3306:
4304:
reformed it and paid only to those who participated in the battle. On the pattern of the
Byzantine system, the Umayyads reformed their army organization in general and divided it into five corps: the centre, two wings, vanguards, and rearguards, following the same formation while on the march or on a battlefield. Marwan II (740–50) abandoned the old division and introduced the Kurdus (cohort), a small compact body. The Umayyad troops were divided into three divisions: infantry, cavalry, and artillery. Arab troops were dressed and armed in Greek fashion. The Umayyad cavalry used plain and round saddles. The artillery used the arradah (ballista), the manjaniq (mangonel), and the dabbabah or kabsh (battering ram). The heavy engines, siege machines, and baggage were carried on camels behind the army.
4564:
2719:
79:
2869:
3004:
3333:
2644:
3457:
3165:
3526:(land tax). Since avoidance of taxation incentivized both mass conversions to Islam and abandonment of land for migration to the garrison cities, it put a strain on tax revenues, especially in Egypt, Iraq and Khurasan. Thus, "the Umayyad rulers had a vested interest in preventing the conquered peoples from accepting Islam or forcing them to continue paying those taxes from which they claimed exemption as Muslims", according to Hawting. To prevent a collapse in revenue, the converts' lands would become the property of their villages and remain liable for the full rate of the
5510:. As the Muslims took over cities, they left the people's political representatives, the Roman tax collectors, and the administrators in the office. The taxes to the central government were calculated and negotiated by the people's political representatives. Both the central and local governments were compensated for the services each provided. Many Christian cities used some of the taxes to maintain their churches and run their own organizations. Later, the Umayyads were criticized by some Muslims for not reducing the taxes of the people who converted to Islam.
4282:
caliph and his agents and officials posted in the provinces. The main highways were divided into stages of 12 miles (19 km) each and each stage had horses, donkeys, or camels ready to carry the post. Primarily the service met the needs of
Government officials, but travellers and their important dispatches were also benefited by the system. The postal carriages were also used for the swift transport of troops. They were able to carry fifty to a hundred men at a time. Under Governor Yusuf bin Umar, the postal department of Iraq costs 4,000,000 dirhams a year.
3600:
2770:(whom Mu'awiya adopted as his half-brother), respectively. In return for recognizing his suzerainty, maintaining order, and forwarding a token portion of the provincial tax revenues to Damascus, the caliph let his governors rule with practical independence. After al-Mughira's death in 670, Mu'awiya attached Kufa and its dependencies to the governorship of Basra, making Ziyad the practical viceroy over the eastern half of the caliphate. Afterward, Ziyad launched a concerted campaign to firmly establish Arab rule in the vast
2535:, all of whom were close, early companions of Muhammad and belonged to the Quraysh. He was chosen over Ali because he would ensure the concentration of state power into the hands of the Quraysh, as opposed to Ali's determination to diffuse power among all of the Muslim factions. From early in his reign, Uthman displayed explicit favouritism to his kinsmen, in stark contrast to his predecessors. He appointed his family members as governors over the regions successively conquered under Umar and himself, namely much of the
595:
727:
3612:
2808:
2453:
5381:
2820:, as his successor in 676, introducing hereditary rule to caliphal succession and, in practice, turning the office of the caliph into a kingship. The act was met with disapproval or opposition by the Iraqis and the Hejaz-based Quraysh, including the Umayyads, but most were bribed or coerced into acceptance. Yazid acceded after Mu'awiya's death in 680 and almost immediately faced a challenge to his rule by the Kufan partisans of Ali who had invited Ali's son and Muhammad's grandson
5441:("deputy of God"). The distinction seems to indicate that the Umayyads "regarded themselves as God's representatives at the head of the community and saw no need to share their religious power with, or delegate it to, the emergent class of religious scholars." In fact, it was precisely this class of scholars, based largely in Iraq, that was responsible for collecting and recording the traditions that form the primary source material for the history of the Umayyad period. In
4041:
Christian Syrian tribes. Soldiers were registered with the Army
Ministry, the Diwan Al-Jaysh, and were salaried. The army was divided into junds based on regional fortified cities. The Umayyad Syrian forces specialised in close order infantry warfare, and favoured using a kneeling spear wall formation in battle, probably as a result of their encounters with Roman armies. This was radically different from the original Bedouin style of mobile and individualistic fighting.
14873:
3699:
4180:
14862:
676:
11853:
11480:
3106:
According to Gibb, the decrees were the "first step towards the reorganization and unification of the diverse tax-systems in the provinces, and also a step towards a more definitely Muslim administration". Indeed, it formed an important part of the
Islamization measures that lent the Umayyad Caliphate "a more ideological and programmatic coloring it had previously lacked", according to Blankinship.
5623:
2668:, the seat of Mu'awiya's power. Syria's emergence as the metropolis of the Umayyad Caliphate was the result of Mu'awiya's twenty-year entrenchment in the province, the geographic distribution of its relatively large Arab population throughout the province in contrast to their seclusion in garrison cities in other provinces, and the domination of a single tribal confederation, the Kalb-led
3077:. Initially, the new coinage contained depictions of the caliph as the spiritual leader of the Muslim community and its supreme military commander. This image proved no less acceptable to Muslim officialdom and was replaced in 696 or 697 with image-less coinage inscribed with Qur'anic quotes and other Muslim religious formulas. In 698/99, similar changes were made to the silver
2704:, to guarantee the loyalty of the key military components of Syria. Mu'awiya preoccupied his core Syrian troops in nearly annual or bi-annual land and sea raids against Byzantium, which provided them with battlefield experience and war spoils, but secured no permanent territorial gains. Toward the end of his reign the caliph entered a thirty-year truce with Byzantine emperor
3863:
2855:, whose authority was likely restricted to Damascus and Syria's southern districts. Mu'awiya II had been ill from the beginning of his accession, with al-Dahhak assuming the practical duties of his office, and he died in early 684 without naming a successor. His death marked the end of the Umayyads' Sufyanid ruling house, called after Mu'awiya I's father Abu Sufyan.
2284:. The employment of Christians was part of a broader policy of religious accommodation that was necessitated by the presence of large Christian populations in the conquered provinces, as in Syria. This policy also boosted Mu'awiya's popularity and solidified Syria as his power base. The Umayyad era is often considered the formative period in
4007:
province. Local expenses were paid for by taxes coming from that province, with the remainder each year being sent to the central government in
Damascus. As the central power of the Umayyad rulers waned in the later years of the dynasty, some governors neglected to send the extra tax revenue to Damascus and created great personal fortunes.
2980:
signaling a new policy by the caliph and his successors to balance the interests of the Qays and Yaman in the
Umayyad state. With his unified army, Abd al-Malik marched against the Zubayrids of Iraq, having already secretly secured the defection of the province's leading tribal chiefs, and defeated Iraq's ruler, Ibn al-Zubayr's brother
3016:
and was subsequently given authority over the rest of the eastern caliphate. Resentment among the Iraqi troops towards al-Hajjaj's methods of governance, particularly his death threats to force participation in the war efforts and his reductions to their stipends, culminated with a mass Iraqi rebellion against the
Umayyads in
3583:, which sparked revolts in Khurasan in 721 or 722 that persisted for some twenty years and met strong resistance among the Berbers of Ifriqiya, where the Umayyad governor was assassinated by his discontented Berber guards. Warfare on the frontiers was also resumed, with renewed annual raids against the Byzantines and the
3363:(Central Asia), which had been a largely impenetrable region for earlier Muslim armies, between 705 and 715. Despite the distance from the Arab garrison towns of Khurasan, the unfavorable terrain and climate and his enemies' numerical superiority, Qutayba, through his persistent raids, gained the surrender of
5464:, by Imam Malik, was written in the early Abbasid period in Medina. It does not contain any anti-Umayyad content because it was more concerned with what the Quran and what Muhammad said and was not a history book on the Umayyads. Even the earliest pro-Shia accounts of al-Masudi are more balanced. Al-Masudi's
5603:
The seven heads of the dragon are symbolic of the seven provinces of the lands dominated by the
Umayyads: Damascus, Persia, Arabia, Egypt, Africa, Andalusia, and Transoxiana. The ten horns represent the ten names of the leaders of the Umayyad dynasty: Abu Sufyan, Muawiya, Yazid, Marwan, Abd al-Malik,
5538:
tax for converts to Islam. Imam Abu
Muhammad Abdullah ibn Abdul Hakam stated that Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz also stopped the personal allowance offered to his relatives, stating that he could only give them an allowance if he gave an allowance to everyone else in the empire. After Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz was
4063:
Early
Islamic coins re-used Byzantine and Sasanian iconography directly but added new Islamic elements. So-called "Arab-Byzantine" coins replicated Byzantine coins and were minted in Levantine cities before and after the Umayyads rose to power. Some examples of these coins, likely minted in Damascus,
3015:
Iraq remained politically unstable and the garrisons of Kufa and Basra had become exhausted by warfare with Kharijite rebels. In 694 Abd al-Malik combined both cities as a single province under the governorship of al-Hajjaj, who oversaw the suppression of the Kharijite revolts in Iraq and Iran by 698
2612:
in early 657. Ali agreed to settle the matter with Mu'awiya by arbitration, though the talks failed to achieve a resolution. The decision to arbitrate fundamentally weakened Ali's political position as he was forced to negotiate with Mu'awiya on equal terms, while it drove a significant number of his
4240:
To assist the caliph in administration there were six boards at the centre: Diwan al-Kharaj (the Board of Revenue), Diwan al-Rasa'il (the Board of Correspondence), Diwan al-Khatam (the Board of Signet), Diwan al-Barid (the Board of Posts), Diwan al-Qudat (the Board of Justice) and Diwan al-Jund (the
3105:
in 705/06. Arabic ultimately became the sole official language of the Umayyad state, but the transition in faraway provinces, such as Khurasan, did not occur until the 740s. Although the official language was changed, Greek and Persian-speaking bureaucrats who were versed in Arabic kept their posts.
3063:
to the caliphal treasury in Damascus to pay the Syrian troops in Iraq. The system of military pay established by Umar, which paid stipends to veterans of the earlier Muslim conquests and their descendants, was ended, salaries being restricted to those in active service. The old system was considered
3997:
The first four caliphs created a stable administration for the empire, following the practices and administrative institutions of the Byzantine Empire which had ruled the same region previously. These consisted of four main governmental branches: political affairs, military affairs, tax collection,
3133:
in its place as a "symbol of the political supremacy and moral prestige of Islam", according to historian Nikita Elisséeff. Noting al-Walid's awareness of architecture's propaganda value, historian Robert Hillenbrand calls the Damascus mosque a "victory monument" intended as a "visible statement of
5484:
regards the period of the Umayyads as part of the Arab Golden Age which it sought to emulate and restore. This is particularly true of Syrian nationalists and the present-day state of Syria, centered like that of the Umayyads on Damascus. The Umayyad banners were white, after the banner of Muawiya
4015:
As the empire grew, the number of qualified Arab workers was too small to keep up with the rapid expansion of the empire. Therefore, Muawiya allowed many of the local government workers in conquered provinces to keep their jobs under the new Umayyad government. Thus, much of the local government's
3893:
clan, rivals of the Umayyads, but the word "Hashimiyya" seems to refer specifically to Abu Hashim, a grandson of Ali and son of Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyya. According to certain traditions, Abu Hashim died in 717 in Humeima in the house of Muhammad ibn Ali, the head of the Abbasid family, and before
2917:
in Palestine, and the Ansar and South Arabians of Homs all opted to recognize Ibn al-Zubayr. Marwan ibn al-Hakam, the leader of the Umayyads expelled to Syria from Medina, was prepared to submit to Ibn al-Zubayr as well but was persuaded to forward his candidacy for the caliphate by Ibn Ziyad. The
2750:, resented the transition of power to Syria. They remained divided, nonetheless, as both cities competed for power and influence in Iraq and its eastern dependencies and remained divided between the Arab tribal nobility and the early Muslim converts, the latter of whom were divided between the pro-
2607:
Although Ali was able to replace Uthman's governors in Egypt and Iraq with relative ease, Mu'awiya had developed a solid power-base and an effective military against the Byzantines from the Arab tribes of Syria. Mu'awiya did not claim the caliphate but was determined to retain control of Syria and
5406:
The Umayyad caliphate was marked both by territorial expansion and by the administrative and cultural problems that such expansion created. Despite some notable exceptions, the Umayyads tended to favor the rights of the old Arab families, and in particular their own, over those of newly converted
4408:
and Jews still continued to produce great theological thinkers within their communities, but as time wore on, many of the intellectuals converted to Islam, leading to a lack of great thinkers in the non-Muslim communities. Important Christian writers from the Umayyad period include the theologian
4401:
says that Zoroastrians in the northern parts of Iran were hardly penetrated by the "believers", winning virtually complete autonomy in-return for tribute-tax or jizyah. Donner adds "Zoroastrians continued to exist in large numbers in northern and western Iran and elsewhere for centuries after the
2815:
In contrast to Uthman, Mu'awiya restricted the influence of his Umayyad kinsmen to the governorship of Medina, where the dispossessed Islamic elite, including the Umayyads, was suspicious or hostile toward his rule. However, in an unprecedented move in Islamic politics, Mu'awiya nominated his own
4281:
Mu'awiyah introduced the postal service, Abd al-Malik extended it throughout his empire, and Walid made full use of it. Umar bin Abdul-Aziz developed it further by building caravanserais at stages along the Khurasan highway. Relays of horses were used for the conveyance of dispatches between the
2745:
Mu'awiya's main challenge was reestablishing the unity of the Muslim community and asserting his authority and that of the caliphate in the provinces amid the political and social disintegration of the First Fitna. There remained significant opposition to his assumption of the caliphate and to a
4548:
were all treated well by Muawiyah. Muawiyah even restored Edessa's cathedral after it had been toppled by an earthquake. Holland also writes that, "Savagely though Muawiyah prosecuted his wars against the Romans, yet his subjects, no longer trampled by rival armies, no longer divided by hostile
4006:
Geographically, the empire was divided into several provinces, the borders of which changed numerous times during the Umayyad reign. Each province had a governor appointed by the caliph. The governor was in charge of the religious officials, army leaders, police, and civil administrators in his
2595:
After Uthman's assassination, Ali was recognized as caliph in Medina, though his support stemmed from the Ansar and the Iraqis, while the bulk of the Quraysh was wary of his rule. The first challenge to his authority came from the Qurayshite leaders al-Zubayr and Talha, who had opposed Uthman's
4040:
The Umayyad army was mainly Arab, with its core consisting of those who had settled in urban Syria and the Arab tribes who originally served in the army of the Eastern Roman Empire in Syria. These were supported by tribes in the Syrian desert and in the frontier with the Byzantines, as well as
3117:
setting of Jerusalem, home of the two older Abrahamic faiths, Judaism and Christianity. An alternative motive may have been to divert the religious focus of Muslims in the Umayyad realm from the Ka'aba in Zubayrid Mecca (683–692), where the Umayyads were routinely condemned during the Hajj. In
2979:
allies compelled him to sign a peace treaty with Byzantium in 689 which substantially increased the Umayyads' annual tribute to the Empire. During his siege of Circesium in 691, Abd al-Malik reconciled with Zufar and the Qays by offering them privileged positions in the Umayyad court and army,
4303:
The Diwan of Umar, assigning annuities to all Arabs and to the Muslim soldiers of other races, underwent a change in the hands of the Umayyads. The Umayyads meddled with the register and the recipients regarded pensions as the subsistence allowance even without being in active service. Hisham
5559:. In Shia sources, the Umayyad Caliphate is widely described as "tyrannical, anti-Islamic and godless". Shias point out that the founder of the dynasty, Muawiyah, declared himself a caliph in 657 and went to war against Muhammad's son-in-law and cousin, the ruling caliph Ali, clashing at the
4356:
As Islam spread, more and more of the Muslim population consisted of non-Arabs. This caused social unrest, as the new converts were not given the same rights as Muslim Arabs. Also, as conversions increased, tax revenues (peasant tax) from non-Muslims decreased to dangerous lows. These issues
4266:
In order to reduce forgery, Diwan al-Khatam (Bureau of Registry), a kind of state chancellery, was instituted by Mu'awiyah. It used to make and preserve a copy of each official document before sealing and despatching the original to its destination. Thus in the course of time a state archive
5638:
caliphs. In green, the Umayyad caliphs of Damascus. In yellow, the Umayyad emirs of Córdoba. In orange, the Umayyad caliphs of Córdoba. Abd Al-Rahman III was an emir until 929 when he proclaimed himself caliph. Muhammad is included (in caps) to show the kinship of the Umayyads with him. See
3478:
launched a naval campaign against the city. The Byzantines destroyed the Umayyad fleets and defeated Maslama's army, prompting his withdrawal to Syria in 718. The massive losses incurred during the campaign led to a partial retrenchment of Umayyad forces from the captured Byzantine frontier
4313:
3503:
in modern France was conquered during his reign. To maintain stronger oversight in the provinces, Umar dismissed all his predecessors' governors, his new appointees being generally competent men he could control. To that end, the massive viceroyalty of Iraq and the east was broken up.
2851:. The Syrians withdrew upon news of Yazid's death in 683, after which Ibn al-Zubayr declared himself caliph and soon after gained recognition in most provinces of the caliphate, including Iraq and Egypt. In Syria Ibn Bahdal secured the succession of Yazid's son and appointed successor
2404:) curtailed the influence of the Qurayshite elite in favor of Muhammad's earlier supporters in the administration and military, but nonetheless allowed the growing foothold of Abu Sufyan's sons in Syria, which was all but conquered by 638. When Umar's overall commander of the province
2566:
and Egypt forwarded to the treasury in Medina, which he used at his personal disposal, frequently disbursing its funds and war booty to his Umayyad relatives. Moreover, the lucrative Sasanian crown lands of Iraq, which Umar had designated as communal property for the benefit of the
5521:. Imam Abu Muhammad Abdullah ibn Abdul Hakam (who lived in 829 and wrote a biography on Umar Ibn Abdul Aziz) stated that the reduction in these taxes stimulated the economy and created wealth but it also reduced the government's budget, including, eventually, the defence budget.
5422:) to a dynastic one. However, the Umayyad caliphs do seem to have understood themselves as the representatives of God on earth, and to have been responsible for the "definition and elaboration of God's ordinances, or in other words the definition or elaboration of Islamic law."
3420:
policies, but expansion mostly ground to a halt during his reign. The deaths of al-Hajjaj in 714 and Qutayba in 715 left the Arab armies in Transoxiana in disarray. For the next twenty-five years, no further eastward conquests were undertaken and the Arabs lost territory. The
5477:, the history books were written during the later Abbasid period are more anti-Umayyad. The books written later in the Abbasid period in Iran are more anti-Umayyad. Iran was Sunni at the time. There was much anti-Arab feeling in Iran after the fall of the Persian empire.
3989:(clients) were often better educated and more civilised than their Arab overlords. The new converts, on the basis of equality of all Muslims, transformed the political landscape. Previté-Orton also argues that the feud between Syria and Iraq further weakened the empire.
2663:
The recognition of Mu'awiya in Kufa, referred to as the "year of unification of the community" in the Muslim traditional sources, is generally considered the start of his caliphate. With his accession, the political capital and the caliphal treasury were transferred to
2344:, but after the latter captured Mecca in 630, Abu Sufyan and the Quraysh embraced Islam. To reconcile his influential Qurayshite tribesmen, Muhammad gave his former opponents, including Abu Sufyan, a stake in the new order. Abu Sufyan and the Umayyads relocated to
3638:
in northern Syria, which was closer to the Byzantine border than Damascus, and resumed hostilities against the Byzantines, which had lapsed following the failure of the last siege of Constantinople. The new campaigns resulted in a number of successful raids into
5468:
is the earliest Shia account of Muawiyah. He recounted that Muawiyah spent a great deal of time in prayer, in spite of the burden of managing a large empire. After killing off most of the Umayyads and destroying the graves of the Umayyad rulers apart from
3390:. Both cities developed as future centers of Islamic and Arabic learning. Umayyad suzerainty was secured over the rest of conquered Transoxiana through tributary alliances with local rulers, whose power remained intact. From 708/09, al-Hajjaj's kinsman
3814:, a son of al-Walid I, was proclaimed caliph in Damascus, and his army tracked down and killed al-Walid II. Yazid III has received a certain reputation for piety and may have been sympathetic to the Qadariyya. He died a mere six months into his reign.
4064:
copied the coins of Byzantine emperor Heraclius, including a depiction of the emperor and his son Heraclius Constantine. On the reverse side, the traditional Byzantine cross-on-steps image was modified to avoid any explicitly non-Islamic connotation.
3035:
as a military force and the beginning of Syrian military domination of Iraq. Iraqi internal divisions, and the utilization of more disciplined Syrian forces by Abd al-Malik and al-Hajjaj, voided the Iraqis' attempt to reassert power in the province.
4663:
carving, and some of these included representations of human figures and animals. Umayyad architecture was thus an important transitional period during which early Islamic architecture and visual culture began to develop its own distinct identity.
4060:. In addition to this, the Umayyad government began to mint its own coins in Damascus, which were initially similar to pre-existing coins but evolved in an independent direction. These were the first coins minted by a Muslim government in history.
4257:
A regular Board of Correspondence was established under the Umayyads. It issued state missives and circulars to the Central and Provincial Officers. It coordinated the work of all Boards and dealt with all correspondence as the chief secretariat.
2926:
in August 684, Marwan led his tribal allies to a decisive victory against a much larger Qaysite army led by al-Dahhak, who was slain. Not long after, the South Arabians of Homs and the Judham joined the Quda'a to form the tribal confederation of
4290:
In the early period of Islam, justice was administered by Muhammad and the orthodox caliphs in person. After the expansion of the Islamic State, Umar al-Faruq had to separate the judiciary from the general administration and appointed the first
3519:
was eliminated. Hitherto, the jizya, which was traditionally reserved for the non-Muslim majorities of the caliphate, continued to be imposed on non-Arab converts to Islam, while all Muslims who cultivated conquered lands were liable to pay the
3678:
broke out in North Africa, which was probably the largest military setback in the reign of Caliph Hisham. From it emerged some of the first Muslim states outside the caliphate. It is also regarded as the beginning of Moroccan independence, as
2363:, Muhammad's early followers and fellow emigrants from Mecca, would ally with their fellow tribesmen from the former Qurayshite elite and take control of the Muslim state. The Muhajirun gave allegiance to one of their own, the early, elderly
3951:, and most of the remaining members of the Umayyad family were tracked down and killed. When Abbasids declared amnesty for members of the Umayyad family, eighty gathered to receive pardons, and all were massacred. One grandson of Hisham,
4098:
Between 696 and 699, the caliph introduced a new system of coinage of gold, silver, and bronze. The coins generally featured Arabic inscriptions without any images, ending the earlier iconographic traditions. The main gold unit was the
2587:'s government by the traditional elite of the Quraysh, particularly his Umayyad clan, which he believed possessed the "experience and ability" to govern, at the expense of the interests, rights and privileges of many early Muslims.
3051:, situated between Kufa and Basra, and instituted a more rigorous administration in the province. Power thereafter derived from the Syrian troops, who became Iraq's ruling class, while Iraq's Arab nobility, religious scholars and
2261:
The Umayyad Caliphate ruled over a vast multiethnic and multicultural population. Christians, who still constituted a majority of the caliphate's population, and Jews were allowed to practice their own religion but had to pay the
3479:
districts, but already in 720, Umayyad raids against Byzantium recommenced. Nevertheless, the goal of conquering Constantinople was effectively abandoned, and the frontier between the two empires stabilized along the line of the
6299:
2754:(loyalists of Ali) and the Kharijites, who followed their own strict interpretation of Islam. The caliph applied a decentralized approach to governing Iraq by forging alliances with its tribal nobility, such as the Kufan leader
2967:. Although Ibn Ziyad attempted to restore the Syrian army of the Sufyanid caliphs, persistent divisions along Qays–Yaman lines contributed to the army's massive rout and Ibn Ziyad's death at the hands of the pro-Alid forces of
4352:
The Muslim Arabs were at the top of the society and saw it as their duty to rule over the conquered areas. The Arab Muslims held themselves in higher esteem than Muslim non-Arabs and generally did not mix with other Muslims.
3570:. The latter declared a holy war against the Umayyads, took control of Basra and Wasit and gained the support of the Kufan elite. The caliph's Syrian army defeated the rebels and pursued and nearly eliminated the influential
3247:
was founded and equipped with an arsenal on Abd al-Malik's orders to establish a strong Arab fleet. Hassan ibn al-Nu'man continued the campaign against the Berbers, defeating them and killing their leader, the warrior queen
2562:(Upper Mesopotamia) to Mu'awiya's Syrian governorship and granted the latter's request to take possession of all Byzantine crown lands in Syria to help pay his troops. He had the surplus taxes from the wealthy provinces of
4428:
Although non-Muslims could not hold the highest public offices in the empire, they held many bureaucratic positions within the government. An important example of Christian employment in the Umayyad government is that of
4388:
Although the Umayyads were harsh when it came to defeating their Zoroastrian adversaries, they did offer protection and relative religious tolerance to the Zoroastrians who accepted their authority. As a matter of fact,
2828:. Although it stymied active opposition to Yazid in Iraq, the killing of Muhammad's grandson left many Muslims outraged and significantly increased Kufan hostility toward the Umayyads and sympathy for the family of Ali.
5407:
Muslims (mawali). Therefore, they held to a less universalist conception of Islam than did many of their rivals. As G.R. Hawting has written, "Islam was in fact regarded as the property of the conquering aristocracy."
3795:(743–44), the son of Yazid II. Al-Walid is reported to have been more interested in earthly pleasures than in religion, a reputation that may be confirmed by the decoration of the so-called "desert palaces" (including
5414:
was initiated in the Levant, Mesopotamia, North Africa, and Iberia. State documents and currency were issued in Arabic. Mass conversions also created a growing population of Muslims in the territory of the caliphate.
4377:. They were given a legally protected status as second-class citizens as long as they accepted and acknowledged the political supremacy of the ruling Muslims. More specifically, non-Muslims had to pay a tax, known as
2604:, in which al-Zubayr and Talha were slain and A'isha consequently entered self-imposed seclusion. Ali's sovereignty was thereafter recognized in Basra and Egypt and he established Kufa as the caliphate's new capital.
3064:
a handicap on Abd al-Malik's executive authority and financial ability to reward loyalists in the army. Thus, a professional army was established during Abd al-Malik's reign whose salaries derived from tax proceeds.
2918:
latter had been driven out of Iraq and strove to uphold Umayyad rule. During a summit of pro-Umayyad Syrian tribes, namely the Quda'a and their Kindite allies, organized by Ibn Bahdal in the old Ghassanid capital of
3722:
as a major military base and launched several invasions of the northern Caucasus, but failed to subdue the nomadic Khazars. The conflict was arduous and bloody, and the Arab army even suffered a major defeat at the
2600:, they attempted to rally support against Ali among the troops of Basra, prompting the caliph to leave for Iraq's other garrison town, Kufa, where he could better confront his challengers. Ali defeated them at the
5599:
that the "great red dragon, having seven heads and ten horns, and seven crowns upon his heads", refers to the Umayyad caliphs who "rose against the religion of Prophet Muhammad and against the reality of Ali".
2782:
as a virtual partner of Mu'awiya until his death in 663, after which loyalist governors were appointed and the province became a practical appendage of Syria. Under Mu'awiya's direction, the Muslim conquest of
3984:
Previté-Orton argues that the reason for the decline of the Umayyads was the rapid expansion of Islam. During the Umayyad period, mass conversions brought Persians, Berbers, Copts, and Aramaic to Islam. These
3214:
Under al-Walid I the Umayyad Caliphate reached its greatest territorial extent. The war with the Byzantines had resumed under his father after the civil war, with the Umayyads defeating the Byzantines at the
4528:
Arab tribe in Syria. The Kalb tribe had remained largely neutral when the Muslims first went into Syria. After the plague that killed much of the Muslim army in Syria, by marrying Maysun, Muawiyah used the
2672:, as opposed to the wide array of competing tribal groups in Iraq. The long-established, formerly Christian Arab tribes in Syria, having been integrated into the military of the Byzantine Empire and their
2629:
succeeded him but abdicated in return for compensation upon Mu'awiya's arrival to Iraq with his Syrian army in the summer. At that point, Mu'awiya entered Kufa and received the allegiance of the Iraqis.
