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Despite their smaller size, these HABs still often ascend to (and past) altitudes on the order of 30,000 m (98,000 ft), providing easy stratospheric access for scientific and educational purposes. These amateur balloon flights are often informed in their operations by the use of a path predictor. Before launch,
538:
A BalloonSat is a simple package designed to carry lightweight experiments into near space. They are a popular introduction to engineering principles in some high school and college courses. BalloonSats are carried as secondary payloads on ARHAB flights. One reason
BalloonSats are simple is that they
545:
started the
BalloonSat program in August 2000. It was created as a hands-on way to introduce new science and engineering students interested in space studies to some fundamental engineering techniques, team working skills and the basics of space and Earth science. The BalloonSat program is part of a
404:
and was the name suggested by Ralph Wallio (amateur radio callsign W0RPK) for this hobby. Often referred to as "The Poor Man's Space
Program", ARHAB allows amateurs to design functioning models of spacecraft and launch them into a space-like environment. Bill Brown (amateur radio callsign WB8ELK) is
564:
Before launch, most
BalloonSats are required to undergo testing. These tests are designed to ensure the BalloonSat will function properly and return science results. The tests include a cold soak, drop test, function test, and weighing. The cold soak test simulates the intense cold temperatures the
321:
In many countries, the bureaucratic overhead required for high altitude balloon launches is minimal when the payload is below a certain weight threshold, typically on the order of a few kilograms. This makes the process of launching these small HABs accessible to many students and amateur groups.
467:
in March 2008 lasted over 40 hours and landed off the coast of
Ireland, over 5,400 km (3,400 mi) from its launch point. On December 11, 2011, the California Near Space Project flight number CNSP-11 with the call sign K6RPT-11 launched a record-breaking flight traveling 6,236 mi
490:(BEAR) is a series of Canadian-based high-altitude balloon experiments by a group of Amateur Radio operators and experimenters from Sherwood Park and Edmonton, Alberta. The experiments started in the year 2000 and continued with BEAR-9 in 2012, reaching 36.010 km (22.376 mi). The
565:
BalloonSat will experience during its mission. A launch and landing can be traumatic, therefore the drop test requires the
BalloonSat to hold together and still function after an abrupt drop. The function test verifies the BalloonSat crew can prepare the BalloonSat at the launch site.
476:. The flight lasted 57 hours and 2 minutes. It became the first successful U.S. transcontinental and the first successful transatlantic amateur radio high-altitude balloon. Since that time, a number of flights have circumnavigated the Earth using superpressure plastic film balloons.
560:
Most carry sensors, data loggers and small cameras operated by timer circuits. Popular sensors include air temperature, relative humidity, tilt, and acceleration. Experiments carried inside
BalloonSats have included such things as captive insects and food items.
408:
An ARHAB flight consists of a balloon, a recovery parachute, and a payload of one or more packages. The payload normally contains an amateur radio transmitter that permits tracking of the flight to its landing for recovery. Most flights use an
200:
in Paris where 300,000 people gathered to watch the spectacle. The balloon was launched and rose through the clouds. The expansion of the gas caused the balloon to tear and it descended 45 minutes later 20 km (12 mi) away from Paris.
441:, to transmit data over great distances using little battery power. The use of amateur radio transmitters on an ARHAB flight requires an amateur radio license, but non-amateur radio transmitters are possible to use without a license.
1231:
573:
Besides conducting scientific activities, schools, influencers and other individuals have launched a wide variety of novelty payloads to the stratosphere with high-altitude balloons. These have included teddy bears,
316:
Payload of an amateur high-altitude balloon for scientific purposes. Embedded computer
Arietta G25, custom pcb and different sensors (temperature, pressure, passive radiation detector). Photo taken after the
973:
677:. The average wind speed at these levels is less than that at the surface. A propulsion system would allow the balloon to move into and maintain its position. The GBS would be powered with solar panels.
549:
Often the design of a
BalloonSat is under weight and volume constraints. This encourages good engineering practices, introduces a challenge, and allows for the inclusion of many BalloonSats on an
269:, for educational purposes, and by hobbyists. Common uses include meteorology, atmospheric and climate research, collection of imagery from near space, amateur radio applications, and
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380:
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A typical ARHAB flight uses a standard latex weather balloon, lasts around 2–3 hours, and reaches 25–35 km (16–22 mi) in altitude. Experiments with
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1301:
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Average wind speed in the stratosphere is minimal at altitudes of about 20 km. Values vary with season and location. Source: National
Weather Service (NWS)
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containing predicted wind vectors are used to numerically propagate a simulated HAB along a trajectory, predicting where the actual balloon will travel.
