887:
439:
720:
537:
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materials usually require many steps to reach the necessary purity. Extensive research is being done to look for materials that are thermally stable with high charge-carrier mobility. Past discoveries include naphthalene, tetracene, and 9,10-diphenylanthacene (DPA). Triphenylamine derivatives have shown promise, and recently in 2021, the single-crystal structure of α-phenyl-4âČ-(diphenylamino)stilbene (TPA) grown using the solution method exhibited even greater potential for semiconductor use with its anisotropic hole transport property.
621:
580:
25:
907:. Here, the absence of grain boundaries actually gives a decrease in yield strength, but more importantly decreases the amount of creep which is critical for high temperature, close tolerance part applications. Researcher Barry Piearcey found that a right-angle bend at the casting mold would decrease the number of columnar crystals and later, scientist Giamei used this to start the single-crystal structure of the turbine blade.
487:
652:
774:, according to which the purest copper wire available in 1914 measured around 100%. The purest modern copper wire is a better conductor, measuring over 103% on this scale. The gains are from two sources. First, modern copper is more pure. However, this avenue for improvement seems at an end. Making the copper purer still makes no significant improvement. Second,
716:: These single crystals are particularly appropriate for combining optoelectronics with high-speed electronics in the form of optical fiber with its large-diameter substrates. Other photonic devices include lasers, photodetectors, avalanche photo diodes, optical modulators and amplifiers, signal processing, and both optoelectronic and photonic integrated circuits.
483:, also called the flame-fusion method, was used in the early 1900s to make rubies before CZ. The diagram on the right illustrates most of the conventional methods. There have been new breakthroughs such as chemical vapor depositions (CVD) along with different variations and tweaks to the existing methods. These are not shown in the diagram.
959:
As such, numerous new materials are being studied in their single-crystal form. The young field of metal-organic-frameworks (MOFs) is one of many which qualify to have single crystals. In
January 2021 Dr. Dong and Dr. Feng demonstrated how polycyclic aromatic ligands can be optimized to produce large
878:
However, the single-crystal copper not only became a better conductor than high purity polycrystalline silver, but with prescribed heat and pressure treatment could surpass even single-crystal silver. Although impurities are usually bad for conductivity, a silver single crystal with a small amount of
434:
Although current methods are extremely sophisticated with modern technology, the origins of crystal growth can be traced back to salt purification by crystallization in 2500 BCE. A more advanced method using an aqueous solution was started in 1600 CE while the melt and vapor methods began around 1850
963:
The field of photodriven transformation can also be involved with single crystals with something called single-crystal-to-single-crystal (SCSC) transformations. These provide direct observation of molecular movement and understanding of mechanistic details. This photoswitching behavior has also been
882:
As of 2009, no single-crystal copper is manufactured on a large scale industrially, but methods of producing very large individual crystal sizes for copper conductors are exploited for high performance electrical applications. These can be considered meta-single crystals with only a few crystals per
603:
and high thermal conductivity, and remains a topic of fervent research. One of the main challenges has been growing uniform single crystals of bilayer or multilayer graphene over large areas; epitaxial growth and the new CVD (mentioned above) are among the new promising methods under investigation.
505:
and abnormal grain growth in solids. Epitaxy is used to deposit very thin (micrometer to nanometer scale) layers of the same or different materials on the surface of an existing single crystal. Applications of this technique lie in the areas of semiconductor production, with potential uses in other
778:
and other processes have been improved. Annealing reduces the dislocations and other crystal defects which are sources of resistance. But the resulting wires are still polycrystalline. The grain boundaries and remaining crystal defects are responsible for some residual resistance. This can be
607:
Organic semiconducting single crystals are different from the inorganic crystals. The weak intermolecular bonds mean lower melting temperatures, and higher vapor pressures and greater solubility. For single crystals to grow, the purity of the material is crucial and the production of organic
425:
phases. Single crystals will usually have distinctive plane faces and some symmetry, where the angles between the faces will dictate its ideal shape. Gemstones are often single crystals artificially cut along crystallographic planes to take advantage of refractive and reflective properties.
