208:, they argue that a state collapse happens when 1) opposition groups arm themselves and mobilise against the government; 2) political transitions such as decolonisation or regime change cause existing power structures to be questioned; 3) politics prolong power struggles and undermine existing institutions; 4) repression causes extreme distrust between rulers and the rest of society; 5) factionalism obstructs strengthening of state policies; 6) loss of cohesion within the ruling elite erodes the monopolisation of violence, rule-making, and tax collection; and 7) external interventions contribute to destabilisation.
36:
1049:
territory, 4) sufficient control and supply of resources to maintain the state, 5) availability of state agents sufficient to execute policy. Anyone attempting this in
Somalia would have to; disarm thousands of gunmen, stop the arms trafficking, set up a justice system and rebuild the economy, all against the opposition of warlords, extremists and smugglers.
125:" have been contested for being "too broad and too vague", foreign policy experts such as Charles T. Call have advocated focusing on extreme cases of "collapsed states" instead, defined as "countries whose state apparatus ceases to exist for a period of several months". According to Call, between 1995 and 2005, the main examples of collapsed states included
196:. Other cases of state collapse included Laos, following an attack backed by the United States which led to partitioning of the country into spheres of influence; Lebanon, which went through a full-scale civil war; and Afghanistan, where insurgents challenged the communist regime and moved against Soviet intervention.
745:
To do so they may have to take 'heroic' measures; 'Throughout history there have always been in the event of defeat two paths of action; the one aims at saving enough of the substance as possible. the other at leaving behind a stirring legend'. According to
Piekalkiewicz and Penn, they may rethink or
974:
The partition of India displaced between 10 and 12 million Sikhs, Hindus and
Muslims, creating overwhelming refugee crises; there was large-scale violence, with estimates of loss of life accompanying or preceding the partition disputed and varying between several hundred thousand and two million. In
741:
group dissatisfied with its performance, may attempt to postpone or avoid collapse by regenerating popular support; 'At the end of a dynasty there often appears some show of power giving the impression that the dynasty's senility has been made to disappear. It lights up brilliantly just before it is
108:
typically fails to rally around the central government, and societal actors fend for themselves at the local level. Neighboring states interfere politically, sometimes harboring dissidents within their borders, and the informal economy becomes dominant, operating beyond the control of the state and
298:
Despots and ruling cliques can succeed in dominating and exploiting their fellow man ... but their subjects react ... with apathy, impairment of intelligence, initiative and skills ... or they react by the accumulation of such hate and destructiveness as to bring about an end to themselves, their
1048:
Collapsed states are now expected to be rebuilt, territorially intact and along democratic lines, with the help of multilateral organizations and bilateral donors. State reconstruction involves five basic elements; 1) a central political authority, 2) control of borders, 3) control of national
311:
alleges that a democracy can also collapse "if voters don't get what they want and merely affirm the status quo." In these circumstances, voters deprived of real choice may opt for the least democratic option. In a divided, collapsing country lacking civil institutions, or in a closed country
1142:
The collapse of the
Ottomans in 1918 had long-term consequences, 'triggering most of the problems that plague the Middle East today'. Hegemony in the Middle East has been subject to quarrels between British, French, Israeli, American, Arab nationalist, Saudi and Iranian interests ever since.
491:
Legitimacy refers to popular belief in, or acceptance of, an authority; thus it includes any leader achieving popularity at any given moment. When the state fails to reward the people with civil rights, participation, accountability and oversight, legitimacy fades and collapse may occur In
332:
regrets the "very slight" amount of research on the nature of political power. Power regularly passes to those who "assert the unknown with the greatest conviction... not necessarily related to intelligence." What we call "power" is, "in practice, the illusion of power." Discussing how the
232:, chapter 20, verse four: God "visits the sins of the fathers onto their children, even unto the third and fourth generation of those that hate Him". Ibn Khaldun was fatalistic: "This senility is a chronic disease which cannot be cured because it is something natural". Professor
524:
government lost legitimacy when the army refused to fight in the civil war. State collapse is prevalent in much of post-colonial Africa and has occurred in two waves: in the 1980's, the second decade of independence, in Chad, Uganda and Ghana; and a decade later, in
Somalia and
373:
and saw himself as the "Saviour of
Germany" who performed "miracles" with the economy. He was unnaturally fond of his mother, to the extent that Germany became a "mother symbol". His drive to destroy (the Jews, communism, Europe) was an unconscious attempt to resolve his
728:
caused a surge in aid which: created a huge parallel government run by NGOs and contractors; destroyed weak institutions; inflated wages, rents, and prices beyond the reach of local businesses; and gave the
Haitian government no incentive to undertake necessary reforms.
220:(1332β1406) produced a general theory of state collapse, transforming the study of history into a "new science". In his eyes, dynasties repeatedly become "sedentary, senile, coercive, pompous, subservient to desire ... liable to divisions in the dynasty." Group feeling (
591:
administration's escalation of the arms race ('they can't sustain military spending the way we can') overstretched the USSR economy: while the economy of apartheid South Africa was weakened by sanctions, banking and other boycotts, divestment and shareholder activism.
723:
In Angola in the 1980's, aid from the USSR was the 'principal cause of collapse', turning the ruling elite into unpopular 'worshippers of foreign divinities'. Soon afterwards the USSR itself collapsed, in part due to the 'demands of the main sponsor', the USA. The
433:
Managerial incapacity, failing to meet popular needs, causes dissatisfaction. If the government avoids necessary choices, practices only defensive politics, and represses the protests with tyranny, the state is likely to implode. This was the case in
357:
there must be a ruthless charismatic leader: "the leader is the movement", and all individuals are required to submit to, and worship him. "Followers who lead barren, insecure, frustrated lives obey the leader, not through faith in his vision of a
448:, crowned at an early age, 26, was untrained in governance. Grand Duke Vladimir's son Cyril was a rival candidate for the throne. Liberals and revolutionaries challenged his autocracy. By 1916 he had become apathetic, dominated by the Czarina and
537:
Collapse is marked by the loss of control of political space. Neighbour states may intervene directly in a collapsing state; or they may host dissident movements. The collapse of
Afghanistan in 2021 was only possible because the
1149:
had argued that Hitler, 'whether we like it or not', created many features of the postwar world, including the state of Israel, the end of
European empires, the division of Germany, and the joint hegemony of the US and USSR.
1113:
has been a common reaction in post-collapse nations. In post-apartheid South Africa, white liberals were more likely to feel guilt feelings than conservatives. Some have refused to accept responsibility for massacres, as in
404:, who also suffered from a Messiah complex, was similar: "Hitler was not one of a kind. As long as millions of people passionately long for his return, it is only a matter of time until their wish is fulfilled."
