth. 3237: 2872: 1536: 506:

in 1318, Edward II refused to renounce his claim to the overlordship of Scotland. In 1320, the Scottish nobility submitted the

1340:

of the agreement with Comyn are correct or not, King Edward moved to arrest Bruce while Bruce was still at the English court.

8218: 8173: 8037: 3694: 3675: 3249: 3241: 2836: 2778: 2388:

still stood around its base, and the east gable tumbled in 1726. The final collapse of the central tower took place in 1753.

1207:, in Writtle, near Chelmsford in Essex. Elizabeth was about 13 at the time, and Bruce 28. By Elizabeth he had four children: 1172: 938: 934: 881: 805: 606: 594: 399: 298: 6450: 2269:

and traces of gilding still remain on some of them. Robert had bequeathed sufficient funds to pay for thousands of obituary

1211:, John (died in childhood), Matilda (who married Thomas Isaac and died at Aberdeen 20 July 1353), and Margaret (who married 621:

that would give him a claim to the Scottish throne. In addition to the lordship of Annandale, the Bruces also held lands in

479:

Robert I defeated his other opponents, destroying their strongholds and devastating their lands, and in 1309 held his first

8183: 3866: 3586:(1996) focuses primarily on the rise to power of Robert I of Scotland, culminating in the Battle of Bannockburn in AD 1314. 2610: 2576: 1204: 1168: 991: 896:

clerk, his father, and a host of Gaelic notaries from Carrick. Robert Bruce, the king to be, was sixteen years of age when

48: 5106: 823:

and possibly the other Bruce brothers (Neil, Thomas and Alexander), was also gained through the Gaelic tradition of being

8148: 2752: 2421:. The sternum was found to have been sawn open from top to bottom, permitting removal of the king's heart after death. A 1907: 1091: 530: 387:. He fought successfully during his reign to restore Scotland to an independent kingdom and is regarded in Scotland as a 6573: 6423: 6404: 6363: 6336: 6313: 6269: 6218: 6199: 6144: 6128: 6113: 6095: 6059: 6040: 6021: 6002: 5969: 5548: 5195:

Scottish History and Archaeology; 4 min read, "Robert the Bruce", National Museums Scotland. Accessed 2 November 2023.

4404:

from The Chronicle of Walter of Guisborough (previously edited as the Chronicle of Walter of Hemingford or Hemingburgh)

3982: 3891: 3847: 3338: 3275:

Robert I was originally buried in Dunfermline Abbey, traditional resting place of Scottish monarchs since the reign of

1713: 1027: 380: 5798: 8228: 6479: 5208:

Acts of Robert I, King of Scots, 1306–1329, ed. A. A. M. Duncan (Regesta Regum Scottorum, vol. v ), no. 380 and notes

3881: 3704: 1002:. Edward I thereupon provided a safe refuge for the Bruces, having appointed the Lord of Annandale to the command of 843:" warfare, using smaller sturdy ponies in mounted raids, as well as for sea-power, ranging from oared war-galleys (" 8081: 2637: 1320:

Bruce, like all his family, had a complete belief in his right to the throne. His ambition was further thwarted by

1123: 678: 268: 3709: 8102: 5282:

McRoberts, David "Material destruction caused by the Scottish Reformation", Innes Review, 10 (1959), pp. 146–150.

3446: 3369:

Swords inscribed with Robert's name probably date from the 16th century rather than earlier. There is one in the

1739:, which was surrounded by marshland. Skirmishing between the two sides broke out, resulting in the death of Sir 819:, the castles of the earldom of Carrick. A significant and profound part of the childhood experience of Robert, 8178: 8158: 7979: 5706: 3666: 3434: 2206: 2064: 1705: 1658:, by Bruce himself, in January 1312. Bruce also made raids into northern England and, landing at Ramsey in the 1583: 1449: 1527:

in south-west Scotland. The other, led by his brothers Thomas and Alexander, landed slightly further south in

1131: 8027: 5746: 5589: 3415: 3074: 2405: 2185: 1362:

says that on being told that Comyn had survived the attack and was being treated, two of Bruce's supporters,

1258:, and any that needed alteration would be with the assent of King Edward and the advice of the Scots nobles. 1115: 971: 610: 308: 31: 4678: 3998:

Magna Carta Ancestry: A Study in Colonial and Medieval Families By Douglas Richardson, Kimball G. Everingham

3333:

A 1929 statue of Robert the Bruce is set in the wall of Edinburgh Castle at the entrance, along with one of

1503:, a family to which Bruce was related (not only was his first wife a member of this family but her brother, 1014:. Isabella died shortly after their marriage, either during or shortly after the birth of their only child, 577:

Robert the Bruce was born on 11 July 1274. His place of birth is not known for certain, it most likely was

7876: 7839: 7162: 2703: 2072: 1582:

before falling seriously ill, probably owing to the hardships of the lengthy campaign. Recovering, leaving

17: 4856: 1171:. In May 1301, Umfraville, Comyn, and Lamberton also resigned as joint Guardians and were replaced by Sir 7601: 6973: 3782: 2266: 1735:

The battle began on 23 June as the English army attempted to force its way across the high ground of the

1575: 1400: 7590: 6963: 6464: 5866:"In Search of Robert Bruce, Part I: Craniofacial Analysis of the Skull excavated at Dunfermline in 1819" 5484:"Diffinicione successionis ad regnum Scottorum: royal succession in Scotland in the later middle ages". 1531:, but they were soon captured and executed. In April, Bruce won a small victory over the English at the 1179:

In July 1301 King Edward I launched his sixth campaign into Scotland. Though he captured the castles of

514:, declaring Robert as their rightful monarch and asserting Scotland's status as an independent kingdom. 437:, Robert resigned in 1300 because of his quarrels with Comyn and the apparently imminent restoration of 8208: 8193: 8017: 7886: 7564: 7532: 6938: 6912: 6657: 3595: 3441:

used in royal biographical writing. A similar story is told, for example, in Jewish sources about King

1666:

in Castletown, capturing it on 21 June 1313 and denying the English the island's strategic importance.

1599: 999: 870: 483:. A series of military victories between 1310 and 1314 won him control of much of Scotland, and at the 6475: 3433:(published between 1828 and 1830). This may have originally been told about his companion-in-arms Sir 3401: 617:, and through his father, the Lordship of Annandale and a royal lineage as a fourth great-grandson of 8253: 8248: 8203: 7972: 7881: 7676: 7621: 7229: 7053: 6993: 6892: 6649: 5621: 5532: 3729: 3349: 2414: 2410: 1789: 1616: 1448:

and most of his remaining men. Bruce fled with a small following of his most faithful men, including

1263: 1255: 1042: 995: 65: 8213: 8163: 8010: 7682: 7671: 7377: 7233: 7225: 7058: 7048: 6857: 4992: 3724: 1875: 897: 856: 827:

to allied Gaelic kindreds — a traditional practice in Carrick, southwest and western Scotland, the

778: 522: 518: 364: 6842: 6822: 4866: 986:

The Comyn-dominated council acting in the name of King John summoned the Scottish host to meet at

8153: 7651: 7646: 7631: 7606: 7028: 7023: 7003: 6978: 4679:"Letter from Robert the Bruce to Edward II reveals power struggle in the build-up to Bannockburn" 3611: 3606: 2418: 1891: 1884: 1767: 1356:

and accused him of treachery, they came to blows. Bruce stabbed Comyn before the high altar. The

1046: 1011: 839:

influence has been cited as a possible explanation for Robert the Bruce's apparent affinity for "

507: 7313: 6802: 6280: 5576: 3628:

Professor Caroline Wilkinson and Mark Roughley from Face Lab at Liverpool John Moores University

1491:

It is still uncertain where Bruce spent the winter of 1306–1307. Most likely he spent it in the

8168: 8097: 8022: 7830: 7715: 7661: 7636: 7611: 7596: 7468: 7303: 7157: 7097: 7038: 7018: 7008: 6983: 6968: 6380: 3425: 3020: 2994: 2692: 2648: 2270: 2097: 1540: 1496: 1100: 1061:

to King Edward I of England. When the Scottish revolt against Edward I broke out in July 1297,

480: 469: 426: 273: 7773: 3345:

in the entrance foyer, including a large example of Bruce marshalling his men at Bannockburn.

1806:), and to open a second front in the continuing wars with England. Edward was even crowned as 1313: 7820: 7730: 7710: 7641: 7579: 7569: 7559: 7438: 7433: 7406: 7367: 7362: 7142: 7112: 7092: 7013: 6953: 6943: 6933: 6166:

Report relative to the tomb of King Robert the Bruce, and the cathedral church of Dunfermline

5218: 2497: 2281: 2238: 2170: 1903: 1880: 1683: 1504: 1164: 1078: 770: 713: 602: 484: 7525: 7277: 6907: 5730: 3238:

Richard (Strongbow) de Clare, 2nd Earl of Pembroke, King of Leinster and Governor of Ireland

8143: 8138: 8076: 7798: 7745: 7735: 7725: 7698: 7616: 7539: 7473: 7428: 7418: 7412: 7401: 7395: 7345: 7137: 7127: 7117: 7107: 7087: 7076: 7064: 6988: 6917: 6792: 6610: 6547: 6281:"Robert Bruce's Bones: Reputations, Politics and Identities in Nineteenth-Century Scotland" 5877: 3719: 3479: 3456:

It is said that before the Battle of Bannockburn, Bruce was attacked by the English Knight

3342: 2810: 2712:

Bruce's descendants include all later Scottish monarchs and all British monarchs since the

2560: 2384: 2376: 2293: 1973: 1807: 1639: 1579: 1532: 1453: 1363: 1349: 1309: 1208: 1147: 1049:, Scottish resistance was effectively crushed. Edward deposed King John, placed him in the 789: 537: 517:

In 1324, the Pope recognised Robert I as king of an independent Scotland, and in 1326, the

488: 468:, forcing him to flee into hiding, before re-emerging in 1307 to defeat an English army at 434: 422: 323: 255: 104: 5675: 5651:"Legenda o Łokietku ukrywającym się w jaskini może być prawdą! Archeolodzy odkryli dowody" 8: 8107: 8033: 7825: 7778: 7720: 7656: 7453: 7443: 7423: 7389: 7194: 7147: 7102: 7033: 6376: 5864:

Wilkinson, C.; Roughley, M.; Moffat, R.; Monckton, D.; MacGregor, M. (20 February 2019).

5105:

University, Department of Communications and Public Affairs, Western (16 February 2017).

4860: 3558: 3334: 3229: 2713: 2433: 2392: 2347: 2234: 2166: 2044: 1936: 1689: 1620: 1391: 1329: 915: 866: 618: 496: 418: 376: 6483: 5881: 5850: 2426:

medieval standards was impressive. At this height he would have stood almost as tall as

413:, Robert the Bruce supported his family's claim to the Scottish throne and took part in 7862: 7500: 7448: 7372: 7181: 7177: 7152: 6782: 6737: 6372: 5991: 4521: 4473: 3714: 3484: 3457: 3438: 3370: 3292: 3245: 2297: 2109: 2028: 1864: 1725: 1607: 1200: 1038: 975: 926:, awarded the vacant Crown of Scotland to his grandfather's first cousin once removed, 614: 503: 384: 210: 3602:

as Robert the Bruce. The film climaxes with the Scots victory at Loudoun Hill in 1307.

