719:
671:("but this sounds more like the Israelites crossing the Red Sea than the traversing of an established thoroughfare", and the Thames may well have been frozen), according to Henry of Huntingdon, wrapped in a white shawl as camouflage against the snow. This was not achieved without alerting the Stephen's guards: they were not asleep, and as she slipped out, there was the sound of trumpets and men's shouting, their voices carrying through the frosty air" as Matilda and her knights slipped through Stephen's ranks. There had been a recent snowfall, which shielded her from her enemies but also hindered her passage. However precisely the escape was achieved, says Edmund King, it had clearly been thoroughly planned. The castle surrendered the day after Matilda's escape, and Stephen installed his own garrison. The siege had lasted over two and a half months.
707:, now controlled most of the region and commanded the Thames Valley. He already controlled the capital and the south-east; now, says Poole, "all hopes of Angevin success eastward of the upper Thames valley" were dashed. Matilda's escape was, in itself, not a victory—if anything, says King, it highlighted the fragility of her position—and by the end of the year, the Angevin cause was, in Crouch's words, "on the ropes" and what remained of its army demoralised. This, he says, is evidenced by the fact that even though the Earl of Gloucester had returned from Normandy in late October, it took him until December to re-establish himself in his Dorsetshire heartlands, as he wanted to reassert his control over the whole Dorset coast. Wallingford was now the sole Angevin possession outside of the
232:
734:
generally, "far more important than the
Angevins' one-time foothold here were the Angevin loyalties of many Oxfordshire barons". Stephen knew Matilda had fled to Wallingford after her escape, but made no effort to stop her. Stephen had attempted to besiege the castle in 1139, Fitz Count had "strengthened the already impregnable castle" over the years, as well as having sufficient provisions to hold out for several years, which Stephen had discovered to his cost: his siege had broken up within weeks. Stephen clearly did not wish to attempt a second assault. The King is known to have attended a
22:
622:, because, due to the duration of the siege, elements within Stephen's army had "deserted and others grew slack". Matilda took advantage of the weakened siege; she may have been assisted by treason within Stephen's army. If not treachery, says Davis, then certainly carelessness. In any case, he goes on, it prevented Stephen from achieving his primary aim: to win the war in one fell swoop. Matilda's escape to Wallingford contributed to her reputation for luck, which was seen as verging on the miraculous. The contemporary chronicler of the
711:; Stephen, however—although waging what Barlow has described as a "brilliant tactical campaign, distinguished by personal bravery"—had also lost the momentum he had built up since his release from captivity, and had missed his last chance to end the war decisively, as he had planned, with Matilda's capture. On her arrival in the west, her party set to work consolidating what it still held, being by now unable to regain lost lands. Popular rumour held that Matilda made a vow, following her escape, to found a new
399:, that by now "the tide had turned and already men were quietly leaving her court". John Appleby, too, has suggested that much of her support had by now decided that, in his words, they had "bet on the wrong horse", particularly as she had failed to put up a stand at Westminster or immediately return in force. Stephen, on the other hand, had recuperated in the north of England; he had a solid base of support there and was able to raise a large army—possibly over 1,000 knights—before returning south.
342:
602:
365:, to try to bring him and his large, experienced army in on her side. Matilda and the earl probably assumed that she would be safe in Oxford until he returned. This was a crucial period for Matilda, says King, and Gloucester's absence weakened her force further: he left for Normandy on 24 June to negotiate with Anjou, despite, says Crouch, Matilda's situation being "desperate". However, she considered Oxford to be her "own town", commented the 17th-century
482:, a relatively small force of soldiers. They "bravely or foolishly turned out to dispute his crossing of the river", and, thinking themselves secure, taunted Stephen's army from the safety of the city's ramparts, raining them with arrows shot across the river. While the Queen's army offered battle outside the city, Stephen was intent on besieging the castle without a battle, but this meant taking the city first. Stephen's men had to navigate a series of
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since neither
Stephen nor Matilda possessed the resources with to which to conquer and then hold great swathes of land, they had to focus their efforts towards controlling regional political loci. According to Keith Stringer, "the technology of defence had outstripped that of attack", and so besiegers often found themselves bogged down in fighting a small war at every town they beset.
486:, what the Gesta describes as an "old, extremely deep, ford". They successfully crossed—at least one chronicler believed them to have swum at one point—and entered Oxford the same day by a postern gate. The Empress' garrison, both surprised and outnumbered, and probably panicking, beat a hasty retreat up to the castle. Those that were caught were either killed or kept for
395:, they might not have delayed or even cancelled his journey. However, they did not, and Matilda's army was effectively left leaderless. Matilda may have been expecting supporters to make their way to Oxford—"to 'make fine' with her" (i.e. to contract themselves to her cause), suggests Edmund King—"but they were under no compulsion to do so". It is likely, says Professor
334:-Oxfordshire interface area was a contentious one throughout the war, and Oxford particularly was of great strategic value. It was situated at the nexus of the main routes from London to the south-west and from Southampton to the north. Whoever controlled the Oxford area effectively controlled access to London and the north, and for Stephen it provided a
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accounts alone might have suggested. Further work in the 1990s reinterpreted Henry's efforts in the post-war reconstruction period, suggesting a greater level of continuity with
Stephen's wartime government than had previously been supposed. The label of "the Anarchy" remains in use by modern historians, but rarely without qualification.
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war", which was to continue, in Cronne's words, as a "chess-like war of castle sieges". Both sides were, and continued to be, crippled by a combination of the massive cost of warfare and inefficient methods of raising revenue. Matilda left
England in 1148; Stephen died in 1154, and, under the terms of the
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before returning to his father in France. Many of those that had lost lands in the regions held by the king travelled west to take up patronage from
Matilda. With the end of the siege of Oxford, says Stringer, the military situation became generally static, "and would remain thus until the end of the
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says Crouch, but they were "impotent" to reach her or help her escape. Bradbury suggests that they probably lacked numerical superiority over the King's army and that this deterred them. Matilda's small force, meanwhile, remained "pinned down" by the royal blockade, and eventually began to run low on
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Matilda's escape was, true to her reputation, embroidered by contemporaries, who asked many questions as to how she had managed it. The chroniclers tried to answer them, embellishing as they did. It was the last, and probably most dramatic event of
Matilda's career, a career punctuated with dramatic
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of the inhabitants. Meanwhile, the King's guards kept watch for the
Empress 24 hours a day. Because Stephen had been able to take the city without damaging its walls, these now worked in his favour and meant he could press his attack against Matilda while protecting his flanks. The added consequence
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Stephen's army approached Oxford in late
September 1142, and according to contemporary accounts, swam his army across the rivers and waterways that blocked the approach to the city. Matilda's small force was taken by surprise. Those that were not killed or captured retreated into the castle; Stephen
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to coin the term "the
Anarchy" to describe the period. Later historians criticised the term, however, as analysis of the financial records and other documents from the period suggested that the actual breakdown in law and order during the conflict had been more nuanced and localised than chronicler
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then garnishes the whole with the escapees' white cloaks. Edmund King has suggested that many of these explanations can be traced to other, often mythological or biblical events that would have been a point of reference for ecclesiastical chroniclers. They suggested that she had climbed down a rope
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I have never read of another woman so luckily rescued from so many mortal foes and from the threat of dangers so great: the truth being that she went from the castle of
Arundel uninjured through the midst of her enemies; she escaped unscathed from the midst of the Londoners when they were assailing
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At the Christmas festival, celebrated at Canterbury, Stephen submitted to a second coronation, or at least wore his crown, as a token that he once again ruled over England. The affairs of the kingdom, a visit to York, and an illness, so serious that it was rumoured that he was dying, prevented the
80:
By now the civil war was at its height, yet neither party was able to get an edge on the other: both had suffered swings of fate in the last few years which had alternately put them ahead, and then behind, their rival. Stephen, for instance, had been captured by Matilda's army in 1141, but later in
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in 1138 and Wallingford the following year), although more often than not the castle resisted after the town had fallen, as at Winchester and Lincoln in 1141 and Oxford the following year. The reason castles were of such continuous significance, says Davis, was that both sides were short of money:
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Marjory Chibnall has described Wallingford as the Empress' "bastion in the Thames Valley" and as "impregnable supported by vassals who were throughout the years of war as unshakably loyal to him as himself was to his lady. Besieged on several occasions, the castle never fell to Stephen's forces.
