Tooth whitening - Knowledge

736:. Internal bleaching is often sought after in teeth which have been endodontically treated as tooth discolouration becomes a problem due to the lack of nerve supply to that tooth. It is common to have this internal bleaching done on an anterior tooth (a front tooth that you can see when smiling and talking). A way around this is by sealing off the bleaching agent inside the tooth itself and replacing it every few weeks until the desired shade has been achieved. The amount of time between appointments varies from patient to patient and with operator preference until the desired shade has been achieved. Even though this is a great option, the disadvantage of this treatment is a risk of internal root resorption of the tooth that is being internally bleached. This may not occur in every patient or every tooth, and its occurrence is difficult to determine prior to completing the treatment. 999:. Hydrogen peroxide with concentrations of 10% or higher can cause tissue damage, be corrosive to mucous membranes and cause burning sensation to the skin. Chemical burns can commonly occur whilst bleaching, irritation and discolouration of the mucous membranes may occur if a high concentration of oxidising agent comes in to contact with unprotected tissue. Poorly fitting bleaching trays are amongst the most common reasons for chemical burns. The temporary burning induced by whitening treatments can be reduced by using custom-made plastic trays or nightguards provided by the dental professional. This prevents the leakage of solution onto the surrounding 239:: neglected plaque will eventually calcify, and lead to the formation of a hard deposit on the teeth, especially around the gumline. The organic matrix of dental plaque and calcified tissues undergo a series of chemical and morphological changes that lead to calcification of the dental plaque and therefore leading to the formation of calculus. The color of calculus varies, and may be grey, yellow, black, or brown. The colour of calculus depends on how long it has been present in the oral cavity for; it typically starts off yellow and over time the calculus will begin to stain a darker colour and become more tenacious and difficult to remove. 723:, and their size prevents them from diffusing deeply into the tooth. When exposed to light, the catalysts produce a rapid, localized breakdown of hydrogen peroxide into highly reactive radicals. Due to the extremely short lifetimes of the free radicals, they are able to produce bleaching effects similar to much higher concentration bleaching agents within the outer layers of the teeth where the nanoparticle catalysts are located. This provides effective tooth whitening while reducing the required concentration of hydrogen peroxide and other reactive byproducts at the tooth pulp. 1207:(PAP) can be chosen as an effective vehicle for tooth whitening. PAP has proven to be almost harmless to enamel with a safe and reliable bleaching effect. In the clinical application of PAP for tooth whitening, oxidation reactions also occur, and color molecules are bleached through chemical-physical processes. However, the reaction occurs without the formation of free radicals. This is the major and decisive difference, as free radicals are the main cause of tooth sensitivity and gum irritation in tooth whitening with hydrogen peroxide-based bleaching agents. 600: 1329:

prosecuting illegal practice." A group of dental professionals and associations called The Tooth Whitening Information Group (TWIG) was founded to advance protected and beneficial tooth whitening information and assistance to the general population. Reports can be made to the TWIG through their website with respect to any individual giving unlawful tooth whitening services, or if an individual has personally undergone treatment done by a non-dental professional.

400:: Enamel hypoplasia causes enamel to be thin and weak. It produces a yellow-brown discolouration and can also cause the enamel's smooth surface to be rough and pitted which causes the tooth to be susceptible to extrinsic staining, tooth sensitivity, malocclusion, and dental cavities. The evidence regarding enamel hypoplasia is inconclusive, however the most likely cause is infection or trauma caused to the primary dentition. Disturbances to the developing 175: 571: 554: 692:. Use of light during bleaching increases the risk of tooth sensitivity and may not be any more effective than bleaching without light when high concentrations of hydrogen peroxide are used. A 2015 study showed that the use of a light activator does not improve bleaching, has no measurable effect, and rather is likely to increase the temperature of the associated tissues, resulting in damage. 1136:. The characteristics of bleachorexia are the continuous use of whitening products even though the teeth cannot possibly become whiter, despite the provision of repeated treatment. A person with bleachorexia will continually seek out for different whitening products, hence, it is recommended that a target shade is agreed upon before starting the treatment procedure to help with this problem. 420:: Dental fluorosis causes enamel to become opaque, chalky white, and porous. The enamel can break down and cause the exposed subsurface enamel to become mottled and produce extrinsic dark brown-black stains. Dental fluorosis occurs due to excessive ingestion of fluoride or overexposure to fluoride during the development of enamel which usually occurs between the ages of one to four. 532:, hand instruments, and potentially a prophy paste to remove extrinsic stains as mentioned above. This will allow a clean surface for maximum benefits of whichever tooth whitening method the patient chooses. Below will discuss the various types of tooth whitening methods including both internal application of bleaching and external application through the use of bleaching agents. 279:(antiseptic mouthwash) binds to tannins, meaning that prolonged use in persons who consume coffee, tea or red wine is associated with extrinsic staining (i.e. removable staining) of teeth. Chlorhexidine mouthwash has a natural liking for sulphate and acidic groups commonly found in areas where plaque accumulates such as along the gumline, on the dorsum of the 639:, or hydrogen peroxide itself. The bleaching gel typically contains between 10% and 44% carbamide peroxide, which is roughly equivalent to a 3% to 16% hydrogen peroxide concentration. The legal percentage of hydrogen peroxide allowed to be given is 0.1–6%. Bleaching agents are only allowed to be given by dental practitioners, 181:. Examples of tooth staining. Extrinsic staining examples: A. Smoking; B. Wine stain; and C. Food stain. Intrinsic staining examples: D. Age yellowing; E. Decay; F. Orthodontic white spot lesion; G. Mild fluorosis; H. Amalgam restoration; I. Tetracycline stain; J. Genetic (amelogenesis imperfecta); K. and non-vital colouring. 976:

to open. Exposure to cold, hot, or sweet stimuli may further exacerbate the intensity of the hypersensitive response. Amongst those who receive in-office whitening treatment, between 67 and 78% of the individuals experience sensitivity after the procedure where hydrogen peroxide and heat is utilized.

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as this has been found to contain the most effective wavelengths for initiating the hydrogen peroxide reaction. A power bleaching treatment typically involves isolation of soft tissue with a resin-based, light-curable barrier, application of a professional dental-grade hydrogen peroxide whitening gel

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bleaching can last for several months, but may vary depending on the lifestyle of the patient. Consuming tooth staining foods or drinks that have a strong colour may compromise effectiveness of the treatment. These include food and drinks containing tannins such as; coffee, tea, red wines, and curry.