289:
126:(18–19 km (11–12 mi) above sea level), where pressure falls to the point that a human being cannot survive without a pressurised suit, and the
95:. Other purposes include use as a platform for experiments in the upper atmosphere. Modern balloons generally contain electronic equipment such as radio
1151:
1438:
369:
The first recorded amateur radio high-altitude balloon launches took place in Finland by the Ilmari program on May 28, 1967, and in Germany in 1964.
1718:
On an average, wind speeds are minimum in the lower stratosphere, around 20 km altitude. Air density at 20 km is roughly 1/20 that at sea level.
1696:
2018 IEEE 7th World Conference on Photovoltaic Energy Conversion (WCPEC) (A Joint Conference of 45th IEEE PVSC, 28th PVSEC & 34th EU PVSEC)
405:
considered to have begun the modern ARHAB movement with his first launch of a balloon carrying an amateur radio transmitter on 15 August 1987.
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192:, which had only been produced in small quantities previously, by mixing 540 kg (1,190 lb) of iron and 270 kg (600 lb) of
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921:
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receivers. Hobbyists frequently purchase weather balloons because of their ease of use, low price point, and widespread commoditisation.
151:
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845:
155:
A photo taken from a 1,500 g (3.3 lb) weather balloon at approximately 100,000 ft (19 mi; 30 km) above Oregon
1546:
688:, which could then provide a large area of coverage because of its wider line of sight over the curvature of the Earth and unimpeded
1616:
539:
do not require the inclusion of tracking equipment; as secondary payloads, they already are being carried by tracking capsules.
300:
are developing both crewed and uncrewed high-altitude balloons for scientific research, commercial purposes, and space tourism.
834:[Ultra-thin film high-altitude balloon (BS13-08) breaks the world record for altitude reached by an unmanned balloon].
487:
1859:
130:(100 km (62 mi) above sea level), where astrodynamics must take over from aerodynamics in order to maintain flight.
1801:
1780:
Izet-Unsalan, Kunsel; Unsalan, Deniz (2011). "A low cost alternative for satellites- tethered ultra-high altitude balloons".
1711:
417:(GPS) receiver and converts it to a digital radio transmission. Other flights may use an analog beacon and are tracked using
17:
1886:
736:
665:(60,000 to 70,000 feet (18 to 21 km) above sea level) at a fixed point over the Earth's surface and thereby act as an
1571:
1349:
1958:
1692:"SMARTS Modeling of Solar Spectra at Stratospheric Altitude and Influence on Performance of Selected III-V Solar Cells"
840:
1463:
1248:
1005:
1916:
StratoCat – Stratospheric balloons. History and present of their use in the fields of science, military and aerospace
1909:
1836:
590:
attempted to record an advertisement in near space with an armchair and cameras tethered to a high-altitude balloon.
511:
410:
343:
1115:
1948:
448:(ATV) transmitters or other scientific instruments. Some ARHAB flights carry a simplified payload package called
1048:
Wall, M. (2014). World View to Loft Experiments on Balloon Test Flights This Year. "Space.com." Retrieved from
751:
648:
301:
1135:
479:
Each year in the United States, the Great Plains Super Launch (GPSL) hosts a large gathering of ARHAB groups.
1489:
806:
952:
463:, and valved latex balloons have extended flight times to more than 24 hours. A zero-pressure flight by the
444:
In addition to the tracking equipment, other payload components may include sensors, data loggers, cameras,
1445:
1148:
1903:
1732:"Low multipath antennas for GNSS-based attitude determination systems applied to high-altitude platforms"
1252:
31:
1932:
1049:
766:
80:, generally attaining between 18 and 37 km (11 and 23 mi; 59,000 and 121,000 ft) above
681:
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108:
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45:
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1953:
1782:
Proceedings of 5th International Conference on Recent Advances in Space Technologies - RAST2011
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or Foamcore, as they are lightweight, easy to machine, and provide reasonably good insulation.