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For the second time in the war, Stephen almost succeeded in capturing Matilda, but for the second time also, failed in the attempt. After three months' siege, supplies and provisions within Oxford Castle had become dangerously low, and, suggests Castor, "trapped inside a burned and blackened city,
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declares that "the hope of no advantage, the fear of no loss" would distract the King. This was public knowledge, and for the Earl of Gloucester in Normandy, gave his mission an added urgency. Oxford Castle was well provisioned, and a long siege was inevitable; but Stephen was "content to endure a
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has suggested that Anjou, who had requested that Gloucester come to him, as the only member of Matilda's circle he knew and therefore trusted to negotiate with, had never had any intention of coming to England. But, says, Davis, Anjou's military campaign in Normandy was stalling, and Gloucester's
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Stephen's exact movements after the siege are hard to establish; Oxford Castle dominated the surrounding countryside, and he probably took advantage of his new-found lordship to spend considerable time and resources subduing the countryside around Oxford. After all, says Emilie Amt, in the county
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Having made "the last and most remarkable of her escapes", says King, Matilda and her companions made their way—or "fled ignominiously", he suggests—to Abingdon where they collected horses and supplies, and then further to Wallingford, where they could rely on the support of Fitz Count, and where
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to accompany the earl. His mission to bring the Count and his army to England had been a failure. Anjou had refused to leave Normandy or make any attempt to rescue his wife; perhaps, says Cronne, "it was just as well he did, for the English barons would certainly have regarded him as an unwelcome
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This same year the king besieged the empress at Oxford, from after the feast of Michaelmas , until the advent of our Lord ; but during that period (sometime about Christmas-tide) the Empress escaped by night and crossed the Thames, which at that time was frozen over. She had dressed in white, and
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Wareham was of particular strategic significance, as it was held by the Earl of Gloucester; he had sailed from Wareham port on his voyage to Normandy, and, says Crouch, Stephen's victory denied Gloucester his easiest point of return to England. It was also of general strategic importance, argues
422:, the King acted like a man "awakened as out of sleep". He approached Oxford rapidly from the south-west; although the size of his army is unknown, he had already won a series of small but significant victories, punching a gap into the Angevin-controlled south-west. This won him the port town of
1100:
Building small counter-castles was a favoured tactic of King Stephen during the civil war. When a castle was too powerful to be overcome in the short term, a siege castle need only be garrisoned by a small force, but could still wear down the garrison and prevent them from foraging at will, and
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In any case, sieges were the usual method of prosecuting this war; William of Malmesbury noted—and complained—that "the whole year was troubled by the brutalities of war. There were many castles all over England, each defending its own district, or, to be more truthful, plundering it. The war,
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described the King as living in a "narrow dungeon", and he may have been fettered in chains; although William of Malmesbury asserts that Gloucester had due regard for the "splendour of the crown". Matilda, in any case, was "irretrievably damaged" politically as a result. Stephen was eventually
117:. He also knew that it would be a long, hard wait before Matilda was starved out. But after nearly three months of siege, conditions for the garrison were dire, and they formed a plan to help the Empress escape from under Stephen's nose. One early December evening Matilda crept out of a
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he produced for her were never minted outside the areas directly under her control. Minting money was not, at this time, solely the purview of the crown; it was not unusual for barons to also do so, the most illustrious example of such being Matilda's half-brother, the Earl of
715:. David Crouch, though, suggests that she made this up years later in order to justify policy, and Geoffrey White notes that she did not endow an abbey until 1150, when she committed, "at the suggestion of the Archbishop of Rouen, to co-operate in the founding of Le Valasse".
308:. Prior to her eviction from Westminster, she had made some political gains, having captured King Stephen and been recognised as "the Lady of the English". Although Matilda never matched the King in wealth, both sides' armies probably ranged in size from 5,000 to 7,000 men.
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says that "Robert, once he had achieved his immediate object and made the coast secure for a possible retreat, moved north to Cirencester with Henry, and assembled forces with which to march to the relief of Oxford. But Matilda decided that more urgent action was
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intruder". On Gloucester's return he placed Wareham under siege, probably hoping that Stephen would raise his siege at Oxford and come to the relief of Wareham; but if it was a bait, Stephen—perfectly aware of his advantageous position in Oxford—did not take it.
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for Matilda was that it made rescue even more difficult, as whoever undertook the mission would have to dislodge Stephen from the well-fortified walls before even reaching the siege. There was a locus of sympathisers about 13 miles (21 kilometres) away, at
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Stephen believed that all it would take to win the war decisively would be to capture Matilda herself; her escape to Oxford seemed to present him with such an opportunity. Having raised a large army in the north, he returned south and attacked
354:. Oxford's relative proximity to the capital, suggests Bradbury, also made it a "brave move" on her part; it probably also indicates that she did not wish to move too far and that she intended to return to, and reclaim, London in due course.
372:. Stephen had recently been so ill that it was feared, temporarily, that he was dying; this created a degree of popular sympathy for him, which had already welled up following his release from Matilda's captivity the previous November.
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Stephen arrived at the river bank looking over to Oxford on the evening of 26 September 1142: the city was unprepared for his arrival. David Crouch comments that the King "had chosen his time well": the city's and castle's previous
60:
as her new headquarters. Oxford by now was effectively a regional capital and important in its own right. It was a well-defended city with both rivers and walls protecting it, and was also strategically important as it was at a
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claimed and seized the English throne; fighting broke out within a few years, eventually becoming a fully-fledged rebellion against Stephen, as Matilda also claimed the English throne. By 1138 the dispute had escalated into a
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Gloucester had recaptured Wareham after a three-week siege, during which he allowed the besieged to send to the King for assistance. However, "Stephen was too much occupied with the siege of Oxford, and no relief came", says
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She had, after all, says Chibnall, not only to pay the wages of her soldiery and the overall costs of the campaign, but also to compensate, as best she could, those of her supporters who had had estates confiscated by the
823:
The use of the term "the Anarchy" to describe the civil war has been subject to much critical discussion. The phrase itself originates in the late Victorian period. Many historians of the time traced a progressive and
1055:, "if Matilda's sex denied her the benefits of military leadership, it also protected her from the dangers of war. However great Stephen's triumphs, this was one enemy who would never be killed or captured in combat",
631:
her, and her only, in mighty wrath; then stole away alone, in wondrous fashion, from the rout of Winchester, when almost all her men were cut off; and then, when she left besieged Oxford, she came away safe and sound?
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on 2 February 1141. Although Stephen appears originally to have been kept in relatively good conditions, sympathy arose at least partly because it was suspected that he had been maltreated while in captivity. The
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they met up with Gloucester. Stephen, meanwhile, took advantage of Gloucester's presence in Wallingford to make an (unsuccessful) attempt to recapture Wareham, which the earl had refortified after recapturing it.
587:
In December the Earl of Gloucester returned to England, bringing with him a force of between 300 and 400 men and knights in 52 ships. In a sop to Matilda's demands, the Count had allowed her nine-year-old son
349:
Although the size of the army Matilda took with her to Oxford is unknown, it contained only a few barons with whom she could keep a "small court", and for whom she could provide from the local lands of the
438:. The capture of those two castles, in turn, cut Matilda's lines of communication between Oxford and the south-west and opened the Oxford road to Stephen on his return. He probably travelled via
113:
now controlled the city, which protected him from counterattack. The king knew he was unlikely to be able to take the castle by force—although that did not stop him from using the latest
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769:, where she was to spend the rest of her campaign in England, and young Henry—whose role was to provide "some small measure of male legitimacy to his mother's struggle", suggested
970:
says that he had 3,000 knights, which in turn Crouch describes as modest for the period, although he also presents reasons why the chronicler's estimate could have been inflated.
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personal presence in the Count's Angevin army would improve Anjou's credentials to the Norman baronage, whom he was attempting to persuade to transfer their allegiance to him.
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king from taking steps to complete the overthrow of his rival who remained unmolested at Oxford. It was not till June that he was sufficiently recovered to take the field.
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reputation went before her. The Empress of the Romans, the daughter of the mighty Henry, the Lady of the English, was now reduced to the ranks of the ladies who lunched.
324:. Its value for whoever held it was not merely symbolic; it was also of great practical value. It was particularly secure, surrounded as it was, says the author of the
1065:
indeed, was one of sieges. Some of the castellans wavered in their allegiance, hesitating which side to support, and sometimes working entirely for their own profit".
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thus avoided the observation of the besiegers, the ground being covered with snow at the time. She went to Wareng , and so at length, Oxford surrendered to the king.
317:
514:
long siege to starve out his prey, even though the winter conditions would be horrible for his own men" say Gravett and Hook. Stephen, though, had a good grasp of
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thought it was as a result of surviving a shipwreck. Crouch says that the most likely reason for this confusion is that she "invented the story for the occasion",
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meeting in London in spring the following year, and around the same time returned to Oxford to consolidate his authority in the region. Stephen attempted a
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899:'s author, writes that he "liked to provide a thumbnail sketch of each settlement and he writes in what now would be thought of as estate agents' prose".
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Matilda recognised that her lack of resources meant that she could not bring the war to a decisive close at this point, and so she sent her half-brother,
1239:
This is likely, says Crouch, because although contemporaries knew of Matilda's vow, there was confusion as to where she had supposedly made it. Monks at
558:, just outside the city wall's north gate. Although not particularly well fortified, it was easily defensible with a strong wall and gate. He brought up
1240:
1216:
that "after this Stephen and Matilda (or Maud) spent the reign escaping from each other over the snow in night-gowns while 'God and his Angels slept'".
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on the edge of the city, rather than two discrete siege works. Apart from effecting damage to the castle, they had the added benefit of worsening the
861:
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157:
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Elsewhere the chronicler refers to Matilda's arrogance, arbitrary nature and as "breathing a spirit of unbending hautiness". He only ever calls her
85:
was captured by Stephen's army. Likewise, Matilda had been recognised as "Lady of the English" but had not long afterwards been run out of London.
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out of her window (but, says King, "this was the manner of St Paul's escape from his enemies at Damascus"), that she had walked on water to cross
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party as it provided one of the few direct links to the continent that they controlled. He attacked and captured more towns as he returned to the
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Matilda but also, occasionally, sources sympathetic to her report similar characteristics, although "more obliquely", such as those described by
770:
235:
Map of southern England and Wales showing areas controlled by King Stephen (red) and Empress Matilda (blue), c. 1140; principal locations given.