2095:
Cho, Yong Chan; Seunghun Lee; Muhammad Ajmal; Won-Kyung Kim; Chae Ryong Cho; Se-Young Jeong; Jeung Hun Park; Sang Eon Park; Sungkyun Park; Hyuk-Kyu Pak; Hyoung Chan Kim (March 22, 2010). "Copper Better than Silver: Electrical
Resistivity of the Grain-Free Single-Crystal Copper Wire".
702:) to scientists, sapphire single crystals are widely used in hi-tech engineering. It can be grown from gaseous, solid, or solution phases. The diameter of the crystals resulting from the growth method are important when considering electronic uses after. They are used for
683:
Single crystals have unique physical properties due to being a single grain with molecules in a strict order and no grain boundaries. This includes optical properties, and single crystals of silicon is also used as optical windows because of its transparency at specific
509:
It is extremely difficult to grow single crystals of the polymers. It is mainly because that the polymer chains are of different length and due to the various entropy reasons. However, topochemical reactions are one of the easy methods to get single crystals of the
730:: This was the material in the first transistor invented by Bardeen, Brattain, and Shockley in 1947. It is used in some gamma-ray detectors and infrared optics. Now it has become the focus of ultrafast electronic devices for its intrinsic carrier mobility.
575:
by altering local electrical properties. Therefore, microprocessor fabricators have invested heavily in facilities to produce large single crystals of silicon. The
Czochralski method and floating zone are popular methods for the growth of Silicon crystals.
2356:
759:. Production of metallic single crystals have the highest quality requirements and are grown, or pulled, in the form of rods. Certain companies can produce specific geometries, grooves, holes, and reference faces along with varying diameters.
2206:
Muhammad Ajmal; Seunghun Lee; Yong Chan Cho; Su Jae Kim; Sang Eon Park; Chae Ryong Choa; Se-Young Jeong (2012). "Fabrication of the best conductor from single-crystal copper and the contribution of grain boundaries to the Debye temperature".
529:(LPE), liquid phase electroepitaxy (LPEE), the traveling heater method (THM), and liquid phase diffusion (LPD). However, there are many other single crystals besides inorganic single crystals capable semiconducting, including single-crystal
384:, perfect single crystals of meaningful size are exceedingly rare in nature. The necessary laboratory conditions often add to the cost of production. On the other hand, imperfect single crystals can reach enormous sizes in nature: several
754:
Metals can be produced in single-crystal form and provide a means to understand the ultimate performance of metallic conductors. It is vital for understanding the basic science such as catalytic chemistry, surface physics, electrons, and
766:
at room temperature, setting the bar for performance. The size of the market, and vagaries in supply and cost, have provided strong incentives to seek alternatives or find ways to use less of them by improving performance.
1804:
Tripathi, A. K.; Heinrich, M.; Siegrist, T.; Pflaum, J. (17 August 2007). "Growth and
Electronic Transport in 9,10-Diphenylanthracene Single CrystalsâAn Organic Semiconductor of High Electron and Hole Mobility".
939:
is easier with single crystals because it is possible to study directional dependence of various properties and compare with theoretical predictions. Furthermore, macroscopically averaging techniques such as
446:
Basic crystal growth methods can be separated into four categories based on what they are artificially grown from: melt, solid, vapor, and solution. Specific techniques to produce large single crystals (aka
2522:
Hojorat, Maher; Al Sabea, Hassan; Norel, Lucie; Bernot, Kevin; Roisnel, Thierry; Gendron, Frederic; Guennic, Boris Le; Trzop, Elzbieta; Collet, Eric; Long, Jeffrey R.; Rigaut, Stéphane (15 January 2020).
2524:
133:
1769:
Chou, Li-Hui; Na, Yaena; Park, Chung-Hyoi; Park, Min Soo; Osaka, Itaru; Kim, Felix Sunjoo; Liu, Cheng-Liang (March 2020). "Semiconducting small molecule/polymer blends for organic transistors".
463:
were the first to use the
Czochralski method to create Ge and Si single crystals. Other methods of crystallization may be used, depending on the physical properties of the substance, including
952:
there have been cases of materials where superconductivity is only seen in single-crystalline specimen. They may be grown for this purpose, even when the material is otherwise only needed in
960:
2D MOF single crystals of sizes up to 200 ÎŒm. This could mean scientists can fabricate single-crystal devices and determine intrinsic electrical conductivity and charge transport mechanism.