3168: 1999:

of Robert. The king's last journey appears to have been a pilgrimage to the shrine of

1890:

The reign of Robert Bruce also included some significant diplomatic achievements. The

1838:(our nation), stressing the common language, customs and heritage of the two peoples: 8041: 7495: 7308: 6682: 6563: 6556: 6419: 6400: 6359: 6342: 6332: 6309: 6265: 6214: 6195: 6140: 6124: 6109: 6091: 6055: 6036: 6017: 5998: 5965: 5865: 5712: 5702: 5572: 5544: 5125: 4984: 3978: 3887: 3843: 3325: 3233: 2898: 2572: 2552: 2329: 2250: 2242: 2134: 2113: 1831: 1819: 1815: 1701: 1548: 1469: 1461: 1437: 1404: 1289: 1243: 1160: 1151: 1127: 1111: 1070: 694: 597:, the first of the Bruce (de Brus) line, had settled in Scotland during the reign of 541: 465: 461: 430: 234: 154: 7356: 5423: 1692:

held by the English and was sending raiding parties into northern England as far as

7813: 7803: 7666: 7518: 7350: 7270: 7263: 7043: 6902: 6837: 6600: 6593: 6459: 6396: 6325: 6292: 5885: 5464: 3582: 2366: 2241:

and a number of knights dressed in black gowns, accompanied the funeral party into

2174: 2024: 2012: 1721: 1717: 1556: 1520: 1278: 1274: 1184: 1119: 1095: 885: 865:

that in about 1292, Robert the Bruce, then aged eighteen, was a "young bachelor of

816: 812: 578: 570: 492: 121: 6389: 5437: 3955: 3909:, p. 10, and Armstrong, Peter, Bannockburn 1314: Robert Bruce's Great Victory 2383:"cleansing" by September 1559 and was sacked in March 1560. By September 1563 the 1728:

to relieve the castle. Robert, with between 5,500 and 6,500 troops, predominantly

665:

Very little is known of his youth. He was probably brought up in a mixture of the

7995: 7808: 7553: 7383: 7335: 7325: 7319: 6927: 6722: 6529: 5889: 5682: 5540: 3919: 3769: 3575: 3461: 3319: 3276: 2598: 2273:

in Dunfermline Abbey and elsewhere, and his tomb would thus be the site of daily

2210: 1996: 1655: 1624: 1587: 1552: 1487:

Bruce reading stories to his followers; from a 19th century Scottish history book

1408: 1399:

Six weeks after Comyn was killed in Dumfries, Bruce was crowned King of Scots by

1370: 1285: 1235: 1223: 1180: 1143: 1074: 1050: 1007: 1003: 962: 880:

Robert's first appearance in history is on a witness list of a charter issued by

782: 706: 585:, the head of his mother's earldom, despite claims that he may have been born in 445: 414: 410: 260: 185: 6618: 6248: 6237: 5930:"Robert the Bruce, Highlander and golf courses: it's Scotland in Civilization 6" 5824: 1507:, was married to a sister of Bruce). Ireland is also a serious possibility, and 533:

in 1328, by which Edward III renounced all claims to sovereignty over Scotland.

7964: 7906: 7793: 7750: 7704: 7489: 7132: 6677: 6498: 3753: 3510: 2930: 2481: 2305: 2225:. The king's body was carried east from Cardross by a carriage decked in black 2129: 2036: 1988: 1899: 1852: 1740: 1700:

laid siege to Stirling Castle, a key fortification in Scotland whose governor,

1567:. On 7 July 1307, King Edward I died, leaving Bruce opposed by the king's son, 1473: 1457: 1445: 1432:. The great banner of the kings of Scotland was planted behind Bruce's throne. 1375: 1358: 1104: 1066: 1015: 957: 797: 690: 686: 646: 511: 457: 449: 288: 250: 139: 5468: 5417: 4550: 1910:, which recognised Scotland as an independent kingdom, and Bruce as its king. 1803: 8132: 8120:

Did not hold the rank of earl/mormaer, but ruled the province as a petty-king

6687: 6346: 6296: 5488:

Making and breaking the rules: succession in medieval Europe, c. 1000–c. 1600

3651: 3528: 3523: 3311: 2444: 2397: 2317: 2313: 2080: 2016: 1783: 1663: 1591: 1524: 1195: 1006:

in October 1295. At some point in early 1296, Robert married his first wife,

980: 889: 666: 654: 634: 622: 545: 495:, while he also expanded the war against England by sending armies to invade 473: 372: 160: 6455: 5716: 2359: 2338:

Marker stone for the burial place of Robert the Bruce's heart, Melrose Abbey

2221:), his regular place of worship and close to his manor house in the ancient 2150:

adulthood. Six days after his death, to complete his triumph still further,

8065: 7931: 7688: 7070: 6747: 6539: 6445: 5245: 4988: 3430: 3310:, commemorating the 700th anniversary of the year of his birth. It depicts 3218: 2422: 2032: 2000: 1965: 1942: 1772: 1736: 1697: 1564: 1516: 1512: 1465: 1333: 1188: 927: 861: 820: 598: 438: 395: 93: 7283: 6847: 6291:. Ontario: Centre for Scottish Studies at the University of Guelph: 7–73. 6139:. Montreal, Canada and Kingston, Canada: McGill-Queen's University Press. 5993:

The Making of Europe, Conquest, Colonization and Cultural Change: 950–1350

2209:

placed in a silver casket to be worn on a chain around his neck. Robert's

2189:

leprosy, such as an eroded nasal spine and a pencilling of the foot bone.

1810:

in 1316. Robert later went there with another army to assist his brother.

7936: 7921: 7506: 6827: 6767: 6732: 6469: 6440: 5696: 5403:"Face reconstruction of King 'Robert The Bruce' (Scottish national hero)" 4862:

A History of England from the Landing of Julius Caesar to the Present Day

3647: 3590: 3288: 3253: 1951: 1934:

Robert had been suffering from a serious illness from at least 1327. The

1928: 1659: 1643: 1631: 1602:

in May 1308; he then overran Buchan and defeated the English garrison at

1500: 1429: 1412: 1251: 923: 909: 774: 749: 674: 605:

in 1124. The future king was one of ten children, and the eldest son, of

403: 6807: 4477: 4461: 7911: 7901: 7891: 7478: 7340: 6877: 6832: 6777: 6762: 6757: 6702: 3757: 3734: 3599: 3571: 3566: 3539: 3534: 3381: 3303: 2716:

in 1603. A large number of families definitely are descended from him.

2380: 2226: 2214: 2159: 2151: 2101: 2068: 1823: 1799: 1647: 1595: 1441: 1425: 1325: 1321: 1305: 1270:, and he was hanged, drawn, and quartered in London on 23 August 1305. 1155: 1090:

Urgent letters were sent ordering Bruce to support Edward's commander,

874: 738: 630: 526: 502:

Despite Bannockburn and the capture of the final English stronghold at

453: 444:

Bruce's involvement in John Comyn's murder in February 1306 led to his

80: 4865:. London, Paris, New York and Melbourne: Cassell and Company. p. 3956:"Historian claims Robert the Bruce was born in Essex and not Ayrshire" 2217:(the ruins of which are located in the present-day Levengrove Park in 1511:(under Norwegian rule at the time) or Norway proper (where his sister 7926: 7896: 7483: 7458: 6872: 6867: 6797: 6787: 6752: 6712: 6692: 3786: 3761: 3450: 3296: 3291:, but some fragments were discovered in the 19th century (now in the 3284: 2301: 2254: 2218: 2142: 2084: 2076: 2060: 2019:, where he celebrated Christmas of 1328 at the hall of Glenkill near 1992: 1795: 1704:, agreed to surrender if not relieved before 24 June 1314. In March, 1651: 1635: 1568: 1528: 1219: 987: 824: 754: 730: 682: 650: 642: 586: 549: 388: 7584: 6958: 1615:

and defeated the isolated MacDougalls (allies of the Comyns) at the

7916: 7857: 7463: 7288: 6852: 6817: 6812: 6772: 6727: 6707: 6697: 6672: 5962:

Robert Bruce & the Community of the Realm of Scotland (4th ed.)

3959: 3363: 3353: 3307: 3225: 2427: 2292:. According to John Barbour, Douglas and his companions, including 2230: 2222: 2198: 2056: 2040: 2008: 2004: 1969: 1894:

of 1320 strengthened his position, particularly in relation to the

1855:

by saying "the Kings of Lesser Scotia all trace their blood to our

1729: 1709: 1693: 1603: 1544: 1492: 1421: 1353: 1247: 1239: 1031: 852: 828: 811:

The family would have moved between the castles of their lordships—

759: 726: 698: 582: 565: 548:, and his internal organs embalmed and placed in St Serf's Church, 5241: 5239: 3768:, Essex, during the coronation of Edward, have been discounted by 914:

Robert's mother died early in 1292. In November of the same year,

815:, the main castle of the lordship of Annandale, and Turnberry and 7834: 7740: 7122: 6882: 6742: 6717: 6667: 5107:"A rumour at rest: Western researcher clears a king's reputation" 4555: 3765: 3405: 2289: 2285: 2202: 2155: 2146: 2052: 2020: 1947: 1827: 1744: 1300: 1267: 1231: 974:, in which Edward demanded that John appear in person before the 893: 873:

for their private household debts of £60 by several merchants of

844: 840: 832: 742: 590: 283: 6137:

King Edward II: His life, his reign and its aftermath, 1284–1330

673:

culture of southwest Scotland and most of Scotland north of the

669:

culture of northern England and south-eastern Scotland, and the

529:, and peace was concluded between Scotland and England with the 7626: 7574: 7298: 7293: 6998: 6948: 5863: 5236: 3386: 3315: 2274: 1981: 1977: 1961: 1956: 1915: 1895: 1752: 1671: 1612: 1508: 1417: 1395:

Bruce crowned King of Scots; modern tableau at Edinburgh Castle

1227: 1058: 855:

of Gloucester, or perhaps even in the English royal household.

626: 525:. In 1327, the English deposed Edward II in favour of his son, 5629:

Edinburgh University Library, The Walter Scott Digital Archive

3673:

Robert the Bruce and his army appears as a minor character in

3654:

portrays Robert the Bruce in episode 1: "The Bruce Supremacy".

3362:

An annual commemorative dinner has been held in his honour in

3252:, was one of the claimants to the Scottish throne during the " 2253:

topped this structure, and atop this plinth was a white shawl

2184:

A team of researchers, headed by Professor Andrew Nelson from

1732:, prepared to prevent Edward's forces from reaching Stirling. 1110:

When King Edward returned to England after his victory at the

499:, and appealed to the Irish to rise against Edward II's rule. 402:, was one of the claimants to the Scottish throne during the " 7546: 6922: 6862: 5799:"First Look At Chris Pine In David Mackenzie's 'Outlaw King'" 3622: 3442: 3280: 3222: 2258: 2246: 1923: 1560: 1130:. This participation is contested as no Bruce appears on the 1065:, led into rebellion a group of disaffected Scots, including 785: 718: 702: 670: 638: 3449:, and in Persian folklore about the Turco-Mongolian general 1946:

state that the king was said to have contracted and died of

1902:

eventually lifted Bruce's excommunication. In May 1328 King

1242:, where he arrived in August. From there he marched through 769:

As king, Robert certainly commissioned verse to commemorate

7330: 5278: 5276: 4551:""Battle of Bannockburn 1314 Line of Fire" History Channel" 3922:. The Bruce Trust – Robert the Bruce Commemoration website. 3684:, during the game's depiction of the Battle of Bannockburn. 2141:

Robert died on 7 June 1329, at the Manor of Cardross, near

1919: 1756: 773:

and his subjects' military deeds. Contemporary chroniclers

763: 7224: 4886:

Remonstrance of the Irish Chiefs to Pope John XXII, p. 46.

3935:"Robert the Bruce was ENGLISH', claims medieval historian" 1784:

Further confrontation with England then the Irish conflict

1273:

In September 1305, Edward ordered Robert Bruce to put his

487:

in 1314, Robert defeated a much larger English army under

3232:, as well as claiming ancestry ultimately descended from 2249:

by Thomas of Chartres after June 1328. A plinth of black

2178: 2105: 1634:

and by August he controlled all of Scotland north of the

722: 536:

Robert I died in June 1329 and was succeeded by his son,

5273: 4967: 4783: 4781: 3419:

The Bruce killing de Bohun at the Battle of Bannockburn.