255:
points to the quasi-religious role of the state to mediate between mortal individuals and the eternal universe, so that states regularly collapse; like religious figures, they must undergo a process of death and
1056:
The new constitution drafted by
Americans allowed access and control over the Japanese military through MacArthur and the Allied occupation on Japan. "The political project drew much of its inspiration from the
388:, "was an actor, playing the part that Italians wanted him to be". He was vindictive, sadistic, impulsive, proud and cruel, full of "demonic wilfulness" and did not know right from wrong. When in 1944 he led a
471:. Some military regimes are able to reverse a downward spiral, but if they fail to do so, must rely ever more on coercion and control. The regime 'falls into the vacuum it has created'. This occurred in
1005:
State collapse in most cases incurs humanitarian tragedies, ending in massive outflows of refugees and others. Africa leads the world in refugee crises, especially in Somalia and Rwanda, and elsewhere,
228:) disappears as the dynasty grows senile. After three generations a new invading clique, "restless, alert and courageous", will cause the old dynasty to collapse in accordance with the principle in the
841:
If attempts at restructuring from within or without are unsuccessful, a long-term absence of a viable government results. Services are absent and national borders are unprotected, as in
746:
adapt the ideology, or replace it by a completely new set of ideals. For example, in Poland, according to Piekalkiewicz and Penn, communist ideocracy failed in 1980; the recognition of
345:
deplored the "demonic concentrations of power" of the defeated countries in the two world wars. A devout Christian, he saw their "triumphant self-destruction" as "Antichrist moments".
600:
Loss of territorial control is a 'vital characteristic' of state collapse. If the components of society are neglected they may oppose the centre of power and fend for themselves. If
459:
lists 'poverty, hunger, regional conflicts, ethnic wars, deindustrialisation, foreign debt, elite corruption, disease epidemics, refugee problems, environmental issues' as causes.
341:, Galbraith reflects that power, mostly seen as a possession of states and their leaders, would be better viewed as a flow, into and away from "those instruments that enforce it".
568:
overshadows the formal, more controlled economy, and b) peripheral areas may prefer to use a neighbour state's currency, as in Chad, Ethiopia in the 1980's and
236:
discusses Ibn Khaldun in detail and agrees on the timescale: "There are obvious parallels between the lifespans of individuals and those of ruling groups."
959:
The prospect, and chaos, of state collapse provides fearful elites with motive and opportunity to kill en masse (though the planning and implementation of
1088:
378:
and the injustices of his childhood. He "dismantled the German state ... and replaced it with a war machine". He was swept along by a tide of events.
2624:
963:
may be hampered by reduced resources). When defeat appeared inevitable, Hitler ordered the killing of invalids, Gypsies, Russians and Jews in the
3137:
1239:
456:
144:
Recent scholarship has focused on identifying measurable dimensions of state capacity, building on the institutionalist approach associated with
2219:
2153:
148:. Daniel Lambach, Eva Johais, and Markus Bayer have thus defined state collapse as the inability to make and enforce binding rules; maintain a
46:
2384:
State Collapse in a new Theoretical Framework. The case of Yugoslavia, Badredine Arfi, International Journal of Sociology, vol. 28 no. 3, 1998
152:; and collect taxes. Using this framework, Lambach et al. identified 17 collapsed states between 1960 and 2007. The majority of cases were in
3024:
2413:
808:
496:, the non-inclusive 2004 constitution, the international coalition's focus on power consolidation at the expense of democracy, and president
675:'Misbegotten wars, when serving as culmination points of more general national decline, can be fatal', says Robert Kaplan. Participation in
516:
Such states are especially vulnerable to collapse as the people may not accept or understand the principles of legitimacy or nationhood. In
299:
rulers and their system. ... if man lives under conditions contrary to his nature and to human growth and sanity, he cannot help reacting.'
260:. In his view this may account for the perennial popularity of states because they regularly demonstrate their ability to transcend death.
184:, plus Congo-Kinshasa, which collapsed following decolonization from Belgium. The dissolution of the Soviet Union led to state collapse in
1015:
2271:
1266:
1209:
320:
In the USSR and Apartheid South Africa, the state became 'evil or tyrannical... destroying the institutions of civil society'; and in
243:
had formed in which several subordinate regimes in Eastern Europe and Africa collapsed almost simultaneously with the central power.
500:'s narrow circle of support, caused the regime to fall in 2021 as it 'lacked legitimacy in the eyes of the people'. In the USSR the
617:
761:, regenerative changes occurred in Yugoslavia in the 1980s when the communist ideology was replaced by a nationalist drive for a
362:', but because he leads them away from their unwanted selves". When collapse threatens he may insist on a "fight to the finish".
2833:
2512:
54:
660:
1255:
1466:
778:
501:
2979:
1338:
1170:
79:
455:
Few political scientists credibly predicted the collapse of the Soviet Union or agreed on its causes: in hindsight,
1023:
804:
204:
In 2020, Johais, Bayer and Lambach proposed a dynamic model of the causes of state collapse. In their article in
2362:
failed and Collapsed States in the International System, African Studies Centre, Leiden and others, introduction
3178:
652:
2287:
2186:
766:
620:
collapsed in the 1990s, when its six socialist republics broke apart to become separate countries; though
3188:
1119:
679:
was a decisive factor in the collapse of Ottoman Turkey, the Austro-Hungarian empire and Russia in 1917.
3183:
312:
attempting reform and openness, the process of democratisation is 'dangerous' and may hasten collapse.
2272:
https://academic.oup.com/ia/article-abstract/17/3/446/2710383?redirectedFrom=fulltext&login=false
1224:
1176:
664:
656:
411:
290:
it is possible for an entire nation, if they all share the same vices and errors, to become insaneβa
280:
24:
3193:
2690:
1887:
1872:
1848:
1123:
2430:
1249:
1219:
1100:
792:
573:
50:
101:. It is often used to describe extreme situations in which state institutions dissolve rapidly.
2642:
1776:
1760:
1744:
1728:
1281:
1031:
329:
20:
3141:
2762:
2490:"The Wars of the Roses: The Fall of the Plantagenets and the Rise of the Tudors by Dan Jones"
1905:
1131:
1053:
725:
935:
became part of Poland. The USSR breakup led to regional wars in the newly created states of
392:
in northern Italy, he "divided Italy in two and initiated 18 months of terrible civil war."
1202:
1104:
1066:
700:
605:
149:
407:
8:
3125:
3112:
3011:
2948:
2886:
2874:
2748:
2711:
2401:
2337:
2308:(Edited version of a speech given 13 November 2006 at the American Enterprise Institute.)
2207:
1690:
1657:
1597:
904:
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2823:
2782:
2659:
2471:
2417:
2372:
2350:
2259:
2170:
2157:
2141:
2128:
2107:
2036:
2024:
1716:
1703:
1511:
1486:
1444:
1436:
1394:
1092:
884:
857:. A failed state can fragment, be taken over by outside forces, or descend into chaos.
785:
in Imperial Russia, were all aimed at regenerating causes which were nearing collapse.