525:
One of the most used single crystals is that of
Silicon in the semiconductor industry. The four main production methods for semiconductor single crystals are from metallic solutions:
563:
is the greatest use of single-crystal technology today. In photovoltaics, the most efficient crystal structure will yield the highest light-to-electricity conversion. On the
2254:
365:
structure. These properties, in addition to making some gems precious, are industrially used in technological applications, especially in optics and electronics.
591:
semiconducting single crystals include GaAs, GaP, GaSb, Ge, InAs, InP, InSb, CdS, CdSe, CdTe, ZnS, ZnSe, and ZnTe. Most of these can also be tuned with various
1988:
Belas, E.; Uxa, Ć .; Grill, R.; HlĂdek, P.; Ć edivĂœ, L.; BugĂĄr, M. (14 September 2014). "High temperature optical absorption edge of CdTe single crystal".
548:, some single crystalline fragments of tantalum, and a high-purity (99.99% = 4N) 1 cm tantalum cube for comparison. This photo was taken by Alchemist-hp.
2123:
Ji Young Kim; Min-Wook Oh; Seunghun Lee; Yong Chan Cho; Jang-Hee Yoon; Geun Woo Lee; Chae-Ryong Cho; Chul Hong Park; Se-Young Jeong (June 26, 2014).
710:. Some notable uses are as in the window of a biometric fingerprint reader, optical disks for long-term data storage, and X-ray interferometer.
886:
2525:"Hysteresis Photomodulation via Single-Crystal-to-Single-Crystal Isomerization of a Photochromic Chain of Dysprosium Single-Molecule Magnets"
357:
associated with grain boundaries can give monocrystals unique properties, particularly mechanical, optical and electrical, which can also be
1949:. 31st Annual Technical Symposium on Optical and Optoelectronic Applied Sciences and Engineering. Infrared Technology XIII. Vol. 0819.
1189:
78, 647. Teal and Little of Bell
Telephone Laboratories were the first to produce single crystals of Ge and Si by the Cz method. Cited in
2381:
Chen, Jiasheng; GamĆŒa, Monika B.; Banda, Jacintha; Murphy, Keiron; Tarrant, James; Brando, Manuel; Grosche, F. Malte (30 November 2020).
736:: Arsenide III can be combined with various elements such as B, Al, Ga, and In, with the GaAs compound being in high demand for wafers.
941:
315:
1267:
Zalozhny, Eugene (Jul 13th, 2015). "Monocrystal enables high-volume LED and optical applications with 300-kg KY sapphire crystals".
899:
Another application of single-crystal solids is in materials science in the production of high strength materials with low thermal
786:
2576:
1620:
Ma, Teng; Ren, Wencai; Zhang, Xiuyun; Liu, Zhibo; Gao, Yang; Yin, Li-Chang; Ma, Xiu-Liang; Ding, Feng; Cheng, Hui-Ming (2013).
978:
800:
771:
244:
964:
observed in cutting-edge research on intrinsically non-photo-responsive mononuclear lanthanide single-molecule-magnets (SMM).
2072:"TIBTECH innovations: Metal properties comparison: electric conductivity, thermal conductivity, density, melting temperature"
1921:
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61:
1945:
Gafni, G.; Azoulay, M.; Shiloh, C.; Noter, Y.; Saya, A.; Galron, H.; Roth, M. (10 November 1987). Spiro, Irving J. (ed.).
2251:
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42:
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Zhang, Kai; Pitner, Xue Bai; Yang, Rui; Nix, William D.; Plummer, James D.; Fan, Jonathan A. (23 January 2018).
75:
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46:
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224:
183:
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1596:
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57:
1850:"Characterization of α-phenyl-4âČ-(diphenylamino)stilbene single crystal and its anisotropic conductivity"
1520:"Chapter 3 â The Current Situation in Ultra-Precision Technology â Silicon Single Crystals as an Example"
1519:
1456:
1414:
556:
460:
2274:
1560:
Friedrich, Jochen; von Ammon, Wilfried; MĂŒller, Georg (2015). "Czochralski Growth of
Silicon Crystals".