3011:, in 693, which originally depicted a human figure, likely the caliph, as shown in this coin minted in 695. In 697, the figural depictions were replaced solely by Qur'anic and other Islamic inscriptions
2947:
and moved to avenge their losses. Although Marwan regained full control of Syria in the months following the battle, the inter-tribal strife undermined the foundation of Umayyad power: the Syrian army.
4628:. Among these projects, the construction of the Great Mosque in Damascus reflected the diversity of the empire, as Greek, Persian, Coptic, Indian and Maghrebi craftsmen were recruited to build it.
2575:, were turned into caliphal crown lands to be used at Uthman's discretion. Mounting resentment against Uthman's rule in Iraq and Egypt and among the Ansar and Quraysh of Medina culminated in the
3940:, and the Umayyads were defeated. Damascus fell to the Abbasids in April, and in August, Marwan was killed in Egypt. Some Umayyads in Syria continued to resist the takeover. The Umayyad princes
3825:(744–50), the grandson of Marwan I, led an army from the northern frontier and entered Damascus in December 744, where he was proclaimed caliph. Marwan immediately moved the capital north to
3449:
coast. His Khurasani and Iraqi troops were reinforced by Syrians, marking their first deployment to Khurasan, but the Arabs' initial successes were reversed by the local Iranian coalition of
3750:. Both areas had already been partially conquered but remained difficult to govern. Once again, a particular difficulty concerned the question of the conversion of non-Arabs, especially the
3966:). In a claim unrecognized outside of al-Andalus, he maintained that the Umayyad Caliphate, the true, authentic caliphate, more legitimate than the Abbasids, was continued through him in
6284:
78:
5845:
3499:, as his successor and he took office in 717. After the Arabs' severe losses in the offensive against Constantinople, Umar drew down Arab forces on the caliphate's war fronts, though
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in August 686. The setback delayed Abd al-Malik's attempts to reestablish Umayyad authority in Iraq, while pressures from the Byzantine Empire and raids into Syria by the Byzantines'
9331:
9309:
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4493:), serving as his "secretary and the person in charge of his business". The hagiographies, although less reliable, also assign to him a role in the administration, even as "ruler" (
3683:
would never again come under the rule of an eastern caliph or any other foreign power until the 20th century. It was followed by the collapse of Umayyad authority in al-Andalus. In
4647:
are prominently featured in both the Dome of the Rock and the Great Mosque of Damascus, but the lack of human figures in their imagery was a new trait that demonstrates an Islamic
4643:
architectural traditions, but it also innovated by combining elements of these styles together, experimenting with new building types, and implementing lavish decorative programs.
2280:
for the benefit of Muslims or Muslim converts. Under the early Umayyad caliphs, prominent positions were held by Christians, some of whom belonged to families that had served the
3905:). They sought support for a "member of the family" of Muhammad, without making explicit mention of the Abbasids. These missions met with success both among Arabs and non-Arabs (
3936:
was recognized as the new caliph in the mosque at Kufa. At this point Marwan mobilized his troops from Harran and advanced toward Iraq. In January 750 the two forces met in the
11234:
Sanchez, Fernando Lopez (2015). "The Mining, Minting, and Acquisition of Gold in the Roman and Post-Roman World". In Paul Erdkamp; Koenraad Verboven; Arjan Zuiderhoek (eds.).
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watchtowers, knew only peace at last. Justice flourished in his time, and there was great peace in the regions under his control. He allowed everyone to live as they wanted."
4505:), of Damascus and its environs, where he was responsible for collecting the revenue. In this capacity, he is attested in later collections of source material such as that of
2843:
in Mecca. The Ansar and Quraysh of Medina also took up the anti-Umayyad cause and in 683 expelled the Umayyads from the city. Yazid's Syrian troops routed the Medinans at the
2041:
2883:. The area shaded in red represents the approximate territory of the Umayyads, while the areas shaded in blue, green and yellow respectively represent the territories of the
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in 692. The Umayyads frequently raided Byzantine Anatolia and Armenia in the following years. By 705, Armenia was annexed by the caliphate along with the principalities of
2596:
empowerment of the Umayyad clan but feared that their own influence and the power of the Quraysh, in general, would dissipate under Ali. Backed by one of Muhammad's wives,
2336:
tribes that controlled the northern and central Arabian desert expanses, affording the clan a degree of political power in the region. The Umayyads under the leadership of
11049:
9332:"Student Resources, Chapter 12: The First Global Civilization: The Rise and Spread of Islam, IV. The Arab Empire of the Umayyads, G. Converts and 'People of the Book'"
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3803:) that have been attributed to him. He quickly attracted the enmity of many, both by executing a number of those who had opposed his accession and by persecuting the
11127:
4085:(Friday sermon). Another coin minted probably between 695 and 698 features the image of a spear under an arch. This has been variously interpreted as representing a
3916:
assumed leadership of the Hashimiyya in Khurasan. In 747, he successfully initiated an open revolt against Umayyad rule, which was carried out under the sign of the
5604:
Walid, Sulayman, Umar, Hisham, and Ibrahim. Some names were re-used, as in the case of Yazid II and Yazid III, which were not accounted for in this interpretation.
3535:
In tandem, Umar intensified the Islamization drive of his Marwanid predecessors, enacting measures to distinguish Muslims from non-Muslims and inaugurating Islamic
2539:, i.e. Iraq and Iran, and the former Byzantine territories of Syria and Egypt. In Medina, he relied extensively on the counsel of his Umayyad cousins, the brothers
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5848:, who had support from the Kalb of the Jordan district, recognized the caliphate of his maternal uncle Ibn al-Zubayr. Ibn Bahdal favored Mu'awiya II's brothers,
3539:. His position among the Umayyad caliphs is unusual, in that he became the only one to have been recognized in subsequent Islamic tradition as a genuine caliph (
9426:
13862:
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Griffith, Sidney H. (2016). "The Manṣūr Family and Saint John of Damascus: Christians and Muslims in Umayyad Times". In Antoine Borrut; Fred M. Donner (eds.).
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which had already killed Abu Ubayda and Yazid. Under Mu'awiya's stewardship, Syria remained domestically peaceful, organized and well-defended from its former
2424:
in his place. Umar's exceptional treatment of Abu Sufyan's sons may have stemmed from his respect for the family, their burgeoning alliance with the powerful
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and Maslama ibn Ya'qub, successively seized control of Damascus from 811 to 813, and declared themselves caliphs. However, their rebellions were suppressed.
3777:. After this defeat, al-Harith's movement seems to have been dissolved. The problem of the rights of non-Arab Muslims would continue to plague the Umayyads.
2551:, this policy stemmed from Uthman's "conviction that the house of Umayya, as the core clan of Quraysh, was uniquely qualified to rule in the name of Islam".
3762:, promised tax relief to those Sogdians who converted to Islam but went back on his offer when it proved too popular and threatened to reduce tax revenues.
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and replaced it with three male figures standing in Arab dress. This was possibly an attempt to depict the act of Muslim prayer or the delivery of the
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in 730. Marwan ibn Muhammad, the future Marwan II, finally ended the war in 737 with a massive invasion that is reported to have reached as far as the
2608:
opposed Ali in the name of avenging his kinsman Uthman, accusing the caliph of culpability in his death. Ali and Mu'awiya fought to a stalemate at the
2034:
5524:
The only Umayyad ruler who is unanimously praised by Sunni sources for his devout piety and justice is Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz. In his efforts to spread
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The Byzantine and Sassanid Empires relied on money economies before the Muslim conquest and that system remained in effect during the Umayyad period.
14902:
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The Tibetan Empire in Central Asia: A History of the Struggle for Great Power Among Tibetans, Turks, Arabs, and Chinese During the Early Middle Ages
3944:, al-Abbas ibn Muhammad, and Hashim ibn Yazid launched revolts in Syria and the Islamic–Byzantine frontier around late 750, but they were defeated.
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to stage a revolt against Umayyad rule from Iraq. An army mobilized by Iraq's governor Ibn Ziyad intercepted and killed Husayn outside Kufa at the
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models. The switch to a five-branched version may have been intended to further differentiate this depiction from Jewish and Christian versions.
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and then Abu Dulaf as rival caliphs. In 747, Marwan managed to reestablish control of Iraq, but by this time a more serious threat had arisen in
3566:) became caliph. Not long after his accession, another mass revolt against Umayyad rule was staged in Iraq, this time by the prominent statesman
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in Jerusalem. It was possibly intended as a monument of victory over the Christians that would distinguish Islam's uniqueness within the common
12251:
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was reported to have said in one of his letters commanding not to "destroy a synagogue or a church or temple of fire worshippers (meaning the
3662:(last stronghold at Narbonne in 759). Hisham's reign witnessed the end of expansion in the west, following the defeat of the Arab army by the
15157:
2378:), and put an end to Ansarite deliberations. Abu Bakr was viewed as acceptable by the Ansar and the Qurayshite elite and was acknowledged as
2027:
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Fine, Steven (2015). "When Is a Menorah "Jewish"?: On the Complexities of a Symbol during the Age of Transition". In Evans, Helen C. (ed.).
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3833:. A rebellion soon broke out in Syria, perhaps due to resentment over the relocation of the capital, and in 746 Marwan razed the walls of
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region east of Iran and restart the Muslim conquests in the surrounding areas. Not long after Ziyad's death, he was succeeded by his son
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rise of Islam, and indeed, much of the canon of Zoroastrian religious texts was elaborated and written down during the Islamic period."
4249:
The Central Board of Revenue administered the entire finances of the empire. It also imposed and collected taxes and disbursed revenue.
2617:, to revolt. Ali's coalition steadily disintegrated and many Iraqi tribal nobles secretly defected to Mu'awiya, while the latter's ally
11195:
The History of al-Ṭabarī, Volume XXIV: The Empire in Transition: The Caliphates of Sulaymān, ʿUmar, and Yazīd, A.D. 715–724/A.H. 96–105
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and killed Ibn al-Zubayr in 692, marking the end of the Second Fitna and the reunification of the caliphate under Abd al-Malik's rule.
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The Umayyads have met with a largely negative reception from later Islamic historians, who have accused them of promoting a kingship (
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5844:, the son of Mu'awiya I's full brother, died shortly after Mu'awiya II's death, while another paternal uncle of the deceased caliph,
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among the Quraysh to elect the caliph and rallied opposition to the Umayyads from his headquarters in Islam's holiest sanctuary, the
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strong central government. The garrison towns of Kufa and Basra, populated by the Arab immigrants and troops who arrived during the
14600:
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Die byzantinische Reaktion auf die Ausbreitung der Araber. Studien zur Strukturwandlung des byzantinischen Staates im 7. und 8. Jhd
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dying named Muhammad ibn Ali as his successor. This tradition allowed the Abbasids to rally the supporters of the failed revolt of
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who viewed themselves as equals to the Quraysh in nobility, or the lack of a suitable candidate at the time, particularly amid the
9664:
4152:
One group of bronze coins from Palestine, dated after the coinage reform of the late 690s, features the image of a seven-branched
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is briefly expressed in the Shi'a book "Sulh al-Hasan". According to Shia hadiths, which are not considered authentic by Sunnis,
3398:. The massive war spoils netted by the conquests of Transoxiana, Sind and Hispania were comparable to the amounts accrued in the
6415:
3901:
Beginning around 719, Hashimiyya missions began to seek adherents in Khurasan. Their campaign was framed as one of proselytism (
3634:), whose long and eventful reign was above all marked by the curtailment of military expansion. Hisham established his court at
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9392:"Sermon 92: About the annihilation of the Kharijites, the mischief mongering of Umayyads and the vastness of his own knowledge"
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in Egypt as early as AD 643/23 AH. After 661, a series of judges served in Egypt during the caliphates of Hisham and Walid II.
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On the Byzantine front, Sulayman took up his predecessor's project to capture Constantinople with increased vigor. His brother
5856:, for the succession, but they were viewed as too young and inexperienced by most of the pro-Umayyad tribal nobility in Syria.
2230:). At its greatest extent, the Umayyad Caliphate covered 11,100,000 km (4,300,000 sq mi), making it one of the
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The History of al-Ṭabarī, Volume XXVI: The Waning of the Umayyad Caliphate: Prelude to Revolution, A.D. 738–744/A.H. 121–126
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Umar Ibn Abdul Aziz By Imam Abu Muhammad Abdullah ibn Abdul Hakam died 214 AH 829 C.E. Publisher Zam Zam Publishers Karachi
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Some Umayyads also survived in Syria, and their descendants would once more attempt to restore their old regime during the
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dismissed him as part of his efforts to Arabicize the administration of the caliphate. According to the Muslim historians
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developed in Damascus by the Umayyads under Abd al-Malik. This department survived till the middle of the Abbasid period.
2963:, was appointed to suppress Zufar's rebellion in the Jazira. Marwan died in April 685 and was succeeded by his eldest son
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Umayyad authority nearly collapsed in their Syrian stronghold after the death of Mu'awiya II. Al-Dahhak in Damascus, the
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poisoned in 720, successive governments tried to reverse Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz's tax policies, but rebellion resulted.
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Many Muslims criticized the Umayyads for having too many non-Muslim, former Roman administrators in their government,
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client kings, were "more accustomed to order and obedience" than their Iraqi counterparts, according to the historian
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came to power, he reduced these taxes. He is therefore praised as one of the greatest Muslim rulers after the four
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region, their main base of power. They also continued the existing Muslim policy of building new garrison cities (
2328:. By the end of the 6th century, the Umayyads dominated the Quraysh's increasingly prosperous trade networks with
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and religious administration. Each of these was further subdivided into more branches, offices, and departments.
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3243:", according to Kennedy. Kairouan was firmly secured as a launchpad for later conquests, while the port town of
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The History of al-Ṭabarī, Volume XVIII: Between Civil Wars: The Caliphate of Muʿāwiyah, 661–680 A.D./A.H. 40–60
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and they were minted in much larger quantities than in the earlier Byzantine era. The bronze coin was called a
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According to one common view, the Umayyads transformed the caliphate from a religious institution (during the
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4604:) in their provinces that served as bases for further expansion. Their most famous constructions include the
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3924:, and dispatched an army westwards. Kufa fell to the Hashimiyya in 749, the last Umayyad stronghold in Iraq,
2944:
2559:
2348:, Islam's political centre, to maintain their new-found political influence in the nascent Muslim community.
199:
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led a revolt that received broad backing from Arabs and natives alike, capturing Balkh but failing to take
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was adopted as a half-brother by Mu'awiya I, who made him his practical viceroy over the eastern caliphate.
10250:
2922:, Marwan was elected caliph in exchange for economic privileges to the loyalist tribes. At the subsequent
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Early Islamic Institutions: Administration and Taxation from the Caliphate to the Umayyads and ʿAbbāsids
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ousted Ali's governor from Egypt in July 658. In July 660 Mu'awiya was formally recognized as caliph in
2382:(leader of the Muslim community). He showed favor to the Umayyads by awarding them command roles in the
1168:
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10996:(in German). Munich: Institut für Byzantinistik und Neugriechische Philologie der Universität München.
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3487:, over which both sides continued to launch regular raids and counter-raids during the next centuries.
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To consolidate Umayyad rule after the Second Fitna, the Marwanids launched a series of centralization,
2923:
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Muhammad's death in 632 left open the succession of leadership of the Muslim community. Leaders of the
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11672:
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2509:, was a wealthy Umayyad and early Muslim convert with marital ties to Muhammad. He was elected by the
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Johns, Jeremy (January 2003). "Archaeology and the History of Early Islam: The First Seventy Years".
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issued by the Muslims in the former Sasanian Persian lands of the eastern caliphate. Arabic replaced
3028:
2747:
2722:
8391:
5322:
3909:), although the latter may have played a particularly important role in the growth of the movement.
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tax. If non-Muslims converted to Islam, they would cease paying jizya and would instead pay zakat.
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by his Syrian tribal allies. Ali was assassinated by a Kharijite dissident in January 661. His son
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17:
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The End of the Jihâd State: The Reign of Hishām ibn ʻAbd al-Malik and the Collapse of the Umayyads
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Black Banners from the East: The Establishment of the ʻAbbāsid State : Incubation of a Revolt
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or a "sacral arch", the latter being a late antique motif. The spear is believed to be the spear (
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measures. To prevent further rebellions in Iraq, al-Hajjaj founded a permanent Syrian garrison in
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The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates: The Islamic Near East from the 6th to the 11th Century
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The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates: The Islamic Near East from the 6th to the 11th Century
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2195:, from another branch of the clan. Syria remained the Umayyads' main power base thereafter, with
1663:
697:
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Boekhoff-van der Voort, Nicolet (2014). "Umayyad Court". In Fitzpatrick, C.; Walker, A. (eds.).
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During the period of the Umayyads, Arabic became the administrative language and the process of
4676:
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Contrary to expectations of a son or brother succeeding him, Sulayman had nominated his cousin,
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Recorded by Ibn Abu Shayba in Al-Musanaf and Abu 'Ubaid Ibn Sallam in his book Al-Amwal, pp.123
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Non-Muslim groups in the Umayyad Caliphate, which included Christians, Jews, Zoroastrians, and
3840:
Marwan also faced significant opposition from Kharijites in Iraq and Iran, who put forth first
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Umar's most significant policy entailed fiscal reforms to equalize the status of the Arabs and
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9961:. Translated by Razia Ali. London and Beirut: I. B. Tauris and Centre for Arab Unity Studies.
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caliphs, was also a member of the clan. The family established dynastic, hereditary rule with
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11198:. SUNY Series in Near Eastern Studies. Albany, New York: State University of New York Press.
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11108:. SUNY Series in Near Eastern Studies. Albany, New York: State University of New York Press.
10450:. SUNY Series in Near Eastern Studies. Albany, New York: State University of New York Press.
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4162:. These images may have been based on Christian representations of the menorah or on earlier
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Crone, Patricia (1994). "Were the Qays and Yemen of the Umayyad Period Political Parties?".
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From the caliphate's north-western African bases, a series of raids on coastal areas of the
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3766:
3734:
Hisham suffered still worse defeats in the east, where his armies attempted to subdue both
3711:
3496:
3426:
2992:
2928:
2848:
2758:, and entrusting the administration of Kufa and Basra to highly experienced members of the
2387:
1902:
1783:
13134:
9524:
9482:
9395:
6068:
6035:
8:
15172:
14666:
14542:
14436:
14252:
13691:
13488:
13046:
12926:
12892:
12794:
12614:
12609:
12421:
12140:
12076:
11951:
11936:
11768:
11290:
10117:
9106:
Dodds, Jerrilynn D. (1992). "The Great Mosque of Córdoba". In Dodds, Jerrilynn D. (ed.).
5853:
5627:
5300:
4954:
4911:
3450:
3240:
3235:
restored Umayyad control over Ifriqiya after defeating the Byzantines and Berbers there.
3169:
2989:
2960:
2715:), obliging the Umayyads to pay the Empire an annual tribute of gold, horses and slaves.
2701:
2601:
2544:
2337:
1992:
1003:
662:
398:
189:
12762:
12752:
11352:
11300:
10541:
In the Shadow of the Sword The Battle for Global Empire and the End of the Ancient World
9520:
9478:
6218:
5592:
5433:). In this respect it is notable that the Umayyad caliphs referred to themselves not as
4520:(Yazid's mother) was politically motivated, as she was the daughter of the chief of the
1308:
14934:
14833:
14747:
14678:
14588:
14524:
14332:
14308:
13985:
13963:
13923:
13765:
13668:
13619:
13585:
13476:
13159:
13139:
13122:
13073:
12938:
12747:
12698:
12631:
12549:
12490:
12485:
12480:
12436:
12406:
12298:
12196:
12064:
12039:
11702:
11278:
11270:
10956:
10911:
10810:
10684:
10575:
10506:
10441:
10412:
9998:
9797:
9759:
9684:
9630:
8851:
8843:
8791:
8426:
5969:
5588:
5108:
5070:
5044:
4648:
4517:
3857:
3818:
3651:
3644:
3356:
3339:
3313:
3291:
3192:
2968:
2895:
2844:
2689:
2584:
2313:
2255:
2235:
1698:
1463:
1348:
1208:
933:
868:
690:
609:
523:
454:
384:
356:
274:
14887:
13831:
9776:
6414:. Based on original work by Linda Komaroff. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art.
4594:
and palaces within their empire. Most of their surviving monuments are located in the
4067:
In the 690s, under Abd al-Malik's reign, a new period of experimentations began. Some
4053:
was used until 658; Byzantine gold coins were still in use until the monetary reforms
1288:
14976:
14970:
14946:
14808:
14803:
14708:
14698:
14688:
14361:
14247:
14199:
14042:
13953:
13656:
13646:
13641:
13631:
13459:
13268:
13164:
13100:
13095:
13024:
12921:
12636:
12564:
12559:
12401:
12330:
12313:
12308:
12103:
12054:
11458:
11439:
11420:
11401:
11382:
11358:
11348:
11334:
11308:
11304:
11282:
11239:
11199:
11178:
11158:
11109:
11099:
11085:
11061:
11031:
10997:
10975:
10926:
10873:
10849:
10825:
10766:
10747:
10723:
10699:
10649:
10625:
10601:
10579:
10544:
10525:
10476:
10451:
10427:
10377:
10353:
10332:
10313:
10237:
10182:
10127:
10099:
10080:
10038:
10017:
9962:
9943:
9901:
9879:
9833:
9812:
9763:
9751:
9720:
9699:
9649:
9600:
9575:
9530:
9488:
9416:
9367:
9299:
9236:
9197:
9113:
9047:
8855:
8739:
8707:
8669:
8605:
8580:
8475:
8450:
8397:
6407:
6374:
6335:
6197:
6105:
5841:
5572:
5220:
5155:
5150:
5034:
5024:
4964:
4762:
4728:
4644:
4621:
4430:
4163:
4050:
3959:
3937:
3871:
3800:
3220:
3027:, grandson of al-Ash'ath ibn Qays. Al-Hajjaj defeated Ibn al-Ash'ath's rebels at the
3024:
2825:
2677:
2187:
in 661. After Mu'awiya's death in 680, conflicts over the succession resulted in the
1808:
1653:
1258:
898:
888:
763:
652:
647:
624:
619:
467:
426:
11294:
10002:
6253:
2390:, the son of Abu Sufyan, who owned property and maintained trade networks in Syria.
2243:
15006:
14988:
14958:
14838:
14823:
14573:
14278:
14000:
13938:
13928:
13918:
13903:
13651:
13554:
13526:
13414:
13117:
12904:
12899:
12855:
12842:
12772:
12740:
12735:
12599:
12594:
12576:
12537:
12470:
12453:
12394:
12384:
12379:
12320:
12276:
12246:
12206:
12189:
12172:
12135:
11886:
11826:
11320:
11262:
11075:
11045:
11009:
10899:
10798:
10672:
10567:
10400:
10259:
9785:
9743:
9672:
8835:
8783:
5961:
5849:
5816:
5631:
5560:
5507:
5481:
5258:
5210:
5190:
5170:
5160:
5082:
5074:
5064:
5039:
4733:
4684:
4679:, also undertook major architectural projects in the Iberian Peninsula such as the
4605:
4534:
4422:
4414:
4410:
4370:
4072:
4025:
3845:
3765:
Discontent among the Khorasani Arabs rose sharply after the losses suffered in the
3759:
3688:
3480:
3352:
3207:
3110:
2985:
2972:
2771:
2737:. The latter's governorship later spanned all of the eastern caliphate. His father
2609:
2548:
2506:
2441:
2281:
2168:
2109:
2103:
2071:
1962:
1958:
1947:
1928:
1593:
1573:
1553:
1473:
1268:
1148:
1073:
1063:
1013:
943:
843:
793:
657:
551:
509:
11377:
Al-Ajmi, Abdulhadi (2014). "The Umayyads". In Fitzpatrick, C.; Walker, A. (eds.).
8826:
Stepaniants, Marietta (April 2002). "The Encounter of Zoroastrianism with Islam".
5865:
Mu'awiya I was generally favourably disposed towards Christians and, according to
4156:
and then later of a five-branched menorah, topped by an Arabic inscription of the
3511:, thus remedying a long-standing issue which threatened the Muslim community. The
2795:(modern southern Tunisia), where Uqba founded the permanent Arab garrison city of
2464:), the metropolis of the Umayyad Caliphate. The founder of the Umayyad Caliphate,
2254:, became a world centre of science, medicine, philosophy and invention during the
15060:
15030:
15000:
14764:
14461:
14406:
14206:
13892:
13852:
13741:
13697:
13471:
13335:
13303:
13176:
13144:
13127:
13083:
13078:
13056:
13051:
13009:
13002:
12977:
12837:
12832:
12673:
12554:
12448:
12443:
12411:
12236:
12226:
12120:
12113:
12108:
12093:
12049:
11931:
11917:
11728:
11324:
11193:
11103:
11079:
11053:
11021:
11017:
10895:
10867:
10863:
10843:
10794:
10741:
10737:
10717:
10713:
10668:
10643:
10639:
10619:
10591:
10466:
10445:
10396:
10371:
10095:
The Great Mosque of Damascus: Studies on the Makings of an Umayyad Visual Culture
10093:
10032:
9956:
9895:
9827:
9781:
9668:
9590:
9569:
6368:
6325:
6110:
5885:
5613:
5486:
5445:, therefore, it is necessary to rely mainly on sources, such as the histories of
5263:
5227:
5185:
5019:
4992:
4790:
4625:
4125:
4021:
3952:
3921:
3898:, who had represented themselves as the supporters of Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyya.
3882:
3667:
3287:
3253:
3244:
3098:
2936:
2767:
2738:
2580:
2536:
2499:
2437:
2317:
2302:
2239:
2164:
2136:
2065:
1898:
1868:
1633:
1623:
1533:
1513:
1403:
1338:
1298:
1278:
1188:
1113:
1103:
1093:
1053:
1023:
963:
953:
833:
783:
153:
54:
31:
12757:
11417:
Muhammad in History, Thought, and Culture: An Encyclopedia of the Prophet of God
11379:
Muhammad in History, Thought, and Culture: An Encyclopedia of the Prophet of God
10331:. Chicago: The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. pp. 29–51.
8913:
4111:), which was worth 20 silver coins. It was most likely modeled on the Byzantine
3947:
The victors desecrated the tombs of the Umayyads in Syria, sparing only that of
3456:
3394:
conquered northwestern South Asia and established out of this new territory the
2583:, Uthman was killed because of his determination to centralize control over the
594:
15096:
15084:
15072:
15024:
14876:
14593:
14446:
14288:
13990:
13278:
13273:
13236:
13211:
13194:
13105:
13090:
13061:
13019:
12867:
12827:
12822:
12777:
12703:
12663:
12653:
12643:
12458:
12337:
12231:
12098:
11980:
11821:
11811:
11546:
11143:
11139:
10960:
10948:
10903:
10839:
10802:
10676:
10571:
10510:
10498:
10404:
10298:
10286:
10222:
10214:
10167:
10159:
10065:
10061:
9990:
9928:
9924:
9891:
9864:
9860:
9789:
9676:
9634:
9622:
5947:
5943:
5568:
5338:
5288:
5268:
5133:
5128:
4807:
4617:
4568:
4358:
4130:
4113:
4017:
3929:
3917:
3599:
3574:, marking the suppression of the last major Iraqi revolt against the Umayyads.