770:
712:
696:
397:
240:
189:
153:
3046:"Redeeming Apartheid's Legacy: Collective Guilt, Political Ideology, and Compensation"
3153:
Syed Mansur Hashim, 'Who will rule the Middle East?', The Daily Star, 12 January 2016
3062:
2975:
2829:
2786:
2475:
2317:
1984:
1900:
1490:
1448:
1398:
1334:
1271:
1213:
1187:
1164:
1146:
1058:
968:
948:
692:
688:
559:
185:
546:. Idi Amin was forced out of Uganda by Ugandan exiles combined with the invasion by
3057:
2912:
2774:
2461:
1478:
1428:
1384:
1229:
1115:
1084:
992:
976:
742:
extinguished, like a candle which leaps up brilliantly just before it is put out'.
572:
in the 1990's. In the case of post-WW1 Austria, the loss of pre-war markets in the
445:
385:
2917:
2900:
1482:
1389:
1372:
1329:
Zartman, I. William (1995). "Introduction: Posing the Problem of State Collapse".
1301:"The death toll remains disputed with figures ranging from 200,000 to 2 million."
659:, and other political organizations, resulting in South Africa's first non-racial
3096:
3029:
2489:
1261:
1244:
1160:
1019:
887:
in 1947 led to the creation of two independent nations, India and Pakistan. When
418:
393:
375:
370:
98:
508:
and other reformers: Gorbachev never recovered from this blow to his legitimacy
1670:
1540:
1234:
1096:
1083:
Collapse may be followed by formal or informal efforts at justice, such as the
996:
964:
908:
888:
812:
796:
788:
762:
584:
468:
401:
334:
267:
complex" that may drive fanatics to a suicidal, violent last-ditch stand. In a
229:
2778:
1432:
3172:
3108:
3080:
3076:
2573:
1503:
1197:
1127:
1043:
1027:
878:
800:
758:
565:
505:
366:
359:
338:
252:
177:
122:
105:
1331:
Collapsed States: The Disintegration and Restoration of Legitimate Authority
2283:
2091:
1610:
1592:
1507:
1192:
1182:
836:
782:
644:
497:
389:
342:
268:
257:
233:
181:
130:
118:
2502:
Leonid Fituni in Collapsed States, ed I William Zartman, 1999, pp. 148β149
3124:
Andrew Green, 'Why Western Democracy can never work in the Middle East',
3007:
3003:
2944:
2940:
2870:
2866:
2744:
2740:
2707:
2703:
2466:
2449:
2397:
2393:
2333:
2329:
2203:
2199:
1818:
1686:
1682:
892:
854:
747:
738:
704:
676:
648:
493:
415:
328:
changed from 'prophetic rule, to autocracy, to tyranny'. In this context
287:
276:
217:
138:
3079:, 'The Ottoman Empire: the last great casualty of the first world war',
2729:
The division of British India into India and Pakistan, achieved in 1947.
1440:
1416:
1103:
and 'legacy of 'shame' for the Hitler years in such media portrayals as
3092:
1652:
1525:
1276:
944:
936:
924:
816:
774:
751:
517:
325:
308:
225:
193:
134:
2538:[[Hussein M. Adam in Collapsed States, ed I William Zartman, pp. 69β78
2320:, The Rise and Fall of the Soviet Empire, Harper Collins, 1997, p. 488
61:
2640:
Marina Ottaway, "Rebuilding State Institutions in Collapsed States",
1078:
928:
866:
691:
to the throne can cause the 'utter collapse of royal authority'. The
613:
601:
577:
381:
354:
283:, making them more likely to resist threats to the incumbent regime.
272:
221:
145:
927:. Nazi Germany in 1945 fragmented into East and West Germany, while
754:
Trade Union led to a military coup and authoritarian military rule.
3045:
1062:
1000:
980:
960:
916:
621:
547:
543:
476:
449:
425:. He "played the king" and the role of "chosen one" and "saviour".
452:, a "Christ in the image of the rejected and agonizing monarchy".
2295:
1861:
Sebastian Haffner, The Meaning of Hitler, Phoenix 2002, pp. 27β30
940:
932:
920:
912:
846:
708:
625:
609:
580:
with Germany, and Austria's downfall by German invasion in 1938.
539:
526:
521:
480:
422:
321:
294:. Inhumane treatment by the rulers inevitably leads to collapse;
165:
126:
414:, when, "blind to his own Messianism", he attempted to recreate
3162:
Sebastian Haffner, The Meaning of Hitler, Phoenix, 2000, p. 100
1333:. Boulder and London: L. Rienner Publishers. pp. 1, 8β11.
1110:
1007:
986:
637:
633:
629:
588:
472:
264:
169:
161:
2812:
Tony Barber, 'Decline and Fall', Financial Times, 4 April 2015
2181:
2179:
1467:"How do states collapse? Towards a model of causal mechanisms"
1373:"Conceptualising state collapse: An institutionalist approach"
3044:
Klandermans, Bert; Werner, Merel; Van Doorn, Marjoka (2008).
1011:
896:
850:
842:
569:
439:
173:
640:, due to nationalist elites manipulating communal tensions.
564:
In a collapsing state the economy may shrink because a) the
3095:, 'The Balfour Declaration: A Study in British Duplicity',
2767:
The British Journal of Politics and International Relations
2176:
907:; the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian empire gave rise to
900:
435:
157:
3111:, 'Greater Israel: the Zionist Plan for the Middle East',
3043:
2513:"How not to help a country: Aid and the collapse of Haiti"
2249:
Gilbert Khadiagala in Collapsed States, ed Zartman, p. 38
975:
the former Yugoslavia collapse led to state failure, and
967:. In Ottoman Turkey, estimates for the death toll in the
2848:
2276:
129:, which had a sustained collapse from 1990 to 2004; the
2889:
in Collapsed States, ed I William Zartman, 1999, p. 207
2450:"1917: Revolution as Demobilization and State Collapse"
1956:'Why we are not wrong to compare Milosevic to Hitler',
1069:
of several European states and even the Soviet Union."
1030:
who left Russia after the Czarist regime fell; and the
576:
encouraged fears of economic decline, thus the idea of
428:
315:
104:
When a new regime moves in, often led by the military,
1673:
in Collapsed states, ed I William Zartman, pp. 239β244
1099:
were also tried in court. Germany has faced up to its
2763:"State failure, genocide and politicide reconsidered"
2098:, translated by Max Eastman, Pluto Press 1977, p. 84
1506:, review of 'Ibn Khaldun's Philosophy of History' by
643:
The ethnic discrimination of the apartheid system in
3025:"Downfall | Reviews | guardian.co.uk Film"
1982:
Hans Enzensburger, "Perspective on Saddam Hussein",
1465:
Johais, Eva; Bayer, Markus; Lambach, Daniel (2020).
1371:
Lambach, Daniel; Johais, Eva; Bayer, Markus (2015).