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Stephen's primary objective in besieging Oxford was the capture of the Empress rather than the city or castle itself, reported the chronicler
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Matilda and her small garrison were cold, starving and almost bereft of hope." Matilda—thanks to the "ingenuity" of her garrison, says
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had died a fortnight earlier and his successor had yet to be appointed. Thus the only military presence in Oxford was the Empress'
1230:. Gloucester was not able to begin rebuilding the Angevin army until December, following his eventual recapture of Cirencester,
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were often the target of a siege. In Matilda's case, Stephen's task was made all the more difficult by Matilda's gender: says
842:. This work highlighted an apparent break in the development of the English constitution in the 1140s, and caused his student
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Crouch posits that they were very likely disillusioned—"the exhaustion and lethargy that eventually undermines any civil war"
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Although it was a war of sieges, these took different forms. Sometimes castles and towns were besieged as one (such as
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These are still to be seen on maps of later centuries (e.g. that of 1578), but had been built over by the 18th century.
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has suggested that the royal army "refused to await an Angevin relief column gathering at Cirencester". The historian
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called Jew's Mount and Mount Pelham, situated between Beaumont Palace and the north wall. These kept the castle under
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compares the manner of Stephen's crossing here—"half-fording, half-swimming"—as predating a similar situation at the
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by pillaging the surrounding area himself, and showed a certain ingenuity in his varied use of technology, including
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door in the wall—or, more romantically, possibly shinned down on a rope out of St George's Tower—dressed in white as
534:. This allowed him, points out Keith Stringer, to attack the city walls both up-close and from afar simultaneously.
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Matilda and Gloucester, on the other hand, did not know that he was on the road to recovery; if they had, suggests
143:
498:. Matilda was thus stranded in Oxford Castle with an even smaller force than that she had entered the city with.
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Such conduct was exceptional; as the rivals manoeuvred for position there were many who hesitated between them".
864:, and had effectively retired there. She may also have been influenced by the fact that one of her supporters,
358:
703:: "A final redoubt from which retreat would signal the beginning of the end for her cause." Stephen, says the
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by rebellious Londoners, who had "swarmed out like angry wasps" from London, while Stephen's queen—also named
658:—itself relying heavily on Malmsbury—adds the possibility that she had descended from the walls by rope. The
509:, suggests that Stephen believed that capturing Matilda would end the civil war in one fell stroke, and the
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against the snow and passed without capture through Stephen's lines. She escaped to Wallingford and then to
4189:
White, G. J. (2000). "Earls and Earldoms during King Stephen's Reign". In Dunneditor=first=D. E. S. (ed.).
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Prestwich, J. O. (1994). "Military Intelligence under the Norman and Angevin Kings". In Garnett, G. (ed.).
101:, and soon the only significant base Matilda had outside of the south-west—apart from Oxford itself—was at
1193:: "arrogance sharpebned by humiliation and intransigence heightened by failure were fatal to her cause".
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1137:. At Oxford, though, says Crouch "matters were even more desperate...There was no Earl of Gloucester or
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on 4 September 1142, at which Robert of Gloucester was captured and subsequently exchanged for the King.
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Coss, P. (2002). "From Feudalism to Bastard Feudalism". In Fryde, N.; Monnet, P.; Oexle, O. G. (eds.).
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7 to assist with the rebuilding of Oxford, following its "wasting by Stephen's army" 13 years earlier.
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King, E. (2008). "A Week in Politics: Oxford, Late July, 1141". In Dalton, P.; White, G. J. (eds.).
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representing Angevin influence, which was concentrated in the south-west of England, and along with
652:; he was the first to suppose that she escaped by way of a postern gate and walked to Abingdon. The
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129:, where she was safe; Oxford Castle surrendered to Stephen the following day, and the war continued
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52:, and his daughter, the Empress Matilda (or Maud), who had recently been expelled from her base in
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signed the previous year, Henry, Duke of Normandy, ascended the English throne as King Henry II.
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White, G. H. (1934). "The Career of Waleran, Count of Meulan and Earl of Worcester (1104–66)".
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Oxford itself had become increasingly important by this period, and, in the words of historian
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The previous year Matilda had again only narrowly escaped capture by the King's forces at the
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Both Stephen and Matilda's armies are unknown quantities; however, when Henry landed in 1153,
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The Norman methods of taxation, still in use in the late 12th century have been described by
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were under the impression that she made it escaping Oxford, while, for example, the monks of
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Warren, W. L. (1984). "The Myth of Norman Administrative Efficiency: The Prothero Lecture".
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Aurell, M. (2007). "Henry II and Authurian Legend". In Harper-Bill, C.; Vincent, N. (eds.).
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This was not uncommon; notwithstanding the political significance of Matilda specifically,
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Chibnall, because the Angevin party needed a secure port to connect them to the continent.
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were ill-defined at this time—indeed, there had not been an uncontested succession to the
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Law and Government in Medieval England and Normandy: Essays in Honour of Sir James Holt
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Maude is a vernacular form of the name Matilda and frequently used interchangeably; in
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3225:
3102:
994:
865:
743:
735:
712:
699:
suggests that the loss of Oxford was tactically such a disaster as to be Matilda's
567:
426:—cutting the Angevins' line of communication with their continental heartlands—and
272:
209:
106:
66:
49:
3550:
3391:
3358:"Matilda [Matilda of England] (1102–1167), empress, consort of Heinrich V"
3126:
828:
course of political and economic development in England over the medieval period.
570:, and it is possible that these mounds, being so close together, were more like a
4042:
The Reign of Stephen: Kingship, Warfare and Government in Twelfth-Century England
950:
836:" tradition, analysed the political aspects of the period in his 1874 volume the
559:
555:
479:
423:
305:
257:
90:
74:
21:
3530:
3371:
3106:
1244:
1164:
1120:
954:
829:
774:
766:
739:
637:
447:
431:
392:
326:
247:
57:
4030:
554:
Stephen did not hesitate. He made his headquarters in what was later known as
4231:
4173:
4128:
4009:
3933:
3902:
3484:
3143:
1207:
527:
412:
369:
351:
321:
320:, it was "in the course of becoming a regional capital". It also had a royal
98:
3245:
304:—evacuated to Oxford in 1141, making it her headquarters and setting up her
3282:
The Knight Who Saved England: William Marshal and the French Invasion, 1217
1271:
1203:
1052:
1027:
1011:
946:
833:
825:
746:
the following year. Oxford, though, remained in the king's possession with
723:
708:
696:
3496:
The Beaumont Twins: The Roots and Branches of Power in the Twelfth Century
3074:
The Accession of Henry II in England: Royal Government Restored, 1149–1159
1101:
allowed Stephen to keep the bulk of his army together where he needed it.
523:
483:
443:
427:
366:
281:
268:
167:
37:
3339:
The Empress Matilda: Queen Consort, Queen Mother and Lady of the English
4165:
4120:
3237:
989:
Along with Wallingford, Oxford was also the most easterly point of the
759:
563:
515:
463:
451:
335:
252:
122:
271:
during the previous sixty years. On Henry's death in 1135, his nephew
4210:
Restoration and Reform, 1153–1165: Recovery from Civil War in England
3918:. Oxford History of England (2nd ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press.
3517:"Robert, first earl of Gloucester (b. before 1100, d. 1147), magnate"
3437:
Coulson, C. (1994). "The Castles of the Anarchy". In King, E. (ed.).
1048:
471:
455:
331:
293:
277:
41:
4157:
4112:
3881:
Poole, A. L. (1932). "Henry Plantagenet's Early Visits to England".
3229:
4017:
Slade, C. F. (1960). "Wallingford Castle in the Reign of Stephen".
531:
519:
341:
3617:
Making a Living in the Middle Ages: The People of Britain 850-1520
3458:
The Anarchy: War and Status in 12th-Century Landscapes of Conflict
957:, "but, whoever he was, he was certainly a partisan of Stephen's".
662:
adds that not only was there thick snow but the river had frozen.
418:
Following Stephen's recovery, says the author of the anti-Angevin
330:, by "very deep water that washes it all around" and ditches. The
3674:
Women, Art, and Patronage from Henry III to Edward III: 1216-1377
2497:
2495:
2493:
2491:
2489:
2037:
2035:
2033:
2031:
1257:
1141:
to mastermind her escape and protect it with a rearguard action".
882:
695:
Oxford has been described as Stephen's "key target" of 1142, and
491:
118:
26:
601:
2632:
646:
events. It is also the final chapter in William of Malmsbury's
575:
487:
407:
81:
the year, Matilda's half-brother and chief military commander,
2965:
2486:
2403:
2028:
1805:
1718:
135:
3655:
Conquered England: Kingship, Succession, and Tenure 1066-1166
3216:
Beeler, J. (1965). "The Composition of Anglo-Norman Armies".
1395:
1082:
were later born in this palace in 1157 and 1167 respectively.
799:
495:
114:
3037:
2989:
2941:
2432:
2430:
4063:
Geoffrey of Monmouth and the Translation of Female Kingship
3729:
Hollister, W. C. (1994). "The Anarchy". In King, E. (ed.).