3379:
in 713. He established Arab garrisons and tax administrations in Samarkand and
3130:
3090:
3082:
3069:
2910:
2852:
2821:
2705:
2648:
2483:
2417:
2329:
1973:
1883:
1827:
1603:
1493:
1423:
1123:
537:
163:
158:
148:
11023:
The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 4: From the Arab Invasion to the Saljuqs
10763:
The Great Arab Conquests: How the Spread of Islam Changed the World We Live In
10743:
The Great Arab Conquests: How the Spread of Islam Changed the World We Live In
3611:
3577:
Yazid II reversed Umar II's equalization reforms, reimposing the jizya on the
3351:
Al-Hajjaj managed the eastern expansion from Iraq. His lieutenant governor of
2835:, the son of al-Zubayr ibn al-Awwam and grandson of Abu Bakr, advocated for a
15136:
15066:
15054:
15042:
15018:
14779:
14606:
14456:
13995:
13958:
13933:
13770:
13359:
13246:
13041:
13014:
12987:
12965:
12943:
12710:
12693:
12678:
12522:
12475:
12463:
12389:
12281:
12155:
12150:
12125:
12007:
11692:
11536:
11362:
11312:
11162:
11131:
11123:
11001:
10782:
10367:
10349:
A Tale of Two Factions: Myth, Memory, and Identity in Ottoman Egypt and Yemen
10294:
10241:
10218:
10202:
10194:
10186:
10163:
10147:
10139:
10131:
10113:
10084:
10057:
9947:
9920:
9883:
9852:
9755:
9747:
8442:
8422:
8418:
6009:
5866:
5253:
5248:
5118:
5113:
4878:
4872:
4844:
4738:
4506:
4483:
4457:
4449:
3755:
3675:
3588:
2807:
2788:
2726:
2685:
2626:
2618:
2465:
2457:
2421:
2413:
2352:
2180:
2176:
1853:
1358:
1218:
218:
12787:
12767:
11865:
5965:
5380:
4071:
dated between 692 and 696, associated with the mints in Iraq under governor
726:
14866:
14791:
14441:
14293:
14171:
13887:
13736:
13721:
13435:
13251:
12992:
12982:
12948:
12877:
12872:
12799:
12589:
12571:
12532:
12527:
12507:
12502:
12374:
12367:
12357:
12352:
12347:
12241:
12179:
12160:
12145:
12081:
11632:
11490:
11236:
Ownership and Exploitation of Land and Natural Resources in the Roman World
10615:
10587:
10490:
10034:
Medieval Jerusalem and Islamic Worship: Holy Places, Ceremonies, Pilgrimage
9771:
6098:
5869:, the first Muslim caliph to employ Christians in administrative positions.
5556:
5175:
5049:
4773:
4465:
4394:
3974:
3920:. He soon established control of Khurasan, expelling its Umayyad governor,
3804:
3422:
3040:
2873:
2652:
2475:
2452:
2409:
2188:
1857:
1328:
1083:
680:
10645:
The Armies of the Caliphs: Military and Society in the Early Islamic State
9041:
8839:
8757:
8755:
7251:
5948:"Expansion and Contraction Patterns of Large Polities: Context for Russia"
5489:
which appear in various combinations on the flags of most Arab countries.
4397:) as long as they have reconciled with and agreed upon with the Muslims".
4316:
Ivory (circa 8th century) discovered in the Abbasid homestead in Humeima,
3889:
family, overthrew the Umayyad caliphate. The Abbasids were members of the
14418:
13908:
13816:
13716:
13603:
12970:
12955:
12804:
12517:
12426:
12416:
12342:
11990:
11985:
11833:
11697:
11622:
11586:
10278:
8774:
Egan, Virginia; Bikai, Patricia M. (July 1999). "Archaeology in Jordan".
5760:
5680:
5411:
5054:
5002:
4905:
4898:
4888:
4778:
4545:
4398:
4332:
3890:
3792:
3786:
3743:
3735:
3615:
Musicians and hunting cavalier, circa 730 CE. Floor fresco from Hisham's
3446:
3387:
3384:
3360:
3044:
2659:
in 663, the only known epigraphic attestation to Mu'awiya's rule in Syria
2359:
in 622, discussed forwarding their own candidate out of concern that the
2285:
2211:
2184:
1717:
1483:
1393:
1178:
1033:
983:
11357:. Translated by Margaret Graham Weir. Calcutta: University of Calcutta.
8524:
3055:
became their virtual subjects. The surplus from the agriculturally rich
15114:
15108:
14721:
13803:
13760:
13731:
12997:
12814:
12688:
12648:
12581:
11776:
11561:
10263:
8847:
8752:
5973:
5710:
5660:
5470:
5283:
5180:
4893:
4743:
4668:
4541:
4437:
4405:
4381:, which the Muslims did not have to pay; Muslims would instead pay the
4100:
4076:
3963:
3955:, survived, escaped across North Africa, and established an emirate in
3913:
3878:
3571:
3536:
3442:
3417:
3295:
3119:
3074:
3008:
2899:
2831:
The next major challenge to Yazid's rule emanated from the Hejaz where
2681:
2614:
2554:
Uthman's nepotism provoked the ire of the Ansar and the members of the
2355:, the natives of Medina who had provided Muhammad safe haven after his
2340:
were the principal leaders of Meccan opposition to the Islamic prophet
2227:
2003:
1643:
1613:
1443:
1248:
813:
495:
307:
11274:
8796:
6430:
6285:"The Qur'an's Call to Alms Zakat, the Muslim Tradition of Alms-giving"
2959:, who would rule the province until his death in 704/05. Another son,
2811:
Genealogical tree of the Sufyanids. The names in red indicate caliphs.
2802:
2778:. Meanwhile, Amr ibn al-As ruled Egypt from the provincial capital of
14982:
14964:
14426:
13857:
13799:
13746:
13614:
12887:
12658:
12542:
12512:
12293:
12167:
11958:
11601:
11591:
11060:. London and New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul. pp. 541–544.
8425:(1934). "Northern India in Medieval Times". In Dodwell, H. H. (ed.).
6370:
The Tragedy of the Templars: The Rise and Fall of the Crusader States
5790:
5770:
5165:
5138:
5123:
5014:
4969:
4939:
4927:
4839:
4783:
4609:
4469:
4441:
3933:
3822:
3811:
3796:
3747:
3453:. Afterward, the Arabs withdrew in return for a tributary agreement.
3372:
3249:
3114:
2940:
2840:
2673:
2669:
2622:
2597:
2425:
2360:
2156:
1988:
1943:
1913:
1838:
1823:
1228:
1198:
1043:
803:
743:
577:
233:
192:
5429:, a term with connotations of tyranny) instead of a true caliphate (
4179:
3129:) confiscated the cathedral of St. John the Baptist and founded the
3031:
in April. The suppression of the revolt marked the end of the Iraqi
15048:
15012:
14952:
14769:
14265:
14123:
14075:
13869:
13775:
13726:
13454:
12288:
12071:
12029:
11968:
11753:
11576:
11551:
11266:
8787:
5740:
5690:
5635:
5419:
5200:
4922:
4856:
4849:
4796:
4572:
4445:
4343:(non-Muslim free persons such as Christians, Jews and Zoroastrians)
4153:
4107:
3751:
3707:
3698:
3640:
3556:
3500:
3430:
3376:
3368:
3228:
3183:
2976:
2796:
2792:
2784:
2665:
2656:
2420:
districts. Yazid died shortly after and Umar appointed his brother
2368:
2341:
2272:) from which Muslims were exempt. Muslims were required to pay the
2269:
2223:
2207:
2196:
2192:
2172:
2160:
1772:
1543:
1503:
1453:
1413:
1318:
973:
923:
823:
115:
8359:
8209:
14922:
14784:
14380:
14068:
13948:
13826:
13821:
13808:
13792:
13785:
13780:
13512:
12201:
12130:
12086:
11941:
11571:
11541:
9716:
God's Caliph: Religious Authority in the First Centuries of Islam
8602:
The War of the Three Gods: Romans, Persians and the Rise of Islam
7649:
7647:
7645:
7449:
5670:
5474:
5454:
5195:
5009:
4997:
4866:
4829:
4723:
4479:
4453:
4434:
4390:
4374:
4158:
4081:
3948:
3895:
3886:
3867:
3719:
3715:
3680:
3584:
3380:
3364:
3327:
3317:
3273:
3269:
3257:
3239:
and destroyed in 698, signaling "the final, irretrievable end of
2817:
2333:
2321:
2219:
1932:
1842:
1812:
1747:
1583:
1563:
1523:
1433:
1368:
1158:
773:
84:
12002:
10252:
Syria for the Syrians: the rise of Syrian nationalism, 1970–2013
9261:
9065:
9063:
8175:
8173:
7887:
6164:
4440:
official of the early Umayyad Caliphate. The son of a prominent
4312:
3164:
14298:
14272:
14231:
14192:
14109:
14022:
13943:
13845:
13755:
13686:
13681:
13448:
13372:
12034:
11909:
11852:
11781:
11748:
11723:
11617:
11479:
8197:
6088:
5794:
5530:
5232:
5029:
4932:
4917:
4834:
4824:
4819:
4812:
4660:
4656:
4652:
4595:
4495:
4340:
4317:
4145:
4119:
4087:
4032:
that government work began to be regularly recorded in Arabic.
3906:
3830:
3826:
3663:
3635:
3604:
3438:
3321:
3265:
3261:
3078:
2919:
2914:
2779:
2759:
2495:
2429:
2379:
2356:
2345:
2007:
1887:
1743:
753:
313:
135:
121:
102:
9112:. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. pp. 505–508.
8347:
8236:
8011:
7955:
7722:
7642:
3670:
in 732. Arab expansion had already been limited following the
3647:), and did not lead to any significant territorial expansion.
2863:
15078:
14547:
14372:
14326:
14314:
14116:
14102:
14061:
13838:
13676:
13533:
13519:
13440:
13403:
12668:
11763:
11743:
11738:
11058:
Encyclopædia Iranica, Volume VI/5: Čūb-bāzī–Daf(f) and Dāyera
9060:
8170:
8158:
8001:
7999:
7824:
7676:
7674:
7334:
5563:. Muawiyah also declared his son, Yazid, as his successor in
5548:
5535:
5525:
4883:
4802:
4600:
4474:
4382:
4378:
4276:
4095:) that Muhammad carried before him when entering the mosque.
3956:
3925:
3902:
3739:
3728:
3684:
3512:
3298:(the Iberian Peninsula) in 711 and within five years most of
3282:
3056:
3048:
3007:
Abd al-Malik introduced an independent Islamic currency, the
2884:
2751:
2730:
2572:
2568:
2511:
2470:
2325:
2276:, which was earmarked or hypothecated explicitly for various
2273:
2264:
2112:
2074:
1977:
1732:
1702:
179:
10373:
The First Dynasty of Islam: The Umayyad Caliphate AD 661–750
9180:
Muawiya Restorer of the Muslim Faith By Aisha Bewley Page 41
8804:
8558:
8556:
8554:
8110:
6603:
6601:
2998:
14213:
14185:
14135:
14082:
14027:
13540:
11253:
Sprengling, Martin (April 1939). "From Persian to Arabic".
9529:. Wilmette, Illinois: Bahá'í Publishing Trust. p. 51.
9487:. Wilmette, Illinois: Bahá'í Publishing Trust. p. 69.
7875:
7297:
7295:
6920:
6825:
6803:
6801:
6670:
6668:
6666:
6664:
6514:
6466:
6196:. Macmillan International Higher Education. pp. 44–5.
4768:
4521:
4501:
4321:
4134:
3834:
3774:
3594:
3277:
2906:
2892:
2563:
2490:) in 639 before gaining authority over the rest of Syria's
2433:
2394:
2242:
in 750. Survivors of the dynasty established themselves in
2121:
2083:
1872:
319:
83:
The Umayyad Caliphate at its greatest extent, under Caliph
11878:
11081:
The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate
8992:
8990:
8963:
8941:
8939:
8431:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 131–132.
8371:
8323:
8277:
8275:
8260:
8098:
8076:
8074:
8059:
7996:
7986:
7984:
7982:
7734:
7671:
7659:
7229:
7227:
5622:
4456:, and served as the head of the fiscal administration for
11255:
The American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures
10761:
Kennedy, Hugh (2007a). "1. The Foundations of Conquest".
9978:
The Umayyad Caliphate, 65–86/684–705: (A Political Study)
9150:
8889:
8665:
Age of Transition: Byzantine Culture in the Islamic World
8551:
8299:
8185:
8134:
8023:
7899:
7863:
7851:
7841:
7839:
7812:
7800:
7790:
7788:
7775:
7773:
7746:
7710:
7632:
7630:
7628:
7603:
7601:
7561:
7559:
7557:
7555:
7542:
7540:
7538:
7536:
7521:
7509:
7365:
7122:
7110:
6813:
6721:
6651:
6649:
6647:
6645:
6643:
6618:
6616:
6598:
5552:
4460:
from the mid-7th century until the year 700, when Caliph
3862:
3555:
After the death of Umar II, another son of Abd al-Malik,
2516:
2124:
2089:
2086:
15223:
States and territories disestablished in the 8th century
10872:(3rd ed.). Abingdon, Oxon and New York: Routledge.
10560:
Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient
9574:. Albany, New York: State University of New York Press.
8146:
7933:
7931:
7929:
7461:
7437:
7425:
7413:
7377:
7355:
7353:
7351:
7349:
7292:
7270:
7268:
7266:
7202:
7200:
7185:
7175:
7173:
7158:
7076:
7074:
7047:
7037:
7035:
7033:
7031:
7016:
6980:
6956:
6944:
6908:
6798:
6788:
6786:
6784:
6757:
6699:
6697:
6695:
6661:
6628:
6562:
6550:
6502:
6454:
6041:
The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language
5579:
would be killed at the hands of ruling Umayyad caliphs.
5567:, Muhammad's grandson. Another of Muhammad's grandsons,
14917:
10886:
10621:
Muslim Expansion and Byzantine Collapse in North Africa
9273:
9087:
9002:
8987:
8936:
8630:
8335:
8272:
8248:
8226:
8224:
8071:
8035:
7979:
7943:
7916:
7914:
7588:
7586:
7584:
7582:
7580:
7578:
7576:
7574:
7257:
7224:
6932:
6862:
6860:
6858:
6856:
6854:
6852:
6837:
6745:
6436:
6236:
6234:
3758:" in 724, Ashras ibn 'Abd Allah al-Sulami, governor of
3687:, the Umayyad armies were defeated by the south Indian
2332:
and developed economic and military alliances with the
11414:
9228:
9162:
9138:
8951:
8512:
8488:
8311:
8287:
8047:
7836:
7785:
7770:
7686:
7625:
7613:
7598:
7552:
7533:
7324:
7322:
7098:
6992:
6733:
6640:
6613:
6574:
5395: Expansion during the Rashidun Caliphate, 632–661
3168:
The expansion of the Muslim Caliphate until 750, from
11436:
Slaves on Horses: The Evolution of the Islamic Polity
9357:
9126:
9075:
8975:
8618:
8122:
7926:
7497:
7473:
7401:
7389:
7346:
7280:
7263:
7239:
7197:
7170:
7146:
7134:
7086:
7071:
7059:
7028:
7004:
6884:
6872:
6781:
6769:
6709:
6692:
6680:
6586:
6538:
6526:
6478:
5401: Expansion during the Umayyad Caliphate, 661–750
3754:
of Transoxiana. Following the Umayyad defeat in the "
3309:
Umayyad coinage in India, from the time of the first
2787:(central North Africa) was launched by the commander
11453:
Crone, Patricia; Cook, M. A.; Cook, Michael (1977).
9829:
White Banners: Contention in 'Abbasid Syria, 750–880
8735:
Dome of the Rock and its Umayyad Mosaic Inscriptions
8221:
7967:
7911:
7698:
7571:
6968:
6849:
6490:
6442:
6231:
5911:
5899:
4651:
in religious art. Palaces were decorated with floor
4328:
The Umayyad Caliphate had four main social classes:
3578:
3527:
3521:
3490:
2408:
died in 639, he appointed Yazid governor of Syria's
2150:
2127:
2092:
61:
10376:(Second ed.). London and New York: Routledge.
9014:
8918:
Prosopographie der mittelbyzantinischen Zeit Online
8883:
Muhammad and the Believers: At the Origins of Islam
8500:
8086:
7758:
7485:
7319:
7307:
7212:
6896:
3623:The final son of Abd al-Malik to become caliph was
3324:), dated AH 97 (715–6 CE): obverse circular legend
2803:
Succession of Yazid I and collapse of Sufyanid rule
2159:established after the death of the Islamic prophet
2118:
2115:
2080:
2077:
10781:
9775:
9232:Iran and America Re-Kind[l]ing a Love Lost
8365:
5587:Asked for an explanation of the prophecies in the
4616:, while other constructions include the so-called
4448:, he was a favourite of the early Umayyad caliphs
3252:, between 698 and 703. His successor in Ifriqiya,
3023:. The leader of the rebels was the Kufan nobleman
9360:"Mu'awiya and the Shi'a Of 'Ali, Peace Be On Him"
6282:
2791:in 670, which extended Umayyad control as far as
15134:
10468:Islamic Architecture: Form, Function and Meaning
9519:
9477:
8416:
4357:continued to worsen until they helped cause the
4320:. The style indicates an origin in northeastern
2680:. Mu'awiya relied on the powerful Kalbite chief
11261:(2). The University of Chicago Press: 175–224.
9229:Badiozamani, Badi; Badiozamani, Ghazal (2005).
8449:. University of California Press. p. 333.
3433:. Meanwhile, in 716, the governor of Khurasan,
15218:States and territories established in the 660s
11289:
10939:
9351:
9235:. East West Understanding Press. p. 118.
8668:. Metropolitan Museum of Art. pp. 48–50.
7961:
7893:
5938:
5936:
4337:Muslim non-Arabs (clients of the Muslim Arabs)
3851:
3695:, stagnating further eastward Arab expansion.
2733:in 675/76 in the name of the Umayyad governor
297:11,100,000 km (4,300,000 sq mi)
14903:
13388:
11894:
11870:
11506:
11452:
11212:
10746:. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Da Capo Press.
9980:(Thesis). London: University of London, SOAS.
9295:A Companion to the History of the Middle East
9069:
8530:
5361:
4667:The later offshoot of the Umayyad dynasty in
4586:and completed shortly after his death in 715.
3437:, attempted to conquer the principalities of
3326:"in the name of Allah, struck this dirham in
2651:inscription crediting Mu'awiya for restoring
2428:tribe as a counterbalance to the influential
2035:
698:
13351:"Empire" as a description of foreign policy
11520:
11326:A History of the Byzantine State and Society
9334:. occawlonline.pearsoned.com. Archived from
8389:
5905:
5453:, that were written in the Abbasid court at
3337:
3227:, which collectively became the province of
581:
371:Byzantine Empire under the Heraclian dynasty
46:
11227:A Chronology Of Islamic History 570–1000 CE
10464:
10440:
9564:
9196:. Cambridge University Press. p. 166.
8825:
8738:. Edinburgh University Press. p. 231.
8396:. New York : Rizzoli. pp. 34–37.
8377:
8329:
8266:
8203:
8179:
8065:
7881:
7830:
7740:
7680:
7665:
7653:
6165:"Sahih Bukhari: Read, Study, Search Online"
5933:
4208:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
3718:peaked under Hisham: the Arabs established
3200: Expansion under the Umayyad Caliphate
3118:Damascus, Abd al-Malik's son and successor
2951:In 685, Marwan and Ibn Bahdal expelled the
2864:Marwanid transition and end of Second Fitna
2579:in 656. In the assessment of the historian
14910:
14896:
13395:
13381:
11901:
11887:
11513:
11499:
11347:
11252:
11169:
11149:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition
10966:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition
10917:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition
10816:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition
10690:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition
10516:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition
10418:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition
10329:Christians and Others in the Umayyad State
10304:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition
10228:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition
10173:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition
10071:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition
10008:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition
9934:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition
9870:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition
9803:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition
9712:
9690:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition
9662:
9640:The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition
9366:. Ansariyan Publishers. pp. 297–344.
9156:
8969:
8895:
8810:
8562:
8472:An Atlas and Survey of South Asian History
8447:Early India: From the Origins to A.D. 1300
8353:
8242:
8017:
8005:
7728:
7515:
7371:
7340:
7128:
7116:
6950:
6926:
6914:
6831:
6807:
6674:
6520:
6508:
6472:
6210:
6034:
5547:The negative view of the Umayyads held by
5485:ibn Abi Sufyan; it is now one of the four
5368:
5354:
4540:Tom Holland writes that Christians, Jews,
4075:, stopped using the Sasanian image of the
2320:or Banu Umayya were a leading clan of the
2042:
2028:
705:
691:
77:
30:For the corresponding ruling dynasty, see
11455:Hagarism: The Making of the Islamic World
11319:
11084:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
10974:. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 643–644.
10925:. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 837–839.
10698:. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 127–128.
10624:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
10593:Byzantium and the Early Islamic Conquests
10524:. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 263–268.
10426:. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 840–847.
10312:. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 298–299.
10079:. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 277–291.
10051:
10016:. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 821–822.
9942:. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 323–327.
9900:. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
9811:. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 821–822.
9719:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
9698:. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 789–790.
9648:. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 268–269.
9189:
8876:
8874:
8821:
8819:
8795:
8773:
8731:
8164:
8140:
7818:
6408:"The Art of the Umayyad Period (661–750)"
6323:
6183:
5942:
5492:
4689:architecture in the western Islamic world
4228:Learn how and when to remove this message
3073:was replaced in Syria and Egypt with the
2999:Domestic consolidation and centralization
2988:in 691. Afterward, the Umayyad commander
2847:and subsequently plundered Medina before
2183:, who became caliph after the end of the
11220:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
11074:
11044:
11008:
10760:
10390:
10345:
10326:
9846:
9613:
9588:
9291:
9279:
9039:
8945:
8908:
8906:
8904:
8624:
8599:
8542:
8128:
8116:
8104:
8041:
7233:
6938:
6843:
6751:
6739:
6727:
6655:
6622:
6607:
6580:
5621:
5379:
4562:
4324:, the base of Hashimiyya military power.
4311:
3861:
3697:
3610:
3598:
3595:Caliphate of Hisham and end of expansion
3455:
3304:
3163:
3002:
2867:
2858:
2806:
2717:
2642:
2638:
2451:
15163:8th-century disestablishments in Africa
13175:
11376:
11233:
10862:
10838:
10736:
10712:
10662:
10638:
10538:
10366:
10248:
10236:. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 76–77.
10181:. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 54–55.
9984:
9878:. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 39–43.
9713:Crone, Patricia; Hinds, Martin (1986).
9267:
9168:
9144:
9132:
9035:
9033:
9031:
9029:
9008:
8996:
8699:
8636:
8574:
8469:
8341:
8317:
8305:
8293:
8281:
8254:
8080:
8053:
8029:
7990:
7949:
7845:
7794:
7716:
7692:
7636:
7619:
7607:
7565:
7546:
7527:
7503:
7479:
7443:
7419:
7407:
7395:
7383:
7359:
7301:
7274:
7206:
7191:
7179:
7164:
7152:
7104:
7092:
7080:
7065:
7053:
7041:
7022:
7010:
6986:
6962:
6890:
6878:
6819:
6792:
6775:
6763:
6715:
6703:
6686:
6634:
6568:
6556:
6544:
6532:
6484:
6460:
6216:
5389: Expansion under Muhammad, 622-632
3658:by the Umayyads (starting in 711), and
3550:
3137:
2515:council, composed of Muhammad's cousin
169:(official in certain regions until 700)
14:
15135:
11398:Muʻawiya: Restorer of the Muslim Faith
11395:
11224:
11218:The Shorter Cambridge Medieval History
11191:
11098:
11014:"The Minor Dynasties of Northern Iran"
10277:
9890:
9742:(1). Walter de Gruyter and Co.: 1–57.
9543:from the original on 24 September 2012
9408:
9292:Choueiri, Youssef M. (15 April 2008).
8981:
8957:
8880:
8871:
8816:
8727:
8725:
8723:
8706:. Penn State Press. pp. 216–217.
8695:
8693:
8691:
8689:
8687:
8685:
8657:
8655:
8653:
8651:
8649:
8647:
8645:
8577:The Great Islamic Conquests AD 632–750
8441:
8428:The Cambridge Shorter History of India
8152:
7779:
6592:
6496:
6448:
6418:from the original on 20 September 2020
6405:
6240:
6189:
6156:
4307:
3866:The caliphate at the beginning of the
3731:, but the Khazars remained unsubdued.
3656:permanent occupation of most of Iberia
3359:, launched numerous campaigns against
3109:In 691/92, Abd al-Malik completed the
2935:coalitions. The Qays regrouped in the
2468:, had originally been governor of the
2447:
14891:
14633:
14401:
14017:
13376:
11882:
11869:
11494:
11433:
11296:The Arab Emirates in Bagratid Armenia
11122:
10988:
10614:
10586:
10557:
10489:
10193:
10138:
10091:
9975:
9733:
9193:The Cambridge Companion to the Qur'an
9105:
9093:
9081:
9040:Petersen, Andrew (1996). "Umayyads".
9020:
8924:from the original on 25 December 2019
8901:
8761:
8579:. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 30.
8215:
8191:
7973:
7937:
7920:
7905:
7869:
7857:
7806:
7752:
7592:
7491:
7467:
7455:
7431:
7328:
7313:
7218:
6998:
6974:
6902:
6866:
6305:from the original on 24 November 2020
5980:from the original on 19 November 2018
4010:
3345:l'Hind) in the year seven and ninety"
3268:confederations and advanced into the
2931:. Marj Rahit led to the long-running
2913:(northern Syria) and the Jazira, the
27:Second Islamic caliphate (661–750 CE)
15158:7th-century establishments in Africa
14402:
14018:
11157:. Leiden: E. J. Brill. p. 271.
10824:. Leiden: E. J. Brill. p. 311.
10112:
10030:
9976:Dixon, 'Abd al-Ameer (August 1969).
9954:
9914:
9825:
9770:
9501:from the original on 8 December 2010
9109:Al-Andalus: The Art of Islamic Spain
9026:
8732:Milwright, Milwright Marcus (2019).
8661:
8518:
8506:
8494:
8230:
8092:
7764:
7704:
7286:
7245:
7140:
6366:
6264:from the original on 5 November 2019
6171:from the original on 4 February 2016
4509:. Sarjun ibn Mansur was replaced by
4206:adding citations to reliable sources
4173:
3543:) and not merely as a worldly king (
3429:in 717, forcing their withdrawal to
3405:Al-Walid I's successor, his brother
2692:alongside the Qurayshite commanders
2613:supporters, who became known as the
720:Historical Arab states and dynasties
15233:Historical transcontinental empires
9394:. nahjulbalagha.org. Archived from
8720:
8682:
8642:
7258:Levi Della Vida & Bosworth 2000
6437:Levi Della Vida & Bosworth 2000
6162:
5906:
5889:
5725:23 February 715 – 22 September 717
5528:, he established liberties for the
4252:
4129:). Its size and shape was based on
3970:. It was to survive for centuries.
3932:, and in November of the same year
3619:, Syria. National Museum, Damascus.
3607:, site of Hisham's palace and court
3460:A 14th-century illustration of the
3272:(western North Africa), conquering
3182: Muslim state at the death of
2955:and replaced him with Marwan's son
2933:conflict between the Qays and Yaman
2700:, the son of the prominent general
2140:
582:
47:
24:
11396:Bewley, Aisha Abdurrahman (2002).
11370:
10648:. London and New York: Routledge.
10119:The Arab Conquests in Central Asia
9459:from the original on 21 April 2017
9429:from the original on 24 March 2023
9312:from the original on 24 March 2023
9249:from the original on 24 March 2023
9210:from the original on 24 March 2023
9043:Dictionary of Islamic Architecture
8703:Near Eastern Archaeology: A Reader
6387:from the original on 24 March 2023
6348:from the original on 24 March 2023
5735:22 September 717 – 4 February 720
5607:
5571:, would be killed by Yazid in the
4261:
4244:
4028:. It was only during the reign of
3643:, but also in a major defeat (the
3134:Muslim supremacy and permanence".
2633:
2307:
2234:in terms of area. The dynasty was
25:
15244:
11472:
11128:"Ḥassān b. al-Nuʿmān al-Ghassānī"
10722:(2nd ed.). Harlow: Longman.
10249:Gilbert, Victoria J. (May 2013).
9589:Beckwith, Christopher I. (1993).
6412:Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History
6217:Venable, Francis Preston (1894).
6144:from the original on 19 June 2015
6061:Oxford Dictionaries US Dictionary
5384:Map of the caliphate's expansion
4575:was constructed on the orders of
4285:
4270:
4169:
3992:
3817:Yazid had appointed his brother,
3491:Caliphate of Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz
3402:during the reign of Caliph Umar.
2748:conquest of Iraq in the 630s–640s
2725:-style Umayyad coin minted under
15193:History of the Arabian Peninsula
14872:
14871:
14860:
14381:Schools of islamic jurisprudence
13571:Timeline of the history of Islam
13402:
11851:
11478:
9513:
9471:
9441:
9402:
9384:
9342:
9324:
9285:
9222:
9183:
9174:
9099:
8862:
8767:
8764:, p. 89 (see footnote 146).