822:
737:
Either the incumbent regime itself, or an extremist
337:
brought about the collapse of militarily "powerful"
156:, involving armed rebellions in countries including
2901:"Rebuilding State Institutions in Collapsed States"
1126:; a fictitious explanation for the collapse of the
1037:
2027:, Lynne Riener Publishers, 1999, pp, 7, 10, 15, 51
1464:
1370:
1089:Truth and Reconciliation Commission (South Africa)
2727:(3rd ed.). Oxford English Dictionary. 2005.
2673:"Gangs tighten grip as Haiti spirals to collapse"
1971:The psychological assessment of political leaders
1615:The Psychological Assessment of Political Leaders
532:
467:Armed forces may take over a collapsing state by
400:to Hitler for his racism and expansionist goals.
3170:
718:
2294:. American Enterprise Institute. Archived from
1240:Predictions of the collapse of the Soviet Union
1072:
595:
553:
504:was foiled, not by the Gorbachev regime but by
2144:, Lynne Riener Publishers, 1999, pp. 8, 36, 69
860:
583:In the Soviet Union, the dramatic drop of the
109:further undermining potential reconstruction.
2931:Collapsed States, ed I William Zartman, p. 16
1715:Hussein Mohamed Adam in Collapsed States, ed
1617:, University of Michigan Press, 2003, p. 345.
1018:from areas now part of Poland or Russia; the
827:State collapse is 'not necessarily anarchy'.
348:
2012:The life and evil times of Nicolae Ceausescu
1999:The life and evil times of Nicolae Ceausescu
1973:, University of Michigan Press, 2003, p. 354
1809:, State University of New York, 1995, p. 133
1643:, Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1979, pp. 18β19.
987:Ethnic cleansing, Refugee crisis or Diaspora
624:seceded peacefully, civil wars broke out in
2854:
2821:
2619:Tony Barber, 'Decline and Fall', review of
2589:Tony Barber, 'Decline and Fall', review of
2447:
2114:, Longman, 2007, p. 43; Richard K Hermann,
1497:
1016:Flight and expulsion of Germans (1944-1950)
895:, it lost territory, including what became
809:South Africa's white supremacist government
511:
112:
2173:, Lynne Riener Publishers, 1999, pp. 7, 34
1267:United States involvement in regime change
1210:History of the Central Intelligence Agency
781:, and the financial/industrial reforms of
19:For the quantum mechanics phenomenon, see
3061:
2972:The World Transformed:1945 to the Present
2916:
2828:, Cambridge University Press, p. 2,
2465:
1920:The international thought of Martin Wight
1825:, Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1955, p. 237.
1794:The International Thought of Martin Wight
1388:
410:"went mad" as early as 1971 according to
353:According to political scientists, in an
80:Learn how and when to remove this message
2349:Gilbert Khadiagala in Collapsed States,
618:Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia
486:
60:Relevant discussion may be found on the
2974:. Oxford University Press. p. 86.
2898:
2160:, Lynne Riener Publishers, 1999, p. 110
2131:, Lynne Riener Publishers, 1999, p. 143
1328:
3171:
2822:Talbot, Ian; Singh, Gurharpal (2009),
2760:
2608:The Rise and Fall of the Soviet Empire
2282:
1719:, Lynne Riener Publishers, 1999, p. 71
971:vary between 300,000 and 1.5 million.
199:
2096:The history of the Russian Revolution
1838:, Harper Perennial 2010, pp. 100, 119
1706:, Lynne Riener Publishers, 1999, p. 7
1137:
682:
608:, and force becomes privatised under
2969:
2662:, Lynne Riener Publishers, 1995 p. 1
2610:, Harper Collins, 1997, pp. 485β497.
2448:Lohr, Eric; Sanborn, Joshua (2017).
2288:"The Soviet Collapse: Grain and Oil"
1570:, St Martin's Press, 1997, pp. 83β87
1460:
1458:
1414:
1410:
1408:
1366:
1364:
1362:
1360:
1358:
1356:
1354:
1352:
1350:
1324:
1322:
1320:
1318:
703:in 1471; and led to the downfall of
462:
429:Neglect, corruption and incompetence
316:Increasing coercion and dictatorship
211:
29:
2963:
2803:, Pelican 2002, chapter on 'Crimes'
2431:"The Downside of Imperial Collapse"
1581:Great Thinkers of the Eastern World
1568:Revolutions and Revolutionary Waves
1514:" vol 5, no 3, (1966), pp. 322β347.
1471:Global Change, Peace & Security
1417:"The Fallacy of the 'Failed State'"
1256:The Tragedy of Great Power Politics
303:
239:In the case of the USSR, a Marxist
206:Global Change, Peace & Security
16:Catastrophic government dissolution
13:
3140:, 'Requiem for Arab Nationalism',
438:when it collapsed in 1980, and in
246:
14:
3205:
2420:, Lynne Riener, 1999, pp. 191β204
1455:
1405:
1347:
1315:
1171:Anarchy (international relations)
1052:In 1946, the Diet ratified a new
1034:after the collapse of apartheid.
915:and the Austrian Republic, while
823:Possible consequences of collapse
3156:
3147:
3131:
3118:
3102:
3086:
3070:
3063:10.1111/j.1467-9221.2008.00633.x
3037:
3017:
2997:
2988:
2954:
1038:Reconstruction and regime change
1014:. Earlier examples include: the
872:
805:the collapse of the Soviet Union
34:
2934:
2925:
2892:
2880:
2860:
2815:
2806:
2793:
2754:
2734:
2717:
2697:
2683:
2665:
2649:
2634:
2613:
2600:
2583:
2567:
2554:
2541:
2532:
2519:
2505:
2496:
2482:
2441:
2423:
2407:
2387:
2378:
2375:, Lynne Riener, 1999, pp. 8, 10
2365:
2356:
2343:
2323:
2311:
2265:
2252:
2243:
2240:Collapsed States, Zartman, p. 9
2234:
2225:
2213:
2193:
2163:
2147:
2134:
2121:
2101:
2085:
2072:
2059:
2046:
2030:
2017:
2004:
1991:
1976:
1963:
1950:
1937:
1925:
1912:
1894:
1879:
1864:
1855:
1841:
1828:
1812:
1799:
1786:
1783:, Hamish Hamilton, 1984, p. 89.
1770:
1767:, Hamish Hamilton, 1984, p. 70.
1754:
1751:, Hamish Hamilton, 1984, p. 41.
1738:
1722:
1709:
1696:
1676:
1664:
1655:, "When Does Democracy Fail?",
1646:
1633:
1620:
1604:
1586:
1583:, Harper Collins, 1995, p, 388.
1573:
1529:, Routledge, 1978, pp. 244β255.
1295:
830:
779:1991 Soviet coup d'etat attempt
732:
502:1991 Soviet coup d'etat attempt
2960:Takemae, Eiji 2002, p. xxxvii.
1735:, Hamish Hamilton, 1984, p. 4.