414:: Pulpal hyperemia refers to inflammation of a traumatised tooth which can be caused by a stimuli such as trauma, thermal shock, or dental cavities. Pulpal hyperemia is reversible and produces a red hue seen initially after trauma which has the ability to disappear if the tooth becomes revascularized. 190:

Extrinsic staining, is largely due to environmental factors including smoking, pigments in beverages and foods, antibiotics, and metals such as iron or copper. Coloured compounds from these sources are adsorbed into acquired dental pellicle or directly onto the surface of the tooth causing a stain to

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at the surface; absorption and scattering of light within the dental tissues; enamel mineral content; enamel thickness; dentine colour, the human observer, the fatigue of the eye, the type of incident light, and the presence of extrinsic and intrinsic stains. Additionally, the perceived brightness of

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and break down the color molecules, resulting in the perception of a whiter tooth color. The downside is that these radicals have certain local harmful effects, such as enamel erosion, changes in the microhardness of the teeth, gum irritation, post-bleaching hypersensitivity, and burning sensations.

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Nearly half the initial change in colour provided by an intensive in-office treatment (i.e., one hour treatment in a dentist's chair) may be lost in seven days. Rebound is experienced when a large proportion of the tooth whitening has come from tooth dehydration (also a significant factor in causing

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The whitening shade guides are used to measure tooth colour. These shades determine the effectiveness of the whitening procedure, which may vary from two to seven shades. These shades may be reached after a single in office appointment, or may take longer, depending on the individual. The effects of

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Intrinsic staining primarily occurs during the tooth development either before birth or at early childhood. Intrinsic stains are those that cannot be removed through mechanical measures such as debridement or a prophylactic stain removal. As the age of the person increases, the teeth can also appear

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Metallic compounds. Exposure to such metallic compounds may be in the form of medication or occupational exposure. Examples include iron (black stain), iodine (black), copper (green), nickel (green), and cadmium (yellow-brown). Sources of exposure to metal include placing metal into the oral cavity,

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Teeth enamel can have an adverse negative effect by whitening treatment. Evidence from studies show that carbamide peroxide present in whitening gels can damage the enamel surface. Although this effect is not as damaging as phosphoric acid etch, the increased irregularity of the teeth surface makes

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For any whitening treatments, it is recommended that a comprehensive examination of the patient is done including the use of radiographs to aid in the diagnosis of the current condition of the mouth, including any allergies that may be present. The patient will need to have a healthy mouth and free

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Prior to proceeding to tooth whitening alternatives, it is advised that the patient comes into the dental office to have a comprehensive oral examination that consists of a full medical, dental, and social history. This will allow the clinician to see if there is any treatment that needs to be done

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when they become stained by foods, drinks, and smoking, as these products are only effective on natural tooth structure. As such, a shade mismatch may be created as the natural tooth surfaces increase in whiteness and the restorations stay the same shade. Whitening agents do not work where bonding

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Baking soda is a safe, low abrasive, and effective stain removal and tooth whitening toothpaste. Tooth whitening toothpaste that have excessive abrasivity are harmful to dental tissue, therefore baking soda is a desirable alternative. To date, clinical studies on baking soda report that there have

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In the late 1960s, Dr William Klusmeier, an Orthodontist from Fort Smith, Arkansas, introduced the custom tray bleaching. However, it was not until 1989 that Haywood and Heymann published an article in support of this method. Carbamide peroxide with a shelf life of one to two years, as opposed to

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Tray-based tooth whitening is achieved by wearing a fitted tray containing carbamide peroxide bleaching gel overnight or for two to four hours a day. If manufacturer's instructions are followed, tooth whitening can occur within three days and lighten teeth by one or two shades. This type of tooth

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to make their teeth look whiter. Pearly white teeth symbolized beauty and marked wealth. In the Auyrveda medicine system, oil pulling was used as an oral therapy. For this process today, swish coconut or olive oil in your mouth for up to 20 minutes each day. In the late 17th century, many people

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The use of personalised home whitening trays is a patient administered therapy that is prescribed and dispensed by a dentist. Patients need to actively participate in their treatment and follow the guidelines given by the dentist accurately. Erratic or inaccurate use of the bleaching trays could

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and tar in tobacco, combined with oxygen, turns yellow and over time will absorb into the pores of enamel and stain the teeth yellow. The dark brown to black stains along the gum line of the teeth are the result of the porous nature of calculus immediately picking up the stains from nicotine and

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and resin based fillings become weakened. Many studies have found that 10-16% carbamide peroxide tooth bleaching gels (containing approximately 3.6–5.76% hydrogen peroxide) leads to an increase in the surface roughness and porosity of composite resins. However, the saliva may exert a protective

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Whitening toothpastes differ from regular toothpastes in that they contain higher amounts of abrasives and detergents to be more effective at removing tougher stains. Some whitening toothpastes contain low concentrations of carbamide peroxide or hydrogen peroxide which help lighten tooth colour

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In the late 1920s, mouthwash containing pyrozone (ether peroxide) was found to reduce cavities while providing a whiter appearance to the teeth. By 1940s and 1950s, ether and hydrogen peroxide gels were used to whiten vital teeth, whereas non-vital teeth were whitened using pyrozone and sodium

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In-chair whitening is faster and more effective in comparison to the take-home bleaching options. Some clinicians also make custom bleaching trays, which can take up to a week to create. After the whitening treatment is completed, the patient is able to use these trays for maintenance of their

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Take special care during the first 2 days – the first 24–48 hours after the whitening procedure is seen as the most crucial period in which you must protect for your teeth the most. Hence, it is vital that non-staining drinks or foods are eaten during this time as enamel is prone to adhere to

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determine the intrinsic colour of teeth and because the enamel is relatively translucent, the dentinal properties can play a major role in determining the overall tooth colour. On the other hand, extrinsic stain and colour is the result of coloured regions that have formed within the acquired

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The plastic whitening strips contain a thin layer of peroxide gel and are shaped to fit the buccal/labial surfaces of teeth. Many different types of whitening strips are available on the market, after being introduced in the late 1980s. Specific whitening strip products have their own set of

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became concerned of the "risk to patient safety from poor quality tooth whitening being carried out by untrained or poorly trained staff." A public attitudes survey, conducted by the GDC, showed that 83% of people support "policies of regulating tooth whitening to protect patient safety and

428:, topical fluoride (fluoride toothpastes), and formula prescribed for children can increase the risk of dental fluorosis. Fluoride is considered an important factor in the management and prevention of dental cavities, the safe level for daily fluoride intake is 0.05 to 0.07 mg/kg/day. 748:' (OTC). At home whitening methods include over-the-counter strips and gels, whitening rinses, whitening toothpastes, and tray-based tooth whiteners. OTC products can be used for milder cases of tooth staining. Home-based bleaching (following manufacturer's instructions) results in less 1219:. Although cervical root resorption is more evidently observed in thermocatalytic bleaching methods, intracoronal internal bleaching may also lead to tooth root resorption. Moreover, severe damage to intracoronal dentine and tooth crown fracture can occur due to this bleaching method. 362:(tooth decay): The evidence regarding carious tooth discolouration is inconclusive, however the most reliable evidence suggests that carious lesion allows for exogenous agents to enter dentine and hence increased absorption of chromogenic agents causing discolouration to the tooth. 1226:

to humans. Recently, the genotoxic potential of hydrogen peroxide was evaluated. The results indicated that the oral health products that contain or release hydrogen peroxide up to 3.6% will not increase the cancerous risk of an individual, hence, it is safe to use in moderation.