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Due to the low cost of GPS and communications equipment, high-altitude ballooning is a popular
39:
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228:
Notable crewed high altitude balloon flights include three records set for highest skydive:
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In France during 1783, the first public experiment with hydrogen-filled balloons involved
8:
464:
354:
trackers are also built and run under smaller balloons. These smaller trackers have used
323:
209:
Crewed high-altitude balloons have been used since the 1930s for research and in seeking
189:
144:
An example image from a hobby high-altitude balloon launched by the Make Stuff Club from
119:
1747:
1185:
1807:
1730:
Boccia, Luigi; Pace, Pasquale; Amendola, Giandomenico; Di Massa, Giuseppe (July 2008).
796:
716:
635:
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encoder, and a radio transmitter module. Other experimental payload modules include an
445:
277:
522:, all of which is contained within an insulated foam box suspended below the balloon.
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163:
A latex weather balloon bursting at about 29.5 km (18.3 mi; 97,000 ft)
145:
50:
35:
1811:
1642:"Pasty sent up by schoolchildren is Cornwall's only successful space launch to date"
1368:"Party Balloon Carrying Ham Radio Payload Circles Southern Hemisphere a Second Time"
703:
built and operates a balloon spaceport (high-altitude balloon port) in Pima County,
1935:– tracking team for CNSP and other balloons and rockets (archived 12 February 2003)
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1789:
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383:
Image of the Earth's horizon taken from 26 km (16 mi) on an ARHAB flight.
266:
247:
233:
127:
1306:
1235:
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1122:
1006:"How Google Will Use High-Flying Balloons to Deliver Internet to the Hinterlands"
579:
401:
214:
182:
178:
123:
92:
519:
422:
1929:– Silicon Valley based ARHAB group with first successful transatlantic balloon
1793:
1755:
1703:
1666:
1595:
1168:
Sóbester, András; Czerski, Helen; Zapponi, Niccolò; Castro, Ian (2014-04-01).
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77:
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137:, with organizations such as UKHAS assisting the development of payloads.
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670:
542:
293:
222:
96:
644:
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1062:
Civil Aviation Safety Regulations, Subpart 101.E—Unmanned free balloons
546:
course taught by Space Grant at the University of Colorado at Boulder.
434:
355:
115:
1915:
1229:
06. Dezember 1964 - Erster Ballonstart mit Amateurfunk-Last in der DDR
1193:
1170:"High-Altitude Gas Balloon Trajectory Prediction: A Monte Carlo Model"
27:
Balloon released into the stratosphere, most commonly weather balloons
674:
554:
81:
1076:
Code of Federal Regulations, Title 14, Chap. I, SubChap. F, Part 101
612:
1350:"Balloons Carrying Amateur Radio Payloads Still Circling the Earth"
1275:"Two Silicon Valley high-altitude ballooning groups vie for record"
1050:
http://www.space.com/26658-world-view-balloon-research-flights.html
503:
304:
have been proposed for applications such as communications relays.
85:
73:
661:) are proposed high-altitude balloons that would float in the mid-
534:
Image of five BalloonSats shortly after launch on an ARHAB flight.
1101:
974:"The Role of Balloons in the Future Development of Space Tourism"
776:
731:
704:
587:
491:
334:
Testing radio range is often a large component of these hobbies.
159:
65:
1515:"Watch 1,000 Lego astronauts fly near the edge of space (video)"
1215:
684:
over a large area. Laser broadband would connect the GBS to the
506:. All of the BEAR payloads carry a tracking system comprising a
1910:
NASA Goddard Space Flight Library Balloon technology collection
859:
721:
628:
499:
100:
69:
1064:. Australian Government Civil Aviation Safety Authority. 1998.
30:"Space balloon" redirects here. For balloon space probes, see
1249:"Amateur Radio Balloon Flight Crosses Atlantic, Sets Records"
550:
495:
438:
379:
134:
1860:"NOAA's Geostationary and Polar-Orbiting Weather Satellites"
1167:
586:, bacon and cans of beer. Japanese electronics manufacturer
1785:
1617:"Chef Erik stuurt pizza de ruimte in (en eet 'm daarna op)"
575:
339:
1729:
1417:
425:
custom-built transmitters and slow data protocols such as
1690:
Limpinsel, Moritz; Kuo, Dawei; Vijh, Aarohi (June 2018).