1560:
1547:
1532:
1517:
791:discusses the collapse of the
670:
533:Other states subvert or invade
1:
2994:Takemae, Eiji 2002, p. xxxix.
2918:10.1111/1467-7660.t01-1-00258
2187:"The Collapse of Afghanistan"
1483:10.1080/14781158.2020.1780204
1390:10.1080/01436597.2015.1038338
1308:
1024:People's Republic of Bulgaria
719:Dependence on outside support
604:results, the state loses its
585:price of oil in 1985 and 1986
97:is a sudden dissolution of a
1934:, Phoenix, 1993, pp. 112β115
1073:Justice, guilt and denialism
767:anti-bureaucratic revolution
596:Ethnic and regional tensions
554:Economic collapse or decline
275:, individuals may develop a
7:
2580:, Indiana UP, 2006, p. 322.
2564:, SUNY Press, 1995, p. 163.
2353:, Lynne Riener, 1999, p. 35
2222:in Collapsed States, p. 109
1909:, Pelican 2002, pp. 40, 42.
1153:
1120:Myth of the clean Wehrmacht
954:
861:Annexation by another state
815:the following year, and of
687:In an absolute monarchy, a
10:
3210:
2262:, Lynne Riener, 1999, p. 9
2231:Collapsed States, pp. 2, 3
2014:, Hutchinson, 1991, p. 155
1630:, SUNY Press, 1995, p. 45.
1076:
1041:
990:
876:
834:
557:
349:Messianic leadership style
286:According to psychologist
263:Psychologists speak of a "
117:While the definitions of "
18:
2779:10.1177/13691481211044654
2562:The Politics of Ideocracy
2529:, Routledge 1978, p. 246.
2292:On the Issues: AEI online
2001:, Hutchinson, 1991, p. 99
1628:The Politics of Ideocracy
1433:10.1080/01436590802544207
1415:Call, Charles T. (2008).
1225:Lebanese liquidity crisis
1177:The Anatomy of Revolution
1130:in 1918 was found in the
807:in 1991, the collapse of
665:African National Congress
657:African National Congress
281:authoritarian personality
251:The Japanese philosopher
25:Collapse (disambiguation)
2899:Ottaway, Marina (2002).
2621:Tales of Imperial Russia
2560:Piekalkiewicz and Penn,
2551:, Pelican, 2000, p. 153.
2416:in Collapsed States, ed
2156:in Collapsed States, ed
1888:The Mind of Adolf Hitler
1873:The Mind of Adolf Hitler
1849:The Mind of Adolf Hitler
1805:Piekalkiewicz and Penn,
1626:Piekalkiewicz and Penn,
1595:, "The Masada complex",
1557:, Penguin, 2007, p. 199.
1544:Routledge, 1978, p. 245.
1288:
1124:Armenian genocide denial
1065:social legislation, the
891:collapsed at the end of
512:Newly independent states
113:Definitions and examples
43:This article or section
2855:Talbot & Singh 2009
2118:, Palgrave, 2004, p. 2.
2112:International Relations
1852:, Pan, 1972, pp. 33, 55
1796:, Palgrave, 2006, p. 70
1250:Speaking truth to power
1220:International relations
1101:German collective guilt
793:Austro-Hungarian Empire
663:, which was won by the
574:Austro-Hungarian empire
324:between 1970 and 1991,
2970:Hunt, Michael (2013).
2905:Development and Change
2825:The Partition of India
2643:Development and Change
2082:, Sutton, 1998, p .187
2069:, Sutton, 1998, p. 176
2056:, Sutton, 1998, p. 175
2043:, Sutton, 1998, p. 154
1947:, Phoenix 1993, p. 300
1922:, Palgrave 2006, p. 47
1777:John Kenneth Galbraith
1761:John Kenneth Galbraith
1745:John Kenneth Galbraith
1729:John Kenneth Galbraith
1282:Dissolution (politics)
1032:South African diaspora
651:between the governing
330:John Kenneth Galbraith
301:
137:in 1992; and possibly
23:. For other uses, see
21:Wave function collapse
3142:Middle East Quarterly
2801:The Meaning of Hitler
2761:Uzonyi, Gary (2021).
2593:by Michael Reynolds,
2578:The three Yugoslavias
2549:The meaning of Hitler
2169:Collapsed States, ed
2140:Collapsed States, ed
2127:Collapsed States, ed
2110:and Jon C Pevehouse,
2023:Collapsed States, ed
1906:The Meaning of Hitler
1807:Politics of Ideocracy
1702:Collapsed States, ed
1421:Third World Quarterly
1377:Third World Quarterly
1132:Stab-in-the-back myth
1067:liberal constitutions
1054:Constitution of Japan
726:2010 Haiti earthquake
487:Absence of legitimacy
365:Hitler, according to
296:
47:synthesis of material
3179:Comparative politics
3050:Political Psychology
3012:Simon & Schuster
2949:Simon & Schuster
2875:Simon & Schuster
2749:Simon & Schuster
2712:Simon & Schuster
2691:"Failed States 2022"
2515:. 18 September 2022.
2467:10.1017/slr.2017.178
2402:Simon & Schuster
2338:Simon & Schuster
2208:Simon & Schuster
2052:John Van der Kiste,
1781:The Anatomy of Power
1765:The Anatomy of Power
1749:The Anatomy of Power
1733:The Anatomy of Power
1691:Simon & Schuster
1203:Fragile States Index
701:battle of Tewkesbury
606:Monopoly on violence
150:monopoly on violence
3126:The Daily Telegraph
2887:Francis Mading Deng
2799:Sebastian Haffner,
2725:Partition (n), 7. b
2606:Dmitri Volkogonov,
2547:Sebastain Haffner,
2437:. 14 November 2022.
2116:Ending the Cold War
1988:, 14 February 1991.
1876:, Pan 1972, p. 155.
1661:, 15 December 2016.
1658:The Washington Post
1598:Commentary magazine
1059:U.S. Bill of Rights
865:As in the Austrian
689:disputed succession
200:Theories and causes
141:from 1992 to 1995.
3189:Types of countries
2660:I. William Zartman
2591:Shattering Empires
2418:I. William Zartman
2373:I. William Zartman
2371:Collapsed States,
2351:I. William Zartman
2260:I. William Zartman
2258:Collapsed States,
2171:I. William Zartman
2158:I. William Zartman
2142:I. William Zartman
2129:I. William Zartman
2108:Joshua S Goldstein
2037:John Van der Kiste
2025:I. William Zartman
1943:Denis Mack Smith,
1891:, Pan 1972, p. 157
1717:I. William Zartman
1704:I. William Zartman
1555:Good and bad power
1512:History and Theory
1138:In the longer term
1093:Slobodan Milosevic
885:partition of India
777:coup of 1908, the
771:Slobodan Milosevic
713:battle of Bosworth
683:Wars of succession
612:, paramilitary or
542:were sheltered in
398:Slobodan Milosevic
292:"folie a millions"
241:revolutionary wave
190:Bosnia-Herzegovina
154:sub-Saharan Africa
57:to the main topic.