2781:
2779:
2777:
2738:
2707:
2705:
2159:
1977:
1031:
1007:
297:
3422:. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. pp. 79–108.
3049:
2728:
2726:
2724:
2722:
2720:
2550:
2548:
2546:
2393:
2391:
2389:
2387:
2329:
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2325:
2323:
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2319:
2195:
2193:
2191:
1887:
1877:
1875:
1751:
1749:
1747:
1745:
1527:
810:, who had died in 1125. Three years later she had married
4082:
A History of the County of Oxford: IV: The City of Oxford
3638:. Regensburg: Verlag Friedrich Pustet. pp. 161–180.
2791:
2531:
2464:
2462:
2460:
2447:
2445:
2427:
2306:
2304:
2118:
2116:
1955:
1953:
1795:
1793:
1791:
1789:
1787:
1443:
860:
was also influential on her choice; her father had had a
3320:
She-Wolves: The Women Who Ruled England Before Elizabeth
3025:
2844:
2842:
2774:
2702:
2656:
2302:
2300:
2298:
2296:
2294:
2292:
2290:
2288:
2286:
2284:
2178:
2176:
2174:
1940:
1938:
1936:
1934:
1932:
1930:
1928:
1926:
1617:
1607:
1605:
1563:
1431:
1407:
997:, Cirencester, Rampton and Bampton, formed a front line.
806:. She had borne the title Empress since her marriage to
48:
without a male heir—in 1142. Fought between his nephew,
4193:. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press. p. 7695.
2953:
2895:
2893:
2827:
2717:
2692:
2690:
2688:
2596:
2543:
2384:
2360:
2316:
2205:
2188:
2137:
2135:
2133:
2131:
2018:
2016:
2014:
2012:
2010:
2008:
2006:
2004:
1872:
1774:
1772:
1770:
1768:
1766:
1764:
1742:
1658:
1592:
1590:
3964:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 130.
3013:
2977:
2929:
2584:
2560:
2474:
2457:
2442:
2350:
2348:
2346:
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2342:
2252:
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2240:
2238:
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2234:
2232:
2217:
2113:
2101:
2076:
2074:
2047:
1950:
1860:
1850:
1848:
1846:
1844:
1784:
1706:
1636:
1634:
1632:
1539:
1515:
1467:
1455:
1419:
1383:
1359:
1347:
284:. The Empress Matilda had recently been expelled from
25:
Illustration of Oxford Castle based on a 16th-century
2839:
2815:
2750:
2675:
2673:
2671:
2620:
2608:
2519:
2281:
2171:
2091:
2089:
2059:
1923:
1829:
1730:
1602:
1335:
1311:
1287:
93:
in Dorset; this port town was important to Matilda's
4191:
War and Society in Medieval and Early Modern Britain
3767:
King, E. (1994). "Introduction". In King, E. (ed.).
3001:
2905:
2890:
2854:
2803:
2762:
2685:
2644:
2415:
2372:
2147:
2128:
2001:
1899:
1761:
1587:
1371:
1323:
618:
one night in early December. She managed this, says
2572:
2507:
2339:
2229:
2071:
1989:
1965:
1911:
1841:
1694:
1682:
1629:
1551:
1503:
4039:
3911:
3693:Norman Stone Castles: The British Isles, 1066-1216
3493:
2917:
2878:
2866:
2668:
2271:
2269:
2267:
2086:
1817:
1491:
4084:(1st ed.). London: Victoria County History.
3826:The Castles of England: Their Story and Structure
3600:(repr. ed.). Lampeter: Llanerch Publishers.
3477:The Reign of Stephen, 1135-54: Anarchy in England
1670:
1575:
1479:
945:has never been ascertained; it is possible, says
881:Matilda's "moneyer" was a man named Swetyng; the
338:for attacking Matilda's south-western heartlands.
300:. The Empress Matilda—"in great state", reported
4229:
3401:The History of the King's Works: The Middle Ages
1646:
1030:speculated that she may well have witnessed the
411:King Stephen, in a 13th-century illustration by
3864:Warfare Under the Anglo-Norman Kings, 1066-1135
3455:
2971:
2501:
2409:
2264:
1299:
1274:as "the greatest failure of Norman government".
345:The Empress Matilda, from a medieval manuscript
242:died without a male heir in 1135, leading to a
4001:Geoffrey De Mandeville: A Study of the Anarchy
3284:(Oxford ed.). London: Osprey Publishing.
626:—who was highly partisan to Stephen—wrote how:
3263:Stephen and Matilda: The Civil War of 1139-53
614:and accompanied by four knights—escaped from
151:
4146:Transactions of the Royal Historical Society
4101:Transactions of the Royal Historical Society
3914:From Domesday Book to Magna Carta, 1087–1216
3525:(online ed.). Oxford University Press.
3366:(online ed.). Oxford University Press.
3101:(online ed.). Oxford University Press.
1181:, never Empress. Edmund King notes that the
3981:Christian Names in Local and Family History
3940:
3790:. Woodbridge: Boydell Press. p. 5879.
3733:. Oxford: Clarendon Press. pp. 37–66.
3712:The Third Crusade and its Impact on England
3690:
3634:Fössel, A. (2011). "Mathilde von England".
3596:de Monto, R. (1991) . Stevenson, J. (ed.).
3441:. Oxford: Clarendon Press. pp. 67–92.
3301:The Struggle for Mastery: Britain 1066-1284
2638:
2436:
2041:
1811:
3771:. Oxford: Clarendon Press. pp. 1–36.
1010:across to market, gave the city its name.
158:
144:
4212:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
3959:
3828:(repr. ed.). London: General Books.
3823:
3728:
3500:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
3460:. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press.
3298:
2797:
2537:
2397:
1623:
1569:
1533:
1437:
1413:
856:King suggests that Oxford's proximity to
605:St George's Tower, Oxford Castle, in 2007
4060:
4037:
3978:
3809:. Cambridge, MA: Yale University Press.
3747:
3595:
3355:
3336:
3260:
3199:The Feudal Kingdom of England: 1042-1216
3043:
2995:
2959:
2947:
2833:
2785:
2711:
2480:
2468:
2451:
2366:
2333:
2211:
2199:
2053:
1983:
1959:
1905:
1881:
1755:
1712:
1664:
1473:
1461:
1449:
1401:
1389:
1377:
1365:
1353:
1341:
1317:
1293:
717:
600:
406:
340:
230:
20:
3941:Potter, K. R.; Davis, R. H. C. (1976).
3861:
3842:
3652:
3522:Oxford Dictionary of National Biography
3436:
3403:. Westminster: H.M. Stationery Office.
3363:Oxford Dictionary of National Biography
3133:
3098:Oxford Dictionary of National Biography
3019:
2732:
2554:
2223:
2122:
2107:
1893:
1866:
1835:
1799:
1736:
256:in 1120. Henry wished his daughter the
4230:
4098:
3633:
3557:
3514:
3491:
3474:
3398:
3317:
3279:
3215:
3196:
3177:
3159:. Woodbridge: Boydell Press. pp.
3150:
3055:
2983:
2935:
2848:
2744:
2626:
2614:
2602:
2590:
2578:
2566:
2421:
2310:
2182:
2165:
2153:
2065:
1944:
1778:
1724:
1611:
1596:
1509:
1329:
1006:This ford, which locals used to drive
4207:
4188:
4143:
4016:
3997:
3909:
3880:
3709:
3576:
3479:. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson.
2899:
2860:
2821:
2756:
2525:
2513:
2378:
2258:
2246:
2141:
2080:
2022:
1971:
1854:
1688:
1557:
1545:
1521:
895:King, discussing the approach of the
564:artificially constructed siege mounts
139:
3866:. Woodbridge: Boydell & Brewer.
3804:
3785:
3766:
3676:. Woodbridge: Boydell & Brewer.
3619:. New Haven: Yale University Press.
3614:
3560:The Reign of King Stephen: 1135–1154
3417:
3076:. Woodbridge: Boydell & Brewer.
3031:
3007:
2911:
2809:
2768:
2696:
2679:
2662:
2650:
2354:
2095:
1995:
1917:
1700:
1652:
1640:
1581:
1497:
1485:
1425:
1202:Matilda's escape was caricatured by
466:, which were held for the Empress).
376:described the train of events thus:
246:. His only legitimate son and heir,
4079:
3769:The Anarchy of King Stephen's Reign
3731:The Anarchy of King Stephen's Reign
3671:
3657:. Oxford: Oxfoed University Press.
3562:(2nd ed.). London: Routledge.
3439:The Anarchy of King Stephen's Reign
3093:"Oilly, Robert d' (d. 1142), baron"
3090:
3071:
2923:
2884:
2872:
2275:
1823:
1676:
1305:
596:
13:
3456:Creighton, O.; Wright, D. (2016).
3136:The Troubled Reign of King Stephen
941:The identity of the author of the
14:
4279:
3598:The Chronicles of Robert de Monte
3581:(3rd ed.). London: Longman.
3201:(5th ed.). London: Longman.
918:Stephen had been captured at the
839:Constitutional History of England
518:. He prevented the besieged from
250:, had died in the sinking of the
4019:Berkshire Archaeological Journal
3788:King Stephen's Reign (1135-1154)
3636:Die Kaiserinnen des Mittelalters
3138:. New York: Barnes & Noble.