8593:
8568:
8536:
8463:
8435:
8410:
8383:
6016:from the original on 12 May 2019
5859:
5846:Uthman ibn Anbasa ibn Abi Sufyan
5804:4 December 744 – 25 January 750
5755:26 January 724 – 6 February 743
5745:4 February 720 – 26 January 724
5715:8 October 705 – 23 February 715
4298:
4178:
3331:
3256:, subjugated the Berbers of the
3233:Hassan ibn al-Nu'man al-Ghassani
2872:Map of the caliphate during the
2849:besieging Ibn al-Zubayr in Mecca
2108:
2070:
1141:Western dynasties and caliphates
725:
674:
593:
556:
542:
528:
514:
500:
486:
472:
447:
433:
419:
405:
391:
377:
363:
349:
14732:List of ex-Muslim organisations
10258:(MA). Northeastern University.
10037:(2nd ed.). Leiden: Brill.
9558:
9190:McAuliffe, Jane Dammen (2006).
9046:. Routledge. pp. 295–297.
8920:(in German). De Gruyter. 2013.
8776:American Journal of Archaeology
6399:
6360:
6317:
6276:
6246:
5953:International Studies Quarterly
5840:The eldest surviving Sufyanid,
5834:
5785:4 October 744 – 4 December 744
5675:27 April 680 – 11 November 683
4649:taboo on figural representation
4590:The Umayyads constructed grand
4552:
4488:
4117:. The silver coin was called a
3702:The Umayyad Caliphate in 740 CE
3629:
3561:
3416:), continued his predecessors'
3411:
3124:
2710:
2399:
2373:
2191:, and power eventually fell to
643:Umayyad Caliphate in al-Andalus
11678:Revolt of Yazid b. al-Muhallab
11663:Second siege of Constantinople
11653:Muslim conquest of Transoxiana
11638:Muslim conquest of the Maghreb
11438:. Cambridge University Press.
11192:Powers, David S., ed. (1989).
10890:& Bosworth, C. E. (2000).
10848:. Cambridge University Press.
10845:A History of Islamic Societies
9663:Christides, Vassilios (2000).
9358:Shaykh Radi Aal-yasin (2000).
8604:. Pen and Sword. p. 226.
8547:. RoutledgeCurzon. p. 22.
8390:Ettinghausen, Richard (1977).
8366:Lammens & Blankinship 2002
6406:Yalman, Suzan (October 2001).
6330:. Marshall Cavendish. p.
6190:Barton, Simon (30 June 2009).
6126:
6111:Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary
6028:
5992:
5878:
5765:6 February 743 – 17 April 744
5565:breach of a treaty with Hassan
4569:Great Mosque or Umayyad Mosque
4364:
3780:
3472:besieged the Byzantine capital
3156:Muslim conquest of Transoxiana
3148:Muslim conquest of the Maghreb
3059:lands was redirected from the
2590:
13:
1:
15178:Former countries in West Asia
11628:First siege of Constantinople
11354:The Arab Kingdom and Its Fall
10791:"Yazīd (II) b. ʿAbd al-Malik"
10092:Flood, Finbarr Barry (2001).
9777:"ʿUmar (II) b. ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz"
8545:Islam: A Concise Introduction
6044:(5th ed.). HarperCollins
5927:
5775:17 April 744 – 4 October 744
5705:12 April 685 – 8 October 705
5577:Ali ibn Husayn Zayn al-Abidin
4635:was derived from established
4580:
4511:Sulayman ibn Sa'd al-Khushani
4419:Pope Benjamin I of Alexandria
4054:
3837:and Damascus in retaliation.
3017:
2945:Zufar ibn al-Harith al-Kilabi
2877:
2547:. According to the historian
88:
15183:History of the Mediterranean
14717:Apostasy in Islam by country
14584:Liberalism and progressivism
11708:Umayyad rule in North Africa
11648:Umayyad conquest of Hispania
10465:Hillenbrand, Robert (1994).
8881:Donner, Fred M. (May 2010).
8218:, pp. 143–144, 158–162.
7458:, pp. 174–176, 206–208.
6324:Cavendish, Marshall (2006).
6220:A Short History of Chemistry
5641:interactive version of chart
5555:described them as the worst
4001:
3881:movement (a sub-sect of the
2386:. One of the appointees was
2179:, the long-time governor of
7:
15213:States in medieval Anatolia
11908:
11419:. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO.
11381:. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO.
11238:. Oxford University Press.
9987:"Sulaymān b. ʿAbd al-Malik"
9897:The Early Islamic Conquests
8914:"Sarğūn ibn Manṣūr ar-Rūmī"
8474:. M.E. Sharpe. p. 34.
5912:
5900:
5810:
5711:al-Walid I ibn Abd al-Malik
5685:11 November 683 – June 684
5665:28 July 661 – 27 April 680
5618:Umayyad dynasty family tree
5443:reconstructing this history
5296:Mandatory Syria and Lebanon
5069:Diocese of the East in the
4988:Wars of Alexander the Great
4035:
3852:Abbasid Revolution and fall
3579:
3528:
3522:
3320:" (possibly in the city of
3231:. In 695–698 the commander
3152:Muslim conquest of Hispania
3067:In 693, the Byzantine gold
2694:al-Dahhak ibn Qays al-Fihri
2498:(644–656), a member of the
2202:The Umayyads continued the
2151:
861:Arab empires and caliphates
62:
10:
15249:
14634:
11683:Revolt of Harith b. Surayj
11658:Umayyad campaigns in India
11175:The Middle East, A History
11028:Cambridge University Press
10598:Cambridge University Press
10572:10.1163/156852003772914848
10495:"Muʿāwiya I b. Abī Sufyān"
10144:"ʿAbd Allāh ibn al-Zubayr"
10052:Elisséeff, Nikita (1965).
9955:Duri, Abd al-Aziz (2011).
9915:Duri, Abd al-Aziz (1965).
9597:Princeton University Press
6283:Benthal, Jonathan (1998).
6005:Collins English Dictionary
5611:
4556:
4531:Syriac Orthodox Christians
4274:
4044:
3855:
3784:
3660:on into south-eastern Gaul
3476:Umar ibn Hubayra al-Fazari
3425:defeated the Arabs at the
3191: Expansion under the
3160:Umayyad campaigns in India
3144:Muslim conquest of Armenia
3141:
2953:Zubayrid governor of Egypt
2558:. In 645/46, he added the
2300:
2296:
2291:
2232:largest empires in history
171:various regional languages
29:
15203:Medieval history of Syria
15198:Medieval history of Spain
15168:8th century in al-Andalus
14930:
14855:
14740:
14707:
14647:
14643:
14629:
14556:
14523:
14495:Geography and cartography
14470:
14417:
14413:
14397:
14223:
14145:
14092:
14041:
14037:
14013:
13883:
13707:
13667:
13550:
13502:
13426:
13422:
13411:
13344:
13296:
12813:
12217:
11916:
11876:
11871:Links to related articles
11849:
11839:Painting of the Six Kings
11797:
11716:
11610:
11529:
11331:Stanford University Press
10663:Kennedy, Hugh N. (2002).
10473:Columbia University Press
10199:"ʿAbd al-Malik b. Marwān"
10124:The Royal Asiatic Society
9847:Dietrich, Albert (1971).
9566:Blankinship, Khalid Yahya
9320:– via Google Books.
9298:. John Wiley & Sons.
8700:Richard, Suzanne (2003).
8470:Schmidt, Karl J. (1995).
5741:Yazid II ibn Abd al-Malik
5721:Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik
5626:Genealogical tree of the
5582:
4694:
4687:, which influenced later
4631:Under Umayyad patronage,
4526:Syriac Orthodox Christian
4524:tribe, which was a large
3979:Abu al-Umaytir al-Sufyani
3338:
3280:in 708/09. Musa's Berber
3029:Battle of Dayr al-Jamajim
2766:and the latter's protege
2246:which, in the form of an
2141:ٱلْخِلَافَة ٱلْأُمَوِيَّة
583:
328:
301:
293:
288:
284:
271:
258:
254:
246:
242:
227:
212:
208:
198:
185:
175:
141:
131:
108:
98:
76:
71:
48:ٱلْخِلَافَة ٱلْأُمَوِيَّة
41:
15208:Medieval history of Iran
14814:Islamic view of miracles
11822:Great Mosque of Damascus
11668:Umayyad invasion of Gaul
11643:Revolt of Ibn al-Ash'ath
11434:Crone, Patricia (1980).
11329:. Stanford, California:
10888:Levi Della Vida, Giorgio
9748:10.1515/islm.1994.71.1.1
9270:, pp. 21–24, 39–40.
8828:Philosophy East and West
8600:Crawford, Peter (2013).
5827:
5695:June 684 – 12 April 685
5661:Muawiya I ibn Abu Sufyan
5542:
5497:
4614:Great Mosque of Damascus
3821:, as his successor, but
3791:Hisham was succeeded by
3691:and by the north Indian
2891:, the pro-Alid ruler of
2494:during the caliphate of
2474:(military districts) of
2406:Abu Ubayda ibn al-Jarrah
2384:Muslim conquest of Syria
1169:Umayyad state of Córdoba
441:Brahman dynasty of Sindh
15188:History of North Africa
14985:(970–11th/12th century)
14569:Creationism (evolution)
10391:Hawting, G. R. (2000).
10346:Hathaway, Jane (2012).
9849:"Al-Ḥadjdjādj b. Yūsuf"
9526:Some Answered Questions
9484:Some Answered Questions
8575:Nicolle, David (2012).
8543:Robinson, Neal (1999).
6138:Encyclopædia Britannica
6095:Oxford University Press
6065:Oxford University Press
5966:10.1111/0020-8833.00053
5822:List of Sunni dynasties
5751:Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik
5701:Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan
5597:Some Answered Questions
4681:Great Mosque of Córdoba
4645:Byzantine-style mosaics
4462:Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan
3942:Abu Muhammad al-Sufyani
3674:in 721. In 739 a major
3462:siege of Constantinople
3085:as the language of the
2889:Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr
2833:Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr
132:Official languages
15153:750s disestablishments
14829:Persecution of Muslims
14727:List of former Muslims
13576:Succession to Muhammad
11817:Great Mosque of Aleppo
11673:Second Arab–Khazar War
9826:Cobb, Paul M. (2001).
9409:Sharon, Moshe (1983).
9157:Crone & Hinds 1986
6367:Haag, Michael (2012).
5791:Marwan II ibn Muhammad
5771:Yazid III ibn al-Walid
5643:
5575:. Further Shia Imams,
5519:Rightly Guided Caliphs
5493:Religious perspectives
5403:
4592:congregational mosques
4587:
4516:Muawiya's marriage to
4325:
3874:
3725:Battle of Marj Ardabil
3703:
3620:
3617:Qasr al-Hayr al-Gharbi
3608:
3464:
3400:early Muslim conquests
3348:
3300:Hispania was conquered
3217:Battle of Sebastopolis
3211:
3097:in 700, and Greek and
3012:
2902:
2812:
2742:
2660:
2521:al-Zubayr ibn al-Awwam
2502:
2152:al-Khilāfa al-Umawiyya
63:Al-Khilāfa al-Umawiyya
14613:Conversion to mosques
14480:Alchemy and chemistry
13321:Medieval great powers
11787:Arab–Sasanian coinage
11688:Revolt of Zayd b. Ali
11225:Rahman, H.U. (1999).
10990:Lilie, Ralph-Johannes
10892:"Umayya b. Abd Shams"
10539:Holland, Tom (2013).
10031:Elad, Amikam (1999).
8840:10.1353/pew.2002.0030
6327:World and Its Peoples
6091:UK English Dictionary
5761:al-Walid II ibn Yazid
5691:Marwan I ibn al-Hakam
5625:
5383:
4960:Neo-Babylonian Empire
4719:Levantine Aurignacian
4703:History of the Levant
4566:
4513:, another Christian.
4315:
4069:"Arab-Sasanian" coins
4016:work was recorded in
3865:
3746:, with its centre at
3738:, with its centre at
3701:
3654:paved the way to the
3614:
3602:
3568:Yazid ibn al-Muhallab
3485:Anti-Taurus Mountains
3474:from the land, while
3459:
3435:Yazid ibn al-Muhallab
3392:Muhammad ibn al-Qasim
3383:and demolished their
3308:
3241:Roman power in Africa
3237:Carthage was captured
3167:
3006:
2871:
2859:Early Marwanid period
2810:
2776:Ubayd Allah ibn Ziyad
2764:al-Mughira ibn Shu'ba
2735:Ubayd Allah ibn Ziyad
2721:
2646:
2639:Caliphate of Mu'awiya
2577:killing of the caliph
2533:Abd al-Rahman ibn Awf
2525:Talha ibn Ubayd Allah
2455:
2393:Abu Bakr's successor
2365:companion of Muhammad
2357:emigration from Mecca
2163:and was ruled by the
1759:Sultanate of Zanzibar
1674:Mutawakkilite Kingdom
142:Common languages
15115:Hashemites of Jordan
14339:Ma malakat aymanukum
13914:Association football
13813:Moderate Kharijites
13331:European colonialism
13316:Ancient great powers
11807:Umayyad architecture
11487:at Wikimedia Commons
11291:Ter-Ghewondyan, Aram
11214:Previté-Orton, C. W.
11030:. pp. 198–249.
9985:Eisener, R. (1997).
5781:Ibrahim ibn al-Walid
5731:Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz
5681:Muawiya II ibn Yazid
5671:Yazid I ibn Muawiyah
5647:Caliphs of Damascus
5515:Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz
5475:Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz
5435:khalifat rasul Allah
4862:New Kingdom of Egypt
4677:Caliphate of Córdoba
4633:Islamic architecture
4559:Umayyad architecture
4202:improve this section
3934:Abul Abbas as-Saffah
3771:al-Harith ibn Surayj
3767:Battle of the Defile
3551:Late Marwanid period
3497:Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz
3138:Renewal of conquests
2924:Battle of Marj Rahit
413:Kingdom of the Aurès
262:Hasan–Muawiya treaty
15069:(16th–19th century)
15063:(15th–19th century)
15015:(11th–12th century)
14967:(10th–11th century)
13326:Modern great powers
11769:al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf
11171:Ochsenwald, William
10787:Blankinship, Kh. Y.
10442:Hillenbrand, Carole
9380:on 20 January 2004.
8885:. pp. 110–111.
8356:, pp. 313–318.
8206:, pp. 117–121.
8194:, pp. 132–133.
8167:, pp. 347–348.
8119:, pp. 198–199.
8020:, pp. 437–438.
7962:Lévi-Provençal 1993
7908:, pp. 113–115.
7894:Ter-Ghewondyan 1976
7872:, pp. 112–116.
7860:, pp. 110–112.
7809:, pp. 425–426.
7755:, pp. 424–426.
7731:, pp. 219–220.
7470:, pp. 235–239.
7434:, pp. 220–222.
7343:, pp. 201–202.
7260:, pp. 838–839.
6254:"Islamic Economics"
6089:Oxford Dictionaries
5648:
5301:Mandatory Palestine
4980:Classical antiquity
4955:Neo-Assyrian Empire
4912:Syro-Hittite states
4308:Social organization
3870:revolt, before the
3451:Farrukhan the Great
3445:along the southern
3316:. Minted in India "
3170:William R. Shepherd
2990:al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf
2756:al-Ash'ath ibn Qays
2702:Khalid ibn al-Walid
2602:Battle of the Camel
2569:Arab garrison towns
2545:Marwan ibn al-Hakam
2529:Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas
2448:Caliphate of Uthman
2338:Abu Sufyan ibn Harb
2171:, the third of the
736:Ancient Arab states
663:Sharifian Caliphate
637:Parallel caliphates
399:Exarchate of Africa
15148:661 establishments
15109:Hashemites of Iraq
14834:Quran and miracles
14748:Criticism of Islam
14452:Geometric patterns
14304:Gender segregation
13875:Non-denominational
11759:Qays–Yaman rivalry
11703:Abbasid Revolution
11349:Wellhausen, Julius
11100:Morony, Michael G.
10941:Lévi-Provençal, E.
10368:Hawting, Gerald R.
10283:"Kubbat al-Ṣakhra"
10264:10.17760/d20004883
10211:Lévi-Provençal, E.
10156:Lévi-Provençal, E.
9398:on 19 August 2007.
9070:Previté-Orton 1971
8531:Previté-Orton 1971
8245:, p. 268–269.
7656:, pp. 28, 94.
6822:, pp. 76, 78.
6258:www.hetwebsite.net
6193:A History of Spain
6103: •
6081: •
6054: •
5946:(September 1997).
5646:
5644:
5634:, one of the four
5630:. In blue: Caliph
5589:Book of Revelation
5534:by abolishing the
5420:Rashidun caliphate
5404:
5045:Herodian Tetrarchy
4744:Ghassulian culture
4671:, which ruled the
4588:
4518:Maysun bint Bahdal
4326:
4011:Government workers
3930:placed under siege
3875:
3858:Abbasid Revolution
3704:
3672:Battle of Toulouse
3652:Visigothic Kingdom
3645:Battle of Akroinon
3621:
3609:
3515:(poll tax) on the
3465:
3357:Qutayba ibn Muslim
3349:
3314:Muhammad ibn Qasim
3292:Visigothic Kingdom
3212:
3193:Rashidun Caliphate
3013:
2969:Mukhtar al-Thaqafi
2903:
2896:Mukhtar al-Thaqafi
2845:Battle of al-Harra
2813:
2743:
2690:Shurahbil ibn Simt
2661:
2505:Umar's successor,
2503:
2314:pre-Islamic period
2256:Islamic Golden Age
2199:as their capital.
1801:Current monarchies
1464:Sharifate of Mecca
934:Emirate of Tbilisi
924:Emirate of Armenia
774:Kingdom of Osroene
610:Rashidun Caliphate
524:Emirate of Tlemcen
482:Emirate of Córdoba
455:Hephthalite Empire
385:Visigothic Kingdom
357:Rashidun Caliphate
275:Abbasid Revolution
15143:Umayyad Caliphate
15130:
15129:
15124:
15123:
14919:Islamic dynasties
14885:
14884:
14851:
14850:
14847:
14846:
14819:Domestic violence
14809:Islamic terrorism
14804:Islamic extremism
14625:
14624:
14621:
14620:
14393:
14392:
14389:
14388:
14179:Marriage contract
14009:
14008:
13969:Political aspects
13698:Story of Prophets
13467:Prophets of Islam
13370:
13369:
13292:
13291:
13257:Polish–Lithuanian
12432:Gurjara-Pratihara
11863:
11862:
11522:Umayyad Caliphate
11485:Umayyad Caliphate
11483:Media related to
11426:978-1-61069-177-2
11388:978-1-61069-177-2
11321:Treadgold, Warren
11305:Livraria Bertrand
11205:978-0-7914-0072-2
11184:978-0-07-244233-5
11115:978-0-87395-933-9
11076:Madelung, Wilferd
11067:978-1-56859-003-5
11046:Madelung, Wilferd
10981:978-90-04-09419-2
10932:978-90-04-11211-7
10879:978-0-367-36690-2
10855:978-0-521-51430-9
10831:978-90-04-12756-2
10772:978-0-306-81728-1
10753:978-0-306-81740-3
10729:978-0-582-40525-7
10705:978-90-04-12756-2
10631:978-0-521-19677-2
10550:978-0-349-12235-9
10531:978-90-04-09419-2
10457:978-0-88706-810-2
10433:978-90-04-11211-7
10359:978-0-7914-8610-8
10338:978-1-614910-31-2
10319:978-90-04-07819-2
10098:. Boston: Brill.
10023:978-90-04-10422-8
9968:978-1-84885-060-6
9907:978-1-4008-4787-7
9818:978-90-04-11211-7
9705:978-90-04-11211-7
9655:978-90-04-09419-2
9606:978-0-691-02469-1
9581:978-0-7914-1827-7
9536:978-0-87743-190-9
9494:978-0-87743-190-9
9422:978-965-223-501-5
9373:978-1-4960-4085-5
9305:978-1-4051-5204-4
9242:978-0-9742172-0-8
9203:978-0-521-53934-0
9096:, pp. 22–24.
8745:978-1-4744-6045-3
8713:978-1-57506-547-2
8675:978-0-300-21111-5
8611:978-1-84884-612-8
8586:978-1-84603-890-7
8533:, vol. 1, p. 239.
8521:, pp. 56–61.
8497:, pp. 47–50.
8445:(February 2004).
8419:Haig, T. Wolseley
8403:978-0-8478-0081-0
8308:, pp. 77–79.
8182:, pp. 33–34.
8155:, pp. 39–40.
8107:, pp. 88–89.
8032:, pp. 90–91.
7896:, pp. 20–21.
7833:, pp. 71–72.
7719:, pp. 63–64.
7530:, pp. 87–88.
7446:, pp. 97–98.
7422:, pp. 32–33.
7386:, pp. 92–93.
7304:, pp. 90–91.
7289:, pp. 24–25.
7248:, pp. 23–24.
7194:, pp. 89–90.
7167:, pp. 88–89.
7143:, pp. 22–23.
7056:, pp. 83–85.
7025:, pp. 82–83.
7001:, pp. 81–82.
6989:, pp. 87–88.
6965:, pp. 86–87.
6929:, pp. 59–60.
6834:, pp. 55–56.
6766:, pp. 75–76.
6730:, pp. 80–81.
6637:, pp. 62–64.
6610:, pp. 60–61.
6571:, pp. 51–53.
6559:, pp. 51–52.
6523:, pp. 20–21.
6475:, pp. 40–41.
6463:, pp. 22–23.
6380:978-1-84765-854-8
6373:. Profile Books.
6341:978-0-7614-7571-2
6223:. Heath. p.
6203:978-1-137-01347-7
6134:"Umayyad dynasty"
6114:. Merriam-Webster
5898:
5842:al-Walid ibn Utba
5808:
5807:
5573:Battle of Karbala
5378:
5377:
5035:Hasmonean dynasty
4965:Achaemenid Empire
4729:Mushabian culture
4622:Khirbat al-Majfar
4431:Sarjun ibn Mansur
4238:
4237:
4230:
4051:Byzantine coinage
3938:Battle of the Zab
3872:Battle of the Zab
3829:, in present-day
3801:Khirbat al-Mafjar
3221:Caucasian Albania
2826:Battle of Karbala
2678:Julius Wellhausen
2155:) was the second
2149:
2056:Umayyad Caliphate
2052:
2051:
2017:
2016:
1792:
1791:
1784:Tippu Tip's State
1682:
1681:
1654:Emirate of Beihan
1386:Arabian Peninsula
1377:
1376:
1132:
1131:
916:Eastern dynasties
907:
906:
852:
851:
764:Nabataean Kingdom
754:Kingdom of Lihyan
715:
714:
653:Almohad Caliphate
648:Fatimid Caliphate
625:Ottoman Caliphate
620:Abbasid Caliphate
615:Umayyad Caliphate
572:
571:
568:
567:
564:
563:
468:Abbasid Caliphate
460:
459:
427:Kingdom of Altava
43:Umayyad Caliphate
16:(Redirected from
15240:
14912:
14905:
14898:
14889:
14888:
14875:
14874:
14867:Islam portal
14865:
14864:
14863:
14645:
14644:
14637:
14631:
14630:
14472:Medieval science
14415:
14414:
14405:
14399:
14398:
14056:Economic history
14039:
14038:
14015:
14014:
14001:Islam by country
13786:Bektashi Alevism
13424:
13423:
13415:Outline of Islam
13397:
13390:
13383:
13374:
13373:
13173:
13172:
12838:Austro-Hungarian
12538:Chagatai Khanate
11903:
11896:
11889:
11880:
11879:
11867:
11866:
11855:
11827:Dome of the Rock
11773:Umayyad coinage
11515:
11508:
11501:
11492:
11491:
11482:
11468:
11449:
11430:
11411:
11400:. Dar Al Taqwa.
11392:
11366:
11344:
11316:
11301:Nina G. Garsoïan
11299:. Translated by
11286:
11249:
11230:
11221:
11209:
11188:
11166:
11119:
11095:
11071:
11054:Yarshater, Ehsan
11041:
11018:Frye, Richard N.
11005:
10985:
10957:Heinrichs, W. P.
10945:"Mūsā b. Nuṣayr"
10936:
10912:Heinrichs, W. P.
10883:
10859:
10835:
10811:Heinrichs, W. P.
10776:
10765:. Hachette, UK.
10757:
10733:
10714:Kennedy, Hugh N.
10709:
10685:Heinrichs, W. P.
10659:
10635:
10616:Kaegi, Walter E.
10611:
10588:Kaegi, Walter E.
10583:
10554:
10535:
10507:Heinrichs, W. P.
10486:
10461:
10437:
10413:Heinrichs, W. P.
10387:
10363:
10342:
10323:
10274:
10272:
10270:
10257:
10245:
10190:
10135:
10109:
10088:
10048:
10027:
9999:Heinrichs, W. P.
9981:
9972:
9951:
9911:
9887:
9843:
9822:
9798:Heinrichs, W. P.
9779:
9767:
9730:
9709:
9685:Heinrichs, W. P.
9665:"ʿUkba b. Nāfiʿ"
9659:
9631:Heinrichs, W. P.
9610:
9585:
9553:
9552:
9550:
9548:
9517:
9511:
9510:
9508:
9506:
9475:
9469:
9468:
9466:
9464:
9453:biblegateway.com
9445:
9439:
9438:
9436:
9434:
9406:
9400:
9399:
9388:
9382:
9381:
9376:. Archived from
9355:
9349:
9346:
9340:
9339:
9328:
9322:
9321:
9319:
9317:
9289:
9283:
9277:
9271:
9265:
9259:
9258:
9256:
9254:
9226:
9220:
9219:
9217:
9215:
9187:
9181:
9178:
9172:
9166:
9160:
9154:
9148:
9142:
9136:
9130:
9124:
9123:
9103:
9097:
9091:
9085:
9079:
9073:
9067:
9058:
9057:
9037:
9024:
9018:
9012:
9006:
9000:
8994:
8985:
8979:
8973:
8967:
8961:
8955:
8949:
8943:
8934:
8933:
8931:
8929:
8910:
8899:
8893:
8887:
8886:
8878:
8869:
8866:
8860:
8859:
8823:
8814:
8813:, p. 55–56.