672:
1463:, Woodhead Publishing Series in Electronic and Optical Materials, Woodhead Publishing, pp. 5â56,
1622:"Edge-controlled growth and kinetics of single-crystal graphene domains by chemical vapor deposition"
632:
571:
operate on, the presence of grain boundaries would have a significant impact on the functionality of
511:
1848:
Matsuda, Shofu; Ito, Masamichi; Itagaki, Chikara; Imakubo, Tatsuro; Umeda, Minoru (February 2021).
916:
301:
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742:: CdTe crystals have several applications as substrates for IR imaging, electrooptic devices, and
407:
where the atomic position is limited to short-range order only. In between the two extremes exist
2299:
1881:
763:
746:. By alloying CdTe and ZnTe together room-temperature X-ray and gamma-ray detectors can be made.
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Single-crystal copper did prove to have better conductivity than polycrystalline copper.
599:
is also highly desired for applications in electronics and optoelectronics with its large
8:
2438:
Dong, Renhao; Feng, Xinliang (February 2021). "Making large single crystals of 2D MOFs".
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2325:"Angle-Resolved Photoemission Study on the Band Structure of Organic Single Crystals"
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1974:
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1371:
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Miyazaki, Noriyuki (2015). "Thermal Stress and
Dislocations in Bulk Crystal Growth".
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of the entire sample is continuous and unbroken to the edges of the sample, with no
2539:
2502:
2455:
2408:
2404:
2336:
2216:
2152:
2144:
2125:"Abnormal drop in electrical resistivity with impurity doping of single-crystal Ag"
2105:
2005:
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1626:
Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
904:
568:
350:
279:
178:
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808:
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The conductivity of commercial conductors is often expressed relative to the
756:
560:
1646:
1356:
2551:
2467:
2416:
2166:
1826:
1673:
1375:
998:
660:
583:
Fluorescence of (9H-carbazol-9-yl)(4-chlorophenyl)methanone single crystal.
545:
479:
can be used to grow high quality 300 kg sapphire single crystals. The
289:
188:
2341:
2324:
2094:
1185:
Teal, G.K. and Little, J.B. (1950) âGrowth of germanium single crystals,â
501:
In the case of metal single crystals, fabrication techniques also include
372:
effects favor the presence of some imperfections in the microstructure of
2543:
415:
381:
358:
239:
1655:
1413:
Dost, Sadik; Lent, Brian (2007-01-01), Dost, Sadik; Lent, Brian (eds.),
620:
2220:
1728:
Yu, Panpan; Zhen, Yonggang; Dong, Huanli; Hu, Wenping (November 2019).
1518:
Doi, Toshiro; Marinescu, Ioan D.; Kurokawa, Syuhei, eds. (2012-01-01),
157:
2148:
2109:
2009:
1966:
1307:
1282:
789:Ï for silver (Ag) / copper (Cu) materials at room temperature (293 K)
579:
2383:"Unconventional Bulk Superconductivity in YFe 2 Ge 2 Single Crystals"
1950:
727:
1914:
Single crystals of electronic materials : growth and properties
1055:
Single Crystals of Electronic Materials : Growth and Properties
24:
2399:
1687:
Wang, Meihui; Luo, Da; Wang, Bin; Ruoff, Rodney S. (January 2021).
948:
are only possible or meaningful on surfaces of single crystals. In
691:
685:
596:
541:
397:
377:
486:
2187:. The Collaboration for NDT Education, Iowa State University. n.d
502:
385:
369:
234:
147:
2489:
Huang, Sheng-Li; Hor, T.S. Andy; Jin, Guo-Xin (September 2017).
2252:
Crown jewels â These crystals are the gems of turbine efficiency
1591:
1589:
1332:"Single-crystal metal growth on amorphous insulating substrates"
1419:
Single Crystal Growth of Semiconductors from Metallic Solutions
1283:"Preparation and uses of large area single crystal metal foils"
779:
quantified and better understood by examining single crystals.
491:
393:
2048:"Scientists blow hot and cold to produce single-crystal metal"
1803:
1128:"DoITPoMS â TLP Library Atomic Scale Structure of Materials".
762:
Of all the metallic elements, silver and copper have the best
651:
2491:"Photodriven single-crystal-to-single-crystal transformation"
1586:
703:
389:
373:
413:, which is made up of a number of smaller crystals known as
380:, inhomogeneous strain and crystallographic defects such as
668:
400:
are known to have produced crystals several meters across.