1264:
1250:
1233:
1219:
1196:
1171:
1153:
1144:
1127:
1114:
1104:
1094:
1085:
1068:
742:, but was roundly beaten at the
547:The Chronicle of Robert de Monte
131:punctuated by a series of sieges
77:, and also not far from London.
1058:
1041:
1021:
1000:
983:
973:
960:
935:
912:
902:
889:
875:
850:
817:
165:
4065:. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
3895:10.1093/ehr/XLVII.CLXXXVII.447
3691:Gravett, C.; Hook, A. (2003).
792:
773:—spent the next few months in
722:King Henry II, as imagined in
105:, held by her close supporter
1:
3883:The English Historical Review
3420:Die Gegenwart des Feudalismus
3322:. London: Faber & Faber.
3182:. Woodbridge: Boydell Press.
3155:Henry II: New Interpretations
1281:
260:, to succeed him, but female
226:
16:1142 siege during the Anarchy
3551:UK public library membership
3392:UK public library membership
3127:UK public library membership
1034:of her army from the castle
678:
430:, as well as the castles of
402:
7:
4004:. London: Longmans, Green.
3945:. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
3847:. New York: A&C Black.
3752:. London: Pearson/Longman.
2972:Creighton & Wright 2016
2502:Creighton & Wright 2016
2410:Creighton & Wright 2016
808:Henry V, Holy Roman Emperor
750:as constable; in 1155, the
10:
4284:
4243:Military history of Oxford
3983:. Toronto: Dundurn Press.
3064:
572:motte-and-bailey structure
359:Robert, Earl of Gloucester
83:Robert, Earl of Gloucester
3824:MacKenzie, J. D. (2009).
3750:Ruling England, 1042-1217
3265:. Stroud: History Press.
562:, which he placed on two
311:
175:
4248:Stephen, King of England
4238:Sieges involving England
4038:Stringer, K. J. (1993).
3714:. MĂĽnchen: GRIN Verlag.
3577:Davis, R. H. C. (1990).
812:Geoffrey, Count of Anjou
785:
765:Matilda made her way to
3579:King Stephen, 1135-1154
3134:Appleby, J. T. (1969).
2639:Potter & Davis 1976
2437:Gravett & Hook 2003
2042:Potter & Davis 1976
1812:Potter & Davis 1976
1727:, p. 403 nn 21+23.
133:for the next 11 years.
44:following the death of
3531:10.1093/ref:odnb/23716
3475:Cronne, H. A. (1970).
3372:10.1093/ref:odnb/18338
3299:Carpenter, D. (2003).
3107:10.1093/ref:odnb/23722
730:
687:
643:
606:
542:
490:; the city itself was
415:
389:
361:, to her husband, the
346:
236:
29:
4208:White, G. J. (2004).
4061:Tolhurst, F. (2013).
4046:. London: Routledge.
3998:Round, J. H. (1892).
3979:Redmonds, G. (2004).
3910:Poole, A. L. (1955).
3748:Huscroft, R. (2005).
3356:Chibnall, M. (2004).
3337:Chibnall, M. (1993).
3261:Bradbury, J. (2009).
2168:, pp. 162, n.23.
1404:, pp. 65, 69–71.
832:, following in this "
780:Treaty of Wallingford
721:
683:
655:Anglo-Saxon Chronicle
628:
604:
537:
410:
378:
344:
302:James Dixon Mackenzie
234:
24:
3862:Morillo, S. (1997).
3843:Matthew, D. (2002).
3653:Garnett, G. (2007).
1210:in their 1930 book,
1135:Battle of Winchester
804:Mathildis Imperatrix
507:William of Malmsbury
3672:Gee, L. L. (2002).
3558:Crouch, D. (2013).
3515:Crouch, D. (2004).
3492:Crouch, D. (1986).
3399:Colvin, H. (1977).
3318:Castor, H. (2010).
3303:. London: Penguin.
3280:Brooks, R. (2014).
3197:Barlow, F. (1999).
3178:Barber, R. (2003).
3058:, pp. 187–188.
3046:, pp. 189–190.
3034:, pp. 280–283.
2998:, pp. 148–149.
2950:, pp. 123–125.
2747:, p. 203 n.40.
2665:, pp. 187–188.
2641:, pp. 120–121.
2044:, pp. 138–139.
1986:, pp. 108–109.
1896:, pp. 123–124.
1814:, pp. 140–141.
1016:Battle of the Boyne
968:William of Newburgh
928:released after the
664:Henry of Huntingdon
3710:Hinze, M. (2007).
3695:. Botley: Osprey.
3537:on 2 December 2018
3378:on 2 December 2018
3113:on 2 December 2018
1428:, pp. 13, 43.
930:Rout of Winchester
870:Wallingford Castle
748:William de Chesney
731:
727:History of England
669:Castle Mill Stream
649:Historiae Novellae
607:
581:Wallingford Castle
503:John of Gloucester
480:armed householdmen
416:
347:
286:Westminster Palace
237:
103:Wallingford Castle
46:Henry I of England
36:took place during
30:
4268:Conflicts in 1142
4219:978-1-13942-523-0
4200:978-0-85323-885-0
4072:978-1-13732-926-4
4053:978-0-41501-415-1
3990:978-1-55488-132-1
3971:978-0-52143-076-0
3952:978-0-19822-234-7
3925:978-0-19-821707-7
3873:978-0-85115-689-7
3854:978-1-85285-272-6
3835:978-1-15051-044-1
3816:978-0-30017-010-8
3805:King, E. (2010).
3797:978-1-84383-361-1
3778:978-0-19159-072-6
3759:978-0-58284-882-5
3740:978-0-19159-072-6
3721:978-3-63875-431-6
3702:978-1-84176-602-7
3683:978-0-85115-861-7
3664:978-0-19820-793-1
3645:978-3-79172-360-0
3626:978-0-30010-191-1
3615:Dyer, C. (2002).
3607:978-0-947992-78-1
3588:978-1-31790-052-8
3569:978-1-31789-297-7
3549:(Subscription or
3507:978-0-52109-013-1
3467:978-1-78138-369-8
3448:978-0-19159-072-6
3429:978-3-52535-391-2
3410:978-0-11670-449-8
3390:(Subscription or
3348:978-0-63119-028-8
3341:. Oxford: Wiley.
3329:978-0-57127-172-6
3310:978-0-14193-514-0
3291:978-1-47280-836-3
3272:978-0-75247-192-1
3208:978-0-58238-117-9
3189:978-0-85115-993-5
3180:Henry Plantagenet
3170:978-1-84383-340-6
3125:(Subscription or
3083:978-0-85115-348-3
2261:, pp. 71–72.
1548:, pp. 75–76.
1536:, pp. 51–54.
1524:, pp. 14–15.
1452:, pp. 70–71.
1213:1066 and All That
1179:Countess of Anjou
920:battle of Lincoln
802:she was known as
616:St George's Tower
262:succession rights
244:succession crisis
223:
222:
4275:
4223:
4204:
4185:
4140:
4095:
4076:
4057:
4045:
4034:
4013:
3994:
3975:
3956:
3937:
3917:
3906:
3877:
3858:
3839:
3820:
3801:
3782:
3763:
3744:
3725:
3706:
3687:
3668:
3649:
3630:
3611:
3592:
3573:
3554:
3546:
3544:
3542:
3533:. Archived from
3511:
3499:
3488:
3471:
3452:
3433:
3414:
3395:
3387:
3385:
3383:
3374:. Archived from
3352:
3333:
3314:
3295:
3276:
3257:
3212:
3193:
3174:
3158:
3147:
3130:
3122:
3120:
3118:
3109:. Archived from
3091:Amt, E. (2004).
3087:
3072:Amt, E. (1993).