8808:
8802:
8801:
8799:
8771:
8765:
8759:
8750:
8749:
8729:
8718:
8717:
8697:
8680:
8679:
8659:
8640:
8634:
8628:
8622:
8616:
8615:
8597:
8591:
8590:
8572:
8566:
8560:
8549:
8548:
8540:
8534:
8528:
8522:
8516:
8510:
8504:
8498:
8492:
8486:
8485:
8467:
8461:
8460:
8439:
8433:
8432:
8414:
8408:
8407:
8387:
8381:
8378:Blankinship 1994
8375:
8369:
8363:
8357:
8351:
8345:
8339:
8333:
8330:Blankinship 1994
8327:
8321:
8315:
8309:
8303:
8297:
8291:
8285:
8279:
8270:
8267:Blankinship 1994
8264:
8258:
8252:
8246:
8240:
8234:
8228:
8219:
8213:
8207:
8204:Blankinship 1994
8201:
8195:
8189:
8183:
8180:Blankinship 1994
8177:
8168:
8162:
8156:
8150:
8144:
8138:
8132:
8126:
8120:
8114:
8108:
8102:
8096:
8090:
8084:
8078:
8069:
8066:Blankinship 1994
8063:
8057:
8051:
8045:
8039:
8033:
8027:
8021:
8015:
8009:
8003:
7994:
7988:
7977:
7971:
7965:
7959:
7953:
7947:
7941:
7935:
7924:
7918:
7909:
7903:
7897:
7891:
7885:
7882:Blankinship 1994
7879:
7873:
7867:
7861:
7855:
7849:
7843:
7834:
7831:Hillenbrand 1994
7828:
7822:
7816:
7810:
7804:
7798:
7792:
7783:
7777:
7768:
7762:
7756:
7750:
7744:
7741:Blankinship 1994
7738:
7732:
7726:
7720:
7714:
7708:
7702:
7696:
7690:
7684:
7681:Blankinship 1994
7678:
7669:
7666:Blankinship 1994
7663:
7657:
7654:Blankinship 1994
7651:
7640:
7634:
7623:
7617:
7611:
7605:
7596:
7590:
7569:
7563:
7550:
7544:
7531:
7525:
7519:
7513:
7507:
7501:
7495:
7489:
7483:
7477:
7471:
7465:
7459:
7453:
7447:
7441:
7435:
7429:
7423:
7417:
7411:
7405:
7399:
7393:
7387:
7381:
7375:
7369:
7363:
7357:
7344:
7338:
7332:
7326:
7317:
7311:
7305:
7299:
7290:
7284:
7278:
7272:
7261:
7255:
7249:
7243:
7237:
7231:
7222:
7216:
7210:
7204:
7195:
7189:
7183:
7177:
7168:
7162:
7156:
7150:
7144:
7138:
7132:
7126:
7120:
7114:
7108:
7102:
7096:
7090:
7084:
7078:
7069:
7063:
7057:
7051:
7045:
7039:
7026:
7020:
7014:
7008:
7002:
6996:
6990:
6984:
6978:
6972:
6966:
6960:
6954:
6948:
6942:
6936:
6930:
6924:
6918:
6912:
6906:
6900:
6894:
6888:
6882:
6876:
6870:
6864:
6847:
6841:
6835:
6829:
6823:
6817:
6811:
6805:
6796:
6790:
6779:
6773:
6767:
6761:
6755:
6749:
6743:
6737:
6731:
6725:
6719:
6713:
6707:
6701:
6690:
6684:
6678:
6672:
6659:
6653:
6638:
6632:
6626:
6620:
6611:
6605:
6596:
6590:
6584:
6578:
6572:
6566:
6560:
6554:
6548:
6542:
6536:
6530:
6524:
6518:
6512:
6506:
6500:
6494:
6488:
6482:
6476:
6470:
6464:
6458:
6452:
6446:
6440:
6434:
6428:
6427:
6425:
6423:
6403:
6397:
6396:
6394:
6392:
6364:
6358:
6357:
6355:
6353:
6321:
6315:
6314:
6312:
6310:
6304:
6289:
6280:
6274:
6273:
6271:
6269:
6250:
6244:
6238:
6229:
6228:
6214:
6208:
6207:
6187:
6181:
6180:
6178:
6176:
6163:Bukhari, Sahih.
6160:
6154:
6153:
6151:
6149:
6130:
6124:
6123:
6121:
6119:
6102:
6097:. Archived from
6080:
6078:
6076:
6067:. Archived from
6053:
6051:
6049:
6032:
6026:
6025:
6023:
6021:
5996:
5990:
5989:
5987:
5985:
5940:
5921:
5915:
5909:
5908:
5903:
5893:
5891:
5882:
5870:
5863:
5857:
5838:
5817:History of Islam
5649:
5645:
5561:Battle of Siffin
5508:John of Damascus
5487:Pan-Arab colours
5482:Arab nationalism
5400:
5394:
5388:
5370:
5363:
5356:
5341:
5065:Syria-Palaestina
5040:Herodian kingdom
4945:Israel and Judah
4734:Natufian culture
4699:
4698:
4685:Madinat al-Zahra
4606:Dome of the Rock
4585:
4582:
4492:
4490:
4423:Isaac of Nineveh
4415:Cosmas of Maiuma
4411:John of Damascus
4253:Diwan al-Rasa'il
4241:Military Board)
4233:
4226:
4222:
4219:
4213:
4182:
4174:
4143:(from Byzantine
4073:Bishr ibn Marwan
4059:
4056:
3977:. Two Umayyads,
3769:in 731. In 734,
3689:Chalukya dynasty
3633:
3631:
3582:
3565:
3563:
3531:
3525:
3415:
3413:
3396:province of Sind
3343:
3342:
3335:
3311:Governor of Sind
3208:Byzantine Empire
3205:
3201:
3199:
3195:
3190:
3186:
3181:
3174:Historical Atlas
3128:
3126:
3111:Dome of the Rock
3101:in the Egyptian
3089:in Iraq in 697,
3022:
3019:
2986:Battle of Maskin
2973:Battle of Khazir
2882:
2879:
2714:
2712:
2655:bathhouses near
2610:Battle of Siffin
2549:Wilferd Madelung
2507:Uthman ibn Affan
2403:
2401:
2377:
2375:
2204:Muslim conquests
2169:Uthman ibn Affan
2154:
2144:
2142:
2134:
2133:
2130:
2129:
2126:
2123:
2120:
2117:
2114:
2107:
2099:
2098:
2095:
2094:
2091:
2088:
2085:
2082:
2079:
2076:
2069:
2044:
2037:
2030:
1805:
1804:
1769:Nabahani dynasty
1714:Nabahani dynasty
1699:Makhzumi dynasty
1695:
1694:
1390:
1389:
1145:
1144:
944:Emirate of Crete
920:
919:
865:
864:
844:Kingdom of Kinda
794:Kingdom of Hatra
744:Kingdom of Qedar
740:
739:
729:
717:
716:
707:
700:
693:
681:Islam portal
679:
678:
677:
658:Sokoto Caliphate
597:
588:
587:
585:
574:
573:
560:
559:
552:Bagratid Armenia
546:
545:
532:
531:
518:
517:
510:Emirate of Nekor
504:
503:
490:
489:
476:
475:
464:
463:
451:
450:
437:
436:
423:
422:
409:
408:
395:
394:
381:
380:
367:
366:
353:
352:
346:
345:
330:
329:
238:
223:
93:
90:
81:
66:
65:
58:
50:
49:
39:
38:
21:
15248:
15247:
15243:
15242:
15241:
15239:
15238:
15237:
15228:Umayyad dynasty
15133:
15132:
15131:
15126:
15125:
15120:
14926:
14916:
14886:
14881:
14861:
14859:
14843:
14765:Cultural Muslim
14736:
14703:
14649:Other religions
14639:
14635:
14617:
14552:
14519:
14466:
14409:
14407:Islamic studies
14403:
14385:
14219:
14164:
14141:
14088:
14033:
14032:
14005:
13954:Moral teachings
13897:
13879:
13853:Nation of Islam
13766:Twelver Shi'ism
13703:
13669:Religious texts
13663:
13581:Early conquests
13564:
13546:
13498:
13418:
13407:
13401:
13371:
13366:
13355:American Empire
13340:
13336:African empires
13288:
13171:
12863:Central African
12809:
12627:Romano-Germanic
12213:
11947:Middle Assyrian
11920:
11912:
11907:
11872:
11864:
11859:
11845:
11793:
11729:Umayyad dynasty
11712:
11606:
11525:
11519:
11475:
11465:
11457:. CUP Archive.
11446:
11427:
11408:
11389:
11373:
11371:Further reading
11341:
11246:
11206:
11185:
11177:. McGraw Hill.
11116:
11092:
11068:
11038:
10982:
10949:Bosworth, C. E.
10933:
10904:Bosworth, C. E.
10880:
10856:
10840:Lapidus, Ira M.
10832:
10803:Bosworth, C. E.
10773:
10754:
10730:
10706:
10677:Bosworth, C. E.
10656:
10632:
10608:
10551:
10532:
10499:Bosworth, C. E.
10483:
10458:
10434:
10405:Bosworth, C. E.
10384:
10360:
10339:
10320:
10287:Bosworth, C. E.
10268:
10266:
10255:
10106:
10045:
10024:
9991:Bosworth, C. E.
9969:
9908:
9892:Donner, Fred M.
9840:
9819:
9790:Bosworth, C. E.
9727:
9706:
9677:Bosworth, C. E.
9656:
9623:Bosworth, C. E.
9607:
9582:
9561:
9556:
9546:
9544:
9537:
9518:
9514:
9504:
9502:
9495:
9476:
9472:
9462:
9460:
9447:
9446:
9442:
9432:
9430:
9423:
9407:
9403:
9390:
9389:
9385:
9374:
9356:
9352:
9347:
9343:
9338:on 21 May 2002.
9330:
9329:
9325:
9315:
9313:
9306:
9290:
9286:
9278:
9274:
9266:
9262:
9252:
9250:
9243:
9227:
9223:
9213:
9211:
9204:
9188:
9184:
9179:
9175:
9167:
9163:
9155:
9151:
9143:
9139:
9131:
9127:
9120:
9104:
9100:
9092:
9088:
9084:, pp. 2–3.
9080:
9076:
9068:
9061:
9054:
9038:
9027:
9019:
9015:
9007:
9003:
8995:
8988:
8980:
8976:
8970:Sprengling 1939
8968:
8964:
8956:
8952:
8944:
8937:
8927:
8925:
8912:
8911:
8902:
8896:Ochsenwald 2004
8894:
8890:
8879:
8872:
8867:
8863:
8824:
8817:
8811:Ochsenwald 2004
8809:
8805:
8772:
8768:
8760:
8753:
8746:
8730:
8721:
8714:
8698:
8683:
8676:
8660:
8643:
8635:
8631:
8623:
8619:
8612:
8598:
8594:
8587:
8573:
8569:
8563:Ochsenwald 2004
8561:
8552:
8541:
8537:
8529:
8525:
8517:
8513:
8505:
8501:
8493:
8489:
8482:
8468:
8464:
8457:
8440:
8436:
8415:
8411:
8404:
8388:
8384:
8376:
8372:
8364:
8360:
8354:Wellhausen 1927
8352:
8348:
8340:
8336:
8328:
8324:
8316:
8312:
8304:
8300:
8292:
8288:
8280:
8273:
8265:
8261:
8253:
8249:
8243:Wellhausen 1927
8241:
8237:
8229:
8222:
8214:
8210:
8202:
8198:
8190:
8186:
8178:
8171:
8163:
8159:
8151:
8147:
8139:
8135:
8127:
8123:
8115:
8111:
8103:
8099:
8091:
8087:
8079:
8072:
8064:
8060:
8052:
8048:
8040:
8036:
8028:
8024:
8018:Wellhausen 1927
8016:
8012:
8006:Wellhausen 1927
8004:
7997:
7989:
7980:
7972:
7968:
7960:
7956:
7948:
7944:
7936:
7927:
7919:
7912:
7904:
7900:
7892:
7888:
7880:
7876:
7868:
7864:
7856:
7852:
7844:
7837:
7829:
7825:
7817:
7813:
7805:
7801:
7793:
7786:
7778:
7771:
7763:
7759:
7751:
7747:
7739:
7735:
7729:Wellhausen 1927
7727:
7723:
7715:
7711:
7703:
7699:
7691:
7687:
7679:
7672:
7664:
7660:
7652:
7643:
7635:
7626:
7618:
7614:
7606:
7599:
7591:
7572:
7564:
7553:
7545:
7534:
7526:
7522:
7516:Wellhausen 1927
7514:
7510:
7502:
7498:
7490:
7486:
7478:
7474:
7466:
7462:
7454:
7450:
7442:
7438:
7430:
7426:
7418:
7414:
7406:
7402:
7394:
7390:
7382:
7378:
7372:Wellhausen 1927
7370:
7366:
7358:
7347:
7341:Wellhausen 1927
7339:
7335:
7327:
7320:
7312:
7308:
7300:
7293:
7285:
7281:
7273:
7264:
7256:
7252:
7244:
7240:
7232:
7225:
7217:
7213:
7205:
7198:
7190:
7186:
7178:
7171:
7163:
7159:
7151:
7147:
7139:
7135:
7129:Wellhausen 1927
7127:
7123:
7117:Christides 2000
7115:
7111:
7103:
7099:
7091:
7087:
7079:
7072:
7064:
7060:
7052:
7048:
7040:
7029:
7021:
7017:
7009:
7005:
6997:
6993:
6985:
6981:
6973:
6969:
6961:
6957:
6951:Wellhausen 1927
6949:
6945:
6937:
6933:
6927:Wellhausen 1927
6925:
6921:
6915:Wellhausen 1927
6913:
6909:
6901:
6897:
6889:
6885:
6877:
6873:
6865:
6850:
6842:
6838:
6832:Wellhausen 1927
6830:
6826:
6818:
6814:
6808:Wellhausen 1927
6806:
6799:
6791:
6782:
6774:
6770:
6762:
6758:
6750:
6746:
6738:
6734:
6726:
6722:
6714:
6710:
6702:
6693:
6685:
6681:
6675:Wellhausen 1927
6673:
6662:
6654:
6641:
6633:
6629:
6621:
6614:
6606:
6599:
6591:
6587:
6579:
6575:
6567:
6563:
6555:
6551:
6543:
6539:
6531:
6527:
6521:Wellhausen 1927
6519:
6515:
6509:Wellhausen 1927
6507:
6503:
6495:
6491:
6483:
6479:
6473:Wellhausen 1927
6471:
6467:
6459:
6455:
6447:
6443:
6435:
6431:
6421:
6419:
6404:
6400:
6390:
6388:
6381:
6365:
6361:
6351:
6349:
6342:
6322:
6318:
6308:
6306:
6302:
6292:ISIM Newsletter
6287:
6281:
6277:
6267:
6265:
6252:
6251:
6247:
6239:
6232:
6215:
6211:
6204:
6188:
6184:
6174:
6172:
6161:
6157:
6147:
6145:
6132:
6131:
6127:
6117:
6115:
6104:
6101:on 12 May 2019.
6082:
6074:
6072:
6055:
6047:
6045:
6033:
6029:
6019:
6017:
5998:
5997:
5993:
5983:
5981:
5944:Taagepera, Rein
5941:
5934:
5930:
5925:
5924:
5916:, 'sons of
5883:
5879:
5874:
5873:
5864:
5860:
5839:
5835:
5830:
5813:
5620:
5614:Umayyad dynasty
5612:Main articles:
5610:
5608:List of caliphs
5585:
5545:
5500:
5495:
5402:
5398:
5396:
5392:
5390:
5386:
5374:
5337:
5104:Muslim conquest
5088:Sassanid Empire
5075:Early Byzantine
5020:Parthian Empire
4993:Seleucid Empire
4791:Akkadian Empire
4753:Ancient history
4724:Kebaran culture
4697:
4675:and subsequent
4583:
4561:
4555:
4487:
4472:, Sarjun was a
4367:
4310:
4301:
4288:
4279:
4273:
4264:
4262:Diwan al-Khatam
4255:
4247:
4245:Diwan al-Kharaj
4234:
4223:
4217:
4214:
4199:
4183:
4172:
4057:
4047:
4038:
4013:
4004:
3995:
3953:Abd al-Rahman I
3922:Nasr ibn Sayyar
3883:Kaysanites Shia
3860:
3854:
3842:Dahhak ibn Qays
3789:
3783:
3668:Battle of Tours
3628:
3597:
3560:
3553:
3493:
3410:
3375:in 711–712 and
3288:Tariq ibn Ziyad
3254:Musa ibn Nusayr
3210:
3203:
3197:
3196:
3188:
3187:
3179:
3178:
3177:
3162:
3140:
3123:
3020:
3001:
2971:of Kufa at the
2937:Euphrates river
2880:
2866:
2861:
2805:
2768:Ziyad ibn Abihi
2739:Ziyad ibn Abihi
2709:
2641:
2636:
2634:Sufyanid period
2593:
2581:Hugh N. Kennedy
2537:Sasanian Empire
2450:
2438:plague of Amwas
2398:
2372:
2310:
2308:Early influence
2305:
2303:Umayyad dynasty
2299:
2294:
2278:alms programmes
2165:Umayyad dynasty
2111:
2102:
2101:
2073:
2064:
2063:
2048:
2019:
2018:
1802:
1794:
1793:
1729:Mahdali dynasty
1692:
1684:
1683:
1624:Muscat and Oman
1394:Imamate of Oman
1387:
1379:
1378:
1142:
1134:
1133:
917:
909:
908:
862:
854:
853:
784:Emesene Dynasty
737:
711:
675:
673:
668:
667:
638:
630:
629:
605:
604:Main caliphates
580:
557:
543:
529:
515:
501:
487:
473:
448:
434:
420:
406:
392:
378:
364:
350:
277:
264:
236:
230:
229:• 744–750
221:
215:
214:• 661–680
170:
168:
127:
94:
91:
67:
60:
59:
52:
44:
35:
32:Umayyad dynasty
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
15246:
15236:
15235:
15230:
15225:
15220:
15215:
15210:
15205:
15200:
15195:
15190:
15185:
15180:
15175:
15170:
15165:
15160:
15155:
15150:
15145:
15128:
15127:
15122:
15121:
15119:
15118:
15117:(1921–present)
15112:
15106:
15100:
15094:
15088:
15082:
15076:
15070:
15064:
15058:
15052:
15046:
15040:
15034:
15028:
15022:
15016:
15010:
15004:
14998:
14992:
14986:
14980:
14974:
14968:
14962:
14956:
14950:
14944:
14938:
14931:
14928:
14927:
14915:
14914:
14907:
14900:
14892:
14883:
14882:
14880:
14879:
14869:
14856:
14853:
14852:
14849:
14848:
14845:
14844:
14842:
14841:
14836:
14831:
14826:
14821:
14816:
14811:
14806:
14801:
14800:
14799:
14789:
14788:
14787:
14782:
14777:
14767:
14762:
14761:
14760:
14755:
14744:
14742:
14741:Related topics
14738:
14737:
14735:
14734:
14729:
14724:
14719:
14713:
14711:
14705:
14704:
14702:
14701:
14696:
14691:
14686:
14681:
14676:
14675:
14674:
14669:
14664:
14653:
14651:
14641:
14640:
14627:
14626:
14623:
14622:
14619:
14618:
14616:
14615:
14610:
14603:
14598:
14597:
14596:
14586:
14581:
14576:
14571:
14566:
14560:
14558:
14554:
14553:
14551:
14550:
14545:
14540:
14535:
14529:
14527:
14521:
14520:
14518:
14517:
14512:
14507:
14502:
14497:
14492:
14487:
14482:
14476:
14474:
14468:
14467:
14465:
14464:
14459:
14454:
14449:
14444:
14439:
14434:
14429:
14423:
14421:
14411:
14410:
14395:
14394:
14391:
14390:
14387:
14386:
14384:
14383:
14378:
14377:
14376:
14364:
14362:Sources of law
14359:
14354:
14353:
14352:
14342:
14335:
14330:
14323:
14318:
14311:
14306:
14301:
14296:
14291:
14286:
14281:
14276:
14269:
14262:
14261:
14260:
14255:
14250:
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14221:
14220:
14218:
14217:
14210:
14203:
14196:
14189:
14182:
14175:
14167:
14165:
14163:
14162:
14157:
14152:
14146:
14143:
14142:
14140:
14139:
14132:
14127:
14120:
14113:
14106:
14098:
14096:
14090:
14089:
14087:
14086:
14079:
14072:
14065:
14058:
14053:
14047:
14045:
14035:
14034:
14031:
14030:
14025:
14019:
14011:
14010:
14007:
14006:
14004:
14003:
13998:
13993:
13988:
13986:Social welfare
13983:
13978:
13971:
13966:
13961:
13956:
13951:
13946:
13941:
13936:
13931:
13926:
13921:
13916:
13911:
13906:
13900:
13898:
13896:
13895:
13890:
13884:
13881:
13880:
13878:
13877:
13872:
13867:
13866:
13865:
13855:
13850:
13849:
13848:
13843:
13842:
13841:
13836:
13835:
13834:
13829:
13824:
13811:
13797:
13796:
13795:
13790:
13789:
13788:
13778:
13773:
13768:
13758:
13753:
13752:
13751:
13750:
13749:
13739:
13734:
13729:
13724:
13713:
13711:
13705:
13704:
13702:
13701:
13694:
13689:
13684:
13679:
13673:
13671:
13665:
13664:
13662:
13661:
13660:
13659:
13654:
13649:
13644:
13639:
13634:
13629:
13624:
13612:
13607:
13600:
13593:
13591:Historiography
13588:
13583:
13578:
13573:
13567:
13565:
13563:
13562:
13557:
13551:
13548:
13547:
13545:
13544:
13537:
13530:
13523:
13516:
13508:
13506:
13500:
13499:
13497:
13496:
13491:
13486:
13479:
13474:
13469:
13464:
13463:
13462:
13452:
13445:
13444:
13443:
13432:
13430:
13420:
13419:
13412:
13409:
13408:
13400:
13399:
13392:
13385:
13377:
13368:
13367:
13365:
13364:
13363:
13362:
13357:
13348:
13346:
13342:
13341:
13339:
13338:
13333:
13328:
13323:
13318:
13313:
13312:
13311:
13300:
13298:
13294:
13293:
13290:
13289:
13287:
13286:
13281:
13276:
13271:
13266:
13265:
13264:
13254:
13249:
13244:
13239:
13234:
13229:
13224:
13219:
13214:
13209:
13208:
13207:
13202:
13192:
13187:
13181:
13179:
13170:
13169:
13168:
13167:
13162:
13157:
13152:
13147:
13137:
13132:
13131:
13130:
13120:
13115:
13114:
13113:
13108:
13103:
13093:
13088:
13087:
13086:
13081:
13071:
13070:
13069:
13064:
13059:
13054:
13049:
13039:
13038:
13037:
13032:
13022:
13017:
13012:
13007:
13006:
13005:
13000:
12995:
12990:
12985:
12975:
12974:
12973:
12968:
12958:
12953:
12952:
12951:
12946:
12936:
12935:
12934:
12929:
12919:
12918:
12917:
12912:
12902:
12897:
12896:
12895:
12890:
12885:
12880:
12875:
12865:
12860:
12859:
12858:
12853:
12845:
12840:
12835:
12830:
12825:
12819:
12817:
12811:
12810:
12808:
12807:
12802:
12797:
12792:
12791:
12790:
12785:
12780:
12775:
12770:
12765:
12760:
12750:
12745:
12744:
12743:
12738:
12733:
12728:
12723:
12718:
12708:
12707:
12706:
12701:
12696:
12691:
12681:
12676:
12671:
12666:
12661:
12656:
12651:
12646:
12641:
12640:
12639:
12634:
12624:
12623:
12622:
12617:
12612:
12607:
12602:
12597:
12584:
12579:
12574:
12569:
12568:
12567:
12562:
12557:
12547:
12546:
12545:
12540:
12535:
12530:
12520:
12515:
12510:
12505:
12500:
12495:
12494:
12493:
12488:
12483:
12478:
12468:
12467:
12466:
12461:
12456:
12451:
12441:
12440:
12439:
12434:
12429:
12419:
12414:
12409:
12404:
12399:
12398:
12397:
12392:
12387:
12377:
12372:
12371:
12370:
12365:
12360:
12355:
12350:
12345:
12335:
12334:
12333:
12328:
12318:
12317:
12316:
12311:
12306:
12301:
12291:
12286:
12285:
12284:
12274:
12273:
12272:
12267:
12259:
12254:
12249:
12244:
12239:
12234:
12229:
12223:
12221:
12219:Post-classical
12215:
12214:
12212:
12211:
12210:
12209:
12199:
12194:
12193:
12192:
12187:
12177:
12176:
12175:
12165:
12164:
12163:
12158:
12153:
12148:
12143:
12138:
12128:
12123:
12118:
12117:
12116:
12111:
12106:
12101:
12091:
12090:
12089:
12084:
12074:
12069:
12068:
12067:
12062:
12057:
12052:
12047:
12037:
12032:
12027:
12026:
12025:
12020:
12018:Middle Kingdom
12015:
12005:
12000:
11999:
11998:
11993:
11988:
11978:
11977:
11976:
11974:Neo-Babylonian
11971:
11966:
11964:Old Babylonian
11956:
11955:
11954:
11949:
11939:
11934:
11928:
11926:
11914:
11913:
11906:
11905:
11898:
11891:
11883:
11877:
11874:
11873:
11861:
11860:
11850:
11847:
11846:
11844:
11843:
11842:
11841:
11831:
11830:
11829:
11824:
11819:
11814:
11812:Desert castles
11803:
11801:
11795:
11794:
11792:
11791:
11790:
11789:
11784:
11779:
11771:
11766:
11761:
11756:
11751:
11746:
11741:
11736:
11731:
11726:
11720:
11718:
11714:
11713:
11711:
11710:
11705:
11700:
11695:
11690:
11685:
11680:
11675:
11670:
11665:
11660:
11655:
11650:
11645:
11640:
11635:
11630:
11625:
11620:
11614:
11612:
11608:
11607:
11605:
11604:
11599:
11594:
11589:
11584:
11579:
11574:
11569:
11564:
11559:
11554:
11549:
11544:
11539:
11533:
11531:
11527:
11526:
11518:
11517:
11510:
11503:
11495:
11489:
11488:
11474:
11473:External links
11471:
11470:
11469:
11463:
11450:
11444:
11431:
11425:
11412:
11406:
11393:
11387:
11372:
11369:
11368:
11367:
11345:
11339:
11317:
11287:
11267:10.1086/370538
11250:
11244:
11231:
11222:
11210:
11204:
11189:
11183:
11167:
11120:
11114:
11102:, ed. (1987).
11096:
11090:
11072:
11066:
11042:
11036:
11006:
10986:
10980:
10953:van Donzel, E.
10937:
10931:
10908:van Donzel, E.
10896:Bearman, P. J.
10884:
10878:
10860:
10854:
10836:
10830:
10807:van Donzel, E.
10795:Bearman, P. J.
10779:
10778:
10777:
10771:
10752:
10734:
10728:
10710:
10704:
10681:van Donzel, E.
10669:Bearman, P. J.
10665:"Al-Walīd (I)"
10660:
10654:
10636:
10630:
10612:
10606:
10584:
10566:(4): 411–436.
10555:
10549:
10536:
10530:
10503:van Donzel, E.
10487:
10481:
10462:
10456:
10444:, ed. (1989).
10438:
10432:
10409:van Donzel, E.
10397:Bearman, P. J.
10388:
10382:
10364:
10358:
10352:. SUNY Press.
10343:
10337:
10324:
10318:
10291:van Donzel, E.
10275:
10246:
10207:Kramers, J. H.
10203:Gibb, H. A. R.
10195:Gibb, H. A. R.
10191:
10152:Kramers, J. H.
10148:Gibb, H. A. R.
10140:Gibb, H. A. R.
10136:
10114:Gibb, H. A. R.
10110:
10104:
10089:
10049:
10043:
10028:
10022:
9995:van Donzel, E.
9982:
9973:
9967:
9952:
9912:
9906:
9888:
9844:
9839:978-0791448809
9838:
9832:. SUNY Press.
9823:
9817:
9794:van Donzel, E.
9782:Bearman, P. J.
9768:
9731:
9725:
9710:
9704:
9681:van Donzel, E.
9669:Bearman, P. J.
9660:
9654:
9627:van Donzel, E.
9615:Bosworth, C.E.
9611:
9605:
9586:
9580:
9560:
9557:
9555:
9554:
9535:
9512:
9493:
9470:
9440:
9421:
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9383:
9372:
9350:
9341:
9323:
9304:
9284:
9272:
9260:
9241:
9221:
9202:
9182:
9173:
9161:
9149:
9137:
9125:
9118:
9098:
9086:
9074:
9072:, p. 236.
9059:
9052:
9025:
9013:
9011:, p. 406.
9001:
8999:, p. 402.
8986:
8974:
8972:, p. 213.
8962:
8960:, p. 216.
8950:
8935:
8900:
8888:
8870:
8861:
8815:
8803:
8788:10.2307/506971
8782:(3): 513–514.
8766:
8751:
8744:
8719:
8712:
8681:
8674:
8641:
8639:, p. 324.
8629:
8617:
8610:
8592:
8585:
8567:
8550:
8535:
8523:
8511:
8499:
8487:
8480:
8462:
8456:978-0520242258
8455:
8443:Thapar, Romila
8434:
8423:Dodwell, H. H.
8409:
8402:
8382:
8370:
8368:, p. 311.
8358:
8346:
8344:, p. 107.
8334:
8322:
8310:
8298:
8286:
8284:, p. 107.
8271:
8259:
8257:, p. 106.
8247:
8235:
8233:, p. 821.
8220:
8208:
8196:
8184:
8169:
8165:Treadgold 1997
8157:
8145:
8143:, p. 344.
8141:Treadgold 1997
8133:
8121:
8109:
8097:
8085:
8083:, p. 821.
8070:
8058:
8046:
8034:
8022:
8010:
8008:, p. 438.
7995:
7993:, p. 127.
7978:
7966:
7964:, p. 643.
7954:
7952:, p. 217.