51:verifiably mention
45:possibly contains
3184:Political history
2877:2006, pp. 188β189
2835:978-0-521-85661-4
2318:Dmitri Volkogonov
2286:(19 April 2007).
1985:Los Angeles Times
1901:Sebastian Haffner
1836:The True Believer
1272:Societal collapse
1214:covert operations
1188:Cycle of violence
1165:covert operations
1147:Sebastian Haffner
969:Armenian genocide
693:Wars of the Roses
560:Economic collapse
463:Military takeover
408:Nicolae CeauΘescu
212:Cyclical theories
90:
89:
82:
3201:
3163:
3160:
3154:
3151:
3145:
3135:
3129:
3122:
3116:
3106:
3100:
3099:, 25 August 2017
3090:
3084:
3074:
3068:
3067:
3065:
3041:
3035:
3034:
3021:
3015:
3001:
2995:
2992:
2986:
2985:
2967:
2961:
2958:
2952:
2938:
2932:
2929:
2923:
2922:
2920:
2911:(5): 1001β1023.
2896:
2890:
2884:
2878:
2864:
2858:
2852:
2846:
2845:
2844:
2842:
2819:
2813:
2810:
2804:
2797:
2791:
2790:
2758:
2752:
2738:
2732:
2731:
2721:
2715:
2701:
2695:
2694:
2687:
2681:
2680:
2679:. 12 March 2024.
2669:
2663:
2656:Collapsed States
2653:
2647:
2638:
2632:
2617:
2611:
2604:
2598:
2587:
2581:
2571:
2565:
2558:
2552:
2545:
2539:
2536:
2530:
2523:
2517:
2516:
2509:
2503:
2500:
2494:
2493:
2486:
2480:
2479:
2469:
2445:
2439:
2438:
2427:
2421:
2411:
2405:
2391:
2385:
2382:
2376:
2369:
2363:
2360:
2354:
2347:
2341:
2327:
2321:
2315:
2309:
2307:
2305:
2303:
2280:
2274:
2269:
2263:
2256:
2250:
2247:
2241:
2238:
2232:
2229:
2223:
2217:
2211:
2197:
2191:
2190:
2183:
2174:
2167:
2161:
2151:
2145:
2138:
2132:
2125:
2119:
2105:
2099:
2089:
2083:
2076:
2070:
2063:
2057:
2050:
2044:
2034:
2028:
2021:
2015:
2008:
2002:
1995:
1989:
1980:
1974:
1969:Jerrold M Post,
1967:
1961:
1954:
1948:
1941:
1935:
1929:
1923:
1916:
1910:
1898:
1892:
1883:
1877:
1868:
1862:
1859:
1853:
1845:
1839:
1832:
1826:
1823:The Sane Society
1816:
1810:
1803:
1797:
1790:
1784:
1774:
1768:
1758:
1752:
1742:
1736:
1726:
1720:
1713:
1707:
1700:
1694:
1680:
1674:
1668:
1662:
1650:
1644:
1641:The Sane Society
1637:
1631:
1624:
1618:
1608:
1602:
1590:
1584:
1577:
1571:
1564:
1558:
1551:
1545:
1536:
1530:
1521:
1515:
1501:
1495:
1494:
1462:
1453:
1452:
1427:(8): 1491β1507.
1412:
1403:
1402:
1392:
1383:(7): 1299β1315.
1368:
1345:
1344:
1326:
1302:
1299:
1230:American decline
1116:Holocaust denial
1085:Nuremberg trials
993:Ethnic cleansing
977:ethnic cleansing
479:in 1979; and in
446:Czar Nicholas II
386:Denis Mack Smith
304:Democratic decay
216:Islamic scholar
85:
78:
74:
71:
65:
38:
37:
30:
3209:
3208:
3204:
3203:
3202:
3200:
3199:
3198:
3194:Political power
3169:
3168:
3167:
3166:
3161:
3157:
3152:
3148:
3136:
3132:
3128:,16 August 2014
3123:
3119:
3115:, November 2017
3113:Global Research
3107:
3103:
3097:Middle East Eye
3091:
3087:
3075:
3071:
3042:
3038:
3030:TheGuardian.com
3023:
3022:
3018:
3002:
2998:
2993:
2989:
2982:
2968:
2964:
2959:
2955:
2939:
2935:
2930:
2926:
2897:
2893:
2885:
2881:
2865:
2861:
2853:
2849:
2840:
2838:
2836:
2820:
2816:
2811:
2807:
2798:
2794:
2759:
2755:
2739:
2735:
2723:
2722:
2718:
2702:
2698:
2689:
2688:
2684:
2671:
2670:
2666:
2654:
2650:
2646:, 33 (5), 2002.
2639:
2635:
2631:, 4 April 2011.
2629:Financial Times
2618:
2614:
2605:
2601:
2597:, 4 April 2011.
2595:Financial Times
2588:
2584:
2572:
2568:
2559:
2555:
2546:
2542:
2537:
2533:
2524:
2520:
2511:
2510:
2506:
2501:
2497:
2488:
2487:
2483:
2446:
2442:
2435:Foreign Affairs
2429:
2428:
2424:
2412:
2408:
2392:
2388:
2383:
2379:
2370:
2366:
2361:
2357:
2348:
2344:
2328:
2324:
2316:
2312:
2301:
2299:
2298:on 22 July 2009
2281:
2277:
2270:
2266:
2257:
2253:
2248:
2244:
2239:
2235:
2230:
2226:
2218:
2214:
2198:
2194:
2185:
2184:
2177:
2168:
2164:
2152:
2148:
2139:
2135:
2126:
2122:
2106:
2102:
2090:
2086:
2078:Van der Kiste,
2077:
2073:
2065:Van der Kiste,
2064:
2060:
2051:
2047:
2035:
2031:
2022:
2018:
2009:
2005:
1996:
1992:
1981:
1977:
1968:
1964:
1960:, 20 April 1999
1955:
1951:
1942:
1938:
1930:
1926:
1917:
1913:
1899:
1895:
1885:Walter Langer,
1884:
1880:
1870:Walter Langer,
1869:
1865:
1860:
1856:
1846:
1842:
1833:
1829:
1817:
1813:
1804:
1800:
1791:
1787:
1775:
1771:
1759:
1755:
1743:
1739:
1727:
1723:
1714:
1710:
1701:
1697:
1681:
1677:
1669:
1665:
1651:
1647:
1638:
1634:
1625:
1621:
1611:Jerrold M. Post
1609:
1605:
1591:
1587:
1578:
1574:
1565:
1561:
1552:
1548:
1537:
1533:
1522:
1518:
1502:
1498:
1463:
1456:
1413:
1406:
1369:
1348:
1341:
1327:
1316:
1311:
1306:
1305:
1300:
1296:
1291:
1286:
1262:Thucydides Trap
1245:Siege mentality
1161:Active measures
1156:
1140:
1081:
1075:
1046:
1040:
1026:collapsed; the
1020:Revival Process
1003:
989:
957:
923:became part of
881:
875:
863:
839:
833:
825:
735:
721:
699:dynasty at the
685:
673:
636:, then part of
598:
562:
556:
535:
514:
489:
465:
431:
419:totalitarianism
394:Ken Livingstone
384:, according to
376:Oedipus complex
371:Messiah complex
351:
318:
306:
249:
247:Mass psychology
214:
202:
115:
99:sovereign state
86:
75:
69:
66:
59:
49:which does not
39:
35:
28:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3207:
3197:
3196:
3191:
3186:
3181:
3165:
3164:
3155:
3146:
3130:
3117:
3101:
3085:
3069:
3056:(3): 331β349.