307:. The abrasive nature of the prophy paste, as it is known, acts to remove extrinsic staining using the action of the slow-speed handpiece and the paste against the tooth. Adversely, the action of the rubber cup together with the abrasive nature of the paste, removes around one 4456:

SCCNFP (1999). Scientific Committee on Cosmetic Products and Non-Food Products intended for Consumers. Hydrogen peroxide and hydrogen peroxide releasing substances in oral health products. SCCNFP/0058/98. Summary on http://europa.eu.int/comm/food/fs/sc/sccp/out83_en.html and

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Whitening rinses work by reaction of the oxygen sources such as hydrogen peroxide within the rinse and the chromogens on or within the tooth. It is recommended to use twice a day, rinsing for one minute. To see an improvement in shade colour, it can take up to three months.

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Bleaching can deplete minerals from the teeth, leading to demineralization and the temporary breakdown of the protein pellicle (the protective layer of the tooth). This can result in more or less pronounced white spots, which usually normalize within days after treatment.

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Even during treatment, there is often very painful sensitivity to the bleaching agent. Freshly treated teeth can be sensitive to sweets, acids, and temperature, which can be quite painful. However, these symptoms are usually temporary and subside within a few days after

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Tooth discolouration and staining is primarily due to two sources of stain: intrinsic and extrinsic (see Figure 2). In essence, tooth whitening primarily targets those intrinsic stains in which cannot be removed through mechanics such as a debridement (clean) or

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Children under the age of 16. This is because the pulp chamber, or nerve of the tooth, is enlarged until this age. Tooth whitening under this condition could irritate the pulp or cause it to become sensitive. Younger people are also more susceptible to abusing

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Whitening pens are a convenient way to touch up any dental surface. The plastic, convenient, tube contains a bleaching gel that can be easily applied in hard-to-reach spots. In order to work, the gel needs to stay on the tooth surface for around 20–30 minutes.

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The long-term effects of higher concentration bleaching agents (>6% H₂O₂ or equivalent) on the pulp, dentin, enamel, and oral soft tissues are not yet clarified. These bleaching agents are potentially harmful and should be used with caution only in dental

92:. In the spaces between the inorganic salts in tooth enamel, these unstable free radicals attach to organic pigment molecules resulting in small, less heavily pigmented components. Reflecting less light, these smaller molecules create a "whitening effect". 1339:

According to research, tooth whitening can produce positive changes in young participants’ Oral Health Related Quality of Life (OHRQoL) in aesthetic areas such as smiling, laughing, and showing teeth without embarrassment. However, its main side-effect,

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instructions however the strips are typically applied twice daily for 30 minutes for 14 days. In several days, tooth colour can lighten by 1 or 2 shades. The tooth whitening endpoint does depend on the frequency of use and ingredients of the product.

474:. The drug is able to chelate calcium ions and is incorporated into teeth, cartilage, and bone. Ingestion during the years of tooth development causes yellow-green discoloration of dentine visible through the enamel which is fluorescent under 1277:

reached out to barbers, who used a file to file down the teeth before applying an acid that would, in fact, whiten the teeth. Although the procedure was successful, the teeth would become completely eroded and more prone to becoming decayed.

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Internal bleaching is a process which occurs after a tooth has been endodontically treated. This means that the tooth will have had the nerve of the tooth extirpated or removed through a root canal treatment at the dentist or by a specialist

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effect. In addition, changes in the reflectance of the composite have been analysed following whitening with high concentration (30-35%) hydrogen peroxide. This suggests that tooth whitening negatively impacts composite resin restorations.

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Wang, Y; Gao, J; Jiang, T; Liang, S; Zhou, Y; Matis, BA (August 2015). "Evaluation of the efficacy of potassium nitrate and sodium fluoride as desensitising agents during tooth bleaching treatment-A systematic review and meta-analysis".

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damage is present on a patient's teeth, and whitening is ineffective (tetracycline staining may require prolonged bleaching, as it takes longer for the bleach to reach the dentine layer), there are other methods of masking the stain.

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are an alternative to hydrogen peroxide and also contribute to the breakdown of pigment molecules. There are different products available on the market to remove stains. For whitening treatment to be successful, dental professionals

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the teeth more susceptible to extrinsic staining, thus having an increased detrimental effect on the aesthetics. The increased porosity and changes in surface roughness may have an impact on the formation of supra- and subgingival

317:: allows a dental professional to make use of an instrument which emits a powder, water and compressed air to remove biofilm, and extrinsic staining. This stain removal method can only be undertaken in a dental office, not at home. 888:

Tooth decay. White-spot decalcification may be highlighted and become more noticeable directly following a whitening process, but with further applications the other parts of the teeth usually become more white and the spots less

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Depending on the method used to whiten the teeth, re-treatment every six months or after a year may be required. If an individual is a smoker or they consume beverages with the capacity to stain, regular re-treatments would be

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species. Prolonged dental plaque accumulation on the tooth surface can lead to enamel demineralisation and formation of white spot lesions which appear as an opaque milk-coloured lesion. The acidic by-products of fermentable

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Intracoronal bleaching is a tooth whitening method that uses 30% more hydrogen peroxide. Such tooth whitening methods can weaken the mechanical properties of dentine and could potentially lead to severe tooth sensitivity.

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Delgado, E; Hernández-Cott, PL; Stewart, B; Collins, M; De Vizio, W (2007). "Tooth-whitening efficacy of custom tray-delivered 9% hydrogen peroxide and 20% carbamide peroxide during daytime use: A 14-day clinical trial".

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Whitening gels are applied onto the tooth surface with a small brush. The gels contain peroxide and are recommended to be applied twice a day for 14 days. The tooth whitening endpoint like that of the whitening strips.

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Power or light-accelerated bleaching uses light energy which is intended to accelerate the process of bleaching in a dental office. Different types of energy can be used in this procedure, with the most common being

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Over-bleaching, more often known as the "bleached effect", occurs among treatments that promise a large change over a short period of time e.g., hours. Over-bleaching can emit a translucent and brittle appearance.

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The combination of intrinsic colour and the presence of extrinsic stains on the tooth surface influence the colour and thus the overall appearance of teeth. The scattering of light and absorption within enamel and

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Tannin is also present in coffee, tea, and red wine and produces a chromogenic agent that can discolor teeth. Large consumptions of tannin-containing beverages stain the dental enamel brown due to the chromogenic

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to determine the nature and depth of possible irregularities. If this is not completed prior to the whitening agents being applied to the tooth surface, excessive sensitivity and other complications may occur.