865:
782:
List of tallest structures in the United States by height
507:
338:
is often used with packet radio to communicate with 1200
329:
53:
high-altitude balloon just before launch on June 12, 2005
1904:
Spacenear.us Tracker display of current balloon launches
1547:"10 Weird Things Humans Have Sent Into the Stratosphere"
1302:"Amateur Radio Balloon Flies From California to Algeria"
1138:. Earth Science Picture of the Day (EPOD) June 25, 2019.
953:
History of the use of Balloons in Scientific Experiments
196:. The balloon took 5 days to fill and was launched from
1887:"Arizona Votes To Build Spaceport For Space Ballooning"
276:
High-altitude balloons have been considered for use in
1091:
We Sent Garlic Bread to the Edge of Space, Then Ate It
421:
techniques. Long duration flights frequently must use
114:
These balloons are launched into what is defined as "
84:. In 2013, a balloon named BS 13-08 reached a record
346:
back to the ground station. Smaller packages called
1779:
832:"ISAS | 超薄膜高高度気球（BS13-08）が無人気球到達高度の世界記録を更新 / トピックス"
307:
91:The most common type of high-altitude balloons are
593:
221:at 22,000 m (22.0 km), and the American
1884:
1572:"Watch an Entire Pizza Survive a Trip Into Space"
959:13:2 pp.200 (1972). Recovered on 11 February 2009
88:of 53.7 km (33.4 mi; 176,000 ft).
1940:
1689:
1668:2½ Hours of Unedited Garlic Bread Flight Footage
1544:
1470:. 16th Annual/USU Conference on Small Satellites
866:Sanz Fernández de Córdoba, Dr. S. (2004-06-24).
204:
185:, renowned constructors of physics instruments.
1216:"Amateur Radio Astronomy and weather reporting"
217:up to 16,201 m (16.2 km), the Soviet
971:
413:(APRS) tracker which gets its position from a
1828:The Use of Balloons for Physics and Astronomy
1597:I Sent A Slice Of Pizza To Space, Then Ate It
1149:A Beginners Guide to High Altitude Ballooning
967:
965:
887:
885:
695:
172:
34:. For balloon-based in-space satellites, see
1818:
997:
837:Institute of Space and Astronautical Science
366:to transmit their locations and other data.
265:Uncrewed high-altitude balloons are used as
246:in 2012 at 38,969 m (39.0 km) for
236:in 1960 at 31,300 m (31.3 km) for
1464:"BalloonSat: Missions to the Edge of Space"
1378:
972:López-Urdiales, José Mariano (2002-10-19).
915:
913:
868:"The 100 km Boundary for Astronautics"
812:List of high-altitude object events in 2023
396:) is the application of analog and digital
1923:at Parallax.com (archived 12 October 2008)
1773:
1439:"Exporer Scouts 632 BalloonSat slide show"
1078:. U.S. Government Publishing Office. 2020.
1022:
962:
882:
1512:
1272:
919:
553:flight. The airframe material is usually
181:, a French professor of physics, and the
1409:
910:
870:. Fédération aéronautique internationale
673:is around 1/15 to 1/20 of what it is at
643:
627:
619:
611:
529:
378:
311:
158:
150:
139:
44:
1852:
1384:
1326:
256:in 2014 at 41,419 m (41.4 km)
14:
1941:
1885:Emily Calandrelli (January 19, 2016).
1569:
1540:
1538:
1536:
1534:
1329:"CNSP-11, K6RPT-11 Flight information"
488:Balloon Experiments with Amateur Radio
390:Amateur radio high-altitude ballooning
330:Amateur radio high-altitude ballooning
1685:
1683:
1299:
1238:(in German), accessed August 8, 2016.
1003:
920:McDermott, Vincent (8 August 2011).
737:Columbia Scientific Balloon Facility
1824:
1531:
1461:
1136:Moon Imaged from the MoCRiS Payload
568:
465:Spirit of Knoxville Balloon Program
24:
1862:. noaasis.noaa.gov. Archived from
1680:
1490:"Teddy bear jets into outer space"
841:Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency
25:
1970:
1933:Stratofox Aerospace Tracking Team
1897:
1415:
1025:"See The World From 100,000 Feet"
411:Automatic Packet Reporting System
344:Automatic Packet Reporting System
225:at 22,066 m (22.1 km).
1513:Pultarova, Tereza (2023-05-26).