3036:
3016:
2996:
2987:
2980:
2962:
2953:
2933:
2924:
2891:
2879:
2859:
2847:
2834:
2814:
2805:
2792:
2753:
2733:
2716:
2696:
2682:
2664:
2648:
2633:
2625:Francis Wcislo
2612:
2599:
2582:
2566:
2553:
2540:
2531:
2527:The Muqaddimah
2518:
2504:
2495:
2481:
2460:(3): 703β709.
2440:
2422:
2406:
2386:
2377:
2364:
2355:
2342:
2322:
2310:
2275:
2264:
2251:
2242:
2233:
2224:
2212:
2192:
2175:
2162:
2146:
2133:
2120:
2100:
2084:
2071:
2058:
2045:
2029:
2016:
2010:John Sweeney,
2003:
1997:John Sweeney,
1990:
1975:
1962:
1949:
1936:
1924:
1911:
1893:
1878:
1863:
1854:
1840:
1827:
1811:
1798:
1785:
1769:
1753:
1737:
1721:
1708:
1695:
1675:
1671:Marina Ottaway
1663:
1645:
1632:
1619:
1603:
1601:, 1 July 1973.
1585:
1572:
1559:
1553:Geoff Mulgan,
1546:
1541:The Muqaddimah
1531:
1516:
1496:
1477:(2): 179β197.
1454:
1404:
1346:
1339:
1313:
1312:
1310:
1307:
1304:
1303:
1293:
1292:
1290:
1287:
1285:
1284:
1279:
1274:
1269:
1264:
1259:
1252:
1247:
1242:
1237:
1235:Power politics
1232:
1227:
1222:
1217:
1207:
1206:
1205:
1195:
1190:
1185:
1180:
1173:
1168:
1157:
1155:
1152:
1139:
1136:
1097:Saddam Hussein
1074:
1071:
1039:
1036:
997:Refugee crisis
988:
985:
965:Final solution
956:
953:
909:Czechoslovakia
889:Ottoman Turkey
874:
871:
862:
859:
832:
829:
824:
821:
813:Czechoslovakia
797:Ottoman Empire
789:Marina Ottaway
769:in support of
763:Greater Serbia
734:
731:
720:
717:
684:
681:
672:
669:
653:National Party
647:ended through
597:
594:
555:
552:
534:
531:
513:
510:
488:
485:
464:
461:
430:
427:
402:Saddam Hussein
350:
347:
335:Mahatma Gandhi
317:
314:
305:
302:
248:
245:
230:Book of Exodus
213:
210:
201:
198:
114:
111:
95:State collapse
88:
87:
42:
40:
33:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3206:
3195:
3192:
3190:
3187:
3185:
3182:
3180:
3177:
3176:
3174:
3159:
3150:
3144:, Winter 2003
3143:
3139:
3138:Adeed Dawisha
3134:
3127:
3121:
3114:
3110:
3109:Israel Shahak
3105:
3098:
3094:
3089:
3082:
3081:The Spectator
3078:
3077:Ali A. Allawi
3073:
3064:
3059:
3055:
3051:
3047:
3040:
3032:
3031:
3026:
3020:
3013:
3009:
3005:
3000:
2991:
2983:
2981:9780199371020
2977:
2973:
2966:
2957:
2950:
2946:
2942:
2937:
2928:
2919:
2914:
2910:
2906:
2902:
2895:
2888:
2883:
2876:
2872:
2868:
2863:
2856:
2851:
2837:
2831:
2827:
2826:
2818:
2809:
2802:
2796:
2788:
2784:
2780:
2776:
2772:
2768:
2764:
2757:
2750:
2746:
2742:
2737:
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2592:
2586:
2579:
2575:
2574:Sabrina Ramet
2570:
2563:
2557:
2550:
2544:
2535:
2528:
2525:Ibn Khaldun,
2522:
2514:
2508:
2499:
2491:
2485:
2477:
2473:
2468:
2463:
2459:
2455:
2454:Slavic Review
2451:
2444:
2436:
2432:
2426:
2419:
2415:
2410:
2403:
2399:
2395:
2390:
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2339:
2335:
2331:
2326:
2319:
2314:
2297:
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2289:
2285:
2284:Gaidar, Yegor
2279:
2273:
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2261:
2255:
2246:
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2216:
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2093:
2088:
2081:
2075:
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2042:
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2020:
2013:
2007:
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1994:
1987:
1986:
1979:
1972:
1966:
1959:
1953:
1946:
1940:
1933:
1928:
1921:
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1897:
1890:
1889:
1882:
1875:
1874:
1867:
1858:
1851:
1850:
1844:
1837:
1834:Eric Hoffer,
1831:
1824:
1820:
1815:
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1802:
1795:
1789:
1782:
1778:
1773:
1766:
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1639:Erich Fromm,
1636:
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1616:
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1600:
1599:
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1582:
1579:Ian Mcgreal,
1576:
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1543:
1542:
1538:Ibn Khaldun,
1535:
1528:
1527:
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1509:
1505:
1504:J.J. Saunders
1500:
1492:
1488:
1484:
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1476:
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1200:
1199:
1198:Fragile state
1196:
1194:
1191:
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1021:
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930:
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902:
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890:
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880:
879:Balkanization
873:Fragmentation
870:
868:
858:
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814:
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806:
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801:British India
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759:Sabrina Ramet
757:According to
755:
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566:Black economy
561:
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528:
523:
519:
509:
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506:Boris Yeltsin
503:
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470:
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457:Leonid Fituni
453:
451:
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413:
409:
405:
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399:
396:has compared
395:
391:
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383:
379:
377:
372:
368:
367:Walter Langer
363:
361:
360:Promised land
356:
346:
344:
340:
339:British India
336:
331:
327:
323:
313:
310:
300:
295:
293:
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284:
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278:
274:
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261:
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253:Hajime Tanabe
244:
242:
237:
235:
231:
227:
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197:
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191:
187:
183:
179:
178:Guinea-Bissau
175:
171:
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155:
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142:
140:
136:
132:
128:
124:
123:fragile state
120:
110:
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106:civil society
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73:
70:November 2022
63:
58:
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41:
32:
31:
26:
22:
3158:
3149:
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3088:
3083:, 2 May 2015
3072:
3053:
3049:
3039:
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2990:
2971:
2965:
2956:
2936:
2927:
2908:
2904:
2894:
2882:
2862:
2857:, p. 2.