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The in-office bleaching treatment of vital teeth did not show improvement with the use of light activator sources for the purpose of accelerating the process of the bleaching gel and achieving better results.

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Mozhgan Bizhang, Julia Domin, Gholamreza Danesh, Stefan Zimmer (2017), "Effectiveness of a new non-hydrogen peroxide bleaching agent after single use - a double-blind placebo-controlled short-term study",

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chewing. Betel chewing produces blood-red saliva that stains the teeth red-brown to nearly black. The extract gel of betel leaf contain tannin, a chromogenic agent that causes discolouration of the tooth

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Kothari, Siddharth; Gray, Andrew R.; Lyons, Karl; Tan, Xin Wen; Brunton, Paul A. (2019-05-01). "Vital bleaching and oral-health-related quality of life in adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis".

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such as restorations to remove cavities, and to assess whether or not the patient will be a good candidate to have the whitening done. The clinician would then debride (clean) the tooth surface with an

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from the mother caused by an incompatibility between the mother and baby's blood. This condition can produce green staining of teeth due to jaundice, which is an inability to excrete bilirubin properly.

456:, there are 14 different subtypes and can vary from the appearance of hypoplasia to hypomineralisation which can produce different appearances of enamel from white mottling to yellow brown appearances. 287:

metal-containing dust inhalation, or oral administration of drugs. Metals can enter the bony structure of the tooth, causing permanent discolouration, or can bind to the pellicle causing surface stain.

356:. As enamel wears down, dentine becomes more apparent and chromogenic agents are penetrated in the tooth more easily. The natural production of secondary dentine also gradually darkens teeth with age. 117:

The perception of tooth colour is multi-factorial. Reflection and absorption of light by the tooth can be influenced by a number of factors including specular transmission of light through the tooth;

210:, and it occurs due to the normal development and defences of the immune system. Although usually virtually invisible on the tooth surface, plaque may become stained by chromogenic bacteria such as 700:(25–38% hydrogen peroxide), and exposure to the light source for 6–15 minutes. Recent technical advances have minimized heat and UV emissions, allowing for a shorter patient preparation procedure. 1324:

guidelines, only a certified dental professional can lawfully give tooth whitening products utilizing 0.1–6% hydrogen peroxide, provided the patient is 18 years of age or older. In 2010, the UK

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Bleaching is least effective when the original tooth color is grayish and may require custom bleaching trays. Bleaching is most effective with yellow discolored teeth. If heavy staining or

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He, LB; Shao, MY; Tan, K; Xu, X; Li, JY (August 2012). "The effects of light on bleaching and tooth sensitivity during in-office vital bleaching: a systematic review and meta-analysis".

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Despite achieving the results of treatment, stains can return within an initial couple of months of treatment. Various methods may be employed to prolong the treatment results, such as:

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of the teeth and the surrounding soft tissue. Inconsistent use of the bleaching trays can lead to the slowing and irregularity of the whitening process. Some patients with a substantial

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been no reported adverse effects. It also contains acid-buffering components that makes baking soda biologically antibacterial at high concentrations and capable of preventing growth of

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Haywood, Van & Houck, V.M. & Heymann, H.O.. (1991). Nightguard vital bleaching: Effects of various solutions on enamel surface texture and color. Quintessence Int. 22. 775–782.

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Uneven results are quite common after bleaching. Consuming less foods and drinks that cause surface staining of teeth can contribute to attaining a good result from tooth whitening.

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in toothpastes are used to ease discomfort following bleaching, however, there is no evidence to suggest that this is a permanent method to eradicate the issue of hypersensitivity.

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Llena, Carmen; Villanueva, Alvaro; Mejias, Elena; Forner, Leopoldo (January 2020). "Bleaching efficacy of at home 16% carbamide peroxide. A long-term clinical follow-up study".

1336:, all whitening items are classed as cosmetics (Degree II). There are worries that this will increase abuse of whitening products and thus there have been calls for reanalysis. 3490:

Leonard, R. H.; Haywood, V. B.; Phillips, C. (August 1997). "Risk factors for developing tooth sensitivity and gingival irritation associated with nightguard vital bleaching".

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Rotstein, I; Mor, C; Arwaz, JR (1997). "Changes in surface levels of mercury, silver, tin, and copper of dental amalgam treated with carbamide peroxide and hydrogen peroxide

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It is recommended to avoid smoking, drinking red wine, eating or drinking any deeply coloured foods after this as the teeth may stain considerably straight after treatment.

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Attin, Thomas; Hannig, Christian; Wiegand, Annette; Attin, Rengin (November 2004). "Effect of bleaching on restorative materials and restorations--a systematic review".

2954: 41:. Whitening is often desirable when teeth become yellowed over time for a number of reasons, and can be achieved by changing the intrinsic or extrinsic color of the 3955: 327:, to help remove extrinsic stains, while the peroxide acts on intrinsic staining. This method of stain removal may take place at home as well as in a dental office. 695:

The ideal source of energy should be high energy to excite the peroxide molecules without overheating the pulp of the tooth. Lights are typically within the

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suggested the following to whiten the teeth: "Clean the teeth gently with a mixture of honey and burnt salt to which some vinegar has been added." In 1877,

303:: dental prophylaxis includes the removal of extrinsic staining using a slow-speed rotary handpiece and a rubber cup with abrasive paste, mostly containing 171:, in the dental office. Below explains in-depth the differences between the two sources of which contribute to such discolouration of the tooth's surface. 1132:

Bleachorexia is the term that is used to describe an individual that develops an unhealthy obsession with teeth whitening. This condition is similar to

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Some of the common side effects involved in teeth whitening are increased sensitivity of the teeth, gum irritation, and extrinsic teeth discolouration.

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in dental plaque. Higher consumption of fermentable carbohydrates will promote demineralisation and increase the risk of developing white spot lesions.

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However, the International Agency of Research on Cancer (IARC) has concluded that there is insufficient evidence to prove that hydrogen peroxide is a

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A recent addition to the field is new light-accelerated bleaching agents containing lower concentrations of hydrogen peroxide with a titanium oxide

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and cavities. Chlorhexidine is retained in these areas and stain yellow-brown. The stains are not permanent and can be removed with proper brushing.

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Sánchez, AR; Rogers RS, 3rd; Sheridan, PJ (October 2004). "Tetracycline and other tetracycline-derivative staining of the teeth and oral cavity".

442:, which causes the tooth to become discoloured usually blue or brown in colour and translucent giving teeth an opalescent sheen. The condition is 3877:

Hummert, TW; Osborne, JW; Norling, BK; Cardenas, HL (1993). "Mercury in solution following exposure of various amalgams to carbamide peroxides".