3059:
3053:
3047:
3041:
3035:
3029:
3023:
3017:
3011:
3005:
2999:
2993:
2987:
2981:
2975:
2969:
2963:
2957:
2951:
2945:
2939:
2933:
2927:
2921:
2915:
2909:
2903:
2897:
2888:
2882:
2876:
2870:
2864:
2858:
2852:
2846:
2837:
2831:
2825:
2819:
2813:
2807:
2801:
2795:
2789:
2783:
2772:
2766:
2760:
2754:
2748:
2742:
2736:
2730:
2715:
2709:
2700:
2694:
2683:
2677:
2666:
2660:
2654:
2648:
2642:
2636:
2630:
2624:
2618:
2612:
2606:
2600:
2594:
2588:
2582:
2576:
2570:
2564:
2558:
2552:
2541:
2535:
2529:
2523:
2517:
2511:
2505:
2499:
2484:
2478:
2472:
2466:
2455:
2449:
2440:
2434:
2425:
2419:
2413:
2407:
2401:
2395:
2382:
2376:
2370:
2364:
2358:
2352:
2337:
2331:
2314:
2308:
2279:
2273:
2262:
2256:
2250:
2244:
2227:
2221:
2215:
2209:
2203:
2197:
2186:
2180:
2169:
2163:
2157:
2151:
2145:
2139:
2126:
2120:
2111:
2105:
2099:
2093:
2084:
2078:
2069:
2063:
2057:
2051:
2045:
2039:
2026:
2020:
1999:
1993:
1987:
1981:
1975:
1969:
1963:
1957:
1948:
1942:
1921:
1915:
1909:
1903:
1897:
1891:
1885:
1879:
1870:
1864:
1858:
1852:
1839:
1833:
1827:
1821:
1815:
1809:
1803:
1797:
1782:
1776:
1759:
1753:
1740:
1734:
1728:
1722:
1716:
1710:
1704:
1698:
1692:
1686:
1680:
1674:
1668:
1662:
1656:
1650:
1644:
1638:
1627:
1621:
1615:
1609:
1600:
1594:
1585:
1579:
1573:
1567:
1561:
1555:
1549:
1543:
1537:
1531:
1525:
1519:
1513:
1507:
1501:
1495:
1489:
1483:
1477:
1471:
1465:
1459:
1453:
1447:
1441:
1435:
1429:
1423:
1417:
1411:
1405:
1399:
1393:
1387:
1381:
1375:
1369:
1363:
1357:
1351:
1345:
1339:
1333:
1327:
1321:
1315:
1309:
1303:
1297:
1291:
1275:
1268:
1262:
1254:
1248:
1241:La Valasse Abbey
1237:
1231:
1223:
1217:
1200:
1194:
1175:
1169:
1157:
1151:
1148:
1142:
1139:Earl of Hereford
1131:
1125:
1118:
1112:
1108:
1102:
1098:
1092:
1089:
1083:
1072:
1066:
1062:
1056:
1045:
1039:
1025:
1019:
1004:
998:
995:Woodstock Castle
987:
981:
977:
971:
964:
958:
939:
933:
916:
910:
906:
900:
893:
887:
879:
873:
866:Brian Fitz Count
854:
848:
821:
815:
796:
744:Battle of Wilton
736:legatine council
713:Cistercian Abbey
691:
641:
597:Matilda's escape
568:suppressing fire
550:
387:
273:Stephen of Blois
170:
160:
153:
146:
137:
136:
115:siege technology
107:Brian Fitz Count
50:Stephen of Blois
4283:
4282:
4278:
4277:
4276:
4274:
4273:
4272:
4263:1142 in England
4253:Empress Matilda
4228:
4227:
4226:
4220:
4201:
4158:10.2307/3678519
4113:10.2307/3679128
4092:
4073:
4054:
3991:
3972:
3953:
3926:
3874:
3855:
3836:
3817:
3798:
3779:
3760:
3741:
3722:
3703:
3684:
3665:
3646:
3627:
3608:
3589:
3570:
3548:
3540:
3538:
3508:
3468:
3449:
3430:
3411:
3389:
3381:
3379:
3349:
3330:
3311:
3292:
3273:
3230:10.2307/2850917
3209:
3190:
3171:
3124:
3116:
3114:
3084:
3067:
3062:
3054:
3050:
3042:
3038:
3030:
3026:
3018:
3014:
3006:
3002:
2994:
2990:
2982:
2978:
2970:
2966:
2958:
2954:
2946:
2942:
2934:
2930:
2922:
2918:
2910:
2906:
2898:
2891:
2883:
2879:
2871:
2867:
2859:
2855:
2847:
2840:
2832:
2828:
2820:
2816:
2808:
2804:
2796:
2792:
2784:
2775:
2767:
2763:
2755:
2751:
2743:
2739:
2731:
2718:
2710:
2703:
2695:
2686:
2678:
2669:
2661:
2657:
2649:
2645:
2637:
2633:
2625:
2621:
2613:
2609:
2605:, p. 2013.
2601:
2597:
2589:
2585:
2577:
2573:
2565:
2561:
2553:
2544:
2536:
2532:
2524:
2520:
2512:
2508:
2500:
2487:
2479:
2475:
2467:
2458:
2450:
2443:
2435:
2428:
2420:
2416:
2408:
2404:
2396:
2385:
2377:
2373:
2365:
2361:
2353:
2340:
2332:
2317:
2309:
2282:
2274:
2265:
2257:
2253:
2245:
2230:
2222:
2218:
2210:
2206:
2198:
2189:
2181:
2172:
2164:
2160:
2152:
2148:
2140:
2129:
2121:
2114:
2106:
2102:
2094:
2087:
2079:
2072:
2064:
2060:
2052:
2048:
2040:
2029:
2021:
2002:
1994:
1990:
1982:
1978:
1970:
1966:
1958:
1951:
1943:
1924:
1916:
1912:
1904:
1900:
1892:
1888:
1880:
1873:
1865:
1861:
1853:
1842:
1834:
1830:
1822:
1818:
1810:
1806:
1798:
1785:
1777:
1762:
1754:
1743:
1735:
1731:
1723:
1719:
1711:
1707:
1699:
1695:
1687:
1683:
1675:
1671:
1663:
1659:
1651:
1647:
1639:
1630:
1622:
1618:
1610:
1603:
1595:
1588:
1580:
1576:
1568:
1564:
1556:
1552:
1544:
1540:
1532:
1528:
1520:
1516:
1508:
1504:
1496:
1492:
1484:
1480:
1472:
1468:
1460:
1456:
1448:
1444:
1436:
1432:
1424:
1420:
1412:
1408:
1400:
1396:
1388:
1384:
1376:
1372:
1368:, pp. 6–7.
1364:
1360:
1356:, pp. 1–3.
1352:
1348:
1340:
1336:
1328:
1324:
1316:
1312:
1304:
1300:
1292:
1288:
1284:
1279:
1278:
1269:
1265:
1255:
1251:
1238:
1234:
1224:
1220:
1201:
1197:
1176:
1172:
1158:
1154:
1149:
1145:
1132:
1128:
1119:
1115:
1109:
1105:
1099:
1095:
1090:
1086:
1073:
1069:
1063:
1059:
1046:
1042:
1026:
1022:
1005:
1001:
988:
984:
978:
974:
965:
961:
951:Robert of Lewes
940:
936:
917:
913:
907:
903:
894:
890:
880:
876:
855:
851:
822:
818:
797:
793:
788:
756:Henry de Oxford
693:
689:
681:
642:
635:
599:
560:siege artillery
556:Beaumont Palace
552:
544:
405:
388:
385:
314:
258:Empress Matilda
229:
224:
219:
171:
166:
164:
75:west of England
56:and chosen the
34:siege of Oxford
17:
12:
11:
5:
4281:
4271:
4270:
4265:
4260:
4255:
4250:
4245:
4240:
4225:
4224:
4218:
4205:
4199:
4186:
4141:
4096:
4090:
4077:
4071:
4058:
4052:
4035:
4014:
3995:
3989:
3976:
3970:
3957:
3951:
3943:Gesta Stephani
3938:
3924:
3907:
3878:
3872:
3859:
3853:
3840:
3834:
3821:
3815:
3802:
3796:
3783:
3777:
3764:
3758:
3745:
3739:
3726:
3720:
3707:
3701:
3688:
3682:
3669:
3663:
3650:
3644:
3631:
3625:
3612:
3606:
3593:
3587:
3574:
3568:
3555:
3512:
3506:
3489:
3472:
3466:
3453:
3447:
3434:
3428:
3415:
3409:
3396:
3353:
3347:
3334:
3328:
3315:
3309:
3296:
3290:
3277:
3271:
3258:
3224:(3): 398–414.
3213:
3207:
3194:
3188:
3175:
3169:
3148:
3131:
3088:
3082:
3068:
3066:
3063:
3061:
3060:
3048:
3036:
3024:
3012:
3010:, p. 300.
3000:
2988:
2986:, p. 130.
2976:
2964:
2952:
2940:
2938:, p. 366.
2928:
2916:
2914:, p. 189.
2904:
2889:
2877:
2865:
2853:
2838:
2826:
2824:, p. 448.
2814:
2812:, p. 115.
2802:
2800:, p. 173.
2798:Carpenter 2003
2790:
2788:, p. 138.
2773:
2771:, p. 163.
2761:
2759:, p. 449.
2749:
2737:
2735:, p. 128.
2716:
2714:, p. 239.
2701:
2699:, p. 188.
2684:
2667:
2655:
2653:, p. 162.
2643:
2631:
2619:
2607:
2595:
2593:, p. 772.
2583:
2571:
2569:, p. 110.
2559:
2557:, p. 127.
2542:
2540:, p. 162.
2538:MacKenzie 2009
2530:
2528:, p. 348.
2518:
2506:
2485:
2473:
2456:
2441:
2426:
2414:
2412:, p. 224.
2402:
2398:Prestwich 1994
2383:
2381:, p. 198.
2371:
2369:, p. 116.
2359:
2357:, p. 187.
2338:
2336:, p. 136.
2315:
2313:, p. 203.
2280:
2263:
2251:
2228:
2226:, p. 125.
2216:
2214:, p. 134.
2204:
2202:, p. 117.
2187:
2185:, p. 179.
2170:
2158:
2146:
2144:, p. 197.
2127:
2125:, p. 123.
2112:
2110:, p. 112.
2100:
2085:
2070:
2068:, p. 177.
2058:
2046:
2027:
2025:, p. 145.
2000:
1998:, p. 154.
1988:
1976:
1964:
1949:
1947:, p. 202.
1922:
1920:, p. 164.
1910:
1898:
1886:
1884:, p. 133.
1871:
1869:, p. 107.
1859:
1840:
1828:
1826:, p. 302.
1816:
1804:
1802:, p. 126.