1955:

found in an original letter written by an eyewitness in

1226:. Edward stayed in Perth until July, then proceeded via 1021: 5648: 3228:, through his father he was a fourth-great-grandson of 2702:

Possibly a son of Robert's brother Neil. Killed at the

6331:. New Haven: Yale University Press. pp. 484–486. 4428:

Robert Bruce: Our Most Valiant, Prince, King, and Lord

2551:

Married Thomas Isaac and had two daughters. Buried at

2447:

to preserve the remains before the coffin was sealed.

2257:

effigy of Robert I, painted and gilded. The following

1755:, then travelled by ship to Berwick, and then back to 6192:

The Wars of the Bruces: England and Ireland 1306–1328

4778: 3487:'s last opera (albeit a pastiche of previous operas). 3385:

Fanciful illustration of Robert the Bruce watching a

3248:

amongst his paternal ancestors. Robert's grandfather

2145:. Apart from failing to fulfill a vow to undertake a 1859:

and retain to some degree our language and customs."

8199:

Scottish people of the Wars of Scottish Independence

6249:"Remonstrance of the Irish Chiefs to Pope John XXII" 6211:

Robert Bruce: Our Most Valiant Prince, King and Lord

5438:"Reconstructed face of Robert the Bruce is unveiled" 5219:"The Buried Heart of Scottish Hero Robert the Bruce" 5064: 5062: 5060: 5058: 5021: 5019: 5017: 5015: 5013: 4252: 4250: 4248: 2092:

as our Lorde laye, seyng my body can nat come there.

758:, as well as relating examples from history such as 6446:

Account of Robert Bruce & Battle of Bannockburn

4798: 4796: 4768: 4766: 4580: 4578: 4388: 4386: 4384: 4281: 4279: 4277: 4235: 4233: 4121: 4119: 4058: 4056: 4054: 3861: 3859: 3646:(2018), a three-part historical series narrated by 3423:This legend first appears in a much later account, 2353:

Plaster cast of Robert I's skull by William Scoular

1586:unsubdued at his rear, Bruce returned west to take 1194:In March 1302, Bruce sent a letter to the monks at 30:"Robert Bruce" redirects here. For other uses, see 6416:Under the Hammer: Edward I and Scotland, 1286–1307 6388: 6324: 6121:Uniting the Kingdom? The Making of British History 5990: 5825:"New Netflix drama Outlaw King boosts film sector" 5527: 5525: 5179: 5177: 5036: 5034: 4939: 4937: 4635: 4633: 4631: 4629: 4627: 4625: 4623: 4621: 3756:'s 1310 written absolution for Robert's murder of 2365:The face of Robert the Bruce by forensic sculptor 2261:epitaph was inscribed around the top of the tomb: 2205:sawn open to allow extraction of the heart, which 1630:In March 1309, Bruce held his first parliament at 6648: 6090:, Edinburgh: Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, 5055: 5010: 4696: 4245: 4151: 4149: 4136: 4134: 4106: 4104: 4102: 4077: 4075: 4073: 4071: 359:(11 July 1274 – 7 June 1329), popularly known as 8130: 7994: 4808: 4793: 4763: 4575: 4443: 4441: 4381: 4274: 4230: 4116: 4051: 3856: 3840:Britain's Royal Families: The Complete Genealogy 3614:, stars Angus Macfadyen reprising his role from 3445:, in Polish accounts about Bruce's contemporary 3348:A bust of Bruce is in the Hall of Heroes of the 3329:Bruce statue at the entrance to Edinburgh Castle 2323: 1759:; in his absence, Stirling Castle quickly fell. 6106:Independence and Nationhood: Scotland 1306–1469 5522: 5459:Webster, Bruce (2004). "David II (1324–1371)". 5424:Facial reconstruction of Robert The Bruce p. 42 5174: 5031: 4934: 4653:"Dumbarton Sheet XXVI.1 (Cumbernauld) 1864 map" 4618: 3467: 2181:as dangerous to his health in advancing years. 4146: 4131: 4099: 4068: 3314:images of the Bruce flanked by his chief men, 3283:, was extremely elaborate, carved from gilded 3270: 1332:on his mother's side. Comyn was the nephew of 947: 800:in their father's or grandfather's household. 166:St Serf's Church, Dumbarton (Embalmed Viscera) 7980: 7210: 6634: 5379: 5377: 4854: 4438: 3670:, Robert the Bruce is the leader of Scotland. 2611:Sir Walter Oliphant of Aberdalgie and Dupplin 1847:) may be able to recover her ancient liberty. 8224:People excommunicated by the Catholic Church 5978: 5358: 5356: 5354: 5130:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 3111:Walter Stewart, 3rd High Steward of Scotland 2494:Walter Stewart, 6th High Steward of Scotland 1499:. The latter was married to a member of the 7777:Monarchs of England and Scotland after the 5365: 5317: 5315: 3920:"Robert the Bruce – the Hero Scottish King" 1063:James Stewart, 5th High Steward of Scotland 375:from 1306 to his death in 1329. Robert led 7987: 7973: 7954:Debated or disputed rulers are in italics. 7217: 7203: 6641: 6627: 6482: 6158:, Bonhill, West Dunbartonshire: Auch Books 5870:Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 5649:Aleksandra Stanisławska (24 August 2017). 5374: 5333: 5104: 3623:Facial depictions from skeletal assessment 2571:Succeeded his father. Married (1) in 1328 2535:William de Moravia, 5th Earl of Sutherland 2430:(6 feet 2 inches; 188 cm). 1918:, medicinal garden, gatehouse, protective 1870: 1688:By 1314, Bruce had recaptured most of the 1386: 1381: 1213:William de Moravia, 5th Earl of Sutherland 903: 425:alongside his chief rival for the throne, 47: 6377:Chronicon Galfridi le Baker de Swynebroke 6322: 6075:, with copious original source materiéls. 6073:, Edinburgh: D. Douglas, pp. 126–141 5997:, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 5964:, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 5435: 5386: 5351: 5342: 5324: 4968:Kaufman MH, MacLennan WJ (1 April 2001). 4545: 4543: 4459: 4351: 4339: 3873: 2618:Illegitimate children by unknown mothers 2379:, the abbey church had undergone a first 1250:before re-tracing his path back south to 990:on 11 March. The Bruces and the earls of 965:, as depicted in the 1562 Forman Armorial 884:. His name appears in the company of the 629:, and substantial estates in England (in 555: 6441:The Robert the Bruce Commemoration Trust 6386: 6303: 6285:International Review of Scottish Studies 6208: 6189: 6168:, Edinburgh: Edinburgh Hay, Gall and Co. 6119:Grant A, and Stringer, Keith J., (1995) 5988: 5960:Barrow, Geoffrey Wallis Steuart (2005), 5516:"Records of the Parliaments of Scotland" 5502:"Records of the Parliaments of Scotland" 5312: 5303: 5294: 5168: 5144: 5068: 5025: 4977:History of Dentistry Research Newsletter 4842: 4826: 4814: 4802: 4787: 4772: 4757: 4745: 4714: 4702: 4601:. Barnes & Noble Books. p. 246. 4434:. Edinburgh: Birlinn. 2006. p. 101. 4413: 4392: 4375: 4285: 4239: 4203: 4179: 4125: 4062: 4009: 3906: 3414: 3400: 3380: 3324: 2432: 2333: 2128: 2096:Robert also arranged for perpetual soul 1874: 1766: 1762: 1677: 1482: 1390: 1299: 1218:In 1303, Edward invaded again, reaching 956: 564: 6246: 6239:Oxford Dictionary of National Biography 6173: 6163: 6085: 6011: 5902: 5851:"Is this the face of Robert the Bruce?" 5771: 5694: 5461:Oxford Dictionary of National Biography 5458: 3972: 3926: 3879: 3833: 3831: 3829: 3827: 3700:Cultural depictions of Robert the Bruce 3266:Cultural depictions of Robert the Bruce 1295: 1154:. He was succeeded by Robert Bruce and 745:and chivalric instruction and romance. 225: 1302; died 1327) 200: 1296; died 1296) 14: 8131: 6413: 6278: 6259: 6153: 6134: 6068: 5959: 5563:Lauder-Frost, Gregory, FSA Scot, Darr 5531: 5481: 5183: 5156: 5092: 5080: 5040: 4955: 4943: 4928: 4916: 4904: 4830: 4730: 4724: 4718: 4639: 4596: 4540: 4363: 4327: 4297: 4268: 4256: 4215: 4167: 4155: 4140: 4110: 4093: 4081: 4045: 4033: 4021: 3825: 3823: 3821: 3819: 3817: 3815: 3813: 3811: 3809: 3807: 3090: 2974: 2970: 2960: 2873:Gilbert de Clare, 5th Earl of Hertford 2852: 2742: 2738: 2617: 2504: 2461: 2154:were issued granting the privilege of 2124: 1720:(Bruce later ordered the execution of 1594:Castles, then Tarradale Castle on the 1537:Aymer de Valence, 2nd Earl of Pembroke 573:, Robert the Bruce's likely birthplace 394:Robert was a fourth-great-grandson of 7968: 7198: 6622: 6353: 6227: 6049: 6030: 5765: 4584: 4569: 4534: 4447: 4191: 3695:Competitors for the Crown of Scotland 3676:Age of Empires II: Definitive Edition 3250:Robert de Brus, 5th Lord of Annandale 3242:William Marshal, 1st Earl of Pembroke 3221:, Hiberno-Norman, Irish and Scottish 3166: 3156: 3152: 3140: 3134: 3124: 3108: 3098: 3094: 3078: 3072: 3062: 3050: 3040: 3036: 3024: 3018: 3008: 2992: 2982: 2978: 2954: 2944: 2928: 2918: 2914: 2902: 2896: 2886: 2870: 2860: 2856: 2840: 2837:Robert de Brus, 6th Lord of Annandale 2834: 2824: 2808: 2798: 2794: 2782: 2779:Robert de Brus, 5th Lord of Annandale 2776: 2766: 2750: 2746: 2300:and the brothers Sir Robert Logan of 2177:, did criticise the king's eating of 1922:and a hunting park. There was also a 1022:Beginning of the Wars of Independence 939:Robert de Brus, 6th Lord of Annandale 935:Robert de Brus, 5th Lord of Annandale 882:Alexander Og MacDonald, Lord of Islay 697:was historically an integral part of 607:Robert de Brus, 6th Lord of Annandale 595:Robert de Brus, 1st Lord of Annandale 400:Robert de Brus, 5th Lord of Annandale 299:Robert de Brus, 6th Lord of Annandale 6308:, New Haven: Yale University Press, 6264:. New Haven: Yale University Press. 5571:, vol. LI, no. 2, June 2004: 49–58, 5565:Some Descendants of Robert the Bruce 3932: 3837: 2675:Married Robert Glen; alive in 1364. 2284:was mounting a campaign against the 1822:(d. 1188), whose ancestors included 1205:Richard de Burgh, 2nd Earl of Ulster 1169:Gilbert de Umfraville, Earl of Angus 961:Robert the Bruce and his first wife 613:. From his mother, he inherited the 6476:Portraits of Robert I ("The Bruce") 6262:Robert the Bruce: King of the Scots 6033:Robert the Bruce. A Life Chronicled 5905:"A new telling of an old favourite" 5772:Fleming, Mike Jr. (24 April 2017). 5463:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 5291:Annals of Dunfermline, pp. 342–344. 4855:Arnold-Foster, Hugh Oakley (1907). 4735:(2nd ed.). Edinburgh: W. Tait. 3804: 3785:, beside the River Leven, opposite 2753:Robert Bruce, 4th Lord of Annandale 2015:on his 'great ship', thence to the 1547:, Bruce travelled north, capturing 1092:John de Warenne, 6th Earl of Surrey 24: 8234:Scottish people of English descent 6156:The Adventures of Wee Robert Bruce 5903:Didcock, Barry (9 December 2018). 5436:Macdonald, Ken (8 December 2016). 3975:Scottish History: Robert The Bruce 3948: 3499:Robert Bruce, the King of Scotland 3339:Scottish National Portrait Gallery 1563:, then unsuccessfully threatening 1369:Bruce and his party then attacked 1107:as a hostage, which he never did. 1045:upon the flimsy palisades. At the 693:was spoken throughout the region. 689:that would later develop into the 544:, while his heart was interred in 381:First War of Scottish Independence 27:King of Scotland from 1306 to 1329 25: 8265: 8239:Scottish people of French descent 6480:National Portrait Gallery, London 6434: 6230:Scotland in the Later Middle Ages 5619: 5539:. Canongate Classics. Edinburgh: 1883:and Robert the Bruce raising the 1771:Bruce addresses his troops, from 952: 8244:Scottish people of Irish descent 6451:Robert the Bruce Heritage Centre 6078:Duncan, A.A.M. (Editor), (1999) 5922: 5896: 5857: 5843: 5817: 5791: 5739: 5723: 5688: 5669: 5642: 5613: 5604: 5582: 5557: 5508: 5494: 5475: 5452: 5429: 5395: 4599:The Scottish War of Independence 3933:Mair, George (28 October 2018). 2638:Robert Bruce, Lord of Liddesdale 2575:; no issue; married (2) in 1364 2358: 2346: 1028:war between Scotland and England 269:Robert Bruce, Lord of Liddesdale 75:25 March 1306 – 7 June 1329 7254:Monarchs of Scotland until 1603 6458:at the official website of the 6418:. East Linton: Tuckwell Press. 