7942:
7940:, p. 271.
7925:
7910:
7898:
7886:
7884:, p. 107.
7874:
7862:
7850:
7835:
7823:
7821:, p. 801.
7819:Elisséeff 1965
7811:
7799:
7784:
7782:, p. 299.
7769:
7757:
7745:
7733:
7721:
7709:
7707:, p. 324.
7697:
7685:
7670:
7658:
7641:
7624:
7612:
7597:
7570:
7551:
7532:
7520:
7518:, p. 231.
7508:
7496:
7484:
7472:
7460:
7448:
7436:
7424:
7412:
7400:
7388:
7376:
7374:, p. 182.
7364:
7345:
7333:
7318:
7306:
7291:
7279:
7262:
7250:
7238:
7236:, p. 268.
7223:
7211:
7196:
7184:
7169:
7157:
7145:
7133:
7131:, p. 135.
7121:
7119:, p. 790.
7109:
7107:, p. 209.
7097:
7085:
7070:
7058:
7046:
7027:
7015:
7003:
6991:
6979:
6977:, p. 247.
6967:
6955:
6943:
6941:, p. 842.
6931:
6919:
6907:
6895:
6883:
6871:
6869:, p. 265.
6848:
6846:, p. 190.
6836:
6824:
6812:
6797:
6780:
6768:
6756:
6754:, p. 141.
6744:
6732:
6720:
6708:
6691:
6679:
6660:
6639:
6627:
6612:
6597:
6595:, p. 114.
6585:
6573:
6561:
6549:
6537:
6525:
6513:
6501:
6489:
6477:
6465:
6453:
6441:
6439:, p. 838.
6429:
6398:
6379:
6359:
6340:
6316:
6275:
6245:
6243:, p. 128.
6230:
6209:
6202:
6182:
6155:
6125:
6071:on 12 May 2019
6027:
5991:
5931:
5929:
5926:
5923:
5922:
5907:بَنُو أُمَيَّة
5890:ٱلْأُمَوِيُّون
5876:
5875:
5872:
5871:
5858:
5832:
5831:
5829:
5826:
5825:
5824:
5819:
5812:
5809:
5806:
5805:
5802:
5787:
5786:
5783:
5777:
5776:
5773:
5767:
5766:
5763:
5757:
5756:
5753:
5747:
5746:
5743:
5737:
5736:
5733:
5727:
5726:
5723:
5717:
5716:
5713:
5707:
5706:
5703:
5697:
5696:
5693:
5687:
5686:
5683:
5677:
5676:
5673:
5667:
5666:
5663:
5657:
5656:
5653:
5628:Umayyad family
5609:
5606:
5584:
5581:
5569:Husayn ibn Ali
5544:
5541:
5499:
5496:
5494:
5491:
5439:khalifat Allah
5397:
5391:
5385:
5376:
5375:
5373:
5372:
5365:
5358:
5350:
5347:
5346:
5345:
5344:
5343:
5342:
5330:
5325:
5320:
5315:
5310:
5309:
5308:
5298:
5293:
5292:
5291:
5286:
5281:
5276:
5271:
5266:
5261:
5256:
5243:
5242:
5241:Modern history
5238:
5237:
5236:
5235:
5230:
5225:
5224:
5223:
5218:
5213:
5208:
5198:
5193:
5188:
5183:
5178:
5173:
5168:
5163:
5158:
5153:
5148:
5143:
5142:
5141:
5136:
5131:
5126:
5121:
5111:
5106:
5098:
5097:
5093:
5092:
5091:
5090:
5085:
5080:
5079:
5078:
5067:
5062:
5057:
5047:
5042:
5037:
5032:
5027:
5022:
5017:
5012:
5007:
5006:
5005:
5000:
4990:
4982:
4981:
4977:
4976:
4975:
4974:
4973:
4972:
4962:
4957:
4952:
4947:
4942:
4937:
4936:
4935:
4930:
4925:
4920:
4908:
4903:
4902:
4901:
4896:
4891:
4886:
4881:
4869:
4864:
4859:
4854:
4853:
4852:
4847:
4837:
4832:
4827:
4822:
4817:
4816:
4815:
4810:
4805:
4793:
4788:
4787:
4786:
4781:
4776:
4771:
4756:
4755:
4749:
4748:
4747:
4746:
4741:
4736:
4731:
4726:
4721:
4713:
4712:
4706:
4705:
4696:
4693:
4618:desert palaces
4557:Main article:
4554:
4551:
4491: 661–680
4373:, were called
4366:
4363:
4359:Abbasid Revolt
4350:
4349:
4344:
4338:
4335:
4309:
4306:
4300:
4297:
4287:
4286:Diwan al-Qudat
4284:
4275:Main article:
4272:
4271:Diwan al-Barid
4269:
4263:
4260:
4254:
4251:
4246:
4243:
4236:
4235:
4186:
4184:
4177:
4171:
4170:Central diwans
4168:
4131:Sasanian coins
4046:
4043:
4037:
4034:
4012:
4009:
4003:
4000:
3994:
3993:Administration
3991:
3885:), led by the
3856:Main article:
3853:
3850:
3785:Main article:
3782:
3779:
3632: 724–743
3596:
3593:
3564: 720–724
3552:
3549:
3492:
3489:
3427:Battle of Aksu
3414: 715–717
3290:, invaded the
3202:
3139:
3136:
3127: 705–715
3093:in the Syrian
3025:Ibn al-Ash'ath
3000:
2997:
2993:besieged Mecca
2887:-based caliph
2865:
2862:
2860:
2857:
2804:
2801:
2713: 668–685
2706:Constantine IV
2640:
2637:
2635:
2632:
2592:
2589:
2500:Umayyad family
2449:
2446:
2402: 634–644
2376: 632–634
2309:
2306:
2301:Main article:
2298:
2295:
2293:
2290:
2060:Umayyad Empire
2050:
2049:
2047:
2046:
2039:
2032:
2024:
2021:
2020:
2015:
2014:
2011:
2000:
1999:
1996:
1985:
1984:
1981:
1970:
1969:
1966:
1955:
1954:
1951:
1940:
1939:
1936:
1925:
1924:
1921:
1910:
1909:
1906:
1895:
1894:
1891:
1880:
1879:
1876:
1865:
1864:
1861:
1850:
1849:
1846:
1835:
1834:
1831:
1828:Ras al Khaymah
1820:
1819:
1816:
1803:
1800:
1799:
1796:
1795:
1790:
1789:
1786:
1780:
1779:
1776:
1765:
1764:
1761:
1755:
1754:
1751:
1744:Mazrui dynasty
1740:
1739:
1736:
1725:
1724:
1721:
1710:
1709:
1706:
1693:
1690:
1689:
1686:
1685:
1680:
1679:
1676:
1670:
1669:
1666:
1660:
1659:
1656:
1650:
1649:
1646:
1640:
1639:
1636:
1630:
1629:
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1620:
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1616:
1610:
1609:
1606:
1600:
1599:
1596:
1590:
1589:
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1580:
1579:
1576:
1570:
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1560:
1559:
1556:
1550:
1549:
1546:
1540:
1539:
1536:
1530:
1529:
1526:
1520:
1519:
1516:
1510:
1509:
1506:
1500:
1499:
1496:
1490:
1489:
1486:
1480:
1479:
1476:
1470:
1469:
1466:
1460:
1459:
1456:
1450:
1449:
1446:
1440:
1439:
1436:
1430:
1429:
1426:
1420:
1419:
1416:
1410:
1409:
1406:
1400:
1399:
1396:
1388:
1385:
1384:
1381:
1380:
1375:
1374:
1371:
1365:
1364:
1361:
1355:
1354:
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1345:
1344:
1341:
1335:
1334:
1331:
1325:
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1321:
1315:
1314:
1311:
1305:
1304:
1301:
1295:
1294:
1291:
1285:
1284:
1281:
1275:
1274:
1271:
1265:
1264:
1261:
1255:
1254:
1251:
1245:
1244:
1241:
1235:
1234:
1231:
1225:
1224:
1221:
1215:
1214:
1211:
1205:
1204:
1201:
1195:
1194:
1191:
1185:
1184:
1181:
1175:
1174:
1171:
1165:
1164:
1161:
1159:Fihrid Emirate
1155:
1154:
1151:
1143:
1140:
1139:
1136:
1135:
1130:
1129:
1126:
1120:
1119:
1116:
1110:
1109:
1106:
1100:
1099:
1096:
1090:
1089:
1086:
1080:
1079:
1076:
1070:
1069:
1066:
1060:
1059:
1056:
1050:
1049:
1046:
1040:
1039:
1036:
1030:
1029:
1026:
1020:
1019:
1016:
1010:
1009:
1006:
1000:
999:
996:
990:
989:
986:
980:
979:
976:
970:
969:
966:
960:
959:
956:
950:
949:
946:
940:
939:
936:
930:
929:
926:
918:
915:
914:
911:
910:
905:
904:
901:
895:
894:
891:
885:
884:
881:
875:
874:
871:
863:
860:
859:
856:
855:
850:
849:
846:
840:
839:
836:
830:
829:
826:
820:
819:
816:
810:
809:
806:
800:
799:
796:
790:
789:
786:
780:
779:
776:
770:
769:
766:
760:
759:
756:
750:
749:
746:
738:
735:
734:
731:
730:
722:
721:
713:
712:
710:
709:
702:
695:
687:
684:
683:
670:
669:
666:
665:
660:
655:
650:
645:
639:
636:
635:
632:
631:
628:
627:
622:
617:
612:
606:
603:
602:
599:
598:
590:
589:
570:
569:
566:
565:
562:
561:
554:
548:
547:
540:
538:Bavand dynasty
534:
533:
526:
520:
519:
512:
506:
505:
498:
492:
491:
484:
478:
477:
470:
461:
458:
457:
452:
444:
443:
438:
430:
429:
424:
416:
415:
410:
402:
401:
396:
388:
387:
382:
374:
373:
368:
360:
359:
354:
342:
341:
336:
326:
325:
324:
323:
317:
311:
303:
299:
298:
295:
291:
290:
286:
285:
282:
281:
278:
272:
269:
268:
265:
259:
256:
255:
252:
251:
248:
244:
243:
240:
239:
231:
228:
225:
224:
216:
213:
210:
209:
206:
205:
202:
196:
195:
187:
183:
182:
177:
173:
172:
167:
166:
161:
159:Medieval Greek
156:
151:
149:Middle Persian
145:
143:
139:
138:
133:
129:
128:
126:
125:
119:
112:
110:
106:
105:
100:
96:
95:
82:
74:
73:
69:
68:
45:
42:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
15245:
15234:
15231:
15229:
15226:
15224:
15221:
15219:
15216:
15214:
15211:
15209:
15206:
15204:
15201:
15199:
15196:
15194:
15191:
15189:
15186:
15184:
15181:
15179:
15176:
15174:
15171:
15169:
15166:
15164:
15161:
15159:
15156:
15154:
15151:
15149:
15146:
15144:
15141:
15140:
15138:
15116:
15113:
15110:
15107:
15104:
15101:
15098:
15095:
15092:
15089:
15086:
15083:
15080:
15077:
15074:
15071:
15068:
15065:
15062:
15059:
15056:
15053:
15050:
15047:
15044:
15041:
15038:
15035:
15032:
15029:
15026:
15023:
15020:
15017:
15014:
15011:
15008:
15005:
15002:
14999:
14996:
14993:
14990:
14987:
14984:
14981:
14978:
14975:
14972:
14969:
14966:
14963:
14960:
14957:
14954:
14951:
14948:
14945:
14942:
14939:
14936:
14933:
14932:
14929:
14924:
14920:
14913:
14908:
14906:
14901:
14899:
14894:
14893:
14890:
14878:
14870:
14868:
14858:
14857:
14854:
14840:
14837:
14835:
14832:
14830:
14827:
14825:
14822:
14820:
14817:
14815:
14812:
14810:
14807:
14805:
14802:
14798:
14795:
14794:
14793:
14790:
14786:
14783:
14781:
14780:Post-Islamism
14778:
14776:
14773:
14772:
14771:
14768:
14766:
14763:
14759:
14756:
14754:
14751:
14750:
14749:
14746:
14745:
14743:
14739:
14733:
14730:
14728:
14725:
14723:
14720:
14718:
14715:
14714:
14712:
14710:
14706:
14700:
14697:
14695:
14692:
14690:
14687:
14685:
14682:
14680:
14677:
14673:
14672:Protestantism
14670:
14668:
14665:
14663:
14660:
14659:
14658:
14655:
14654:
14652:
14650:
14646:
14642:
14632:
14628:
14614:
14611:
14609:
14608:
14604:
14602:
14599:
14595:
14592:
14591:
14590:
14587:
14585:
14582:
14580:
14577:
14575:
14572:
14570:
14567:
14565:
14562:
14561:
14559:
14555:
14549:
14546:
14544:
14541:
14539:
14536:
14534:
14531:
14530:
14528:
14526:
14522:
14516:
14513:
14511:
14510:Ophthalmology
14508:
14506:
14503:
14501:
14498:
14496:
14493:
14491:
14488:
14486:
14483:
14481:
14478:
14477:
14475:
14473:
14469:
14463:
14460:
14458:
14455:
14453:
14450:
14448:
14445:
14443:
14440:
14438:
14435:
14433:
14430:
14428:
14425:
14424:
14422:
14420:
14416:
14412:
14408:
14400:
14396:
14382:
14379:
14375:
14374:
14370:
14369:
14368:
14365:
14363:
14360:
14358:
14355:
14351:
14348:
14347:
14346:
14343:
14341:
14340:
14336:
14334:
14331:
14329:
14328:
14324:
14322:
14319:
14317:
14316:
14312:
14310:
14307:
14305:
14302:
14300:
14297:
14295:
14292:
14290:
14287:
14285:
14282:
14280:
14277:
14275:
14274:
14270:
14268:
14267:
14263:
14259:
14258:Death penalty
14256:
14254:
14251:
14249:
14246:
14245:
14244:
14241:
14239:
14236:
14234:
14233:
14229:
14228:
14226:
14224:Other aspects
14222:
14216:
14215:
14211:
14209:
14208:
14204:
14202:
14201:
14197:
14195:
14194:
14190:
14188:
14187:
14183:
14181:
14180:
14176:
14174:
14173:
14169:
14168:
14166:
14161:
14158:
14156:
14153:
14151:
14148:
14147:
14144:
14138:
14137:
14133:
14131:
14128:
14126:
14125:
14121:
14119:
14118:
14114:
14112:
14111:
14107:
14105:
14104:
14100:
14099:
14097:
14095:
14091:
14085:
14084:
14080:
14078:
14077:
14073:
14071:
14070:
14066:
14064:
14063:
14059:
14057:
14054:
14052:
14049:
14048:
14046:
14044:
14040:
14036:
14029:
14028:Jurisprudence
14026:
14024:
14021:
14020:
14016:
14012:
14002:
13999:
13997:
13994:
13992:
13989:
13987:
13984:
13982:
13979:
13977:
13976:
13972:
13970:
13967:
13965:
13962:
13960:
13957:
13955:
13952:
13950:
13947:
13945:
13942:
13940:
13937:
13935:
13932:
13930:
13927:
13925:
13922:
13920:
13917:
13915:
13912:
13910:
13907:
13905:
13902:
13901:
13899:
13894:
13891:
13889:
13886:
13885:
13882:
13876:
13873:
13871:
13868:
13864:
13861:
13860:
13859:
13856:
13854:
13851:
13847:
13844:
13840:
13837:
13833:
13830:
13828:
13825:
13823:
13820:
13819:
13818:
13815:
13814:
13812:
13810:
13807:
13806:
13805:
13801:
13798:
13794:
13791:
13787:
13784:
13783:
13782:
13779:
13777:
13774:
13772:
13769:
13767:
13764:
13763:
13762:
13759:
13757:
13754:
13748:
13745:
13744:
13743:
13740:
13738:
13735:
13733:
13730:
13728:
13725:
13723:
13720:
13719:
13718:
13715:
13714:
13712:
13710:
13709:Denominations
13706:
13700:
13699:
13695:
13693:
13690:
13688:
13685:
13683:
13680:
13678:
13675:
13674:
13672:
13670:
13666:
13658:
13655:
13653:
13650:
13648:
13645:
13643:
13640:
13638:
13635:
13633:
13630:
13628:
13625:
13623:
13622:
13618:
13617:
13616:
13613:
13611:
13608:
13606:
13605:
13601:
13599:
13598:
13594:
13592:
13589:
13587:
13584:
13582:
13579:
13577:
13574:
13572:
13569:
13568:
13566:
13561:
13558:
13556:
13553:
13552:
13549:
13543:
13542:
13538:
13536:
13535:
13531:
13529:
13528:
13524:
13522:
13521:
13517:
13515:
13514:
13510:
13509:
13507:
13505:
13501:
13495:
13494:Holiest sites
13492:
13490:
13489:Judgement Day
13487:
13485:
13484:
13480:
13478:
13475:
13473:
13470:
13468:
13465:
13461:
13458:
13457:
13456:
13453:
13451:
13450:
13446:
13442:
13439:
13438:
13437:
13434:
13433:
13431:
13429:
13425:
13421:
13417:
13416:
13410:
13405:
13398:
13393:
13391:
13386:
13384:
13379:
13378:
13375:
13361:
13360:Soviet empire
13358:
13356:
13353:
13352:
13350:
13349:
13347:
13345:Miscellaneous
13343:
13337:
13334:
13332:
13329:
13327:
13324:
13322:
13319:
13317:
13314:
13310:
13307:
13306:
13305:
13302:
13301:
13299:
13295:
13285:
13282:
13280:
13277:
13275:
13272:
13270:
13267:
13263:
13260:
13259:
13258:
13255:
13253:
13250:
13248:
13245:
13243:
13240:
13238:
13235:
13233:
13230:
13228:
13225:
13223:
13220:
13218:
13215:
13213:
13210:
13206:
13203:
13201:
13198:
13197:
13196:
13193:
13191:
13188:
13186:
13183:
13182:
13180:
13178:
13174:
13166:
13163:
13161:
13158:
13156:
13153:
13151:
13148:
13146:
13143:
13142:
13141:
13138:
13136:
13133:
13129:
13126:
13125:
13124:
13121:
13119:
13116:
13112:
13109:
13107:
13104:
13102:
13099:
13098:
13097:
13094:
13092:
13089:
13085:
13082:
13080:
13077:
13076:
13075:
13072:
13068:
13065:
13063:
13060:
13058:
13055:
13053:
13050:
13048:
13045:
13044:
13043:
13040:
13036:
13033:
13031:
13028:
13027:
13026:
13023:
13021:
13018:
13016:
13013:
13011:
13008:
13004:
13001:
12999:
12996:
12994:
12991:
12989:
12986:
12984:
12981:
12980:
12979:
12976:
12972:
12969:
12967:
12964:
12963:
12962:
12959:
12957:
12954:
12950:
12947:
12945:
12944:German Empire
12942:
12941:
12940:
12937:
12933:
12930:
12928:
12925:
12924:
12923:
12920:
12916:
12913:
12911:
12908:
12907:
12906:
12903:
12901:
12898:
12894:
12891:
12889:
12886:
12884:
12881:
12879:
12876:
12874:
12871:
12870:
12869:
12866:
12864:
12861:
12857:
12854:
12852:
12849:
12848:
12846:
12844:
12841:
12839:
12836:
12834:
12831:
12829:
12826:
12824:
12821:
12820:
12818:
12816:
12812:
12806:
12803:
12801:
12798:
12796:
12793:
12789:
12786:
12784:
12781:
12779:
12776:
12774:
12771:
12769:
12766:
12764:
12761:
12759:
12756:
12755:
12754:
12751:
12749:
12746:
12742:
12739:
12737:
12734:
12732:
12729:
12727:
12724:
12722:
12719:
12717:
12714:
12713:
12712:
12709:
12705:
12702:
12700:
12697:
12695:
12692:
12690:
12687:
12686:
12685:
12684:Turco-Persian
12682:
12680:
12677:
12675:
12672:
12670:
12667:
12665:
12662:
12660:
12657:
12655:
12652:
12650:
12647:
12645:
12642:
12638:
12635:
12633:
12630:
12629:
12628:
12625:
12621:
12618:
12616:
12613:
12611:
12608:
12606:
12603:
12601:
12598:
12596:
12593:
12592:
12591:
12588:
12585:
12583:
12580:
12578:
12575:
12573:
12570:
12566:
12563:
12561:
12558:
12556:
12553:
12552:
12551:
12548:
12544:
12541:
12539:
12536:
12534:
12531:
12529:
12526:
12525:
12524:
12521:
12519:
12516:
12514:
12511:
12509:
12506:
12504:
12501:
12499:
12496:
12492:
12489:
12487:
12484:
12482:
12479:
12477:
12474:
12473:
12472:
12469:
12465:
12462:
12460:
12457:
12455:
12452:
12450:
12447:
12446:
12445:
12442:
12438:
12435:
12433:
12430:
12428:
12425:
12424:
12423:
12420:
12418:
12415:
12413:
12410:
12408:
12405:
12403:
12400:
12396:
12393:
12391:
12388:
12386:
12383:
12382:
12381:
12378:
12376:
12373:
12369:
12366:
12364:
12361:
12359:
12356:
12354:
12351:
12349:
12346:
12344:
12341:
12340:
12339:
12336:
12332:
12329:
12327:
12324:
12323:
12322:
12319:
12315:
12312:
12310:
12307:
12305:
12302:
12300:
12297:
12296:
12295:
12292:
12290:
12287:
12283:
12280:
12279:
12278:
12275:
12271:
12268:
12266:
12263:
12262:
12260:
12258:
12255:
12253:
12250:
12248:
12245:
12243:
12240:
12238:
12235:
12233:
12230:
12228:
12225:
12224:
12222:
12220:
12216:
12208:
12205:
12204:
12203:
12200:
12198:
12195:
12191:
12188:
12186:
12183:
12182:
12181:
12178:
12174:
12171:
12170:
12169:
12166:
12162:
12159:
12157:
12154:
12152:
12149:
12147:
12144:
12142:
12139:
12137:
12134:
12133:
12132:
12129:
12127:
12124:
12122:
12119:
12115:
12112:
12110:
12107:
12105:
12102:
12100:
12097:
12096:
12095:
12092:
12088:
12085:
12083:
12080:
12079:
12078:
12075:
12073:
12070:
12066:
12063:
12061:
12058:
12056:
12053:
12051:
12048:
12046:
12043:
12042:
12041:
12038:
12036:
12033:
12031:
12028:
12024:
12021:
12019:
12016:
12014:
12011:
12010:
12009:
12006:
12004:
12001:
11997:
11994:
11992:
11989:
11987:
11984:
11983:
11982:
11979:
11975:
11972:
11970:
11967:
11965:
11962:
11961:
11960:
11957:
11953:
11950:
11948:
11945:
11944:
11943:
11940:
11938:
11935:
11933:
11930:
11929:
11927:
11924:
11919:
11915:
11911:
11904:
11899:
11897:
11892:
11890:
11885:
11884:
11881:
11875:
11868:
11858:
11854:
11848:
11840:
11837:
11836:
11835:
11832:
11828:
11825:
11823:
11820:
11818:
11815:
11813:
11810:
11809:
11808:
11805:
11804:
11802:
11800:
11796:
11788:
11785:
11783:
11780:
11778:
11775:
11774:
11772:
11770:
11767:
11765:
11762:
11760:
11757:
11755:
11752:
11750:
11747:
11745:
11742:
11740:
11737:
11735:
11732:
11730:
11727:
11725:
11722:
11721:
11719:
11715:
11709:
11706:
11704:
11701:
11699:
11696:
11694:
11693:Berber Revolt
11691:
11689:
11686:
11684:
11681:
11679:
11676:
11674:
11671:
11669:
11666:
11664:
11661:
11659:
11656:
11654:
11651:
11649:
11646:
11644:
11641:
11639:
11636:
11634:
11631:
11629:
11626:
11624:
11621:
11619:
11616:
11615:
11613:
11609:
11603:
11600:
11598:
11595:
11593:
11590:
11588:
11585:
11583:
11580:
11578:
11575:
11573:
11570:
11568:
11565:
11563:
11560:
11558:
11555:
11553:
11550:
11548:
11545:
11543:
11540:
11538:
11535:
11534:
11532:
11528:
11523:
11516:
11511:
11509:
11504:
11502:
11497:
11496:
11493:
11486:
11481:
11477:
11476:
11466:
11464:9780521211338
11460:
11456:
11451:
11447:
11445:9780521229616
11441:
11437:
11432:
11428:
11422:
11418:
11413:
11409:
11407:9781870582568
11403:
11399:
11394:
11390:
11384:
11380:
11375:
11374:
11364:
11360:
11356:
11355:
11350:
11346:
11342:
11340:0-8047-2630-2
11336:
11332:
11328:
11327:
11322:
11318:
11314:
11310:
11306:
11302:
11298:
11297:
11292:
11288:
11284:
11280:
11276:
11272:
11268:
11264:
11260:
11256:
11251:
11247:
11245:9780191795831
11241:
11237:
11232:
11228:
11223:
11219:
11215:
11211:
11207:
11201:
11197:
11196:
11190:
11186:
11180:
11176:
11172:
11168:
11164:
11160:
11156:
11152:
11150:
11145:
11141:
11137:
11136:Ménage, V. L.
11133:
11129:
11125:
11121:
11117:
11111:
11107:
11106:
11101:
11097:
11093:
11091:0-521-56181-7
11087:
11083:
11082:
11077:
11073:
11069:
11063:
11059:
11055:
11051:
11047:
11043:
11039:
11037:0-521-20093-8
11033:
11029:
11026:. Cambridge:
11025:
11024:
11019:
11015:
11011:
11007:
11003:
10999:
10995:
10991:
10987:
10983:
10977:
10973:
10969:
10967:
10962:
10958:
10954:
10950:
10946:
10942:
10938:
10934:
10928:
10924:
10920:
10918:
10913:
10909:
10905:
10901:
10900:Bianquis, Th.
10897:
10893:
10889:
10885:
10881:
10875:
10871:
10870:
10865:
10864:Kennedy, Hugh
10861:
10857:
10851:
10847:
10846:
10841:
10837:
10833:
10827:
10823:
10819:
10817:
10812:
10808:
10804:
10800:
10799:Bianquis, Th.
10796:
10792:
10788:
10784:
10780:
10774:
10768:
10764:
10759:
10758:
10755:
10749:
10745:
10744:
10739:
10738:Kennedy, Hugh
10735:
10731:
10725:
10721:
10720:
10715:
10711:
10707:
10701:
10697:
10693:
10691:
10686:
10682:
10678:
10674:
10673:Bianquis, Th.
10670:
10666:
10661:
10657:
10655:0-415-25093-5
10651:
10647:
10646:
10641:
10640:Kennedy, Hugh
10637:
10633:
10627:
10623:
10622:
10617:
10613:
10609:
10607:0-521-41172-6
10603:
10599:
10596:. Cambridge:
10595:
10594:
10589:
10585:
10581:
10577:
10573:
10569:
10565:
10561:
10556:
10552:
10546:
10542:
10537:
10533:
10527:
10523:
10519:
10517:
10512:
10508:
10504:
10500:
10496:
10492:
10488:
10484:
10482:0-231-10132-5
10478:
10474:
10470:
10469:
10463:
10459:
10453:
10449:
10448:
10443:
10439:
10435:
10429:
10425:
10421:
10419:
10414:
10410:
10406:
10402:
10401:Bianquis, Th.
10398:
10394:
10389:
10385:
10383:0-415-24072-7
10379:
10375:
10374:
10369:
10365:
10361:
10355:
10351:
10350:
10344:
10340:
10334:
10330:
10325:
10321:
10315:
10311:
10307:
10305:
10300:
10296:
10292:
10288:
10284:
10280:
10276:
10265:
10261:
10254:
10253:
10247:
10243:
10239:
10235:
10231:
10229:
10224:
10220:
10216:
10212:
10208:
10204:
10200:
10196:
10192:
10188:
10184:
10180:
10176:
10174:
10169:
10165:
10161:
10157:
10153:
10149:
10145:
10141:
10137:
10133:
10129:
10125:
10121:
10120:
10115:
10111:
10107:
10105:90-04-11638-9
10101:
10097:
10096:
10090:
10086:
10082:
10078:
10074:
10072:
10067:
10063:
10059:
10055:
10050:
10046:
10044:90-04-10010-5
10040:
10036:
10035:
10029:
10025:
10019:
10015:
10011:
10009:
10004:
10000:
9996:
9992:
9988:
9983:
9979:
9974:
9970:
9964:
9960:
9959:
9953:
9949:
9945:
9941:
9937:
9935:
9930:
9926:
9922:
9918:
9913:
9909:
9903:
9899:
9898:
9893:
9889:
9885:
9881:
9877:
9873:
9871:
9866:
9862:
9858:
9857:Ménage, V. L.