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Bortolatto, J. F.; Pretel, H.; Floros, M. C.; Luizzi, A. C. C.; Dantas, A. a. R.; Fernandez, E.; Moncada, G.; Oliveira, O. B. de (2014-07-01).

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Teeth whitening remedies have been present since ancient times. Despite seeming absurd, some methods were somewhat effective in their results.

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Tooth whitening may be undertaken for a variety of reasons, but whitening may also be recommended to some individuals by dental professionals.

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Eachempati, Prashanti; Kumbargere Nagraj, Sumanth; Kiran Kumar Krishanappa, Salian; Gupta, Puneet; Yaylali, Ibrahim Ethem (18 December 2018).

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of enamel from the tooth surface every time a prophylaxis is performed. This method of stain removal may only take place in the dental office.

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Kugel, G; Ferreira, S; Sharma, S; Barker, ML; Gerlach, RW (2009). "Clinical trial assessing light enhancement of in-office tooth whitening".

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Goldberg, Michel; Grootveld, Martin; Lynch, Edward (February 2010). "Undesirable and adverse effects of tooth-whitening products: a review".

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With increasing age, teeth tend to be darker in shade. This can be attributed to secondary dentin formation and thinning of enamel due to

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which contributes to a significant decrease in lightness and increase in yellowness. Tooth shade is not influenced by gender or race.

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Azer, SS; Machado, C; Sanchez, E; Rashid, R (2009). "Effect of home bleaching systems on enamel nanohardness and elastic modulus".

1169:-based bleaching agents are always associated with Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS). The free radicals diffuse through the enamel and 659:, which also masks tooth stains, is when a thin coating of composite material is applied to the front of a person's teeth and then 80:. Hydrogen peroxide is analogous to carbamide peroxide as it is released when the stable complex is in contact with water. When it 4522: 4495: 4468: 1314: 4297: 4969: 4949: 4589: 4532: 4505: 4478: 4129:"Newer Technique of Extra-Coronal Bleaching with Sodium Perborate on Non-Pitted Fluorosis Stains in Permanent Anterior Teeth" 4044: 3773: 2618: 2233: 2094:

Kumar, Arun; Kumar, Vijay; Singh, Janardhan; Hooda, Anita; Dutta, Samir (2011-09-13). "Drug-Induced Discoloration of Teeth".

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has been used and neither is it effective on tooth-colored filling materials. Other options to deal with such cases are the

5046: 4765: 1309:. In excess of 100 million Americans brighten their teeth using different methods; spending $ 15 billion in 2010. The US 135:

pellicle on the enamel surface and can be influenced by lifestyle behaviours or habits. For example, dietary intake of

2249: 504:: Root resorption is clinically asymptomatic; however, it can produce a pink appearance at the amelocemental junction. 2172: 704:

of periodontal disease or cavities and to have had a debridement/clean done to remove any tartar or plaque build up.

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Some groups are advised to carry out tooth whitening with caution as they may be at higher risk of adverse effects.

76:) is the active ingredient most commonly used in whitening products and is delivered as either hydrogen peroxide or 4974: 4959: 4800: 4795: 4255: 491: 478:. Later, the tetracycline is oxidized and the staining becomes more brown and no longer fluoresces under UV light. 5020: 4549: 17: 5025: 4805: 1194:

Bleaching can weaken the tooth structure. Internal bleaching can lead to tooth brittleness and root resorption.

2429:

Fejerskov, O.; Manji, F.; Baelum, V. (February 1990). "The Nature and Mechanisms of Dental Fluorosis in Man".

587:

Before the treatment, the clinician should examine the patient: taking a health and dental history (including

5109: 323:: there are many available on the market that implement both peroxide as well as abrasive particles, such as 1297:

hydrogen peroxide with a shelf life one to two months, was seen as a more stable agent for whitening teeth.

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and sensitivities), observe hard and soft tissues, placement and conditions of restorations, and sometimes

977:

Although it varies from person to person, sensitivity after whitening treatment can last up to 4–39 days.

917:, or dental gold. However, it can slightly affect restorations made with composite materials, cements and 109:. Time exposure and the concentration of the bleaching compound, determines the tooth whitening endpoint. 4964: 4266: 1897:

Zander, Helmut A.; Hazen, Stanley P.; Scott, David B. (1960-02-01). "Mineralization of Dental Calculus".

809:

Baking soda might be useful for cavities-prone patients, as well as those who wish to have whiter teeth.

253:

products) tends to form a yellow-brown-black stain around the necks of the teeth above the gumline. The

4954: 4126: 1664: 1107:. This increase in amalgam mercury release is proportional to the concentration of carbamide peroxide. 5071: 4984: 4430: 1265: 1188: 467: 431: 2921: 1561:

Joiner, A.; Hopkinson, I.; Deng, Y.; Westland, S. (2008). "A review of tooth colour and whiteness".

4903: 4277: 1153:

may not be able to tolerate the trays and would need to consider other methods of teeth whitening.

1133: 963: 632: 380:

also penetrate dentine tubules with tin over time therefore causing dark stains to the tooth.

4335:

Mauro Pascolutti, Dileusa de Oliveira (2021-12-09), "A Radical-Free Approach to Teeth Whitening",

4000: 2705:"Tooth discolouration and staining: Tooth discolouration and staining: a review of the literature" 4989: 4758: 1313:

only endorses gels that are under 6% hydrogen peroxide or 16% or less of carbamide peroxide. The

1146: 449: 439: 2145: 5078: 4979: 4672: 4577: 3761: 1325: 1048: 1020:

sensitivity). As the tooth rehydrates, tooth colour "rebounds", back toward where it started.

4192: 2608: 1981: 4850: 4782: 4432: 4059: 2544: 2223: 1812: 796:

whitening is available over-the-counter and professionally from an oral health professional.

745: 246: 3388:

Nathanson, D.; Parra, C. (July 1987). "Bleaching vital teeth: a review and clinical study".

1743:"Dental plaque as a biofilm and a microbial community – implications for health and disease" 1088:– aggressive bleaching can chemically react with ceramic crowns and reduce their stability. 905:

Persons with visible white fillings or crowns. Tooth whitening does not change the color of

4830: 3791: 2040: 1286: 1121: 1103:

release for one to two days. The release of amalgam components is said to be due to active

1044: 972:

levels in the tooth whitening procedure may lead to hypersensitive teeth, as it causes the

425: 405: 369: 223: 3716:"Influence of bleaching agents and desensitizing varnishes on the water content of dentin" 2053: 2028: 8: 5015: 5005: 4928: 4845: 4815: 3423:

Cohen, S. C. (May 1979). "Human pulpal response to bleaching procedures on vital teeth".