6356:Robert the Bruce: King of Scots 5952: 5285: 5251: 5246:Burial Honours Robert the Bruce 5211: 5202: 5189: 5162: 5150: 5138: 5098: 5086: 5074: 5046: 4961: 4949: 4922: 4910: 4898: 4889: 4880: 4848: 4836: 4820: 4751: 4739: 4731:Tytler, Patrick Fraser (1841). 4708: 4671: 4645: 4605: 4590: 4563: 4528: 4514: 4501: 4484: 4453: 4419: 4407: 4398: 4369: 4357: 4345: 4333: 4321: 4312: 4303: 4291: 4262: 4227:Fordun, Scotichronicon, p. 309. 4221: 4209: 4197: 4185: 4173: 4161: 4087: 4039: 4027: 4015: 4003: 3991: 3775: 2505:Children by Elizabeth de Burgh 2213:were interred in the chapel of 2119: 2108:and at the Dominican friary in 1908:Treaty of Edinburgh–Northampton 1578:in late 1307, Bruce threatened 1555:Castles, burning to the ground 531:Treaty of Edinburgh–Northampton 222: 197: 8189:14th-century Scottish monarchs 7251:Monarchs of England until 1603 6358:. New York: Barnes and Noble. 6182:Mackenzie, Agnes Mure (1934), 6086:Fawcett, Richard, ed. (2005), 4970:"Robert the Bruce and Leprosy" 4466:The Scottish Historical Review 3966: 3912: 3900: 3747: 3705:Scottish monarchs' family tree 3658: 3373:and a missing one in Ireland. 2417:, Professor of Anatomy at the 2100:to be funded at the chapel of 1584:John Comyn, 3rd Earl of Buchan 13: 1: 6650:Pictish and Scottish monarchs 6354:Scott, Ronald McNair (1982). 6069:Dunbar, Archibald H. (1899), 4597:Barron, Evan MacLeod (1997). 3867:"St_Serf's_Church,_Dumbarton" 3842:. Vintage. pp. 207–211. 3797: 3636: 2728:Ancestors of Robert the Bruce 2537:; had son, John (1346–1361). 2496:, by whom she had one child ( 2324:Discovery of the Bruce's tomb 2186:University of Western Ontario 1026:Almost the first blow in the 611:Marjorie, Countess of Carrick 540:. Robert's body is buried in 472:and wage a highly successful 309:Marjorie, Countess of Carrick 54: 32:Robert Bruce (disambiguation) 8219:Burials at Dunfermline Abbey 8174:Earls or mormaers of Carrick 7996:Mormaers or earls of Carrick 6123:Routledge, pp. 97–108. 5979:Balfour Paul, James (1904), 5890:10.1016/j.jasrep.2019.02.018 4657:National Library of Scotland 3710:People on Scottish banknotes 3468:Depictions in modern culture 2073:Church of the Holy Sepulchre 1316:, a 19th century illustrator 1312:in Dumfries, as imagined by 660: 7: 8184:14th-century Scottish earls 7861:British monarchs after the 6397:Roberts Rinehart Publishers 6323:Prestwich, Michael (1997). 6184:Robert Bruce, King of Scots 6135:Haines, Roy Martin (2003). 5774:"Netflix Lands Outlaw King" 5590:"Dunfermline Abbey History" 5405:. Historum – History Forums 3783:Renton, West Dunbartonshire 3688: 3667:Sid Meier's Civilization VI 3393:, T. Nelson and Sons, 1885) 3391:Who were the first weavers? 3271:Commemoration and monuments 2719: 2458: 2438:Gallery, Glasgow, Scotland. 2296:, Sir William St. Clair of 2267:National Museum of Scotland 2133:King Robert I is buried in 1574:Transferring operations to 1401:Bishop William de Lamberton 1138: 948:Earl of Carrick (1292–1306) 685:, and the form of Northern 10: 8270: 8149:People from South Ayrshire 6395:. University of Virginia: 6304:Phillips, Seymour (2011), 6247:Ó Néill, Domhnall (1317), 6012:Bingham, Caroline (1998), 5983:, Edinburgh: David Douglas 5695:Bingham, Caroline (1998). 3516: 3447:Władysław I the Elbow-high 3376: 3322:associated with Scotland. 3287:. It was destroyed at the 3279:. His tomb, imported from 3263: 3084: 2972: 2846: 2740: 2593:Twin brother of David II. 2327: 2162:of future Kings of Scots. 1787: 1681: 1000:John Comyn, Earl of Buchan 907: 240: 29: 8116: 8090: 8053: 8002: 7949: 7872: 7856: 7852: 7789: 7772: 7768: 7245: 7241: 7171: 6891: 6656: 6607: 6598: 6585: 6580: 6570: 6561: 6553: 6546: 6536: 6527: 6519: 6492: 6414:Watson, Fiona J. (1998). 6104:Grant, Alexander, (1984) 5989:Bartlett, Robert (1993), 4460:Stevenson, J. H. (1927). 4309:Duncan, Kingship, p. 322. 3730:List of Scottish monarchs 3350:National Wallace Monument 3337:. In Edinburgh also, the 3259: 3154: 3146: 3118: 3096: 3092: 3056: 3038: 3030: 3002: 2980: 2976: 2938: 2916: 2908: 2880: 2858: 2854: 2818: 2796: 2788: 2760: 2744: 2704:Battle of Neville's Cross 2462:Child by Isabella of Mar 2229:, with stops recorded at 2192: 2083:upon its return from the 2079:before being interred in 1790:Bruce campaign in Ireland 1617:Battle of Pass of Brander 1328:on his father's side and 421:. Appointed in 1298 as a 350: 346: 342: 331: 322: 318: 314: 304: 294: 282: 233: 174: 146: 128: 114: 110: 100: 89: 79: 71: 64: 53:Coin depicting Robert I, 46: 41: 8229:Scottish Roman Catholics 6387:Traquair, Peter (1998). 6297:10.21083/irss.v34i0.1075 6279:Penman, Michael (2009). 6260:Penman, Michael (2014). 6174:Loudoun, Darren (2007), 6071:Scottish Kings 1005–1625 5676:silkroaddestinations.com 5622:"Tales of a Grandfather" 5592:. The Church of Scotland 5569:The Scottish Genealogist 5482:Penman, Michael (2008). 3973:Ntungwa, Arnold (1996). 3740: 3725:List of British monarchs 3551: 3491: 3472: 2663:Predeceased his father. 2454: 1495:, possibly sheltered by 1150:after his defeat at the 898:Margaret, Maid of Norway 560: 519:Franco-Scottish alliance 6209:Macnamee, Colm (2018), 6190:Macnamee, Colm (2006), 6164:Jardine, Henry (1821), 6154:Hunter, Paul V (2012), 6080:John Barbour: The Bruce 4895:The Annals of Connacht. 4748:, pp. 223, 227–228 3880:Murison, A. F. (2005). 3547:(2022), by Regan Walker 2419:University of Edinburgh 1892:Declaration of Arbroath 1885:Declaration of Arbroath 1871:Later reign (1320–1329) 1387:War of Robert the Bruce 1382:Early reign (1306–1314) 1199:second wife that year, 1081:, addressed them thus: 1012:Domhnall I, Earl of Mar 508:Declaration of Arbroath 398:, and his grandfather, 6658:Monarchs of the Picts 6381:Edward Maunde Thompson 6213:, Edinburgh: Birlinn, 3426:Tales of a Grandfather 3420: 3412: 3394: 3330: 3021:Niall, Earl of Carrick 2995:Cailean mac Donnchaidh 2649:Battle of Dupplin Moor 2439: 2339: 2138: 2094: 1995:from Scotland and the 1887: 1849: 1780: 1541:Battle of Loudoun Hill 1497:Christina of the Isles 1488: 1396: 1317: 1101:Capitulation of Irvine 1088: 966: 601:, and was granted the 574: 556:Early life (1274–1292) 452:(although he received 427:John Comyn of Badenoch 368: 274:Niall Bruce of Carrick 8179:13th-century mormaers 8159:Guardians of Scotland 6893:Monarchs of the Scots 6194:, Edinburgh: Donald, 6050:Brown, Chris (2008), 6031:Brown, Chris (2004), 6016:, London: Constable, 5701:. London: Constable. 5469:10.1093/ref:odnb/3726 4683:University of Glasgow 3977:. Heinemann Library. 3883:King Robert the Bruce 3838:Weir, Alison (2008). 3418: 3404: 3384: 3328: 2498:Robert II of Scotland 2436: 2337: 2282:Alfonso XI of Castile 2171:motor neurone disease 2132: 2089: 2051:a vow to undertake a 1904:Edward III of England 1881:Bernard of Kilwinning 1878: 1840: 1770: 1763:Mid-reign (1314–1320) 1684:Battle of Bannockburn 1678:Battle of Bannockburn 1486: 1394: 1303: 1165:Bishop of St. Andrews 1083: 1079:Walter of Guisborough 972:Malcolm, Earl of Fife 960: 920:Guardians of Scotland 714:Anglo-Norman language 603:Lordship of Annandale 589:in Dumfriesshire, or 568: 485:Battle of Bannockburn 476:against the English. 8018:Donnchadh of Carrick 7831:William III & II 7396:Henry the Young King 7346:Edward the Confessor 7314:Æthelred the Unready 6974:Constantine III (IV) 6939:Constantine II (III) 6548:Baronage of Scotland 5681:30 July 2012 at the 5490:. Turnhout: Brepols. 4829:, pp. 234–236; 4717:, pp. 225–227; 4522:"Flores Historiarum" 3720:David II of Scotland 3610:(2019), directed by 3594:(2018), directed by 3578:as Robert the Bruce. 3570:(1995), directed by 3343:William Brassey Hole 2957:Robert I of Scotland 2811:Isobel of Huntingdon 2377:Scottish Reformation 2294:Sir William de Keith 2197:The king's body was 1987:In October 1328 the 1974:motor neuron disease 1808:High King of Ireland 1640:Edward II of England 1533:Battle of Glen Trool 1364:Roger de Kirkpatrick 1296:Murder of John Comyn 1148:Guardian of Scotland 933:Almost immediately, 489:Edward II of England 435:Bishop of St Andrews 423:Guardian of Scotland 327:(Second Interregnum) 324:Guardian of Scotland 256:David II of Scotland 124:, Ayrshire, Scotland 8034:Adam of Kilconquhar 8028:Marjorie of Carrick 7779:Union of the Crowns 7004:Malcolm III Canmore 6054:, Stroud: History, 5882:2019JArSR..24..556W 5751:themoviescene.co.uk 5371:Fawcett 2005 p. 100 4845:, pp. 233, 238 4733:History of Scotland 4494:, p. 330; Barbour, 3559:So Dear to My Heart 3535:The Guardian Series 3509:(1893), written by 3464:and their culture. 3335:Sir William Wallace 3217:Descended from the 2714:Union of the Crowns 2406:Barons of Exchequer 2235:Cambuskenneth Abbey 2125:Death and aftermath 1991:finally lifted the 1937:Lanercost Chronicle 1690:castles in Scotland 1621:Dunstaffnage Castle 1600:Battle of Inverurie 1535:, before defeating 1456:, Bruce's brothers 1342:Ralph de Monthermer 1314:Félix Philippoteaux 1275:castle at Kildrummy 1222:before marching to 918:, on behalf of the 916:Edward I of England 521:was renewed in the 419:Edward I of England 369:Raibeart am Brusach 138:Manor of Cardross, 7863:Acts of Union 1707 7826:James II & VII 7519:Kenneth I MacAlpin 7304:Edgar the Peaceful 7077:Second Interregnum 7044:William I the Lion 6913:Constantine I (II) 6903:Kenneth I MacAlpin 6590:Title last held by 6373:Geoffrey the Baker 6035:, Stroud: Tempus, 5831:. 11 December 2017 5805:. 8 September 2017 5747:"The Bruce (1996)" 5383:Jardine 1821 p. 11 5339:Jardine 1821 p. 13 5083:, pp. 302–303 4998:on 1 February 2013 4907:, pp. 260–261 4790:, pp. 231–232 4760:, pp. 228–229 4705:, pp. 223–224 4480:– via JSTOR. 4342:, pp. 471–473 3962:. 3 November 2018. 