9854:
9850:
9845:
9841:
9835:
9831:
9830:
9824:
9820:
9814:
9810:
9806:
9804:
9799:
9795:
9791:
9787:
9786:Bianquis, Th.
9783:
9778:
9773:
9769:
9765:
9761:
9757:
9753:
9749:
9745:
9741:
9737:
9732:
9728:
9726:0-521-32185-9
9722:
9718:
9717:
9711:
9707:
9701:
9697:
9693:
9691:
9686:
9682:
9678:
9674:
9673:Bianquis, Th.
9670:
9666:
9661:
9657:
9651:
9647:
9643:
9641:
9636:
9632:
9628:
9624:
9620:
9619:"Muʿāwiya II"
9616:
9612:
9608:
9602:
9598:
9594:
9593:
9587:
9583:
9577:
9573:
9572:
9567:
9563:
9562:
9542:
9538:
9532:
9528:
9527:
9522:
9516:
9500:
9496:
9490:
9486:
9485:
9480:
9474:
9458:
9454:
9450:
9444:
9428:
9424:
9418:
9414:
9413:
9405:
9397:
9393:
9387:
9379:
9375:
9369:
9365:
9364:Sulh Al-Hasan
9361:
9354:
9345:
9337:
9333:
9327:
9311:
9307:
9301:
9297:
9296:
9288:
9282:, p. 97.
9281:
9280:Hathaway 2012
9276:
9269:
9264:
9248:
9244:
9238:
9234:
9233:
9225:
9209:
9205:
9199:
9195:
9194:
9186:
9177:
9171:, p. 13.
9170:
9165:
9159:, p. 43.
9158:
9153:
9147:, p. 50.
9146:
9141:
9134:
9129:
9121:
9115:
9111:
9110:
9102:
9095:
9090:
9083:
9078:
9071:
9066:
9064:
9055:
9053:9781134613663
9049:
9045:
9044:
9036:
9034:
9032:
9030:
9022:
9017:
9010:
9005:
8998:
8993:
8991:
8984:, p. 72.
8983:
8978:
8971:
8966:
8959:
8954:
8948:, p. 31.
8947:
8946:Griffith 2016
8942:
8940:
8923:
8919:
8915:
8909:
8907:
8905:
8898:, p. 56.
8897:
8892:
8884:
8877:
8875:
8865:
8857:
8853:
8849:
8845:
8841:
8837:
8833:
8829:
8822:
8820:
8812:
8807:
8798:
8793:
8789:
8785:
8781:
8777:
8770:
8763:
8758:
8756:
8747:
8741:
8737:
8736:
8728:
8726:
8724:
8715:
8709:
8705:
8704:
8696:
8694:
8692:
8690:
8688:
8686:
8677:
8671:
8667:
8666:
8658:
8656:
8654:
8652:
8650:
8648:
8646:
8638:
8633:
8626:
8625:Kennedy 2007a
8621:
8613:
8607:
8603:
8596:
8588:
8582:
8578:
8571:
8565:, p. 57.
8564:
8559:
8557:
8555:
8546:
8539:
8532:
8527:
8520:
8515:
8509:, p. 43.
8508:
8503:
8496:
8491:
8483:
8481:9781563243349
8477:
8473:
8466:
8458:
8452:
8448:
8444:
8438:
8430:
8429:
8424:
8420:
8413:
8405:
8399:
8395:
8394:
8393:Arab painting
8386:
8380:, p. 87.
8379:
8374:
8367:
8362:
8355:
8350:
8343:
8338:
8332:, p. 32.
8331:
8326:
8320:, p. 78.
8319:
8314:
8307:
8302:
8296:, p. 77.
8295:
8290:
8283:
8278:
8276:
8269:, p. 31.
8268:
8263:
8256:
8251:
8244:
8239:
8232:
8227:
8225:
8217:
8212:
8205:
8200:
8193:
8188:
8181:
8176:
8174:
8166:
8161:
8154:
8149:
8142:
8137:
8130:
8129:Madelung 1993
8125:
8118:
8117:Madelung 1975
8113:
8106:
8105:Beckwith 1993
8101:
8095:, p. 54.
8094:
8089:
8082:
8077:
8075:
8068:, p. 82.
8067:
8062:
8056:, p. 91.
8055:
8050:
8044:, p. 41.
8043:
8042:Dietrich 1971
8038:
8031:
8026:
8019:
8014:
8007:
8002:
8000:
7992:
7987:
7985:
7983:
7976:, p. 15.
7975:
7970:
7963:
7958:
7951:
7946:
7939:
7934:
7932:
7930:
7923:, p. 14.
7922:
7917:
7915:
7907:
7902:
7895:
7890:
7883:
7878:
7871:
7866:
7859:
7854:
7848:, p. 90.
7847:
7842:
7840:
7832:
7827:
7820:
7815:
7808:
7803:
7797:, p. 60.
7796:
7791:
7789:
7781:
7776:
7774:
7767:, p. 45.
7766:
7761:
7754:
7749:
7743:, p. 95.
7742:
7737:
7730:
7725:
7718:
7713:
7706:
7701:
7695:, p. 63.
7694:
7689:
7683:, p. 94.
7682:
7677:
7675:
7668:, p. 28.
7667:
7662:
7655:
7650:
7648:
7646:
7639:, p. 89.
7638:
7633:
7631:
7629:
7622:, p. 62.
7621:
7616:
7610:, p. 85.
7609:
7604:
7602:
7595:, p. 77.
7594:
7589:
7587:
7585:
7583:
7581:
7579:
7577:
7575:
7568:, p. 34.
7567:
7562:
7560:
7558:
7556:
7549:, p. 88.
7548:
7543:
7541:
7539:
7537:
7529:
7524:
7517:
7512:
7506:, p. 87.
7505:
7500:
7494:, p. 76.
7493:
7488:
7482:, p. 98.
7481:
7476:
7469:
7464:
7457:
7452:
7445:
7440:
7433:
7428:
7421:
7416:
7410:, p. 93.
7409:
7404:
7398:, p. 92.
7397:
7392:
7385:
7380:
7373:
7368:
7362:, p. 33.
7361:
7356:
7354:
7352:
7350:
7342:
7337:
7331:, p. 46.
7330:
7325:
7323:
7316:, p. 45.
7315:
7310:
7303:
7298:
7296:
7288:
7283:
7277:, p. 91.
7276:
7271:
7269:
7267:
7259:
7254:
7247:
7242:
7235:
7234:Bosworth 1993
7230:
7228:
7221:, p. 55.
7220:
7215:
7209:, p. 90.
7208:
7203:
7201:
7193:
7188:
7182:, p. 89.
7181:
7176:
7174:
7166:
7161:
7155:, p. 88.
7154:
7149:
7142:
7137:
7130:
7125:
7118:
7113:
7106:
7101:
7095:, p. 87.
7094:
7089:
7083:, p. 86.
7082:
7077:
7075:
7068:, p. 85.
7067:
7062:
7055:
7050:
7044:, p. 83.
7043:
7038:
7036:
7034:
7032:
7024:
7019:
7013:, p. 82.
7012:
7007:
7000:
6995:
6988:
6983:
6976:
6971:
6964:
6959:
6953:, p. 55.
6952:
6947:
6940:
6939:Hawting 2000a
6935:
6928:
6923:
6917:, p. 59.
6916:
6911:
6905:, p. 59.
6904:
6899:
6893:, p. 80.
6892:
6887:
6881:, p. 79.
6880:
6875:
6868:
6863:
6861:
6859:
6857:
6855:
6853:
6845:
6844:Madelung 1997
6840:
6833:
6828:
6821:
6816:
6810:, p. 53.
6809:
6804:
6802:
6795:, p. 76.
6794:
6789:
6787:
6785:
6778:, p. 27.
6777:
6772:
6765:
6760:
6753:
6752:Madelung 1997
6748:
6742:, p. 81.
6741:
6740:Madelung 1997
6736:
6729:
6728:Madelung 1997
6724:
6718:, p. 63.
6717:
6712:
6706:, p. 75.
6705:
6700:
6698:
6696:
6689:, p. 70.
6688:
6683:
6677:, p. 45.
6676:
6671:
6669:
6667:
6665:
6658:, p. 80.
6657:
6656:Madelung 1997
6652:
6650:
6648:
6646:
6644:
6636:
6631:
6625:, p. 61.
6624:
6623:Madelung 1997
6619:
6617:
6609:
6608:Madelung 1997
6604:
6602:
6594:
6589:
6583:, p. 45.
6582:
6581:Madelung 1997
6577:
6570:
6565:
6558:
6553:
6547:, p. 51.
6546:
6541:
6535:, p. 50.
6534:
6529:
6522:
6517:
6511:, p. 20.
6510:
6505:
6499:, p. 77.
6498:
6493:
6487:, p. 23.
6486:
6481:
6474:
6469:
6462:
6457:
6451:, p. 51.
6450:
6445:
6438:
6433:
6417:
6413:
6409:
6402:
6386:
6382:
6376:
6372:
6371:
6363:
6347:
6343:
6337:
6333:
6329:
6328:
6320:
6301:
6297:
6293:
6286:
6279:
6263:
6259:
6255:
6249:
6242:
6237:
6235:
6226:
6222:
6221:
6213:
6205:
6199:
6195:
6194:
6186:
6170:
6166:
6159:
6143:
6139:
6135:
6129:
6113:
6112:
6107:
6100:
6096:
6092:
6090:
6085:
6070:
6066:
6062:
6058:
6043:
6042:
6037:
6031:
6015:
6011:
6010:HarperCollins
6007:
6006:
6001:
5995:
5979:
5975:
5971:
5967:
5963:
5959:
5955:
5954:
5949:
5945:
5939:
5937:
5932:
5919:
5914:
5902:
5896:
5887:
5881:
5877:
5868:
5862:
5855:
5851:
5847:
5843:
5837:
5833:
5823:
5820:
5818:
5815:
5814:
5803:
5800:
5796:
5792:
5789:
5788:
5784:
5782:
5779:
5778:
5774:
5772:
5769:
5768:
5764:
5762:
5759:
5758:
5754:
5752:
5749:
5748:
5744:
5742:
5739:
5738:
5734:
5732:
5729:
5728:
5724:
5722:
5719:
5718:
5714:
5712:
5709:
5708:
5704:
5702:
5699:
5698:
5694:
5692:
5689:
5688:
5684:
5682:
5679:
5678:
5674:
5672:
5669:
5668:
5664:
5662:
5659:
5658:
5654:
5651:
5650:
5642:
5637:
5633:
5629:
5624:
5619:
5615:
5605:
5601:
5598:
5594:
5590:
5580:
5578:
5574:
5570:
5566:
5562:
5558:
5554:
5550:
5540:
5537:
5533:
5532:
5527:
5522:
5520:
5516:
5511:
5509:
5505:
5490:
5488:
5483:
5478:
5476:
5472:
5467:
5463:
5458:
5456:
5452:
5448:
5444:
5440:
5436:
5432:
5428:
5423:
5421:
5416:
5413:
5408:
5382:
5371:
5366:
5364:
5359:
5357:
5352:
5351:
5349:
5348:
5340:
5336:
5335:
5334:
5331:
5329:
5326:
5324:
5321:
5319:
5316:
5314:
5311:
5307:
5304:
5303:
5302:
5299:
5297:
5294:
5290:
5287:
5285:
5282:
5280:
5279:Mount Lebanon
5277:
5275:
5272:
5270:
5267:
5265:
5262:
5260:
5257:
5255:
5252:
5251:
5250:
5249:Ottoman Syria
5247:
5246:
5245:
5244:
5240:
5239:
5234:
5231:
5229:
5226:
5222:
5219:
5217:
5214:
5212:
5209:
5207:
5204:
5203:
5202:
5199:
5197:
5194:
5192:
5189:
5187:
5184:
5182:
5179:
5177:
5174:
5172:
5169:
5167:
5164:
5162:
5159:
5157:
5154:
5152:
5149:
5147:
5144:
5140:
5137:
5135:
5132:
5130:
5127:
5125:
5122:
5120:
5117:
5116:
5115:
5114:Bilad al-Sham
5112:
5110:
5107:
5105:
5102:
5101:
5100:
5099:
5095:
5094:
5089:
5086:
5084:
5081:
5076:
5072:
5068:
5066:
5063:
5061:
5058:
5056:
5053:
5052:
5051:
5048:
5046:
5043:
5041:
5038:
5036:
5033:
5031:
5028:
5026:
5023:
5021:
5018:
5016:
5013:
5011:
5008:
5004:
5001:
4999:
4996:
4995:
4994:
4991:
4989:
4986:
4985:
4984:
4983:
4979:
4978:
4971:
4968:
4967:
4966:
4963:
4961:
4958:
4956:
4953:
4951:
4948:
4946:
4943:
4941:
4938:
4934:
4931:
4929:
4926:
4924:
4921:
4919:
4916:
4915:
4914:
4913:
4909:
4907:
4904:
4900:
4897:
4895:
4892:
4890:
4887:
4885:
4882:
4880:
4879:Aram-Damascus
4877:
4876:
4875:
4874:
4870:
4868:
4865:
4863:
4860:
4858:
4855:
4851:
4848:
4846:
4843:
4842:
4841:
4838:
4836:
4833:
4831:
4828:
4826:
4823:
4821:
4818:
4814:
4811:
4809:
4806:
4804:
4801:
4800:
4799:
4798:
4794:
4792:
4789:
4785:
4782:
4780:
4777:
4775:
4772:
4770:
4767:
4766:
4765:
4764:
4760:
4759:
4758:
4757:
4754:
4751:
4750:
4745:
4742:
4740:
4739:Halaf culture
4737:
4735:
4732:
4730:
4727:
4725:
4722:
4720:
4717:
4716:
4715:
4714:
4711:
4708:
4707:
4704:
4701:
4700:
4692:
4690:
4686:
4682:
4678:
4674:
4670:
4665:
4662:
4658:
4654:
4650:
4646:
4642:
4638:
4634:
4629:
4627:
4623:
4619:
4615:
4611:
4607:
4603:
4602:
4597:
4593:
4578:
4574:
4570:
4565:
4560:
4550:
4547:
4543:
4538:
4536:
4532:
4527:
4523:
4519:
4514:
4512:
4508:
4504:
4503:
4498:
4497:
4485:
4481:
4478:of the first
4477:
4476:
4471:
4467:
4463:
4459:
4455:
4451:
4447:
4443:
4439:
4436:
4432:
4426:
4424:
4420:
4416:
4412:
4407:
4403:
4400:
4396:
4392:
4386:
4384:
4380:
4376:
4372:
4362:
4361:in the 740s.
4360:
4354:
4348:
4345:
4342:
4339:
4336:
4334:
4331:
4330:
4329:
4323:
4319:
4314:
4305:
4299:Diwan al-Jund
4296:
4294:
4283:
4278:
4268:
4259:
4250:
4242:
4232:
4229:
4221:
4211:
4207:
4203:
4197:
4196:
4192:
4187:This section
4185:
4181:
4176:
4175:
4167:
4165:
4161:
4160:
4155:
4150:
4148:
4147:
4142:
4141:
4137:
4132:
4128:
4127:
4122:
4121:
4116:
4115:
4110:
4109:
4104:
4103:
4096:
4094:
4090:
4089:
4084:
4083:
4078:
4074:
4070:
4065:
4061:
4052:
4042:
4033:
4031:
4027:
4023:
4019:
4008:
3999:
3990:
3988:
3982:
3980:
3976:
3971:
3969:
3965:
3961:
3958:
3954:
3950:
3945:
3943:
3939:
3935:
3931:
3927:
3923:
3919:
3915:
3910:
3908:
3904:
3899:
3897:
3892:
3888:
3884:
3880:
3873:
3869:
3864:
3859:
3849:
3847:
3843:
3838:
3836:
3832:
3828:
3824:
3820:
3815:
3813:
3808:
3806:
3802:
3798:
3794:
3788:
3778:
3776:
3772:
3768:
3763:
3761:
3757:
3756:Day of Thirst
3753:
3749:
3745:
3741:
3737:
3732:
3730:
3726:
3721:
3717:
3713:
3712:confrontation
3709:
3700:
3696:
3694:
3690:
3686:
3682:
3677:
3676:Berber Revolt
3673:
3669:
3665:
3661:
3657:
3653:
3648:
3646:
3642:
3637:
3626:
3618:
3613:
3606:
3601:
3592:
3590:
3589:Transcaucasia
3586:
3581:
3575:
3573:
3569:
3558:
3548:
3546:
3542:
3538:
3533:
3530:
3524:
3518:
3514:
3510:
3505:
3502:
3498:
3488:
3486:
3482:
3477:
3473:
3470:
3463:
3458:
3454:
3452:
3448:
3444:
3440:
3436:
3432:
3428:
3424:
3419:
3408:
3403:
3401:
3397:
3393:
3389:
3386:
3382:
3378:
3374:
3370:
3366:
3362:
3358:
3354:
3346:
3341:
3336:
3334:
3329:
3323:
3319:
3315:
3312:
3307:
3303:
3301:
3297:
3293:
3289:
3285:
3284:
3279:
3275:
3271:
3267:
3263:
3259:
3255:
3251:
3246:
3242:
3238:
3234:
3230:
3226:
3222:
3218:
3209:
3194:
3185:
3175:
3171:
3166:
3161:
3157:
3153:
3149:
3145:
3135:
3132:
3121:
3116:
3112:
3107:
3104:
3100:
3096:
3092:
3088:
3084:
3080:
3076:
3072:
3071:
3065:
3062:
3058:
3054:
3050:
3046:
3042:
3037:
3034:
3030:
3026:
3010:
3005:
2996:
2994:
2991:
2987:
2983:
2978:
2974:
2970:
2966:
2962:
2958:
2954:
2949:
2946:
2942:
2938:
2934:
2930:
2925:
2921:
2916:
2912:
2908:
2901:
2897:
2894:
2890:
2886:
2875:
2870:
2856:
2854:
2850:
2846:
2842:
2838:
2834:
2829:
2827:
2823:
2819:
2809:
2800:
2798:
2794:
2790:
2789:Uqba ibn Nafi
2786:
2781:
2777:
2773:
2769:
2765:
2761:
2757:
2753:
2749:
2740:
2736:
2732:
2728:
2724:
2723:Arab-Sasanian
2720:
2716:
2707:
2703:
2699:
2698:Abd al-Rahman
2695:
2691:
2687:
2683:
2679:
2675:
2671:
2667:
2658:
2654:
2650:
2645:
2631:
2628:
2624:
2620:
2619:Amr ibn al-As
2616:
2611:
2605:
2603:
2599:
2588:
2586:
2582:
2578:
2574:
2570:
2565:
2561:
2557:
2552:
2550:
2546:
2542:
2538:
2534:
2530:
2526:
2522:
2518:
2514:
2513:
2508:
2501:
2497:
2493:
2489:
2485:
2481:
2477:
2473:
2472:
2467:
2463:
2462:Bilad al-Sham
2459:
2458:Islamic Syria
2454:
2445:
2443:
2439:
2435:
2431:
2427:
2423:
2419:
2415:
2411:
2407:
2396:
2391:
2389:
2385:
2381:
2370:
2366:
2362:
2358:
2354:
2349:
2347:
2343:
2339:
2335:
2331:
2327:
2323:
2319:
2315:
2304:
2289:
2287:
2283:
2279:
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2266:
2259:
2257:
2253:
2249:
2245:
2241:
2237:
2233:
2229:
2225:
2221:
2217:
2213:
2209:
2206:, conquering
2205:
2200:
2198:
2194:
2190:
2186:
2182:
2181:Greater Syria
2178:
2174:
2170:
2166:
2162:
2158:
2153:
2147:
2138:
2132:
2105:
2097:
2067:
2061:
2057:
2045:
2040:
2038:
2033:
2031:
2026:
2025:
2023:
2022:
2012:
2009:
2005:
2002:
2001:
1997:
1994:
1990:
1987:
1986:
1982:
1979:
1975:
1972:
1971:
1967:
1964:
1960:
1957:
1956:
1952:
1949:
1945:
1942:
1941:
1937:
1934:
1930:
1927:
1926:
1922:
1919:
1918:Umm al-Quwain
1915:
1912:
1911:
1907:
1904:
1900:
1897:
1896:
1892:
1889:
1885:
1882:
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1877:
1874:
1870:
1867:
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1522:
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1300:
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1270:
1267:
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1262:
1260:
1257:
1256:
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1250:
1247:
1246:
1242:
1240:
1237:
1236:
1232:
1230:
1227:
1226:
1222:
1220:
1219:Muslim Sicily
1217:
1216:
1212:
1210:
1207:
1206:
1202:
1200:
1197:
1196:
1192:
1190:
1187:
1186:
1182:
1180:
1177:
1176:
1172:
1170:
1167:
1166:
1162:
1160:
1157:
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1147:
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1127:
1125:
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1117:
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1111:
1107:
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1067:
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1057:
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1052:
1051:
1047:
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1042:
1041:
1037:
1035:
1032:
1031:
1027:
1025:
1022:
1021:
1017:
1015:
1012:
1011:
1007:
1005:
1002:
1001:
997:
995:
992:
991:
987:
985:
982:
981:
977:
975:
972:
971:
967:
965:
962:
961:
957:
955:
952:
951:
947:
945:
942:
941:
937:
935:
932:
931:
927:
925:
922:
921:
913:
912:
902:
900:
897:
896:
892:
890:
887:
886:
882:
880:
877:
876:
872:
870:
867:
866:
858:
857:
848:450 AD–550 AD
847:
845:
842:
841:
837:
835:
832:
831:
827:
825:
822:
821:
817:
815:
812:
811:
807:
805:
802:
801:
797:
795:
792:
791:
788:64 BC–300s AD
787:
785:
782:
781:
778:132 BC–244 AD
777:
775:
772:
771:
768:400 BC–106 AD
767:
765:
762:
761:
758:600 BC–100 BC
757:
755:
752:
751:
748:800 BC–300 BC
747:
745:
742:
741:
733:
732:
728:
724:
723:
719:
718:
708:
703:
701:
696:
694:
689:
688:
686:
685:
682:
672:
671:
664:
661:
659:
656:
654:
651:
649:
646:
644:
641:
640:
634:
633:
626:
623:
621:
618:
616:
613:
611:
608:
607:
601:
600:
596:
592:
591:
579:
576:
575:
555:
553:
550:
549:
541:
539:
536:
535:
527:
525:
522:
521:
513:
511:
508:
507:
499:
497:
494:
493:
485:
483:
480:
479:
471:
469:
466:
465:
462:
456:
453:
446:
445:
442:
439:
432:
431:
428:
425:
418:
417:
414:
411:
404:
403:
400:
397:
390:
389:
386:
383:
376:
375:
372:
369:
362:
361:
358:
355:
348:
347:
344:
343:
340:
337:
335:
332:
331:
327:
322:(copper coin)
321:
318:
316:(silver coin)
315:
312:
309:
306:
305:
304:
300:
296:
292:
287:
283:
279:
276:
270:
266:
263:
257:
253:
249:
245:
241:
235:
232:
226:
220:
217:
211:
207:
203:
201:
197:
194:
191:
188:
184:
181:
178:
174:
165:
162:
160:
157:
155:
152:
150:
147:
146:
144:
140:
137:
134:
130:
123:
120:
117:
114:
113:
111:
107:
104:
101:
97:
86:
80:
75:
70:
64:
56:
40:
37:
33:
19:
15075:(1560s–1690)
14940:
14792:Islamophobia
14657:Christianity
14605:
14538:Contemporary
14432:Architecture
14371:
14337:
14325:
14313:
14271:
14264:
14230:
14212:
14207:Nikah mut'ah
14205:
14198:
14191:
14184:
14177:
14170:
14134:
14122:
14115:
14108:
14101:
14081:
14074:
14067:
14060:
13973:
13696:
13626:
13620:
13602:
13595:
13539:
13532:
13525:
13518:
13511:
13504:Five Pillars
13481:
13447:
13436:God in Islam
13413:
13111:Contemporary
12961:Indo-Persian
12949:Nazi Germany
12893:Contemporary
12795:Vijayanagara
12694:Great Seljuk
12605:Thessalonica
12533:Golden Horde
12303:
12173:Carthaginian
11952:Neo-Assyrian
11937:Neo-Sumerian
11633:Second Fitna
11557:Abd al-Malik
11521:
11454:
11435:
11416:
11397:
11378:
11353:
11325:
11295:
11258:
11254:
11235:
11226:
11217:
11194:
11174:
11154:
11147:
11104:
11080:
11057:
11022:
11010:Madelung, W.
10993:
10971:
10964:
10922:
10915:
10868:
10844:
10821:
10814:
10762:
10742:
10718:
10695:
10688:
10644:
10620:
10592:
10563:
10559:
10540:
10521:
10514:
10471:. New York:
10467:
10446:
10423:
10416:
10372:
10348:
10328:
10309:
10302:
10267:. Retrieved
10251:
10233:
10226:
10178:
10171:
10118:
10094:
10076:
10069:
10033:
10013:
10006:
9977:
9957:
9939:
9932:
9896:
9875:
9868:
9828:
9808:
9801:
9739:
9735:
9715:
9695:
9688:
9645:
9638:
9591:
9570:
9559:Bibliography
9547:16 September
9545:. Retrieved
9525:
9521:`Abdu'l-Bahá
9515:
9503:. Retrieved
9483:
9479:`Abdu'l-Bahá
9473:
9461:. Retrieved
9452:
9443:
9431:. Retrieved
9411:
9404:
9396:the original
9386:
9378:the original
9363:
9353:
9344:
9336:the original
9326:
9314:. Retrieved
9294:
9287:
9275:
9268:Gilbert 2013
9263:
9251:. Retrieved
9231:
9224:
9212:. Retrieved
9192:
9185:
9176:
9169:Hawting 2000
9164:
9152:
9145:Lapidus 2014
9140:
9135:, p. 4.
9133:Hawting 2000
9128:
9108:
9101:
9089:
9077:
9042:
9023:, p. 2.
9016:
9009:Holland 2013
9004:
8997:Holland 2013
8977:
8965:
8953:
8926:. Retrieved
8917:
8891:
8882:
8864:
8831:
8827:
8806:
8779:
8775:
8769:
8734:
8702:
8664:
8637:Sanchez 2015
8632:
8620:
8601:
8595:
8576:
8570:
8544:
8538:
8526:
8514:
8502:
8490:
8471:
8465:
8446:
8437:
8427:
8412:
8392:
8385:
8373:
8361:
8349:
8342:Kennedy 2002
8337:
8325:
8318:Hawting 2000
8313:
8306:Hawting 2000
8301:
8294:Hawting 2000
8289:
8282:Kennedy 2004
8262:
8255:Kennedy 2004
8250:
8238:
8211:
8199:
8187:
8160:
8148:
8136:
8124:
8112:
8100:
8088:
8081:Eisener 1997
8061:
8054:Kennedy 2016
8049:
8037:
8030:Kennedy 2016
8025:
8013:
7991:Kennedy 2002
7969:
7957:
7950:Kennedy 2007
7945:
7901:
7889:
7877:
7865:
7853:
7846:Kennedy 2016
7826:
7814:
7802:
7795:Hawting 2000
7760:
7748:
7736:
7724:
7717:Hawting 2000
7712:
7700:
7693:Hawting 2000
7688:
7661:
7637:Kennedy 2016
7620:Hawting 2000
7615:
7608:Kennedy 2016
7566:Kennedy 2001
7547:Kennedy 2016
7528:Kennedy 2016
7523:
7511:
7504:Kennedy 2016
7499:
7487:
7480:Kennedy 2004
7475:
7463:
7451:
7444:Kennedy 2004
7439:
7427:
7420:Kennedy 2001
7415:
7408:Kennedy 2004
7403:
7396:Kennedy 2004
7391:
7384:Kennedy 2004
7379:
7367:
7360:Kennedy 2001
7336:
7309:
7302:Kennedy 2004
7282:
7275:Kennedy 2004
7253:
7241:
7214:
7207:Kennedy 2004
7192:Kennedy 2004
7187:
7180:Kennedy 2004
7165:Kennedy 2004
7160:
7153:Kennedy 2004
7148:
7136:
7124:
7112:
7105:Kennedy 2007
7100:
7093:Kennedy 2004
7088:
7081:Kennedy 2004
7066:Kennedy 2004
7061:
7054:Kennedy 2004
7049:
7042:Kennedy 2004
7023:Kennedy 2004
7018:
7011:Kennedy 2004
7006:
6994:
6987:Kennedy 2004
6982:
6970:
6963:Kennedy 2004
6958:
6946:
6934:
6922:
6910:
6898:
6891:Kennedy 2004
6886:
6879:Kennedy 2004
6874:
6839:
6827:
6820:Kennedy 2004
6815:
6793:Kennedy 2004
6776:Hawting 2000
6771:
6764:Kennedy 2004
6759:
6747:
6735:
6723:
6716:Kennedy 2004
6711:
6704:Kennedy 2004
6687:Kennedy 2004
6682:
6635:Kennedy 2004
6630:
6588:
6576:
6569:Kennedy 2004
6564:
6557:Kennedy 2004
6552:
6545:Kennedy 2004
6540:
6533:Kennedy 2004
6528:
6516:
6504:
6492:
6485:Hawting 2000
6480:
6468:
6461:Hawting 2000
6456:
6444:
6432:
6422:23 September
6420:. Retrieved
6411:
6401:
6389:. Retrieved
6369:
6362:
6350:. Retrieved
6326:
6319:
6307:. Retrieved
6298:(1): 13–12.