1603:"Differences in tooth shade value according to age, gender and skin color: A pilot study" 1092: 918: 784: 696: 660: 620: 612: 391: 377: 118: 106: 2044: 5056: 4893: 4865: 4855: 4835: 4751: 4729: 4363: 4220: 3634: 3282: 3261: 3242: 3169: 3140: 3116: 3083: 3081: 3006: 2973: 2895: 2868: 2781: 2589: 2532: 2462: 2406: 2373: 2127: 1930: 1874: 1839: 1777: 1742: 1715: 1690: 1637: 1602: 1451: 1430: 1353: 1306: 1096: 1078: 1058: 876: 664: 443: 421: 353: 168: 122: 77: 4127:

Ruchi Singhal, Ritu Namdev, Parul Singhal, Nisha Rajput, Saurabh Narang (2022-03-01),

3855: 3576: 3466: 3436: 1997: 1081:

are susceptible to unacceptable colour change even when using the home-based systems.

1061:

are susceptible to unacceptable colour change even when using the home-based systems.

4883: 4721: 4713: 4585: 4528: 4501: 4474: 4413: 4368: 4350: 4315: 4236: 4225: 4207: 4169: 4152: 4144: 4109: 4101: 4040: 3982: 3936: 3928: 3886: 3859: 3808: 3769: 3737: 3696: 3669: 3665: 3626: 3618: 3580: 3543: 3507: 3499: 3448: 3440: 3405: 3397: 3335: 3287: 3224: 3174: 3156: 3121: 3103: 3057: 3049: 3011: 2993: 2900: 2849: 2814: 2786: 2734: 2726: 2665: 2657: 2614: 2581: 2577: 2524: 2520: 2454: 2446: 2411: 2393: 2354: 2346: 2319: 2311: 2229: 2191: 2168: 2119: 2111: 2058: 2009: 2001: 1960: 1922: 1914: 1879: 1861: 1818: 1782: 1764: 1720: 1642: 1624: 1578: 1538: 1498: 1456: 1341: 1166: 1150: 1124:

and other cements – studies suggest that solubility of these materials may increase.

1100: 1085: 980: 749: 710: 636: 529: 511: 475: 397: 349: 250: 236: 221:

derived from high-sugar foods contribute to greater proportions of bacteria, such as

52: 4733: 4470:

High Heels and Bound Feet: And Other Essays on Everyday Anthropology, Second Edition

4027:

Greenwall, Linda (2017-04-11), "Tooth Sensitivity Associated with Tooth Whitening",

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Swift, EJ Jr; Perdigão, J (1998). "Effects of bleaching on teeth and restorations".

3956:"Tooth Whitening/Bleaching:Treatment Considerations for Dentists and Their Patients" 3330: 3313: 3045: 2536: 2480: 2466: 1934: 1601:

Veeraganta, SumanthK; Savadi, RavindraC; Baroudi, Kusai; Nassani, MohammadZ (2015).

787:). With continuity of use over time, tooth colour can lighten by one or two shades. 5083: 4898: 4705: 4403: 4358: 4340: 4215: 4199: 4136: 4093: 4032: 3920: 3851: 3800: 3727: 3661: 3638: 3610: 3572: 3535: 3432: 3325: 3277: 3269: 3214: 3164: 3148: 3111: 3099: 3095: 3041: 3001: 2985: 2890: 2880: 2841: 2776: 2768: 2753: 2716: 2647: 2593: 2573: 2516: 2438: 2401: 2385: 2301: 2131: 2103: 2048: 1993: 1906: 1869: 1851: 1772: 1754: 1710: 1702: 1632: 1614: 1570: 1530: 1490: 1446: 1438: 1321: 973: 644: 640: 417: 272:

Certain foods, including curries and tomato-based sauces, can cause teeth staining.

98: 5061: 4923: 4918: 3924: 1954: 1278: 1110: 1000: 984: 922: 906: 501: 365: 359: 85: 4709: 4203: 3804: 3539: 3353: 3273: 3152: 2845: 2372:

Baik, Un-Bong; Kim, Hoon; Chae, Hwa-Sung; Myung, Ji-Yun; Chun, Youn-Sic (2017).

1706: 1574: 1494: 1442: 4933: 4913: 4908: 4875: 4840: 4825: 4408: 4391: 3219: 3202: 2442: 2389: 1910: 1759: 1534: 1216: 939: 720: 656: 376:

and phenolic compounds, contain pigment that stain dentine. Restorations using

140: 126:

the tooth can change depending on the brightness and colour of the background.

4431:

WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION INTERNATIONAL AGENCY FOR RESEARCH ON CANCER (1999).

4140: 3614: 3561:

Li, Y (1996). "Biological properties of peroxide-containing tooth whiteners".

2974:"Low Concentration H2O2/TiO_N in Office Bleaching A Randomized Clinical Trial" 2684: 5103: 4888: 4860: 4717: 4354: 4295: 4211: 4148: 4105: 4036: 3932: 3622: 3503: 3444: 3401: 3160: 3107: 3053: 2997: 2989: 2885: 2730: 2661: 2450: 2397: 2350: 2315: 2115: 2107: 2062: 2005: 1918: 1865: 1856: 1768: 1628: 1619: 1039: 681: 624: 515: 494:: This disease occurs when a newborn's red blood cells are being attacked by 484:: A rare metabolic disorder in which the body fails to adequately metabolise 387: 383: 345: 276: 229: 195: 174: 148: 89: 4128: 2337:

Seow, W. K. (1991). "Enamel hypoplasia in the primary dentition: a review".

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in the body and may cause brown colour pigmentation in the teeth, gums, and

5088: 4820: 4810: 4725: 4417: 4372: 4229: 4156: 4113: 3940: 3812: 3741: 3700: 3673: 3630: 3547: 3339: 3291: 3228: 3178: 3125: 3061: 3015: 2904: 2853: 2818: 2790: 2738: 2721: 2704: 2669: 2652: 2635: 2585: 2528: 2415: 2323: 2306: 2289: 2165:

Oral and maxillofacial medicine : the basis of diagnosis and treatment

2123: 1926: 1883: 1786: 1724: 1646: 1582: 1542: 1502: 1460: 1358: 1114: 996: 870: 716: 651: 507: 459: 453: 218: 42: 3986: 3890: 3863: 3584: 3511: 3409: 2458: 2358: 2013: 1305:

Teeth whitening has become the most promoted and mentioned methodology in

5051: 4790: 4521:

Bonitz, Michael; Lopez, Jose; Becker, Kurt; Thomsen, Hauke (2014-04-09).

3452: 1481:

Joiner, Andrew; Luo, Wen (2017). "Tooth colour and whiteness: A review".

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and aging: Tooth wear is a progressive loss of enamel and dentine due to

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http://europa.eu.int/comm/food/fs/sc/sccp/out89_en.html(read 2002.31.10)

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Betke, H; Kahler, E; Reitz, A; Hartmann, G; Lennon, A; Attin, T (2006).