979:. Houston, Texas. Archived from
655:Geostationary balloon satellites
372:
308:Amateur high-altitude ballooning
1878:
1723:
1659:
1634:
1609:
1588:
1563:
1506:
1482:
1455:
1431:
1385:Tousley, Nancy (1 March 2012).
1360:
1342:
1331:. California Near Space Project
1320:
1293:
1266:
1241:
1222:
1208:
1161:
1141:
1128:
1116:What is a High Altitude Balloon
1108:
1082:
1068:
1054:
848:from the original on 2023-03-06
680:A GBS could be used to provide
649:High-altitude airship satellite
624:Geostationary balloon satellite
594:Geostationary balloon satellite
482:
449:
302:High-altitude platform stations
1825:Zee, Chong-Hung (1989-04-30).
1273:Fernandez, Lisa (2011-12-15).
1042:
1023:Betancourt, Mark (July 2015).
1016:
1004:Levy, Steven (June 14, 2013).
945:
824:
752:High-altitude platform station
578:figurines, hamburgers, pizza,
38:. For balloon spacecraft, see
13:
1:
1927:California Near Space Project
1300:Boyle, Rebecca (2011-12-15).
817:
807:Nuclear electromagnetic pulse
525:
205:Crewed high-altitude balloons
1698:. IEEE. pp. 3367–3373.
1570:Forbes, Paula (2012-09-17).
284:. Private companies such as
7:
1912:(archived 13 February 2013)
1906:(archived 26 December 2008)
1387:"Kevin Schmidt: High Hopes"
1327:Meadows, Ron (2011-12-12).
1253:American Radio Relay League
1158:. Retrieved August 8, 2016.
1125:. Retrieved August 8, 2016.
844:(in Japanese). 2013-09-20.
710:
32:List of Solar System probes
10:
1975:
893:"DIY balloon sent up 30km"
696:Arizona space balloon port
597:
518:crossband repeater, and a
173:The first hydrogen balloon
167:
118:", defined as the area of
29:
1959:Balloon-borne experiments
1794:10.1109/RAST.2011.5966806
1756:10.1007/s10291-007-0075-7
1704:10.1109/PVSC.2018.8547665
682:broadband Internet access
472:, to a splashdown in the
415:Global Positioning System
215:Auguste Piccard's flights
342:, using a system called
922:"Space race for DIYers"
747:Geostationary satellite
742:Flight endurance record
600:Geostationary satellite
419:radio direction finding
271:submillimetre astronomy
260:
211:flight altitude records
188:Charles provided large
1949:Balloons (aeronautics)
1623:(in Dutch). 2023-05-06
1545:Smithsonian Magazine.
787:Zero-pressure balloons
772:World View Enterprises
701:World View Enterprises
669:. At those altitudes,
651:
641:
625:
617:
608:Solar-powered aircraft
535:
468:(10,036 km) from
461:superpressure balloons
457:zero-pressure balloons
384:
318:
298:World View Enterprises
190:quantities of hydrogen
164:
156:
148:
76:and released into the
68:typically filled with
58:High-altitude balloons
54:
40:inflatable decelerator
1468:Utah State University
1280:San Jose Mercury News
957:Space Science Reviews
792:Superpressure balloon
727:Atmospheric satellite
667:atmospheric satellite
647:
631:
623:
615:
604:Atmospheric satellite
533:
382:
315:
162:
154:
143:
64:are usually uncrewed
48:
18:Stratospheric balloon
1551:Smithsonian Magazine
470:San Jose, California
105:satellite navigation
1748:2008GPSS...12..163B
1186:2014AIAAJ..52..832S
498:filled with either
1788:. pp. 13–16.
1234:2016-08-12 at the
1154:2016-07-29 at the
1121:2017-07-22 at the
797:StratEx Space Dive
717:Aerial photography
652:
642:
626:
618:
536:
446:amateur television
385:
319:
278:telecommunications
165:
157:
149:
120:Earth's atmosphere
55:
1866:on 25 August 2018
1803:978-1-4244-9617-4
1713:978-1-5386-8529-7
1646:The Cornish Times
1194:10.2514/1.J052900
899:. 26 October 2007
616:Stratobus airship
474:Mediterranean Sea
324:weather forecasts
290:Space Perspective
267:research balloons
244:Felix Baumgartner
238:Project Excelsior
232:the first set by
146:Kalamazoo College
107:systems, such as
36:balloon satellite
16:(Redirected from
1966:
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1621:jeugdjournaal.nl
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1475:
1462:Koehler, Chris.