3715:Elizabeth de Burgh 3485:Gioacchino Rossini 3458:Sir Henry de Bohun 3421: 3413: 3395: 3371:Wallace Collection 3331: 3293:Museum of Scotland 3246:Henry I of England 2656:Walter of Odistoun 2440: 2340: 2223:Parish of Cardross 2139: 1888: 1865:Battle of Faughart 1781: 1777:History of England 1608:Harrying of Buchan 1489: 1397: 1318: 1203:, the daughter of 1201:Elizabeth de Burgh 1041:in a particularly 1010:, the daughter of 976:English Parliament 967: 922:and following the 788:to tutor his son, 615:Earldom of Carrick 575: 417:'s revolt against 211:Elizabeth de Burgh 8209:Scottish generals 8194:Scottish folklore 8126: 8125: 8121: 8082:Alexander de Brus 8046: 8042:Lord of Annandale 8038:Robert VI de Brus 7962: 7961: 7945: 7944: 7848: 7847: 7764: 7763: 7759: 7758: 7309:Edward the Martyr 7192: 7191: 7065:First Interregnum 6617: 6616: 6608:Succeeded by 6571:Succeeded by 6564:Lord of Annandale 6557:Robert VI de Brus 6537:Succeeded by 6494:Robert the Bruce 6088:Royal Dunfermline 5981:The Scots Peerage 5936:. 24 January 2018 5753:. 9 November 2018 5392:Penman 2009 p. 35 5362:Jardine 1821 p. 8 5348:Jardine 1821 p. 5 5330:Jardine 1821 p. 4 5321:Jardine 1821 p. 6 5309:Jardine 1821 p. 2 5300:Penman 2009 p. 14 4330:, pp. 99–100 3682:Lords of the West 3644:Rise of the Clans 3524:The Bruce Trilogy 3234:Aoife MacMurrough 3214: 3213: 3210: 3209: 2899:Isabella de Clare 2710: 2709: 2577:Margaret Drummond 2553:Dunfermline Abbey 2330:Dunfermline Abbey 2251:Frosterley Marble 2243:Dunfermline Abbey 2207:Sir James Douglas 2135:Dunfermline Abbey 2114:Dunfermline Abbey 2065:Sir James Douglas 1832:kings of Leinster 1820:Aoife of Leinster 1816:Earldom of Ulster 1702:Philip de Mowbray 1468:, as well as Sir 1450:Sir James Douglas 1438:Battle of Methven 1310:Greyfriars church 1290:Lord of Annandale 1161:William Lamberton 1152:Battle of Falkirk 1112:Battle of Falkirk 1071:Bishop of Glasgow 733:, saints' Lives ( 542:Dunfermline Abbey 523:Treaty of Corbeil 466:Battle of Methven 462:Bishop of Glasgow 431:William Lamberton 354: 353: 155:Dunfermline Abbey 16:(Redirected from 8261: 8254:Robert the Bruce 8249:Medieval legends 8204:Scottish knights 8119: 8030: 8023:Niall of Carrick 7989: 7982: 7975: 7966: 7965: 7854: 7853: 7814:Richard Cromwell 7804:The Protectorate 7794:James I & VI 7770: 7769: 7351:Harold Godwinson 7271:Edward the Elder 7264:Alfred the Great 7248: 7247: 7243: 7242: 7219: 7212: 7205: 7196: 7195: 7185: 7176:also monarch of 6643: 6636: 6629: 6620: 6619: 6601:King of Scotland 6554:Preceded by 6520:Preceded by 6515: 6508: 6490: 6489: 6486: 6465:Robert the Bruce 6460:British monarchy 6429: 6410: 6394: 6369: 6350: 6330: 6318: 6300: 6275: 6255: 6242: 6232: 6223: 6204: 6178: 6169: 6159: 6150: 6100: 6074: 6064: 6052:Bannockburn 1314 6045: 6026: 6014:Robert the Bruce 6007: 5996: 5984: 5974: 5946: 5945: 5943: 5941: 5926: 5920: 5919: 5917: 5915: 5900: 5894: 5893: 5861: 5855: 5854: 5847: 5841: 5840: 5838: 5836: 5821: 5815: 5814: 5812: 5810: 5795: 5789: 5788: 5786: 5784: 5769: 5763: 5762: 5760: 5758: 5743: 5737: 5736: 5727: 5721: 5720: 5698:Robert the Bruce 5692: 5686: 5673: 5667: 5666: 5664: 5662: 5646: 5640: 5639: 5637: 5635: 5626: 5617: 5611: 5608: 5602: 5601: 5599: 5597: 5586: 5580: 5561: 5555: 5554: 5529: 5520: 5519: 5512: 5506: 5505: 5498: 5492: 5491: 5479: 5473: 5472: 5456: 5450: 5449: 5447: 5445: 5433: 5427: 5421: 5415: 5414: 5412: 5410: 5399: 5393: 5390: 5384: 5381: 5372: 5369: 5363: 5360: 5349: 5346: 5340: 5337: 5331: 5328: 5322: 5319: 5310: 5307: 5301: 5298: 5292: 5289: 5283: 5280: 5271: 5270: 5268: 5266: 5255: 5249: 5243: 5234: 5233: 5231: 5229: 5215: 5209: 5206: 5200: 5193: 5187: 5181: 5172: 5166: 5160: 5154: 5148: 5142: 5136: 5135: 5129: 5121: 5119: 5117: 5102: 5096: 5090: 5084: 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Archived from 4974: 4965: 4959: 4953: 4947: 4941: 4932: 4926: 4920: 4914: 4908: 4902: 4896: 4893: 4887: 4884: 4878: 4877: 4875: 4873: 4852: 4846: 4840: 4834: 4824: 4818: 4812: 4806: 4800: 4791: 4785: 4776: 4770: 4761: 4755: 4749: 4743: 4737: 4736: 4728: 4722: 4712: 4706: 4700: 4694: 4693: 4691: 4689: 4675: 4669: 4668: 4666: 4664: 4649: 4643: 4637: 4616: 4611:Traquair, Peter 4609: 4603: 4602: 4594: 4588: 4587:, pp. 84–85 4582: 4573: 4567: 4561: 4560: 4547: 4538: 4532: 4526: 4525: 4518: 4512: 4505: 4499: 4488: 4482: 4481: 4457: 4451: 4445: 4436: 4435: 4433: 4423: 4417: 4411: 4405: 4402: 4396: 4390: 4379: 4373: 4367: 4366:, pp. 75–77 4361: 4355: 4349: 4343: 4337: 4331: 4325: 4319: 4316: 4310: 4307: 4301: 4295: 4289: 4283: 4272: 4271:, pp. 88–91 4266: 4260: 4259:, pp. 86–88 4254: 4243: 4237: 4228: 4225: 4219: 4218:, pp. 36–37 4213: 4207: 4201: 4195: 4189: 4183: 4177: 4171: 4165: 4159: 4153: 4144: 4138: 4129: 4123: 4114: 4108: 4097: 4096:, pp. 16–17 4091: 4085: 4079: 4066: 4060: 4049: 4048:, pp. 34–35 4043: 4037: 4031: 4025: 4019: 4013: 4007: 4001: 3995: 3989: 3988: 3970: 3964: 3963: 3952: 3946: 3945: 3943: 3941: 3930: 3924: 3923: 3916: 3910: 3904: 3898: 3897: 3877: 3871: 3870: 3863: 3854: 3853: 3835: 3791: 3779: 3773: 3751: 3607:Robert the Bruce 3507: 3137:Margaret Stewart 2734: 2733: 2725: 2724: 2568:22 February 1371 2533:Married in 1345 2492:Married in 1315 2459: 2367:Christian Corbet 2362: 2350: 2175:Maino De Maineri 2167:Hansen's disease 2112:, as well as at 2045:St Ninian's Cave 1722:Piers de Lombard 1718:Edinburgh Castle 1662:, laid siege to 1642:from Kildrum in 1557:Inverness Castle 1521:Turnberry Castle 1378:for this crime. 1284:Robert Bruce as 1279:Aymer de Valence 1264:Earl of Richmond 1120:Bishop of Durham 1096:Hugh Cressingham 1047:Battle of Dunbar 886:Bishop of Argyll 859:asserted in his 817:Loch Doon Castle 813:Lochmaben Castle 806:Robert the Noble 579:Turnberry Castle 571:Turnberry Castle 493:northern England 361:Robert the Bruce 336: 244: 226: 224: 201: 199: 135: 122:Turnberry Castle 59: 56: 51: 39: 38: 21: 8269: 8268: 8264: 8263: 8262: 8260: 8259: 8258: 8214:Scottish rebels 8164:Norman warriors 8129: 8128: 8127: 8122: 8112: 8086: 8049: 7998: 7993: 7963: 7958: 7941: 7868: 7844: 7809:Oliver Cromwell 7785: 7760: 7755: 7602:Constantine III 7511: 7336:Harold Harefoot 7326:Edmund Ironside 7237: 7232: and 7223: 7193: 7188: 7175: 7167: 6894: 6887: 6843:Constantine (I) 6723:Galam Cennalath 6659: 6652: 6647: 6613: 6604: 6591: 6576: 6574:Thomas Randolph 6567: 6559: 6542: 6533: 6530:Earl of Carrick 6525: 6509: 6503: 6502: 6495: 6437: 6432: 6426: 6407: 6391:Freedom's Sword 6383:(Oxford, 1889). 6366: 6339: 6316: 6272: 6236: 6228:Nicholson, R., 6221: 6202: 6176:Scotlands Brave 6147: 6108:Edward Arnold. 6098: 6062: 6043: 6024: 6005: 5972: 5955: 5950: 5949: 5939: 5937: 5928: 5927: 5923: 5913: 5911: 5909:Herald Scotland 5901: 5897: 5862: 5858: 5849: 5848: 5844: 5834: 5832: 5823: 5822: 5818: 5808: 5806: 5797: 5796: 5792: 5782: 5780: 5770: 5766: 5756: 5754: 5745: 5744: 5740: 5729: 5728: 5724: 5709: 5693: 5689: 5683:Wayback Machine 5674: 5670: 5660: 5658: 5647: 5643: 5633: 5631: 5624: 5620:Scott, Walter. 5618: 5614: 5609: 5605: 5595: 5593: 5588: 5587: 5583: 5562: 5558: 5551: 5543:. p. 196. 5541:Canongate Books 5535:, ed. (2007) . 5530: 5523: 5514: 5513: 5509: 5500: 5499: 5495: 5480: 5476: 5457: 5453: 5443: 5441: 5434: 5430: 5422: 5418: 5408: 5406: 5401: 5400: 5396: 5391: 5387: 5382: 5375: 5370: 5366: 5361: 5352: 5347: 5343: 5338: 5334: 5329: 5325: 5320: 5313: 5308: 5304: 5299: 5295: 5290: 5286: 5281: 5274: 5264: 5262: 5259:"Melrose Abbey" 5257: 5256: 5252: 5244: 5237: 5227: 5225: 5217: 5216: 5212: 5207: 5203: 5194: 5190: 5182: 5175: 5167: 5163: 5155: 5151: 5143: 5139: 5123: 5122: 5115: 5113: 5103: 5099: 5091: 5087: 5079: 5075: 5067: 5056: 5051: 5047: 5039: 5032: 5024: 5011: 5001: 4999: 4995: 4972: 4966: 4962: 4954: 4950: 4942: 4935: 4927: 4923: 4915: 4911: 4903: 4899: 4894: 4890: 4885: 4881: 4871: 4869: 4853: 4849: 4841: 4837: 4825: 4821: 4813: 4809: 4801: 4794: 4786: 4779: 4771: 4764: 4756: 4752: 4744: 4740: 4729: 4725: 4713: 4709: 4701: 4697: 4687: 4685: 4677: 4676: 4672: 4662: 4660: 4651: 4650: 4646: 4638: 4619: 4613:Freedom's Sword 4610: 4606: 4595: 4591: 4583: 4576: 4568: 4564: 4549: 4548: 4541: 4533: 4529: 4520: 4519: 4515: 4506: 4502: 4489: 4485: 4458: 4454: 4446: 4439: 4431: 4425: 4424: 4420: 4412: 4408: 4403: 4399: 4391: 4382: 4374: 4370: 4362: 4358: 4350: 4346: 4338: 4334: 4326: 4322: 4317: 4313: 4308: 4304: 4296: 4292: 4284: 4275: 4267: 4263: 4255: 4246: 4238: 4231: 4226: 4222: 4214: 4210: 4202: 4198: 4190: 4186: 4178: 4174: 4166: 4162: 4154: 4147: 4139: 4132: 4124: 4117: 4109: 4100: 4092: 4088: 4080: 4069: 4061: 4052: 4044: 4040: 4032: 4028: 4020: 4016: 4008: 4004: 3996: 3992: 3985: 3971: 3967: 3954: 3953: 3949: 3939: 3937: 3931: 3927: 3918: 3917: 3913: 3905: 3901: 3894: 3878: 3874: 3865: 3864: 3857: 3850: 3836: 3805: 3800: 3795: 3794: 3780: 3776: 3770:G. W. S. Barrow 3752: 3748: 3743: 3691: 3661: 3639: 3625: 3596:David Mackenzie 3576:Angus Macfadyen 3554: 3519: 3501: 3494: 3475: 3470: 3462:Scottish people 3379: 3277:Malcolm Canmore 3273: 3268: 3262: 3215: 3169:Bethóc of Angus 2722: 2680:Christina Bruce 2599:Elizabeth Bruce 2573:Joan of England 2457: 2415:Alexander Monro 2373: 2372: 2371: 2370: 2369: 2363: 2355: 2354: 2351: 2332: 2326: 2195: 2127: 2122: 1997:excommunication 1980:or a series of 1873: 1792: 1786: 1765: 1686: 1680: 1625:Clan MacDougall 1389: 1384: 1371:Dumfries Castle 1304:The killing of 1298: 1286:Earl of Carrick 1144:William Wallace 1141: 1075:Macduff of Fife 1051:Tower of London 1024: 1008:Isabella of Mar 1004:Carlisle Castle 963:Isabella of Mar 955: 950: 912: 906: 888:, the vicar of 857:Sir Thomas Grey 762:'s defiance of 681:was thoroughly 663: 569:The remains of 563: 558: 446:excommunication 415:William Wallace 411:Earl of Carrick 365:Scottish Gaelic 337: 332: 326: 278: 261:Elizabeth Bruce 238: 237: 229: 228: 220: 216: 213: 203: 195: 191: 188: 186:Isabella of Mar 170: 169: 137: 133: 119: 60: 57: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 8267: 8257: 8256: 8251: 8246: 8241: 8236: 8231: 8226: 8221: 8216: 8211: 8206: 8201: 8196: 8191: 8186: 8181: 8176: 8171: 8166: 8161: 8156: 