2521:
2580:
1730:"Crystal Engineering of Organic Optoelectronic Materials"
1847:
1559:
1944:
659:, potassium dihydrogen phosphate, crystal grown from a
1947:
Large Diameter Germanium Single Crystals For IR Optics
1455:
Kearns, Joel K. (2019-01-01), Fornari, Roberto (ed.),
915:
Single crystals are essential in research especially
694:: Also known as the alpha phase of aluminum oxide (Al
2380:
2323:
Wang, Ke; Ecker, Ben; Gao, Yongli (September 2020).
1517:
16:
Material with a continuous, unbroken crystal lattice
1987:
49:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
1329:
1281:Jin, Sunghwan; Ruoff, Rodney S. (1 October 2019).
1689:"Synthesis of Large-Area Single-Crystal Graphene"
2592:
1686:
1057:. San Diego: Elsevier Science & Technology.
894:
2024:"Pure Element Single Crystals â Alfa Chemistry"
1336:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
671:which is to be cut into slices and used on the
1768:
1019:""Reade Advanced Materials â Single Crystals""
688:, making it very useful for some instruments.
2357:"6.2: Low Energy Electron Diffraction (LEED)"
1619:
1526:, Oxford: William Andrew Publishing: 15â111,
309:
2322:
2181:"The International Annealed Copper Standard"
1886:100G Optical Components, Coherent, PIC, DWDM
1727:
1390:"Single Crystal Substrates â Alfa Chemistry"
879:copper substitutions proved to be the best.
455:, Floating zone (or Zone Movement), and the
2488:
442:Single-crystal growth methods tree diagram
316:
302:
2506:
2398:
2340:
2261:Article on single-crystal turbine blades
2156:
1953:, California, United States. p. 96.
1865:
1753:
1704:
1663:
1645:
1365:
1355:
1306:
942:angle-resolved photoemission spectroscopy
890:Pigtail from single-crystal blade casting
520:
109:Learn how and when to remove this message
2532:Journal of the American Chemical Society
2437:
1412:
1280:
1231:
885:
749:
718:
650:
578:
535:
506:nanotechnological fields and catalysis.
485:
437:
1911:
1461:Single Crystals of Electronic Materials
1052:
595:for desired properties. Single-crystal
403:The opposite of a single crystal is an
2593:
2185:Nondestructive Testing Resource Center
1912:Fornari, Roberto (18 September 2018).
1524:Advances in CMP Polishing Technologies
1454:
1421:, Amsterdam: Elsevier, pp. 3â14,
974:Engineering aspects of crystallisation
772:International Annealed Copper Standard
611:
1907:
1905:
1903:
1901:
866:High-purity Cu wire (polycrystalline)
855:High-purity Ag wire (polycrystalline)
429:
2245:
1854:Materials Science and Engineering: B
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1140:
1138:
1124:
1122:
1108:
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1048:
1046:
1044:
1042:
1040:
1038:
931:of a material by techniques such as
822:Single-crystal Cu, further processed
615:
47:adding citations to reliable sources
18:
2227:
2116:
2088:
1116:. 2019-02-08. Retrieved 2021-02-28.
275:Shaping processes in crystal growth
13:
2570:
2016:
1898:
1570:10.1016/B978-0-444-63303-3.00002-X
1532:10.1016/b978-1-4377-7859-5.00003-x
1469:10.1016/b978-0-08-102096-8.00002-1
1242:10.1016/b978-0-444-63303-3.00026-2
1087:"Single Crystals â Alfa Chemistry"
14:
2612:
1258:
1135:
1119:
1103:
1035:
1011:
2585:Illinois Institute of Technology
2577:"Small Molecule Crystallization"
2242:, 2003. Retrieved: 21 July 2012.
1427:10.1016/b978-044452232-0/50002-x
807:Single-crystal Ag, doped with 3
619:
131:
23:
2515:
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1981:
1938:
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1597:"Semiconductor Single Crystals"
1553:
1511:
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1448:
1406:
1382:
1323:
1274:
946:low-energy electron diffraction
515:
245:Fractional crystallization
34:needs additional citations for
2495:Coordination Chemistry Reviews
2409:10.1103/PhysRevLett.125.237002
1271:. Retrieved February 27, 2021.