1459:
1453:
1452:
1450:
1444:. Archived from
1443:
1435:
1429:
1428:
1426:
1424:
1418:"BEAR Home Page"
1413:
1407:
1406:
1404:
1402:
1393:. Archived from
1382:
1376:
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1364:
1358:
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930:. Archived from
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889:
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877:
875:
863:
857:
856:
854:
853:
828:
802:Red Bull Stratos
569:Variety payloads
402:weather balloons
248:Red Bull Stratos
234:Joseph Kittinger
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1842:. Retrieved
1831:. Springer.
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1648:. 2023-01-11
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1620:
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1467:
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1446:the original
1433:
1421:. Retrieved
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1399:. Retrieved
1395:the original
1391:Canadian Art
1390:
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1354:www.arrl.org
1353:
1344:
1333:. Retrieved
1322:
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1278:
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1255:. 2011-12-15
1243:
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1174:AIAA Journal
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1100:– via
1095:. Retrieved
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1032:. Retrieved
1028:
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988:. Retrieved
981:the original
956:
947:
936:. Retrieved
932:the original
925:
901:. Retrieved
872:. Retrieved
861:
850:. Retrieved
835:
826:
762:Project Loon
757:Internet.org
699:
690:Fresnel zone
679:
663:stratosphere
658:
654:
653:
584:garlic bread
572:
563:
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548:
541:
537:
494:are made of
486:
483:BEAR program
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351:
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333:
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275:
264:
254:Alan Eustace
242:followed by
227:
213:, including
208:
187:
176:
132:
122:between the
113:
97:transmitters
90:
78:stratosphere
61:
57:
56:
1474:18 November
897:Boing Boing
874:28 December
671:air density
543:Space Grant
223:Explorer II
128:Kármán line
62:stratostats
1943:Categories
1674:2024-03-07
1652:2024-03-07
1627:2024-03-07
1603:2024-03-07
1581:2024-03-07
1556:2024-03-07
1524:2024-03-07
1499:2024-03-07
1335:2011-12-15
1313:2011-12-15
1286:2011-12-15
1259:2011-12-15
1097:2022-11-20
990:2015-07-13
938:2011-12-28
903:2008-06-08
852:2023-12-03
818:References
598:See also:
526:BalloonSat
450:BalloonSat
435:Morse code
360:Field Hell
356:Morse code
116:near space
1764:1080-5370
1519:Space.com
1202:0001-1452
675:sea level
639:satellite
555:Styrofoam
82:sea level
1870:24 March
1844:24 March
1812:26712889
1401:8 August
1372:arrl.org
1232:Archived
1152:Archived
1134:MoCRiS,
1119:Archived
846:Archived
711:See also
504:hydrogen
492:balloons
429:(RTTY),
294:Zephalto
86:altitude
74:hydrogen
66:balloons
1744:Bibcode
1182:Bibcode
1147:UKHAS,
1102:YouTube
777:PongSat
732:BRRISON
705:Arizona
686:network
636:airship
588:Toshiba
317:flight.
168:History
101:cameras
1835:
1810:
1800:
1762:
1710:
1423:19 May
1200:
1114:GSBC,
1034:9 July
722:ARCADE
606:, and
500:helium
437:, and
362:, and
296:, and
70:helium
1808:S2CID
1576:Eater
1449:(PDF)
1442:(PDF)
1010:Wired
984:(PDF)
977:(PDF)
551:ARHAB
496:latex
439:PSK31
394:ARHAB
348:micro
135:hobby
103:, or
51:BLAST
1872:2014
1846:2014
1833:ISBN
1798:ISBN
1786:IEEE
1760:ISSN
1708:ISBN
1476:2015
1425:2013
1403:2016
1198:ISSN
1036:2015
876:2020
576:LEGO
512:APRS
364:RTTY
352:pico
340:baud
280:and
261:Uses
49:The
1790:doi
1752:doi
1700:doi
1190:doi
955:",
659:GBS
508:GPS
502:or
400:to
350:or
109:GPS
72:or
60:or
1945::
1806:.
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1766:.
1758:.
1750:.
1740:12
1738:.
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657:(
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20:)
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