8154:House of Bruce 8151: 8146: 8141: 8124: 8123: 8117: 8114: 8113: 8111: 8110: 8105: 8100: 8094: 8092: 8088: 8087: 8085: 8084: 8079: 8074: 8071:Robert de Brus 8068: 8066:Edward de Brus 8063: 8061:Robert de Brus 8057: 8055: 8051: 8050: 8048: 8047: 8025: 8020: 8015: 8006: 8004: 8000: 7999: 7992: 7991: 7984: 7977: 7969: 7960: 7959: 7957: 7956: 7950: 7947: 7946: 7943: 7942: 7940: 7939: 7934: 7929: 7924: 7919: 7914: 7909: 7904: 7899: 7894: 7889: 7884: 7879: 7873: 7870: 7869: 7867: 7866: 7850: 7849: 7846: 7845: 7843: 7842: 7837: 7828: 7823: 7818: 7817: 7816: 7811: 7801: 7796: 7790: 7787: 7786: 7784: 7783: 7766: 7765: 7762: 7761: 7757: 7756: 7754: 7753: 7748: 7743: 7738: 7733: 7728: 7723: 7718: 7713: 7708: 7705:Edward Balliol 7701: 7696: 7691: 7686: 7679: 7674: 7669: 7664: 7659: 7654: 7649: 7644: 7639: 7634: 7629: 7624: 7619: 7614: 7609: 7604: 7599: 7594: 7587: 7582: 7577: 7572: 7567: 7565:Constantine II 7562: 7557: 7550: 7543: 7536: 7529: 7522: 7514: 7512: 7510: 7509: 7504: 7493: 7486: 7481: 7476: 7471: 7466: 7461: 7456: 7451: 7446: 7441: 7436: 7431: 7426: 7421: 7416: 7409: 7404: 7399: 7392: 7387: 7380: 7375: 7370: 7365: 7360: 7357:Edgar Ætheling 7353: 7348: 7343: 7338: 7333: 7328: 7323: 7316: 7311: 7306: 7301: 7296: 7291: 7286: 7281: 7274: 7267: 7259: 7256: 7255: 7252: 7246: 7239: 7238: 7222: 7221: 7214: 7207: 7199: 7190: 7189: 7187: 7186: 7172: 7169: 7168: 7166: 7165: 7160: 7155: 7150: 7145: 7140: 7135: 7130: 7125: 7120: 7115: 7110: 7105: 7100: 7095: 7090: 7085: 7080: 7073: 7068: 7061: 7056: 7051: 7046: 7041: 7036: 7031: 7026: 7021: 7016: 7011: 7006: 7001: 6996: 6991: 6986: 6981: 6976: 6971: 6966: 6961: 6956: 6951: 6946: 6941: 6936: 6931: 6925: 6920: 6915: 6910: 6905: 6899: 6897: 6889: 6888: 6886: 6885: 6880: 6875: 6870: 6865: 6860: 6855: 6850: 6845: 6840: 6835: 6830: 6825: 6820: 6815: 6810: 6805: 6800: 6795: 6790: 6785: 6780: 6775: 6770: 6765: 6760: 6755: 6750: 6745: 6740: 6735: 6730: 6725: 6720: 6715: 6710: 6705: 6700: 6695: 6690: 6685: 6680: 6675: 6670: 6664: 6662: 6654: 6653: 6646: 6645: 6638: 6631: 6623: 6615: 6614: 6609: 6606: 6597: 6589: 6583: 6582: 6581:Regnal titles 6578: 6577: 6572: 6569: 6560: 6555: 6551: 6550: 6544: 6543: 6538: 6535: 6526: 6521: 6517: 6516: 6499:House of Bruce 6496: 6493: 6488: 6487: 6473: 6462: 6453: 6448: 6443: 6436: 6435:External links 6433: 6431: 6430: 6425:978-1862320314 6424: 6411: 6406:978-1570982477 6405: 6384: 6370: 6365:978-1566192705 6364: 6351: 6338:978-0300146653 6337: 6320: 6315:978-0300178029 6314: 6301: 6276: 6271:978-0300148725 6270: 6257: 6244: 6234: 6225: 6220:978-1841584751 6219: 6206: 6201:978-0859766531 6200: 6187: 6180: 6171: 6161: 6151: 6146:978-0773531574 6145: 6132: 6129:978-0415130417 6117: 6114:978-0748602735 6102: 6097:978-0903903349 6096: 6083: 6076: 6066: 6061:978-0752446004 6060: 6047: 6042:978-0752425757 6041: 6028: 6023:978-0094764408 6022: 6009: 6004:978-0691032986 6003: 5986: 5976: 5971:978-0852245392 5970: 5956: 5954: 5951: 5948: 5947: 5921: 5895: 5856: 5842: 5816: 5790: 5764: 5738: 5722: 5707: 5687: 5668: 5641: 5612: 5603: 5581: 5556: 5550:978-0862416812 5549: 5533:Duncan, A.A.M. 5521: 5507: 5493: 5474: 5451: 5428: 5416: 5394: 5385: 5373: 5364: 5350: 5341: 5332: 5323: 5311: 5302: 5293: 5284: 5272: 5250: 5235: 5210: 5201: 5188: 5173: 5161: 5149: 5137: 5097: 5085: 5073: 5054: 5045: 5030: 5009: 4960: 4948: 4933: 4921: 4909: 4897: 4888: 4879: 4847: 4835: 4819: 4807: 4792: 4777: 4762: 4750: 4738: 4723: 4707: 4695: 4670: 4644: 4617: 4604: 4589: 4574: 4562: 4539: 4527: 4513: 4500: 4492:Scotichronicon 4483: 4452: 4437: 4418: 4406: 4397: 4380: 4368: 4356: 4352:Prestwich 1997 4344: 4340:Prestwich 1997 4332: 4320: 4311: 4302: 4290: 4273: 4261: 4244: 4229: 4220: 4208: 4196: 4184: 4172: 4160: 4145: 4130: 4115: 4098: 4086: 4067: 4050: 4038: 4026: 4014: 4002: 3990: 3984:978-0431058832 3983: 3965: 3947: 3925: 3911: 3899: 3893:978-1417914944 3892: 3872: 3855: 3849:978-0099539735 3848: 3802: 3801: 3799: 3796: 3793: 3792: 3774: 3754:Robert Wishart 3745: 3744: 3742: 3739: 3738: 3737: 3732: 3727: 3722: 3717: 3712: 3707: 3702: 3697: 3690: 3687: 3686: 3685: 3671: 3660: 3657: 3656: 3655: 3638: 3635: 3630: 3629: 3624: 3621: 3620: 3619: 3603: 3587: 3579: 3563: 3553: 3550: 3549: 3548: 3545:Bound by Honor 3542: 3531: 3518: 3515: 3514: 3513: 3511:Lesya Ukrainka 3493: 3490: 3489: 3488: 3474: 3471: 3469: 3466: 3378: 3375: 3272: 3269: 3261: 3258: 3212: 3211: 3208: 3207: 3205: 3203: 3201: 3199: 3197: 3195: 3193: 3191: 3189: 3187: 3185: 3183: 3181: 3178: 3177: 3175: 3172: 3171: 3165: 3162: 3161: 3158: 3157: 3155: 3153: 3151: 3148: 3147: 3145: 3142: 3141: 3139: 3133: 3130: 3129: 3126: 3125: 3123: 3120: 3119: 3117: 3114: 3113: 3107: 3104: 3103: 3100: 3099: 3097: 3095: 3093: 3091: 3089: 3086: 3085: 3083: 3080: 3079: 3077: 3071: 3068: 3067: 3064: 3063: 3061: 3058: 3057: 3055: 3052: 3051: 3049: 3046: 3045: 3042: 3041: 3039: 3037: 3035: 3032: 3031: 3029: 3026: 3025: 3023: 3017: 3014: 3013: 3010: 3009: 3007: 3004: 3003: 3001: 2998: 2997: 2991: 2988: 2987: 2984: 2983: 2981: 2979: 2977: 2975: 2973: 2971: 2969: 2966: 2965: 2962: 2961: 2959: 2953: 2950: 2949: 2946: 2945: 2943: 2940: 2939: 2937: 2934: 2933: 2931:Isabel Marshal 2927: 2924: 2923: 2920: 2919: 2917: 2915: 2913: 2910: 2909: 2907: 2904: 2903: 2901: 2895: 2892: 2891: 2888: 2887: 2885: 2882: 2881: 2879: 2876: 2875: 2869: 2866: 2865: 2862: 2861: 2859: 2857: 2855: 2853: 2851: 2848: 2847: 2845: 2842: 2841: 2839: 2833: 2830: 2829: 2826: 2825: 2823: 2820: 2819: 2817: 2814: 2813: 2807: 2804: 2803: 2800: 2799: 2797: 2795: 2793: 2790: 2789: 2787: 2784: 2783: 2781: 2775: 2772: 2771: 2768: 2767: 2765: 2762: 2761: 2759: 2756: 2755: 2749: 2747: 2745: 2743: 2741: 2739: 2737: 2730: 2729: 2723: 2721: 2718: 2708: 2707: 2700: 2697: 2695: 2689: 2688: 2685: 2683: 2681: 2677: 2676: 2673: 2671: 2669: 2668:Margaret Bruce 2665: 2664: 2661: 2659: 2657: 2653: 2652: 2647:Killed at the 2645: 2642: 2640: 2634: 2633: 2630: 2627: 2624: 2620: 2619: 2615: 2614: 2607: 2604: 2601: 2595: 2594: 2591: 2588: 2585: 2581: 2580: 2569: 2566: 2563: 2557: 2556: 2549: 2546: 2543: 2542:Matilda (Maud) 2539: 2538: 2531: 2528: 2525: 2521: 2520: 2517: 2514: 2511: 2507: 2506: 2502: 2501: 2490: 2487: 2484: 2478: 2477: 2474: 2471: 2468: 2464: 2463: 2456: 2453: 2364: 2357: 2356: 2352: 2345: 2344: 2343: 2342: 2341: 2328:Main article: 2325: 2322: 2239:Robert Stewart 2194: 2191: 2126: 2123: 2121: 2118: 2055:to fight the ' 2037:Glenluce Abbey 1900:Pope John XXII 1872: 1869: 1857:Greater Scotia 1853:Pope John XXII 1788:Main article: 1785: 1782: 1764: 1761: 1741:Henry de Bohun 1682:Main article: 1679: 1676: 1474:Earl of Lennox 1446:Earl of Atholl 1388: 1385: 1383: 1380: 1376:excommunicated 1359:Scotichronicon 1297: 1294: 1288:, and now 7th 1173:John de Soules 1140: 1137: 1067:Robert Wishart 1023: 1020: 1016:Marjorie Bruce 954: 953:Bruces regroup 951: 949: 946: 908:Main article: 905: 902: 691:Scots language 687:Middle English 662: 659: 647:Northumberland 562: 559: 557: 554: 512:Pope John XXII 458:Robert Wishart 450:Pope Clement V 352: 351: 348: 347: 344: 343: 340: 339: 329: 328: 320: 319: 316: 315: 312: 311: 306: 302: 301: 296: 292: 291: 286: 280: 279: 277: 276: 271: 266: 263: 258: 253: 251:Marjorie Bruce 247: 245: 231: 230: 218: 214: 209: 208: 207: 206: 193: 189: 184: 183: 182: 181: 178: 176: 172: 171: 168: 167: 164: 158: 151: 150: 148: 144: 143: 140:Dunbartonshire 136:(aged 54) 130: 126: 125: 116: 112: 111: 108: 107: 102: 98: 97: 91: 87: 86: 83: 77: 76: 73: 69: 68: 62: 61: 52: 44: 43: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 8266: 8255: 8252: 8250: 8247: 8245: 8242: 8240: 8237: 8235: 8232: 8230: 8227: 8225: 8222: 8220: 8217: 8215: 8212: 8210: 8207: 8205: 8202: 8200: 8197: 8195: 8192: 8190: 8187: 8185: 8182: 8180: 8177: 8175: 8172: 8170: 8169:Scoto-Normans 8167: 8165: 8162: 8160: 8157: 8155: 8152: 8150: 8147: 8145: 8142: 8140: 8137: 8136: 8134: 8115: 8109: 8108:James Stewart 8106: 8104: 8103:David Stewart 8101: 8099: 8096: 8095: 8093: 8091:Stewart earls 8089: 8083: 8080: 8078: 8077:David de Brus 8075: 8072: 8069: 8067: 8064: 8062: 8059: 8058: 8056: 8052: 8045: 8043: 8039: 8035: 8029: 8026: 8024: 8021: 8019: 8016: 8013: 8012: 8008: 8007: 8005: 8001: 7997: 7990: 7985: 7983: 7978: 7976: 7971: 7970: 7967: 7955: 7952: 7951: 7948: 7938: 7935: 7933: 7930: 7928: 7925: 7923: 7920: 7918: 7915: 7913: 7910: 7908: 7905: 7903: 7900: 7898: 7895: 7893: 7890: 7888: 7885: 7883: 7880: 7878: 7875: 7874: 7871: 7865: 7864: 7859: 7858: 7855: 7851: 7841: 7838: 7836: 7832: 7829: 7827: 7824: 7822: 7819: 7815: 7812: 7810: 7807: 7806: 7805: 7802: 7800: 7797: 7795: 7792: 7791: 7788: 7782: 7780: 7775: 7774: 7771: 7767: 7752: 7749: 7747: 7744: 7742: 7739: 7737: 7734: 7732: 7729: 7727: 7724: 7722: 7719: 7717: 7714: 7712: 7709: 7707: 7706: 7702: 7700: 7697: 7695: 7692: 7690: 7687: 7685: 7684: 7680: 7678: 7677:Alexander III 7675: 7673: 7670: 7668: 7665: 7663: 7660: 7658: 7655: 7653: 7650: 7648: 7645: 7643: 7640: 7638: 7635: 7633: 7630: 7628: 7625: 7623: 7620: 7618: 7615: 7613: 7610: 7608: 7605: 7603: 7600: 7598: 7595: 7593: 7592: 7588: 7586: 7583: 7581: 7578: 7576: 7573: 7571: 7568: 7566: 7563: 7561: 7558: 7556: 7555: 7551: 7549: 7548: 7544: 7542: 7541: 7537: 7535: 7534: 7533:Constantine I 7530: 7528: 7527: 7523: 7521: 7520: 7516: 7515: 7513: 7508: 7505: 7503: 7502: 7497: 7494: 7492: 7491: 7487: 7485: 7482: 7480: 7477: 7475: 7472: 7470: 7467: 7465: 7462: 7460: 7457: 7455: 7452: 7450: 7447: 7445: 7442: 7440: 7437: 7435: 7432: 7430: 7427: 7425: 7422: 7420: 7417: 7415: 7414: 7410: 7408: 7405: 7403: 7400: 7398: 7397: 7393: 7391: 7388: 7386: 7385: 7381: 7379: 7376: 7374: 7371: 7369: 7366: 7364: 7361: 7359: 7358: 7354: 7352: 7349: 7347: 7344: 7342: 7339: 7337: 7334: 7332: 7329: 7327: 7324: 7322: 7321: 7317: 7315: 7312: 7310: 7307: 7305: 7302: 7300: 7297: 7295: 7292: 7290: 7287: 7285: 7282: 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6841: 6839: 6836: 6834: 6831: 6829: 6826: 6824: 6821: 6819: 6816: 6814: 6811: 6809: 6806: 6804: 6801: 6799: 6796: 6794: 6791: 6789: 6786: 6784: 6781: 6779: 6776: 6774: 6771: 6769: 6766: 6764: 6761: 6759: 6756: 6754: 6751: 6749: 6746: 6744: 6741: 6739: 6736: 6734: 6731: 6729: 6726: 6724: 6721: 6719: 6716: 6714: 6711: 6709: 6706: 6704: 6701: 6699: 6696: 6694: 6691: 6689: 6688:Galan Erilich 6686: 6684: 6681: 6679: 6676: 6674: 6671: 6669: 6666: 6665: 6663: 6661: 6660:(traditional) 6655: 6651: 6644: 6639: 6637: 6632: 6630: 6625: 6624: 6621: 6612: 6603: 6602: 6596: 6595: 6588: 6584: 6579: 6575: 6566: 6565: 6558: 6552: 6549: 6545: 6541: 6532: 6531: 6524: 6518: 6513: 6506: 6501: 6500: 6491: 6485: 6481: 6477: 6474: 6472: 6471: 6466: 6463: 6461: 6457: 6454: 6452: 6449: 6447: 6444: 6442: 6439: 6438: 6427: 6421: 6417: 6412: 6408: 6402: 6398: 6393: 6392: 6385: 6382: 6378: 6374: 6371: 6367: 6361: 6357: 6352: 6348: 6344: 6340: 6334: 6329: 6328: 6321: 6317: 6311: 6307: 6302: 6298: 6294: 6290: 6286: 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IMDb. 1995. 