1783:
1760:
1758:, p. 118.
1741:
1729:
1717:
1705:
1703:, p. 143.
1693:
1681:
1669:
1667:, p. 121.
1657:
1645:
1643:, p. 186.
1628:
1626:, p. 160.
1624:MacKenzie 2009
1616:
1614:, p. 176.
1601:
1586:
1574:
1572:, p. 176.
1570:Carpenter 2003
1562:
1550:
1538:
1534:Hollister 1994
1526:
1514:
1502:
1490:
1478:
1466:
1454:
1442:
1440:, p. 169.
1438:Carpenter 2003
1430:
1418:
1416:, p. 125.
1414:Carpenter 2003
1406:
1394:
1382:
1370:
1358:
1346:
1334:
1332:, p. 163.
1322:
1310:
1298:
1285:
1283:
1280:
1277:
1276:
1263:
1249:
1245:Mortemer Abbey
1232:
1218:
1195:
1170:
1165:Richard Barber
1161:Richard Brooks
1152:
1143:
1126:
1121:R. H. C. Davis
1113:
1103:
1093:
1084:
1067:
1057:
1040:
1020:
999:
982:
972:
959:
955:Bishop of Bath
949:, that he was
934:
925:Gesta Stephani
911:
901:
888:
874:
849:
830:William Stubbs
816:
790:
789:
787:
784:
775:Bristol Castle
767:Devizes Castle
758:, was granted
740:counter attack
705:Gesta Stephani
682:
680:
677:
660:Gesta Stephani
638:Gesta Stephani
633:
624:Gesta Stephani
620:J. O Prestwich
598:
595:
536:
528:battering rams
476:Robert d'Oilly
462:, Devizes and
404:
401:
393:R. H. C. Davis
383:
363:Count of Anjou
327:Gesta Stephani
313:
310:
248:William Adelin
228:
225:
221:
220:
218:
217:
212:
207:
202:
197:
192:
187:
182:
176:
173:
172:
163:
162:
155:
148:
140:
58:City of Oxford
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4280:
4269:
4266:
4264:
4261:
4259:
4256:
4254:
4251:
4249:
4246:
4244:
4241:
4239:
4236:
4235:
4233:
4221:
4215:
4211:
4206:
4202:
4196:
4192:
4187:
4183:
4179:
4175:
4171:
4167:
4163:
4159:
4155:
4151:
4147:
4142:
4138:
4134:
4130:
4126:
4122:
4118:
4114:
4110:
4106:
4102:
4097:
4093:
4091:9780197227145
4087:
4083:
4078:
4074:
4068:
4064:
4059:
4055:
4049:
4044:
4043:
4036:
4032:
4028:
4024:
4020:
4015:
4011:
4007:
4003:
4002:
3996:
3992:
3986:
3982:
3977:
3973:
3967:
3963:
3958:
3954:
3948:
3944:
3939:
3935:
3931:
3927:
3921:
3916:
3915:
3908:
3904:
3900:
3896:
3892:
3888:
3884:
3879:
3875:
3869:
3865:
3860:
3856:
3850:
3846:
3841:
3837:
3831:
3827:
3822:
3818:
3812:
3808:
3803:
3799:
3793:
3789:
3784:
3780:
3774:
3770:
3765:
3761:
3755:
3751:
3746:
3742:
3736:
3732:
3727:
3723:
3717:
3713:
3708:
3704:
3698:
3694:
3689:
3685:
3679:
3675:
3670:
3666:
3660:
3656:
3651:
3647:
3641:
3637:
3632:
3628:
3622:
3618:
3613:
3609:
3603:
3599:
3594:
3590:
3584:
3580:
3575:
3571:
3565:
3561:
3556:
3552:
3536:
3532:
3528:
3524:
3523:
3518:
3513:
3509:
3503:
3498:
3497:
3490:
3486:
3482:
3478:
3473:
3469:
3463:
3459:
3454:
3450:
3444:
3440:
3435:
3431:
3425:
3421:
3416:
3412:
3406:
3402:
3397:
3393:
3377:
3373:
3369:
3365:
3364:
3359:
3354:
3350:
3344:
3340:
3335:
3331:
3325:
3321:
3316:
3312:
3306:
3302:
3297:
3293:
3287:
3283:
3278:
3274:
3268:
3264:
3259:
3255:
3251:
3247:
3243:
3239:
3235:
3231:
3227:
3223:
3219:
3214:
3210:
3204:
3200:
3195:
3191:
3185:
3181:
3176:
3172:
3166:
3162:
3157:
3156:
3149:
3145:
3141:
3137:
3132:
3128:
3112:
3108:
3104:
3100:
3099:
3094:
3089:
3085:
3079:
3075:
3070:
3069:
3057:
3052:
3045:
3044:Bradbury 2009
3040:
3033:
3028:
3022:, p. 87.
3021:
3016:
3009:
3004:
2997:
2996:Chibnall 1993
2992:
2985:
2980:
2974:, p. 48.
2973:
2968:
2962:, p. 22.
2961:
2960:Stringer 1993
2956:
2949:
2948:Chibnall 1993
2944:
2937:
2932:
2926:, p. 10.
2925:
2920:
2913:
2908:
2902:, p. 60.
2901:
2896:
2894:
2887:, p. 47.
2886:
2881:
2875:, p. 50.
2874:
2869:
2863:, p. 41.
2862:
2857:
2851:, p. 70.
2850:
2845:
2843:
2836:, p. 21.
2835:
2834:Stringer 1993
2830:
2823:
2818:
2811:
2806:
2799:
2794:
2787:
2786:Bradbury 2009
2782:
2780:
2778:
2770:
2765:
2758:
2753:
2746:
2741:
2734:
2729:
2727:
2725:
2723:
2721:
2713:
2712:Bradbury 2009
2708:
2706:
2698:
2693:
2691:
2689:
2681:
2676:
2674:
2672:
2664:
2659:
2652:
2647:
2640:
2635:
2629:, p. 32.
2628:
2623:
2617:, p. 76.
2616:
2611:
2604:
2599:
2592:
2587:
2580:
2575:
2568:
2563:
2556:
2551:
2549:
2547:
2539:
2534:
2527:
2522:
2515:
2510:
2504:, p. 60.
2503:
2498:
2496:
2494:
2492:
2490:
2483:, p. 56.
2482:
2481:de Monto 1991
2477:
2471:, p. 16.
2470:
2469:Stringer 1993
2465:
2463:
2461:
2454:, p. 90.
2453:
2452:Chibnall 1993
2448:
2446:
2439:, p. 44.
2438:
2433:
2431:
2424:, p. 93.
2423:
2418:
2411:
2406:
2400:, p. 16.
2399:
2394:
2392:
2390:
2388:
2380:
2375:
2368:
2367:Chibnall 1993
2363:
2356:
2351:
2349:
2347:
2345:
2343:
2335:
2334:Bradbury 2009
2330:
2328:
2326:
2324:
2322:
2320:
2312:
2307:
2305:
2303:
2301:
2299:
2297:
2295:
2293:
2291:
2289:
2287:
2285:
2277:
2272:
2270:
2268:
2260:
2255:
2249:, p. 72.
2248:
2243:
2241:
2239:
2237:
2235:
2233:
2225:
2220:
2213:
2212:Bradbury 2009
2208:
2201:
2200:Chibnall 1993
2196:
2194:
2192:
2184:
2179:
2177:
2175:
2167:
2162:
2156:, p. 96.
2155:
2150:
2143:
2138:
2136:
2134:
2132:
2124:
2119:
2117:
2109:
2104:
2098:, p. 74.
2097:
2092:
2090:
2083:, p. 71.
2082:
2077:
2075:
2067:
2062:
2056:, p. 42.
2055:
2054:Stringer 1993
2050:
2043:
2038:
2036:
2034:
2032:
2024:
2019:
2017:
2015:
2013:
2011:
2009:
2007:
2005:
1997:
1992:
1985:
1984:Bradbury 2009
1980:
1974:, p. 52.
1973:
1968:
1962:, p. 83.
1961:
1960:Chibnall 1993
1956:
1954:
1946:
1941:
1939:
1937:
1935:
1933:
1931:
1929:
1927:
1919:
1914:
1907:
1906:Chibnall 2004
1902:
1895:
1890:
1883:
1882:Bradbury 2009
1878:
1876:
1868:
1863:
1857:, p. 73.
1856:
1851:
1849:
1847:
1845:
1838:, p. 85.
1837:
1832:
1825:
1820:
1813:
1808:
1801:
1796:
1794:
1792:
1790:
1788:
1781:, p. 52.
1780:
1775:
1773:
1771:
1769:
1767:
1765:
1757:
1756:Chibnall 1993
1752:
1750:
1748:
1746:
1739:, p. 58.
1738:
1733:
1726:
1721:
1715:, p. 39.
1714:
1713:Stringer 1993
1709:
1702:
1697:
1691:, p. 39.
1690:
1685:
1679:, p. 43.
1678:
1673:
1666:
1665:Chibnall 1993
1661:
1654:
1649:
1642:
1637:
1635:
1633:
1625:
1620:
1613:
1608:
1606:
1599:, p. 48.
1598:
1593:
1591:
1583:
1578:
1571:
1566:
1560:, p. 12.