2850:
2839:, retrieved
2824:
2817:
2808:
2800:
2795:
2770:
2766:
2756:
2751:2006, p. 127
2736:
2728:
2724:
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2676:
2667:
2655:
2651:
2641:
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2590:
2585:
2577:
2569:
2561:
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2507:
2498:
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2457:
2453:
2443:
2434:
2425:
2409:
2404:2006, p. 182
2389:
2380:
2367:
2358:
2345:
2340:2006, p. 165
2325:
2313:
2300:. Retrieved
2296:the original
2291:
2278:
2267:
2254:
2245:
2236:
2227:
2220:Barry Schutz
2215:
2195:
2165:
2154:Barry Schutz
2149:
2136:
2123:
2115:
2111:
2103:
2095:
2092:Leon Trotsky
2087:
2080:The Romanovs
2079:
2074:
2067:The Romanovs
2066:
2061:
2054:The Romanovs
2053:
2048:
2041:The Romanovs
2040:
2032:
2019:
2011:
2006:
1998:
1993:
1983:
1978:
1970:
1965:
1957:
1952:
1944:
1939:
1931:
1927:
1919:
1914:
1904:
1896:
1886:
1881:
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1830:
1822:
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1748:
1740:
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1724:
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1698:
1678:
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1640:
1635:
1627:
1622:
1614:
1606:
1596:
1593:Robert Alter
1588:
1580:
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1567:
1562:
1554:
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1534:
1523:
1519:
1508:Muhsin Mahdi
1499:
1474:
1470:
1424:
1420:
1380:
1376:
1330:
1297:
1254:
1193:Failed state
1183:Collapsology
1175:
1145:
1141:
1105:
1082:
1051:
1047:
1004:
973:
958:
882:
864:
840:
837:Failed state
831:Failed state
826:
811:in 1993, of
787:
783:Sergei Witte
756:
744:
736:
733:Regeneration
722:
711:line at the
686:
674:
649:negotiations
645:South Africa
642:
599:
582:
563:
536:
515:
498:Ashraf Ghani
490:
466:
454:
444:
432:
416:North Korean
412:John Sweeney
406:
390:puppet state
380:
364:
352:
343:Martin Wight
333:"powerless"
319:
307:
297:
291:
285:
271:state or an
269:totalitarian
262:
258:resurrection
250:
238:
234:Geoff Mulgan
215:
205:
203:
182:Sierra Leone
143:
131:Soviet Union
119:failed state
116:
103:
94:
93:
91:
76:
67:
44:
3008:The J Curve
3004:Ian Bremmer
2951:2006, p. 10
2945:The J Curve
2941:Ian Bremmer
2871:The J Curve
2867:Ian Bremmer
2841:15 November
2745:The J Curve
2741:Ian Bremmer
2708:The J Curve
2704:Ian Bremmer
2414:Sipho Shezi
2398:The J Curve
2394:Ian Bremmer
2334:The J Curve
2330:Ian Bremmer
2210:2006, p. 14
2204:The J Curve
2200:Ian Bremmer
1958:Independent
1819:Erich Fromm
1693:2006, p. 79
1687:The J Curve
1683:Ian Bremmer
1566:Mark Katz,
893:World War I
855:South Sudan
748:Lech Walesa
739:reactionary
705:Richard III
697:Lancastrian
677:World War I
671:Foreign war
616:units. The
494:Afghanistan
469:coup d'etat
288:Erich Fromm
277:closed mind
218:Ibn Khaldun
168:, Somalia,
139:Afghanistan
3173:Categories
3093:Avi Shlaim
3014:2006, p157
2773:: 83β101.
2714:2006, p. 9
1918:Ian Hall,
1792:Ian Hall,
1653:Mark Blyth
1613:, editor,
1526:Muqaddimah
1309:References
1277:Debellatio
1077:See also:
1042:See also:
991:See also:
945:Azerbaijan
937:Tajikistan
925:Yugoslavia
877:See also:
835:See also:
817:Yugoslavia
775:Young Turk
765:and by an
752:Solidarity
695:ended the
558:See also:
518:Mozambique
326:Siad Barre
309:Mark Blyth
226:groupthink
194:Tajikistan
135:Yugoslavia
2787:239191483
2476:165940414
1945:Mussolini
1932:Mussolini
1491:221053229
1449:153402082
1399:153598699
1079:Denialism
1022:when the
983:erupted.
929:Pomerania
905:Palestine
869:of 1938.
867:Anschluss
803:in 1947,
799:in 1918,
715:in 1485.
614:guerrilla
602:civil war
578:Anschluss
483:in 1991.
442:in 1981.
382:Mussolini
355:ideocracy
273:ideocracy
222:asabiyyah
146:Max Weber
133:in 1991;
62:talk page
2677:BBC News
1441:20455126
1154:See also
1122:and the
1106:Downfall
1087:and the
1063:New Deal
1001:Diaspora
981:genocide
961:genocide
955:Genocide
917:Slovenia
707:and the
661:election
622:Slovenia
610:warlords
587:and the
548:Tanzania
544:Pakistan
477:Idi Amin
450:Rasputin
2658:edited
2627:(sic),
949:Georgia
941:Moldova
933:Silesia
921:Croatia
913:Hungary
847:Somalia
773:. The
709:Yorkist
626:Croatia
540:Taliban
527:Liberia
522:FRELIMO
481:Somalia
423:Romania
322:Somalia
279:and an
186:Georgia
166:Liberia
127:Somalia
121:" and "
2978:
2832:
2785:
2474:
2302:9 July
1489:
1447:
1439:
1397:
1337:
1118:, the
1111:Denial
1008:Bosnia
999:, and
655:, the
638:Serbia
634:Kosovo
630:Bosnia
589:Reagan
520:, the
475:under
473:Uganda
369:had a
265:Masada
192:, and
180:, and
170:Angola
162:Uganda
55:relate
2783:S2CID
2472:S2CID
1487:S2CID
1445:S2CID
1437:JSTOR
1395:S2CID
1289:Notes
1012:Haiti
897:Syria
851:Yemen
843:Haiti
570:Zaire
440:Ghana
174:Zaire
2976:ISBN
2843:2015
2830:ISBN
2304:2009
1524:The
1335:ISBN
1095:and
1010:and
979:and
947:and
931:and
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901:Iraq
883:The
853:and
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632:and
436:Chad
158:Chad
3058:doi
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2775:doi
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750:'s
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27:.
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