5734: 5733: 5726: 5718: 5714: 5710: 5704: 5700: 5699: 5691: 5684: 5680: 5677: 5672: 5656: 5652: 5645: 5630: 5623: 5616: 5607: 5591: 5585: 5578: 5574: 5570: 5566: 5560: 5552: 5546: 5542: 5538: 5534: 5528: 5526: 5517: 5511: 5503: 5497: 5489: 5485: 5478: 5470: 5466: 5462: 5455: 5439: 5432: 5425: 5420: 5404: 5398: 5389: 5380: 5378: 5368: 5359: 5357: 5355: 5345: 5336: 5327: 5318: 5316: 5306: 5297: 5288: 5279: 5277: 5260: 5254: 5247: 5242: 5240: 5224: 5223:Atlas Obscura 5220: 5214: 5205: 5198: 5192: 5186:, p. 308 5185: 5180: 5178: 5171:, p. 278 5170: 5169:Macnamee 2006 5165: 5159:, p. 307 5158: 5153: 5147:, p. 277 5146: 5145:Macnamee 2006 5141: 5133: 5127: 5112: 5108: 5101: 5095:, p. 304 5094: 5089: 5082: 5077: 5071:, p. 271 5070: 5069:Macnamee 2006 5065: 5063: 5061: 5059: 5049: 5043:, p. 300 5042: 5037: 5035: 5028:, p. 276 5027: 5026:Macnamee 2006 5022: 5020: 5018: 5016: 5014: 4994: 4990: 4986: 4982: 4978: 4971: 4964: 4958:, p. 400 4957: 4952: 4946:, p. 445 4945: 4940: 4938: 4931:, p. 391 4930: 4925: 4919:, p. 261 4918: 4913: 4906: 4901: 4892: 4883: 4868: 4864: 4863: 4858: 4857:"Bannockburn" 4851: 4844: 4843:Phillips 2011 4839: 4833:, p. 259 4832: 4828: 4827:Phillips 2011 4823: 4817:, p. 233 4816: 4815:Phillips 2011 4811: 4805:, p. 232 4804: 4803:Phillips 2011 4799: 4797: 4789: 4788:Phillips 2011 4784: 4782: 4775:, p. 230 4774: 4773:Phillips 2011 4769: 4767: 4759: 4758:Phillips 2011 4754: 4747: 4746:Phillips 2011 4742: 4734: 4727: 4720: 4716: 4715:Phillips 2011 4711: 4704: 4703:Phillips 2011 4699: 4684: 4680: 4674: 4658: 4654: 4648: 4642:, p. 444 4641: 4636: 4634: 4632: 4630: 4628: 4626: 4624: 4622: 4614: 4608: 4600: 4593: 4586: 4581: 4579: 4571: 4566: 4558: 4557: 4552: 4546: 4544: 4536: 4531: 4523: 4517: 4510: 4504: 4497: 4493: 4487: 4479: 4475: 4471: 4467: 4463: 4456: 4449: 4444: 4442: 4430: 4429: 4422: 4415: 4414:Macnamee 2006 4410: 4401: 4394: 4393:Macnamee 2006 4389: 4387: 4385: 4377: 4376:Macnamee 2006 4372: 4365: 4360: 4354:, p. 376 4353: 4348: 4341: 4336: 4329: 4324: 4315: 4306: 4299: 4294: 4287: 4286:Macnamee 2006 4282: 4280: 4278: 4270: 4265: 4258: 4253: 4251: 4249: 4241: 4240:Macnamee 2006 4236: 4234: 4224: 4217: 4212: 4205: 4204:Macnamee 2006 4200: 4193: 4188: 4181: 4180:Macnamee 2006 4176: 4169: 4164: 4157: 4152: 4150: 4142: 4137: 4135: 4127: 4126:Macnamee 2006 4122: 4120: 4112: 4107: 4105: 4103: 4095: 4090: 4083: 4078: 4076: 4074: 4072: 4064: 4063:Macnamee 2006 4059: 4057: 4055: 4047: 4042: 4035: 4030: 4023: 4018: 4011: 4010:Macnamee 2006 4006: 3999: 3994: 3986: 3980: 3976: 3969: 3961: 3957: 3951: 3936: 3929: 3921: 3915: 3908: 3907:Macnamee 2006 3903: 3895: 3889: 3886:. Kessinger. 3885: 3884: 3876: 3868: 3862: 3860: 3851: 3845: 3841: 3834: 3832: 3830: 3828: 3826: 3824: 3822: 3820: 3818: 3816: 3814: 3812: 3810: 3808: 3803: 3788: 3784: 3778: 3771: 3767: 3763: 3759: 3755: 3750: 3746: 3736: 3733: 3731: 3728: 3726: 3723: 3721: 3718: 3716: 3713: 3711: 3708: 3706: 3703: 3701: 3698: 3696: 3693: 3692: 3683: 3679: 3677: 3672: 3669: 3668: 3663: 3662: 3653: 3652:David Paisley 3649: 3645: 3641: 3640: 3634: 3627: 3626: 3617: 3613: 3609: 3608: 3604: 3601: 3597: 3593: 3592: 3588: 3585: 3584: 3580: 3577: 3573: 3569: 3568: 3564: 3561: 3560: 3556: 3555: 3546: 3543: 3541: 3537: 3536: 3532: 3530: 3529:Nigel Tranter 3526: 3525: 3521: 3520: 3512: 3508: 3505: 3500: 3496: 3495: 3486: 3482: 3481: 3477: 3476: 3465: 3463: 3459: 3454: 3452: 3448: 3444: 3440: 3436: 3435:James Douglas 3432: 3428: 3427: 3417: 3411: 3410:Cecil Glossop 3407: 3403: 3399: 3392: 3388: 3383: 3374: 3372: 3367: 3365: 3360: 3357: 3355: 3351: 3346: 3344: 3340: 3336: 3327: 3323: 3321: 3317: 3313: 3312:stained glass 3309: 3305: 3300: 3298: 3294: 3290: 3286: 3282: 3278: 3267: 3257: 3255: 3251: 3247: 3244:. As well as 3243: 3239: 3235: 3231: 3227: 3224: 3220: 3206: 3204: 3202: 3200: 3198: 3196: 3194: 3192: 3190: 3188: 3186: 3184: 3182: 3180: 3179: 3176: 3174: 3173: 3170: 3164: 3163: 3160: 3159: 3150: 3149: 3144: 3143: 3138: 3132: 3131: 3128: 3127: 3122: 3121: 3116: 3115: 3112: 3106: 3105: 3102: 3101: 3088: 3087: 3082: 3081: 3076: 3070: 3069: 3066: 3065: 3060: 3059: 3054: 3053: 3048: 3047: 3044: 3043: 3034: 3033: 3028: 3027: 3022: 3016: 3015: 3012: 3011: 3006: 3005: 3000: 2999: 2996: 2990: 2989: 2986: 2985: 2968: 2967: 2964: 2963: 2958: 2952: 2951: 2948: 2947: 2942: 2941: 2936: 2935: 2932: 2926: 2925: 2922: 2921: 2912: 2911: 2906: 2905: 2900: 2894: 2893: 2890: 2889: 2884: 2883: 2878: 2877: 2874: 2868: 2867: 2864: 2863: 2850: 2849: 2844: 2843: 2838: 2832: 2831: 2828: 2827: 2822: 2821: 2816: 2815: 2812: 2806: 2805: 2802: 2801: 2792: 2791: 2786: 2785: 2780: 2774: 2773: 2770: 2769: 2764: 2763: 2758: 2757: 2754: 2748: 2736: 2735: 2732: 2731: 2727: 2726: 2717: 2715: 2705: 2701: 2698: 2696: 2694: 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2131: 2117: 2115: 2111: 2107: 2103: 2099: 2093: 2088: 2086: 2082: 2081:Melrose Abbey 2078: 2074: 2070: 2066: 2062: 2058: 2054: 2048: 2046: 2043:, from where 2042: 2038: 2034: 2030: 2026: 2022: 2018: 2017:Isle of Arran 2014: 2010: 2006: 2002: 1998: 1994: 1990: 1985: 1983: 1979: 1975: 1971: 1967: 1963: 1958: 1953: 1949: 1945: 1944: 1939: 1938: 1932: 1930: 1925: 1921: 1917: 1911: 1909: 1905: 1901: 1897: 1893: 1886: 1882: 1877: 1868: 1866: 1860: 1858: 1854: 1848: 1846: 1839: 1837: 1833: 1829: 1825: 1821: 1817: 1811: 1809: 1805: 1801: 1797: 1791: 1778: 1774: 1769: 1760: 1758: 1754: 1748: 1746: 1742: 1738: 1733: 1731: 1727: 1723: 1719: 1715: 1711: 1707: 1706:James Douglas 1703: 1699: 1695: 1691: 1685: 1675: 1673: 1667: 1665: 1664:Castle Rushen 1661: 1657: 1654:in 1311, and 1653: 1649: 1645: 1641: 1637: 1633: 1628: 1626: 1622: 1618: 1614: 1609: 1605: 1601: 1597: 1593: 1589: 1585: 1581: 1577: 1576:Aberdeenshire 1572: 1570: 1566: 1562: 1558: 1554: 1550: 1546: 1542: 1538: 1534: 1530: 1526: 1525:guerrilla war 1522: 1518: 1514: 1510: 1506: 1502: 1498: 1494: 1485: 1481: 1477: 1475: 1471: 1470:Neil Campbell 1467: 1463: 1459: 1455: 1451: 1447: 1443: 1439: 1433: 1431: 1427: 1423: 1419: 1414: 1410: 1406: 1402: 1393: 1379: 1377: 1372: 1367: 1365: 1361: 1360: 1355: 1352:Monastery in 1351: 1346: 1343: 1337: 1335: 1331: 1327: 1323: 1315: 1311: 1307: 1302: 1293: 1291: 1287: 1282: 1280: 1276: 1271: 1269: 1265: 1259: 1257: 1256:Alexander III 1253: 1249: 1245: 1241: 1237: 1233: 1229: 1225: 1221: 1216: 1214: 1210: 1206: 1202: 1197: 1196:Melrose Abbey 1192: 1190: 1186: 1182: 1177: 1174: 1170: 1166: 1162: 1157: 1153: 1149: 1145: 1136: 1133: 1129: 1125: 1121: 1117: 1113: 1108: 1106: 1102: 1097: 1093: 1087: 1082: 1080: 1076: 1072: 1068: 1064: 1060: 1054: 1052: 1048: 1044: 1043:bloody attack 1040: 1035: 1033: 1029: 1019: 1017: 1013: 1009: 1005: 1001: 997: 993: 989: 984: 983:with France. 982: 977: 973: 964: 959: 945: 942: 940: 936: 931: 929: 925: 921: 917: 911: 904:"Great Cause" 901: 899: 895: 891: 887: 883: 878: 876: 872: 868: 864: 863: 858: 854: 848: 847:") to boats. 846: 842: 836: 834: 830: 826: 822: 818: 814: 809: 807: 801: 799: 793: 791: 787: 784: 780: 776: 772: 767: 765: 761: 757: 756: 751: 746: 744: 740: 736: 732: 728: 724: 720: 717:knowledge of 715: 710: 708: 704: 700: 696: 692: 688: 684: 680: 676: 672: 668: 658: 656: 655:County Antrim 652: 648: 644: 640: 636: 635:County Durham 632: 628: 624: 623:Aberdeenshire 620: 616: 612: 608: 604: 600: 596: 592: 588: 584: 580: 572: 567: 553: 551: 547: 546:Melrose Abbey 543: 539: 534: 532: 528: 524: 520: 515: 513: 509: 505: 500: 498: 494: 490: 486: 482: 477: 475: 474:guerrilla war 471: 467: 463: 459: 455: 451: 447: 442: 440: 436: 432: 428: 424: 420: 416: 412: 407: 405: 401: 397: 392: 390: 389:national hero 386: 382: 378: 374: 373:King of Scots 370: 366: 362: 358: 349: 345: 341: 335: 330: 325: 321: 317: 313: 310: 307: 303: 300: 297: 293: 290: 287: 285: 281: 275: 272: 270: 267: 265:Illegitimate: 264: 262: 259: 257: 254: 252: 249: 248: 246: 243: 242: 236: 232: 212: 205: 204: 187: 180: 179: 177: 173: 165: 162: 161:Melrose Abbey 159: 156: 153: 152: 149: 145: 141: 131: 127: 123: 117: 113: 109: 106: 103: 99: 95: 92: 88: 85:25 March 1306 84: 82: 78: 74: 70: 67: 66:King of Scots 63: 50: 45: 40: 37: 33: 19: 8098:John Stewart 8070: 8060: 8031: 8011:Gille Brigte 8009: 7953: 7932:Elizabeth II 7860: 7776: 7703: 7693: 7681: 7672:Alexander II 7589: 7552: 7545: 7538: 7531: 7524: 7517: 7499: 7488: 7411: 7394: 7382: 7355: 7318: 7276: 7269: 7262: 7082: 7075: 7063: 7049:Alexander II 6748:Gartnait III 6599: 6592: 6586: 6562: 6528: 6511: 6507:11 July 1274 6504: 6497: 6468: 6415: 6390: 6355: 6326: 6305: 6288: 6284: 6261: 6253:CELT archive 6252: 6238: 6229: 6210: 6191: 6183: 6175: 6165: 6155: 6136: 6120: 6105: 6087: 6079: 6070: 6051: 6032: 6013: 5992: 5980: 5961: 5953:Bibliography 5938:. 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