1225:
1179:
1079:
910:
540:A high-purity (99.999 %)
1:
2275:"Each Blade a Single Crystal"
1783:10.1016/j.polymer.2020.122208
1457:"2 â Silicon single crystals"
1004:
895:Single-crystal turbine blades
557:fabrication of semiconductors
473:solvent-based crystallization
459:. Dr. Teal and Dr. Little of
345:) is a material in which the
1755:10.1016/j.chempr.2019.08.019
1706:10.1016/j.trechm.2020.10.009
1504:"CZ-Si Wafers â Nanografi".
1201:10.1007/978-0-387-46271-4_29
1155:10.1007/978-0-387-46271-4_29
984:Laser-heated pedestal growth
927:. The detailed study of the
544:single crystal, made by the
265:Laser-heated pedestal growth
7:
2098:Crystal Growth & Design
1191:"Growing Single Crystals".
1145:"Growing Single Crystals".
967:
461:Bell Telephone Laboratories
361:, depending on the type of
255:Hydrothermal synthesis
220:BridgmanâStockbarger method
10:
2617:
2460:10.1038/s41563-020-00912-1
1990:Journal of Applied Physics
1867:10.1016/j.mseb.2020.114949
1562:Handbook of Crystal Growth
1415:"Chapter 1 â INTRODUCTION"
1234:Handbook of Crystal Growth
1195:. 2007. pp. 507â526.
1149:. 2007. pp. 507â526.
979:Fractional crystallization
673:National Ignition Facility
475:. For example, a modified
2508:10.1016/j.ccr.2016.06.009
1053:Fornari, Roberto (2018).
686:infrared (IR) wavelengths
297:
225:Van Arkelâde Boer process
211:
206:
170:
165:
144:
139:
130:
123:
2235:"Gas turbine technology"
917:condensed-matter physics
573:field effect transistors
453:Czochralski process (CZ)
250:Fractional freezing
2387:Physical Review Letters
2300:"Silver Single Crystal"
1882:"Indium Phosphide PICs"
1647:10.1073/pnas.1312802110
1508:. Retrieved 2021-02-28.
1357:10.1073/pnas.1717882115
1132:. Retrieved 2021-02-28.
723:Aluminum oxide crystals
553:Monocrystalline silicon
230:Czochralski method
2028:www.alfa-chemistry.com
1827:10.1002/adma.200602162
1394:www.alfa-chemistry.com
1236:. pp. 1049â1092.
1114:Engineering LibreTexts
1091:www.alfa-chemistry.com
937:helium atom scattering
891:
787:Electrical resistivity
724:
680:
584:
549:
531:organic semiconductors
521:Semiconductor industry
498:
465:hydrothermal synthesis
443:
207:Methods and technology
2342:10.3390/cryst10090773
1112:"4.1: Introduction".
889:
750:Electrical conductors
722:
654:
582:
546:floating zone process
539:
489:
441:
353:. The absence of the
343:monocrystalline solid
2544:10.1021/jacs.9b10584
2361:Chemistry LibreTexts
1601:Princeton Scientific
667:aqueous solution at
527:liquid phase epitaxy
339:single-crystal solid
43:improve this article
2452:2021NatMa..20..122D
2141:2014NatSR...4E5450K
2002:2014JAP...116j3521B
1959:1987SPIE..819...96G
1819:2007AdM....19.2097T
1746:2019Chem....5.2814Y
1693:Trends in Chemistry
1638:2013PNAS..11020386M
1632:(51): 20386â20391.
1564:. pp. 45â104.
1348:2018PNAS..115..685Z
1299:2019APLM....7j0905J
919:and all aspects of
790:
612:Optical application
496:hydrothermal method
405:amorphous structure
199:Single crystal
179:Crystal growth
2279:American Scientist
2257:2010-03-25 at the
2221:10.1039/C1CE06026K
2129:Scientific Reports
1807:Advanced Materials
1130:www.doitpoms.ac.uk
989:Micro-pulling-down
892:
785:
725:
681:
677:frequency doubling
631:. You can help by
585:
550:
499:
457:Bridgman technique
444:
430:Production methods
270:Micro-pulling-down
2149:10.1038/srep05450
2110:10.1021/cg1003808
2010:10.1063/1.4895494
1967:10.1117/12.941806
1923:978-0-08-102097-5
1813:(16): 2097â2101.