6295:
6291:
6278:
6266:. Retrieved
6257:
6248:
6219:
6212:
6192:
6185:
6173:. Retrieved
6158:
6146:. Retrieved
6137:
6128:
6116:. Retrieved
6109:
6099:the original
6087:
6073:. Retrieved
6069:the original
6060:
6046:. Retrieved
6039:
6030:
6018:. Retrieved
6003:
5994:
5982:. Retrieved
5957:
5951:
5901:al-Umawiyyūn
5880:
5861:
5836:
5793:(ruled from
5602:
5595:suggests in
5593:`Abdu'l-Bahá
5586:
5546:
5529:
5523:
5513:Later, when
5512:
5503:
5501:
5479:
5465:
5461:
5459:
5438:
5434:
5430:
5426:
5424:
5417:
5409:
5405:
5176:Banu Munqidh
5145:
5050:Roman Empire
4918:Unqi-Pattina
4910:
4871:
4795:
4761:
4666:
4630:
4626:Qusayr 'Amra
4599:
4589:
4577:Abd al-Malik
4553:Architecture
4539:
4533:against the
4515:
4500:
4494:
4473:
4466:al-Baladhuri
4444:official of
4427:
4404:
4395:Zoroastrians
4387:
4368:
4355:
4351:
4333:Muslim Arabs
4327:
4302:
4292:
4289:
4280:
4265:
4256:
4248:
4239:
4224:
4215:
4200:Please help
4188:
4157:
4151:
4144:
4139:
4135:
4124:
4123:(from Greek
4118:
4112:
4106:
4105:(from Roman
4101:
4097:
4092:
4086:
4080:
4066:
4062:
4048:
4039:
4030:Abd al-Malik
4014:
4005:
3996:
3986:
3983:
3975:Fourth Fitna
3972:
3946:
3912:Around 746,
3911:
3900:
3876:
3839:
3816:
3809:
3790:
3764:
3733:
3705:
3649:
3622:
3603:The city of
3576:
3554:
3544:
3540:
3534:
3516:
3508:
3506:
3494:
3466:
3423:Tang Chinese
3404:
3388:fire temples
3367:in 706–709,
3350:
3344:
3325:
3281:
3213:
3173:
3131:Great Mosque
3108:
3102:
3094:
3086:
3068:
3066:
3060:
3052:
3041:Islamization
3038:
3032:
3014:
2965:Abd al-Malik
2950:
2939:fortress of
2904:
2874:Second Fitna
2836:
2830:
2814:
2744:
2662:
2606:
2594:
2571:of Kufa and
2555:
2553:
2510:
2504:
2491:
2487:
2479:
2469:
2461:
2432:settlers in
2392:
2350:
2334:nomadic Arab
2311:
2263:
2260:
2201:
2189:Second Fitna
2059:
2055:
2053:
2013:1921–present
1998:1900–present
1983:1868–present
1968:1833–present
1953:1810–present
1938:1783–present
1923:1775–present
1908:1761–present
1893:1752–present
1878:1749–present
1863:1744–present
1858:Saudi Arabia
1848:1727–present
1833:1727–present
1818:1631–present
878:
828:300s–500s AD
614:
339:Succeeded by
338:
333:
36:
15111:(1921–1958)
15105:(1805–1952)
15099:(1726–1834)
15093:(1704–1831)
15087:(1697–1842)
15081:(1649–1850)
15057:(1382–1517)
15051:(1376–1843)
15045:(1250–1382)
15039:(1234–1262)
15033:(1171–1341)
15027:(1127–1250)
15021:(1104–1154)
15009:(1024–1080)
14662:Catholicism
14557:Other areas
14548:Theological
14543:Eschatology
14500:Mathematics
14437:Calligraphy
14367:Theological
14321:Inheritance
14238:Cleanliness
13610:Shi'a Imams
13604:Ahl al-Bayt
12699:Khwarezmian
12632:Carolingian
12437:Rashtrakuta
12141:Shaishunaga
12040:Hellenistic
12023:New Kingdom
12013:Old Kingdom
11834:Umayyad art
11698:Third Fitna
11623:First Fitna
11587:Al-Walid II
11547:Mu'awiya II
11153:Volume III:
11144:Schacht, J.
11140:Pellat, Ch.
10970:Volume VII:
10961:Pellat, Ch.
10783:Lammens, H.
10520:Volume VII:
10511:Pellat, Ch.
10299:Pellat, Ch.
10223:Pellat, Ch.
10215:Schacht, J.
10168:Pellat, Ch.
10160:Schacht, J.
10066:Schacht, J.
10062:Pellat, Ch.
10003:Lecomte, G.
9929:Schacht, J.
9925:Pellat, Ch.
9874:Volume III:
9865:Schacht, J.
9861:Pellat, Ch.
9772:Cobb, P. M.
9644:Volume VII:
9635:Pellat, Ch.
9433:22 November
9316:22 November
8982:Rahman 1999
8958:Morony 1987
8417:Allan, J.;
8153:Powers 1989
7780:Grabar 1986
6593:Donner 1981
6497:Donner 1981
6449:Donner 1981
6241:Rahman 1999
6175:16 February
5913:Banū Umayya
5412:Arabization
5306:Transjordan
5096:Middle Ages
5071:Later Roman
5055:Roman Syria
5003:Coele-Syria
4906:Sea Peoples
4889:Paddan Aram
4546:Manichaeans
4433:. He was a
4399:Fred Donner
4365:Non-Muslims
3797:Qusayr Amra
3793:Al-Walid II
3787:Third Fitna
3781:Third Fitna
3744:Transoxiana
3736:Tokharistan
3572:Muhallabids
3385:Zoroastrian
3361:Transoxiana
3045:Arabization
2957:Abd al-Aziz
2853:Mu'awiya II
2591:First Fitna
2312:During the
2286:Islamic art
2250:and then a
2212:Transoxiana
2185:First Fitna
1718:Pate Island
1691:East Africa
1484:Sulaymanids
1424:Ukhaidhirds
1209:Sulaymanids
1179:Muhallabids
1084:Munqidhites
984:Shirvanshah
838:300s–602 AD
808:196–1100 AD
798:100s–241 AD
334:Preceded by
310:(gold coin)
15173:Caliphates
15137:Categories
15003:(990–1096)
14997:(990–1085)
14991:(990–1081)
14973:(909–1171)
14961:(890–1004)
14949:(750–1258)
14722:Ex-Muslims
14607:Shu'ubiyya
14601:Psychology
14589:Literature
14579:Inventions
14525:Philosophy
14333:Leadership
14309:Honorifics
13964:Philosophy
13771:Isma'ilism
13732:Maturidism
13615:Caliphates
13586:Golden Age
13477:Revelation
13269:Portuguese
13150:Revival Le
13140:Vietnamese
12783:Later Tran
12753:Vietnamese
12649:Singhasari
12637:Holy Roman
12261:Bulgarian
12197:Satavahana
12168:Phoenician
12104:Achaemenid
12065:Indo-Greek
12045:Macedonian
11959:Babylonian
11777:Gold dinar
11717:Government
11562:Al-Walid I
11537:Mu'awiya I
11303:. Lisbon:
11050:"DABUYIDS"
10820:Volume XI:
10694:Volume XI:
10543:. Abacus.
10393:"Umayyads"
10279:Grabar, O.
10122:. London:
10075:Volume II:
10012:Volume IX:
9938:Volume II:
9119:0870996371
9094:Flood 2001
9082:Flood 2001
9021:Flood 2001
8834:(2): 163.
8762:Flood 2001
8216:Lilie 1976
8192:Lilie 1976
7974:Kaegi 2010
7938:Talbi 1971
7921:Kaegi 2010
7906:Lilie 1976
7870:Lilie 1976
7858:Lilie 1976
7807:Johns 2003
7753:Johns 2003
7593:Gibb 1960b
7492:Gibb 1960b
7468:Dixon 1969
7456:Dixon 1969
7432:Dixon 1969
7329:Crone 1994
7314:Crone 1994
7219:Gibb 1960a
6999:Lilie 1976
6975:Kaegi 1992
6903:Hinds 1993
6867:Hinds 1993
6268:10 October
5960:(3): 496.
5928:References
5867:al-Ya'qubi
5466:Ibn Hisham
5462:Al Muwatta
5339:Gaza Strip
5284:Jabal Amel
5181:Banu Ammar
4894:Aram-Rehob
4884:Aram-Zobah
4835:Canaanites
4710:Prehistory
4669:al-Andalus
4620:, such as
4584: 705
4542:Samaritans
4535:Byzantines
4507:al-Mas'udi
4484:Mu'awiya I
4450:Mu'awiya I
4406:Christians
4218:March 2024
4077:fire altar
4058: 700
3964:Al-Andalus
3918:black flag
3914:Abu Muslim
3879:Hashimiyya
3693:Pratiharas
3537:iconoclasm
3443:Tabaristan
3418:militarist
3142:See also:
3120:al-Walid I
3021: 700
3009:gold dinar
2909:tribes in
2900:Kharijites
2898:, and the
2881: 686
2727:Mu'awiya I
2682:Ibn Bahdal
2615:Kharijites
2466:Mu'awiya I
2282:Byzantines
2228:al-Andalus
2177:Mu'awiya I
2004:Hashemites
1959:Al Maktoum
1929:Al Khalifa
1614:Upper Yafa
1604:Ya'arubids
1444:Qarmatians
1329:Sumadihids
818:220–638 AD
814:Ghassanids
496:Barghawata
219:Mu'awiya I
190:Hereditary
186:Government
92: 720
15037:Lu'lu'ids
15007:Mirdasids
14995:Marwanids
14989:Numayrids
14983:Jarrahids
14979:(935–969)
14977:Ikhsidids
14965:Hadhabani
14959:Hamdanids
14955:(868–905)
14943:(661–750)
14937:(632–661)
14935:Rashiduns
14839:Symbolism
14797:Incidents
14775:Criticism
14667:Mormonism
14564:Astrology
14490:Cosmology
14485:Astronomy
14427:Arabesque
14294:Etiquette
14253:Blasphemy
14043:Economics
13858:Ahmadiyya
13800:Muhakkima
13747:Wahhabism
13737:Mu'tazili
13722:Ash'arism
13262:Couronian
12900:Ethiopian
12888:Manchukuo
12843:Brazilian
12689:Ghaznavid
12659:Srivijaya
12610:Trebizond
12595:Byzantine
12577:North Sea
12572:Norwegian
12560:Almoravid
12543:Ilkhanate
12513:Majapahit
12486:Muromachi
12395:Solomonic
12380:Ethiopian
12294:Caliphate
12227:Aragonese
12055:Ptolemaic
11734:Governors
11602:Marwan II
11592:Yazid III
11363:752790641
11313:490638192
11293:(1976) .
11283:170486943
11163:495469525
11132:Lewis, B.
11124:Talbi, M.
11002:797598069
10921:Volume X:
10580:163096950
10491:Hinds, M.
10422:Volume X:
10308:Volume V:
10295:Lewis, B.
10242:495469456
10232:Volume I:
10219:Lewis, B.
10187:495469456
10177:Volume I:
10164:Lewis, B.
10132:499987512
10085:495469475
10058:Lewis, B.
10054:"Dimashk"
9948:495469475
9921:Lewis, B.
9884:495469525
9853:Lewis, B.
9807:Volume X:
9764:154370527
9756:0021-1818
9736:Der Islam
9694:Volume X:
9523:(1990) .
9481:(1990) .
9253:25 August
9214:25 August
8856:201748179
8519:Cobb 2001
8507:Cobb 2001
8495:Cobb 2001
8231:Cobb 2000
8093:Gibb 1923
7765:Elad 1999
7705:Duri 1965
7287:Duri 2011
7246:Duri 2011
7141:Duri 2011
6391:25 August
6352:25 August
6106:"Umayyad"
6084:"Umayyad"
6057:"Umayyad"
6036:"Umayyad"
6000:"Umayyad"
5984:22 August
5895:romanized
5854:Abd Allah
5460:The book
5451:Baladhuri
5333:Palestine
5274:Jerusalem
5216:Jerusalem
5191:Numayrids
5171:Mirdasids
5166:Jarrahids
5161:Hamdanids
5134:Qinnasrin
5119:Palestine
5109:Rashiduns
5015:Commagene
4970:Eber-Nari
4940:Philistia
4840:Phoenicia
4637:Byzantine
4610:Jerusalem
4470:al-Tabari
4442:Byzantine
4438:Christian
4413:, bishop
4189:does not
4164:Hasmonean
4002:Provinces
3823:Marwan II
3812:Yazid III
3805:Qadariyya
3748:Samarkand
3714:with the
3373:Samarkand
3250:al-Kahina
3115:Abrahamic
2984:, at the
2941:Circesium
2911:Qinnasrin
2688:nobleman
2674:Ghassanid
2623:Jerusalem
2585:caliphate
2541:al-Harith
2488:al-Urdunn
2442:Byzantine
2430:Himyarite
2426:Banu Kalb
2414:Palestine
2361:Muhajirun
2324:tribe of
2252:caliphate
2157:caliphate
2146:romanized
1989:Al Sharqi
1944:Al Nuaimi
1914:Al Mualla
1903:Abu Dhabi
1899:Al Nahyan
1839:Al Qasimi
1824:Al Qasimi
1788:1860–1887
1778:1858–1895
1763:1856–1964
1753:1746–1828
1738:1277–1495
1723:1203–1894
1678:1926–1970
1668:1906–1934
1658:1903–1967
1648:1858–1967
1644:Qu'aitids
1638:1836–1921
1634:Rashidids
1628:1820–1970
1618:1800–1967
1608:1624–1742
1598:1597–1872
1588:1463–1521
1578:1454–1526
1568:1395–1967
1564:Kathirids
1558:1305–1487
1554:Jarwanids
1548:1253–1320
1538:1229–1454
1528:1159–1174
1518:1154–1624
1514:Nabhanids
1508:1083–1174
1498:1076–1253
1488:1063–1174
1478:1047–1138
1474:Sulayhids
1373:1837–1969
1369:Senussids
1363:1554–1659
1353:1230–1492
1343:1049–1078
1333:1041–1091
1323:1039–1110
1313:1031–1091
1309:Jawharids
1303:1027–1063
1299:Muzaynids
1293:1026–1057
1289:Hammudids
1283:1023–1062
1279:Yahsubids
1273:1023–1091
1263:1020–1086
1253:1013–1039
1243:1012–1051
1233:1004–1412
1199:Aghlabids
1128:1697–1842
1118:1517–1865
1108:1480–1677
1098:1517–1697
1088:1025–1157
1078:1024–1080
1074:Mirdasids
1064:Numayrids
1044:Jarrahids
1034:Mazyadids
1014:Hamdanids
1004:Hashimids
964:Habbarids
954:Dulafids
804:Tanukhids
578:Caliphate
234:Marwan II
193:caliphate
176:Religion
124:(744–750)
118:(661–744)
15103:Alawiyya
15049:Bahdinan
15031:Ayyubids
15013:Artuqids
15001:Uqaylids
14971:Fatimids
14953:Tulunids
14947:Abbasids
14941:Umayyads
14877:Category
14770:Islamism
14753:Muhammad
14709:Apostasy
14684:Hinduism
14574:Feminism
14505:Medicine
14345:Military
14299:Gambling
14248:Apostasy
14243:Criminal
14155:Marriage
14124:Tayammum
14076:Murabaha
13949:Madrasas
13939:Holidays
13929:Clothing
13924:Children
13919:Calendar
13870:Quranism
13804:Khawarij
13776:Alawites
13727:Atharism
13621:Rashidun
13460:In Islam
13455:Muhammad
13242:Japanese
13205:Scottish
13185:American
13177:Colonial
13106:Imperial
13074:Moroccan
13010:Japanese
12988:Afsharid
12847:Burmese
12833:Austrian
12788:Later Le
12763:Early Le
12748:Venetian
12674:Tiwanaku
12587:Hellenic
12550:Moroccan
12481:Kamakura
12471:Japanese
12454:Saffarid
12407:Georgian
12321:Chalukya
12299:Rashidun
12289:Calakmul
12257:Bruneian
12136:Haryanka
12114:Sasanian
12109:Parthian
12060:Bactrian
12050:Seleucid
12030:Goguryeo
12008:Egyptian
11942:Assyrian
11932:Akkadian
11923:Colonies
11754:al-Haras
11577:Yazid II
11567:Sulayman
11552:Marwan I
11351:(1927).
11323:(1997).
11216:(1971).
11173:(2004).
11146:(eds.).
11126:(1971).
11078:(1997).
11048:(1993).
11012:(1975).
10992:(1976).
10963:(eds.).
10943:(1993).
10914:(eds.).
10866:(2023).
10842:(2014).
10813:(eds.).
10789:(2002).
10740:(2007).
10716:(2004).
10687:(eds.).
10642:(2001).
10618:(2010).
10590:(1992).
10513:(eds.).
10493:(1993).
10415:(eds.).
10370:(2000).
10310:Khe–Mahi
10301:(eds.).
10281:(1986).
10225:(eds.).
10197:(1960).
10170:(eds.).
10142:(1960).
10116:(1923).
10068:(eds.).
10005:(eds.).
9931:(eds.).
9894:(1981).
9867:(eds.).
9800:(eds.).
9774:(2000).
9687:(eds.).
9637:(eds.).
9617:(1993).
9568:(1994).
9541:Archived
9499:Archived
9463:20 April
9457:Archived
9427:Archived
9415:. JSAI.
9310:Archived
9247:Archived
9208:Archived
8928:3 August
8922:Archived
6416:Archived
6385:Archived
6346:Archived
6300:Archived
6262:Archived
6169:Archived
6142:Archived
6014:Archived
5978:Archived
5811:See also
5636:Rashidun
5591:(12:3),
5471:Muawiyah
5264:Harfushs
5228:Ayyubids
5201:Crusades
5186:Uqaylids
5156:Fatimids
5151:Abbasids
5146:Umayyads
5129:al-Urdun
4923:Palistin
4857:Hittites
4850:Carthage
4797:Amorites
4657:frescoes
4641:Sasanian
4612:and the
4579:, begun
4573:Damascus
4499:or even
4482:caliph,
4446:Damascus
4108:denarius
4036:Military
3846:Khorasan
3810:In 744,
3760:Khurasan
3752:Sogdians
3708:Caucasus
3641:Anatolia
3557:Yazid II
3501:Narbonne
3431:Tashkent
3407:Sulayman
3377:Farghana
3369:Khwarazm
3353:Khurasan
3296:Hispania
3229:Arminiya
3184:Muhammad
3061:muqātila
3033:muqātila
2977:Mardaite
2961:Muhammad
2797:Kairouan
2793:Byzacena
2785:Ifriqiya
2772:Khurasan
2729:rule in
2684:and the
2666:Damascus
2657:Tiberias
2476:Damascus
2444:rulers.
2422:Mu'awiya
2410:Damascus
2369:Abu Bakr
2342:Muhammad
2318:Umayyads
2270:poll tax
2240:Abbasids
2224:Hispania
2208:Ifriqiya
2197:Damascus
2193:Marwan I
2173:Rashidun
2161:Muhammad
1993:Fujairah
1974:Al Thani
1884:Al Sabah
1773:Wituland
1708:896–1279
1664:Idrisids
1594:Qasimids
1574:Tahirids
1544:Usfurids
1534:Rasulids
1504:Zurayids
1468:968–1925
1454:Wajihids
1448:899–1077
1438:897–1962
1428:865–1066
1414:Yufirids
1408:819–1138
1404:Ziyadids
1398:751–1970
1339:Tahirids
1269:Abbadids
1249:Tujibids
1223:831–1091
1189:Idrisids
1173:756–1031
1153:710–1019
1149:Salihids
1114:Harfushs
1104:Turabays
1068:990–1081
1058:990–1096
1054:Uqaylids
1048:970–1107
1038:961–1150
1028:955–1071
1024:Rawadids
1018:890–1004
1008:869–1075
988:861–1538
974:Kaysites
968:854–1011
938:736–1122
903:909–1171
899:Fatimids
893:750–1258
889:Abbasids
879:Umayyads
869:Rashidun
834:Lakhmids
824:Salihids
302:Currency
116:Damascus
18:Sufyanid
15097:Jalilis
15091:Mamluks
15085:Shihabs
15061:Harfush
15025:Zengids
14923:Mashriq
14824:Nursing
14785:Qutbism
14699:Sikhism
14694:Judaism
14689:Jainism
14679:Druzism
14515:Physics
14462:Pottery
14447:Gardens
14442:Carpets
14357:Slavery
14279:Divorce
14266:Dhabiĥa
14094:Hygiene
14069:Takaful
14051:Banking
13981:Science
13975:Qurbani
13944:Mosques
13904:Animals
13893:Culture
13827:Nukkari
13822:Azzabas
13809:Azariqa
13793:Zaydism
13781:Alevism
13657:Ottoman
13647:Almohad
13642:Fatimid
13637:Córdoba
13632:Abbasid
13627:Umayyad
13560:Leaders
13555:History
13513:Shahada
13428:Beliefs
13309:largest
13304:Empires
13284:Swedish
13279:Spanish
13274:Russian
13237:Italian
13212:Chinese
13200:English
13195:British
13190:Belgian
13165:Vietnam
13155:Tay son
13101:Tsarist
13096:Russian
13091:Ottoman
13057:Dzungar
13052:Khoshut
13025:Mexican
13020:Maratha
13003:Pahlavi
12983:Safavid
12978:Iranian
12905:Haitian
12868:Chinese
12828:Ashanti
12800:Wagadou
12726:Eastern
12721:Western
12704:Timurid
12664:Tibetan
12654:Songhai
12644:Serbian
12565:Almohad
12555:Idrisid
12459:Samanid
12449:Tahirid
12444:Iranian
12422:Kannauj
12402:Genoese
12338:Chinese
12331:Eastern
12326:Western
12314:Fatimid
12309:Abbasid
12304:Umayyad
12277:Burmese
12237:Ayyubid
12232:Angevin
12202:Xianbei
12190:Eastern
12185:Western
12131:Magadha
12094:Iranian
12087:Xiongnu
12072:Hittite
11981:Chinese
11969:Kassite
11918:Ancient
11910:Empires
11799:Culture
11611:History
11597:Ibrahim
11572:Umar II
11542:Yazid I
11530:Caliphs
11056:(ed.).
11020:(ed.).
10972:Mif–Naz
10522:Mif–Naz
10014:San–Sze
9917:"Dīwān"
9646:Mif–Naz
9449:"Bible"
8848:1399963
5974:2600793
5920:').
5897::
5797:in the
5480:Modern
5455:Baghdad
5431:khilafa
5318:Lebanon
5289:Tripoli
5269:Shihabs
5259:Ma'nids
5254:Al-Azms
5233:Mamluks
5221:Tripoli
5206:Antioch
5196:Seljuks
5139:Thughūr
5083:Palmyra
5025:Nabatea
5010:Osroene
4998:Antioch
4950:Cilicia
4867:Alasiya
4830:Mitanni
4673:Emirate
4653:mosaics
4480:Umayyad
4454:Yazid I
4435:Melkite
4391:Umar II
4375:dhimmis
4341:Dhimmis
4210:removed
4195:sources
4159:shahada
4154:menorah
4126:drachma
4114:solidus
4045:Coinage
4026:Persian
3987:mawalis
3968:Córdoba
3957:Moorish
3949:Umar II
3896:Mukhtar
3887:Abbasid
3868:Abbasid
3819:Ibrahim
3720:Derbent
3716:Khazars
3706:In the
3681:Morocco
3666:at the
3585:Khazars
3541:khalifa
3469:Maslama
3447:Caspian
3381:Bukhara
3365:Bukhara
3328:al-Hind
3318:al-Hind
3274:Tangier
3270:Maghreb
3258:Hawwara
3083:Persian
3079:dirhams
3070:solidus
2818:Yazid I
2762:tribe,
2686:Kindite
2480:Dimashq
2456:Map of
2322:Quraysh
2297:Origins
2292:History
2248:emirate
2244:Córdoba
2238:by the
2236:toppled
2220:Maghreb
2148::
1933:Bahrain
1869:Al Said
1854:Al Saud
1843:Sharjah
1813:Morocco
1809:'Alawis
1748:Mombasa
1584:Jabrids
1524:Mahdids
1494:Uyunids
1458:926–965
1434:Rassids
1418:847–997
1359:Saadids
1349:Nasrids
1259:Amirids
1239:Bakrids
1229:Kanzids
1213:814–922
1203:800–909
1193:788–974
1183:771–793
1163:745-757
1124:Shihabs
1094:Ma'nids
998:864–928
994:Alavids
978:860–964
958:840–897
948:824–961
928:654–884
883:661–750
873:632–661
586:
273:•
260:•
247:History
222:(first)
109:Capital
85:Umar II
72:661–750
15073:Ridwan
15019:Burids
14925:region
14636:
14594:poetry
14404:
14289:Ethics
14273:Dhimmi
14232:Baligh
14193:Mahram
14150:Family
14130:Toilet
14110:Miswak
13863:Lahori
13846:Najdat
13742:Salafi
13692:Seerah
13687:Tafsir
13682:Hadith
13652:Sokoto
13597:Sahaba
13472:Angels
13449:Tawhid
13406:topics
13247:Mongol
13232:German
13227:French
13217:Danish
13160:Dainam
13135:Tongan
13123:Somali
13118:Sokoto
13084:'Alawi
13062:Kalmyk
13042:Mongol
13035:Second
13015:Korean
12966:Mughal
12956:Indian
12939:German
12932:Second
12922:French
12915:Second
12851:Second
12823:Afghan
12815:Modern
12741:Kyrgyz
12736:Uighur
12731:Second
12711:Turkic
12679:Toltec
12615:Epirus
12600:Nicaea
12523:Mongol
12476:Yamato
12412:Huetar
12270:Second
12207:Rouran
12156:Shunga
12151:Maurya
12126:Kushan
12099:Median
12077:Hunnic
12035:Harsha
11782:Dirham
11764:Mawali
11749:Shurta
11724:Caliph
11618:Uthman
11582:Hisham
11524:topics
11461:
11442:
11423:
11404:
11385:
11361:
11337:
11311:
11281:
11275:528934
11273:
11242:
11202:
11181:
11161:
11155:H–Iram
11142:&
11112:
11088:
11064:
11034:
11000:
10978:
10959:&
10929:
10910:&
10876:
10852:
10828:
10809:&
10785:&
10769:
10750:
10726:
10702:
10683:&
10652:
10628:
10604:
10578:
10547:
10528:
10509:&
10479:
10454:
10430:
10411:&
10380:
10356:
10335:
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