1559:
1554:
1547:
1542:
1535:
1530:
1523:
1518:
1511:
1506:
1500:, p. 81.
1499:
1494:
1487:
1482:
1476:, p. 74.
1475:
1474:Huscroft 2005
1470:
1464:, p. 25.
1463:
1462:Bradbury 2009
1458:
1451:
1450:Chibnall 1993
1446:
1439:
1434:
1427:
1422:
1415:
1410:
1403:
1402:Huscroft 2005
1398:
1392:, p. 64.
1391:
1390:Chibnall 1993
1386:
1379:
1378:Bradbury 2009
1374:
1367:
1366:Bradbury 2009
1362:
1355:
1354:Bradbury 2009
1350:
1344:, p. xv.
1343:
1342:Huscroft 2005
1338:
1331:
1326:
1320:, p. 39.
1319:
1318:Tolhurst 2013
1314:
1307:
1302:
1296:, p. 14.
1295:
1294:Redmonds 2004
1290:
1286:
1273:
1267:
1259:
1253:
1246:
1242:
1236:
1229:
1222:
1215:
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1122:
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1081:
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1054:
1050:
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1024:
1017:
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996:
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915:
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820:
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809:
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650:
640:
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627:
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521:
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473:
467:
465:
461:
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449:
445:
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437:
433:
429:
425:
421:
414:
413:Matthew Paris
409:
400:
398:
394:
382:
377:
375:
371:
370:Samuel Daniel
368:
364:
360:
355:
353:
352:royal demesne
343:
339:
337:
333:
329:
328:
323:
319:
309:
307:
303:
299:
295:
291:
287:
283:
279:
274:
270:
267:
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245:
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211:
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188:
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183:
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120:
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99:Thames Valley
96:
92:
86:
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4080:VCH (1979).
4062:
4041:
4022:
4018:
4000:
3980:
3961:
3942:
3913:
3886:
3882:
3863:
3845:King Stephen
3844:
3825:
3807:King Stephen
3806:
3787:
3768:
3749:
3730:
3711:
3692:
3673:
3654:
3635:
3616:
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3578:
3559:
3539:. Retrieved
3535:the original
3520:
3495:
3476:
3457:
3438:
3419:
3400:
3380:. Retrieved
3376:the original
3361:
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3281:
3262:
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3217:
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3179:
3154:
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3115:. Retrieved
3111:the original
3096:
3073:
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3020:Garnett 2007
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2967:
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2931:
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2907:
2880:
2868:
2856:
2829:
2817:
2805:
2793:
2764:
2752:
2740:
2733:Appleby 1969
2682:, p. 5.
2658:
2646:
2634:
2622:
2610:
2598:
2586:
2574:
2562:
2555:Appleby 1969
2533:
2521:
2516:, p. 5.
2509:
2476:
2417:
2405:
2374:
2362:
2254:
2224:Appleby 1969
2219:
2207:
2161:
2149:
2123:Appleby 1969
2108:Appleby 1969
2103:
2061:
2049:
1991:
1979:
1967:
1913:
1901:
1894:Appleby 1969
1889:
1867:Matthew 2002
1862:
1836:Coulson 1994
1831:
1819:
1807:
1800:Appleby 1969
1737:Morillo 1997
1732:
1720:
1708:
1696:
1684:
1672:
1660:
1648:
1619:
1584:, p. 1.
1577:
1565:
1553:
1541:
1529:
1517:
1512:, p. 4.
1505:
1493:
1488:, p. 4.
1481:
1469:
1457:
1445:
1433:
1421:
1409:
1397:
1385:
1380:, p. 3.
1373:
1361:
1349:
1337:
1325:
1313:
1308:, p. 6.
1301:
1289:
1272:W. L. Warren
1266:
1252:
1235:
1221:
1211:
1198:
1191:Frank Barlow
1185:does indeed
1182:
1173:
1155:
1146:
1129:
1116:
1106:
1096:
1087:
1070:
1060:
1053:Helen Castor
1043:
1028:Horace Round
1023:
1012:Horace Round
1002:
985:
975:
962:
947:Helen Castor
942:
937:
924:
914:
904:
896:
891:
877:
852:
837:
826:universalist
819:
803:
794:
764:
732:
726:
709:West Country
704:
697:David Crouch
694:
688:
684:
673:
659:
653:
647:
644:
636:
629:
623:
612:David Crouch
608:
586:
584:provisions.
553:
545:
543:
538:
510:
500:
484:watercourses
468:
419:
417:
397:H. A. Cronne
390:
379:
356:
348:
325:
315:
292:—approached
266:Anglo-Norman
251:
238:
204:
111:
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79:
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31:
18:
4258:The Anarchy
4107:: 113–132.
3889:: 447–452.
3541:12 December
3382:12 December
3056:Barlow 1999
2984:Warren 1984
2936:Aurell 2007
2849:Crouch 1986
2745:Crouch 2013
2627:Barber 2003
2615:Brooks 2014
2603:Crouch 2013
2591:Colvin 1977
2579:Crouch 2004
2567:Castor 2010
2422:Castor 2010
2311:Crouch 2013
2183:Barlow 1999
2166:Crouch 2013
2154:Castor 2010
2066:Barlow 1999
1945:Crouch 2013
1779:Cronne 1970
1725:Beeler 1965
1612:Barlow 1999
1597:Cronne 1970
1510:Crouch 2013
1330:Fössel 2011
1228:A. L. Poole
886:Gloucester.
858:Wallingford
690:Edmund King
505:. Another,
460:Marlborough
444:Castle Cary
428:Cirencester
386:A. L. Poole
374:A. L. Poole
367:antiquarian
318:Edmund King
282:the Anarchy
215:Wallingford
168:The Anarchy
54:Westminster
38:the Anarchy
4232:Categories
4031:1002852981
3553:required.)
3394:required.)
3129:required.)
3117:2 December
2900:Slade 1960
2861:White 1934
2822:Poole 1932
2757:Poole 1932
2526:Poole 1955
2514:Hinze 2007
2379:Round 1892
2259:Davis 1990
2247:Davis 1990
2142:Round 1892
2081:Davis 1990
2023:Poole 1955
1972:Davis 1990
1855:Davis 1990
1689:White 2004
1558:White 2000
1546:White 2000
1522:White 2000
1282:References
1168:required".
1049:castellans
844:John Round
701:Stalingrad
516:siegecraft
464:Trowbridge
452:Malmesbury
336:bridgehead
253:White Ship
227:Background
200:Winchester
123:camouflage
71:south-east
63:crossroads
4182:162096714
4174:863051958
4152:: 19–48.
4137:162793914
4129:863051958
4010:906125672
3934:459571084
3903:754650998
3485:431253902
3254:159675164
3144:185802337
3032:King 2010
3008:King 2010
2912:King 2010
2810:King 2010
2769:King 2010
2697:King 2010
2680:King 1994
2663:King 2010
2651:King 2010
2355:King 2010
2096:King 2008
1996:King 2010
1918:King 2010
1701:King 2010
1653:King 2010
1641:King 2010
1582:King 1994
1498:Coss 2002
1486:Dyer 2002
1426:King 2010
1076:Richard I
724:Cassell's
679:Aftermath
532:mangonels
472:castellan
456:Salisbury
440:Sherborne
403:The siege
332:Berkshire
294:Southwark
280:known as
278:civil war
269:patrimony
185:Clitheroe
42:civil war
4025:: 3343.
3246:67328230
3218:Speculum
2924:VCH 1979
2885:Amt 1993
2873:Amt 1993
2276:Amt 2004
1824:VCH 1979
1677:Amt 1993
1306:Gee 2002
1187:typecast
1036:ramparts
1018:in 1690.
834:Whiggish
634:—
524:belfries
520:foraging
384:—
190:Standard
127:Abingdon
4166:3678519
4121:3679128
3238:2850917
3065:Sources
1258:Bristol
1208:Yeatman
1159:Author
991:salient
883:pennies
868:, held
752:sheriff
729:in 1865
436:Bampton
432:Rampton
424:Wareham
290:Matilda
240:Henry I
195:Lincoln
119:postern
95:Angevin
91:Wareham
27:woodcut
4216:
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1074:Kings
576:morale
496:burned
492:looted
488:ransom
322:castle
312:Oxford
210:Wilton
205:Oxford
4178:S2CID
4162:JSTOR
4133:S2CID
4117:JSTOR
3250:S2CID
3234:JSTOR
1183:Gesta
943:Gesta
909:King.
897:Gesta
800:Latin
786:Notes
590:Henry
511:Gesta
420:Gesta
296:from
67:north
4214:ISBN
4195:ISBN
4170:OCLC
4125:OCLC
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4067:ISBN
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4006:OCLC
3985:ISBN
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3678:ISBN
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3640:ISBN
3621:ISBN
3602:ISBN
3583:ISBN
3564:ISBN
3543:2018
3502:ISBN
3481:OCLC
3462:ISBN
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3424:ISBN
3405:ISBN
3384:2018
3343:ISBN
3324:ISBN
3305:ISBN
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3267:ISBN
3242:OCLC
3203:ISBN
3184:ISBN
3165:ISBN
3140:OCLC
3119:2018
3078:ISBN
1206:and
1080:John
1078:and
1032:rout
1008:oxen
530:and
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450:and
448:Bath
434:and
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180:Wark
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