1740:(11): 2814â2853.
1541:978-1-4377-7859-5
1478:978-0-08-102096-8
1436:978-0-444-52232-0
1308:10.1063/1.5114861
1210:978-0-387-46270-7
1193:Ceramic Materials
1164:978-0-387-46270-7
1147:Ceramic Materials
1064:978-0-08-102097-5
994:Recrystallization
950:superconductivity
933:Bragg diffraction
929:crystal structure
921:materials science
883:meter of length.
876:
875:
844:Single-crystal Cu
833:Single-crystal Ag
740:Cadmium Telluride
649:
648:
494:bar grown by the
490:A single-crystal
477:Kyropoulos method
331:materials science
326:
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260:Kyropoulos method
189:Seed crystal
184:Recrystallization
153:Crystal structure
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714:Indium Phosphide
708:nonlinear optics
644:
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601:carrier mobility
388:species such as
363:crystallographic
351:grain boundaries
318:
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194:Protocrystalline
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58:"Single crystal"
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481:Verneuil method
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410:polycrystalline
347:crystal lattice
328:
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285:Verneuil method
174:Crystallization
125:Crystallization
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1269:LED's Magazine
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99:February 2010
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60: â
59:
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54:Find sources:
48:
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32:This article
30:
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21:
20:
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2443:
2439:
2433:
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2376:
2365:. Retrieved
2363:. 2015-02-11
2360:
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2307:. Retrieved
2303:
2294:
2283:. Retrieved
2281:. 2017-02-06
2278:
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2247:
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2209:CrystEngComm
2208:
2201:
2191:November 14,
2189:. Retrieved
2184:
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2101:
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2031:. Retrieved
2027:
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1993:
1989:
1983:
1946:
1940:
1916:. Woodhead.
1913:
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1810:
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1774:
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1699:(1): 15â33.
1696:
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1600:
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1555:
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1393:
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1094:. Retrieved
1090:
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1026:. Retrieved
1022:
1013:
999:Seed crystal
962:
958:
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898:
881:
877:
872:Ë 103%
781:
769:
764:conductivity
761:
753:
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726:
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661:seed crystal
637:
633:adding to it
628:
606:
586:
555:used in the
551:
524:
516:Applications
508:
500:
471:, or simply
445:
433:
420:
416:crystallites
414:
408:
402:
382:dislocations
367:
342:
338:
334:
327:
290:Zone melting
198:
140:Fundamentals
105:
96:
86:
79:
72:
65:
53:
41:Please help
36:verification
33:
2501:: 112â122.
911:In research
744:solar cells
567:scale that
469:sublimation
359:anisotropic
240:Flux method
2400:2007.13584
2367:2021-03-12
2335:(9): 773.
2309:2021-03-12
2285:2021-02-08
2081:2021-03-12
2057:2021-03-12
2033:2021-02-28
1932:1054250691
1891:2021-03-12
1860:: 114949.
1777:: 122208.
1606:2021-02-08
1547:2021-03-11
1492:2021-03-11
1442:2021-03-11
1399:2021-03-11
1187:Phys. Rev.
1096:2021-02-28
1073:1055046791
1028:2021-02-28
1005:References
903:, such as
640:April 2009
378:impurities
376:, such as
158:Nucleation
69:newspapers
2560:209490756
2476:231745364
2425:220793188
1975:136334692
1951:San Diego
1791:213570529
1715:229501087
1487:139380571
1317:208729868
1219:240461586
1173:240461586
797:Ï (ΌΩâcm)
776:annealing
728:Germanium
692:Sapphires
589:inorganic
398:feldspars
2601:Crystals
2595:Category
2552:31880442
2468:33504985
2417:33337220
2329:Crystals
2255:Archived
2167:24965478
2135:: 5450.
1835:97631495
1674:24297886
1656:23761563
1376:29311332
968:See also
923:such as
794:Material
734:Arsenide
597:graphene
542:tantalum
510:polymer.
370:entropic
368:Because
166:Concepts
2587:website
2448:Bibcode
2158:4071311
2137:Bibcode
1998:Bibcode
1955:Bibcode
1815:Bibcode
1771:Polymer
1742:Bibcode
1665:3870701
1634:Bibcode
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