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Kugel, G; Ferreira, S (2005). "The art and science of tooth whitening".

3084:"Home-based chemically-induced whitening (bleaching) of teeth in adults" 4097: 2772: 2029:"Effect of betel leaf extract gel on color change in the dental enamel" 1838:

Srivastava, Kamna; Tikku, Tripti; Khanna, Rohit; Sachan, Kiran (2013).

1223: 689: 401: 341: 337:

yellower over time. Below are examples of intrinsic sources of stains:

324: 320: 155: 4524:

Complex Plasmas: Scientific Challenges and Technological Opportunities

4345: 1317:

of the EU consider gels containing higher fixations can be dangerous.

4774: 4334: 1273: 935: 926: 910: 560: 485: 481: 411: 296:

Extrinsic staining may be removed through various treatment methods:

81: 46: 671:

bleaching with at-home kits or for use with desensitising products.

570: 105:) should correctly diagnose the type, intensity and location of the 3467:"Clinical Trial of Three 10% Carbamide Peroxide Bleaching Products" 2803: 2167:(3rd ed.). Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone. pp. 39, 41. 1840:"Risk factors and management of white spot lesions in orthodontics" 553: 495: 452:: The appearance of amelogenesis imperfecta depends on the type of 435: 304: 254: 203: 3732: 3715: 2935:

Sun, Grace (2000). "Lasers and Light Amplification in Dentistry".

1817:(7th ed.). Elsevier Health Sciences APAC. pp. 386, 387. 711:

Nanoparticle catalysts for reduced hydrogen peroxide concentration

394:. Alternatively the tooth may become darker without pulp necrosis. 2564:

Good, ML; Hussey, DL (August 2003). "Minocycline: stain devil?".

2222:

Chi AC, Damm DD, Neville BW, Allen CA, Bouquot J (11 June 2008).

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At home tooth whitening products are available from dentists or '

616: 588: 373: 242: 207: 199: 144: 102: 4665:"Public Attitudes to Tooth Whitening Regulations (Presentation)" 1899:

Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine

1198: 2290:"Tooth discolouration and staining: a review of the literature" 1333: 1170: 623:(the tips of the gums between the teeth) to reduce the risk of 592: 470:, and its derivative minocycline is common in the treatment of 408:, infection, and medication intake can cause enamel hypoplasia. 308: 280: 136: 131: 4298:"Tooth-Whitening with a Novel Phthalimido Peroxy Caproic Acid" 1600: 4392:"Tooth Bleaching—a Critical Review of the Biological Aspects" 3876: 1269: 1239:

Brush or flush out mouth with water after eating and drinking

1104: 577: 261: 4743: 4296:

Stefan Stübinger, Stefanie Altenried, Qun Ren (2024-06-10).

2971: 2754:"Alkaptonuric ochronosis: Report of a case and brief review" 1042:, thus increasing the adhesion of bacterial species such as 404:

during neonatal and early childhood stages such as maternal

4083: 3953: 2869:"The effect of light-activation sources on tooth bleaching" 2027:

Hoppy, D; Noerdin, A; Irawan, B; Soufyan, A (August 2018).

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that naturally forms in the mouth, particularly along the

3651: 2751: 2026: 1156: 1014: 685: 4520: 3788: 3713: 2922:"UTCAT2638, Found CAT view, CRITICALLY APPRAISED TOPICs" 2506: 1215:

Evidence suggests that hydrogen peroxide might act as a

510:: Metabolic disorder which promotes the accumulation of 3910: 3203:"Stain removal and whitening by baking soda dentifrice" 2481:"Dental fluorosis: Exposure, prevention and management" 969: 576:

VITA classical A1-D4 shade guide arranged according to

559:

VITA classical A1-D4 shade guide arranged according to

4527:. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 465. 3600: 3489: 3311: 3314:"Over-the-counter whitening agents: a concise review" 2955:"Lodi Dentist Improves In-Office Whitening Treatment" 2689:. National Center for Biotechnology Information (US). 1810: 1242:

Floss to remove plaque and biofilms between the teeth

603:

In office tooth whitening with laser light activation

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Drink fluids that may cause staining through a straw

909:

and other restorative materials. It does not affect

4694: 3032:SARRETT, DAVID C. (2002). "Tooth whitening today". 2221: 1521:Kihn, Patricia W. (2007). "Vital Tooth Whitening". 1073: 580:; A: red-brown, B: red-yellow, C: grey, D: red-grey 3492:Quintessence International (Berlin, Germany: 1985) 3375:Advanced Operative Dentistry, A Practical Approach 2752:Pratibha, K.; Seenappa, T.; Ranganath, K. (2007). 2633: 2606: 2374:"Teeth discoloration during orthodontic treatment" 2081:Basic Guide to Oral Health Education and Promotion 615:protective layer that is carefully painted on the 446:which means that the condition runs in the family. 3524: 990: 5101: 3844:Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod 3837: 3596: 3594: 2636:"The management of porphyria in dental practice" 2371: 2192:"Extrinsic stains and management: A new insight" 1896: 1145:cause harm to the patient such as blistering or 291: 4396:Critical Reviews in Oral Biology & Medicine 3755: 3753: 3751: 3312:Demarco, FF; Meireles, SS; Masotti, AS (2009). 1952: 1806: 1804: 1802: 1800: 1798: 1796: 611:In-office bleaching procedures generally use a 386:which may cause staining either as a result of 49:within or on the tooth is termed as bleaching. 4611:"Library Authentication - La Trobe University" 4497:Tooth Whitening: An Evidence-Based Perspective 4198:, vol. 25, no. 5, pp. 575–584, 4135:, vol. 46, no. 2, pp. 112–118, 3954:American Dental Association (November 2010) . 3387: 3307: 3305: 3303: 3301: 3207:The Journal of the American Dental Association 3034:The Journal of the American Dental Association 2502: 2500: 2217: 2215: 2213: 2211: 1986:Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology 674: 161: 4759: 4547: 4086:Journal of Esthetic and Restorative Dentistry 3972: 3686: 3654:Journal of Esthetic and Restorative Dentistry 3591: 3145:The Journal of Evidence-based Dental Practice 2866: 1948: 1946: 1944: 1695:The Journal of Evidence-Based Dental Practice 1435:The Journal of Evidence-Based Dental Practice 1199:Peroxycarboxylic Acids-Based Bleaching Agents 1139: 249:in the smoke from tobacco products (and also 84:into the tooth, hydrogen peroxide acts as an 4389: 4320:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 4241:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 4196:Journal of applied oral science: Revista FOB 4174:: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of June 2024 ( 3748: 2228:. Elsevier Health Sciences. pp. 70–74. 1811:Rajendran A; Sundaram S (10 February 2014). 1793: 921:. Tooth whitening will not restore color of 4575: 4178:) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 4133:The Journal of Clinical Pediatric Dentistry 3759: 3689:Journal of the Massachusetts Dental Society 3298: 3088:The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2831: 2634:R. R. Welbury; Brown, G. J. (August 2002). 2549:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list ( 2497: 2208: 1174:The following side effects are also known: 4766: 4752: 2867:Baroudi, Kusai; Hassan, Nadia Aly (2015). 2563: 2156: 1941: 37:is the process of lightening the color of 4407: 4362: 4344: 4339:, vol. 9, no. 12, p. 148, 4219: 4026: 3731: 3329: 3281: 3218: 3168: 3115: 3005: 2894: 2884: 2780: 2720: 2702: 2651: 2613:. 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(2016-12-01). 3031: 2761:Indian Journal of Clinical Biochemistry 2610:Oral Pathology for the Dental Hygienist 1607:Journal of Indian Prosthodontic Society 1315:Scientific Committee on Consumer Safety 14: 5102: 4659: 4657: 4605: 4603: 4601: 4022: 4020: 3906: 3904: 3902: 3900: 3833: 3831: 3196: 3194: 3192: 3190: 3188: 3077: 3075: 3073: 3071: 3027: 3025: 2860: 2825: 2607:Ibsen OAC; Phelan JA (14 April 2014). 2339:ASDC Journal of Dentistry for Children 2283: 2281: 2279: 2277: 2275: 2273: 2271: 2269: 2186: 2184: 2078: 1979: 1956:Scully's Medical Problems in Dentistry 1662: 1344:, negatively affects quality of life. 1300: 1157:Specific ingredient-based side effects 1015:Return to original pre-treatment shade 855:Patients with unrealistic expectations 27:Process to lighten the colour of teeth 4970:Canadian Association of Orthodontists 4950:American Association of Orthodontists 4747: 4385: 4383: 4381: 3422: 3259: 3138: 2928: 2698: 2696: 2074: 2072: 2033:Journal of Physics: Conference Series 1982:"Betel: Consumption and consequences" 1740: 1688: 1658: 1656: 1596: 1594: 1592: 1428: 1424: 1422: 1420: 1418: 1416: 1414: 1412: 1410: 1408: 1406: 1404: 1402: 1400: 1398: 1396: 1394: 995:Hydrogen peroxide is an irritant and 968:The use of bleach with extremely low 726: 331: 185: 88:that breaks down to produce unstable 5047:Outline of dentistry and oral health 4566: 3372: 2682: 2509:International Journal of Dermatology 2336: 1736: 1734: 1556: 1554: 1552: 1520: 1516: 1514: 1512: 1476: 1474: 1472: 1470: 1392: 1390: 1388: 1386: 1384: 1382: 1380: 1378: 1376: 1374: 846: 783:however they do not contain bleach ( 4654: 4640: 4627: 4598: 4249: 4017: 3897: 3828: 3262:"Tooth Whitening: What we now know" 3185: 3141:"Tooth Whitening: What We Now Know" 3068: 3022: 2947: 2934: 2807:Puerto Rico Health Sciences Journal 2266: 2181: 1814:Shafer's Textbook of Oral Pathology 1691:"Tooth Whitening: What We Now Know" 1431:"Tooth Whitening: What We Now Know" 1064: 1032: 957: 667:can also mask tooth discoloration. 24: 4637:New York: Springboard Press, p.95. 4548:Vernon-Sparks, Lisa (2010-11-15). 4378: 3560: 3483: 3200: 2693: 2566:The British Journal of Dermatology 2378:The Korean Journal of Orthodontics 2288:Watts, A.; Addy, M. (2001-03-01). 2069: 1653: 1589: 945:Individuals with poor oral hygiene 755: 151:can darken the colour of a tooth. 45:. The chemical degradation of the 25: 5121: 3960:ADA Council on Scientific Affairs 3554: 3377:. Churchill Livingstone Elsevier. 1731: 1682: 1549: 1509: 1467: 1371: 1191:can be supported by special gels. 1023: 1006: 434:: Dentinogenesis imperfecta is a 4975:Dental Technologists Association 4960:British Dental Health Foundation 4801:Oral and maxillofacial radiology 4796:Oral and maxillofacial pathology 4576:Freedman GA (15 December 2011). 4283:at implantatzentrum-hannover.de 3760:Freedman GA (15 December 2011). 3666:10.1111/j.1708-8240.2009.00287.x 2703:Watts, A; Addy, M (2001-03-24). 2686:Hemolytic disease of the newborn 2578:10.1046/j.1365-2133.2003.05497.x 2521:10.1111/j.1365-4632.2004.02108.x 2225:Oral and Maxillofacial Pathology 1953:Crispian Scully (21 July 2014). 1074:Effects on existing restorations 631:. The bleaching agent is either 569: 552: 492:Hemolytic disease of the newborn 438:dentine defect, associated with 112: 4688: 4615:login.ez.library.latrobe.edu.au 4582:Contemporary Esthetic Dentistry 4541: 4514: 4487: 4460: 4450: 4424: 4328: 4289: 4271: 4186: 4120: 4077: 4052: 4031:, CRC Press, pp. 295–306, 3993: 3966: 3947: 3870: 3819: 3782: 3766:Contemporary Esthetic Dentistry 3707: 3680: 3645: 3459: 3416: 3381: 3366: 3346: 3331:10.1590/s1806-83242009000500010 3253: 3235: 3139:Carey, Clifton M. (June 2014). 3132: 3046:10.14219/jada.archive.2002.0085 2965: 2937:Dental Clinics of North America 2914: 2797: 2745: 2676: 2627: 2473: 2422: 2365: 2330: 2242: 2138: 2087: 2054:10.1088/1742-6596/1073/3/032028 2020: 1980:Norton, Scott A. (1998-01-01). 1973: 1959:. Elsevier Health Sciences UK. 1890: 1831: 1741:Marsh, Philip D. (2006-07-10). 1523:Dental Clinics of North America 1429:Carey, Clifton M. (June 2014). 1127: 4806:Oral and maxillofacial surgery 4550:"A history of tooth-whitening" 4494:Perdigão, Jorge (2016-08-03). 4473:. Waveland Press. p. 72. 3100:10.1002/14651858.CD006202.pub2 1844:Journal of Orthodontic Science 1663:Bernie, Kristy Menage (2011). 1230: 1210: 991:Irritation of mucous membranes 821: 799: 777: 13: 1: 4773: 3856:10.1016/s1079-2104(97)90154-2 3577:10.1016/s0278-6915(96)00044-0 3437:10.1016/S0099-2399(79)80033-3 2146:"Top 10 teeth-staining foods" 1998:10.1016/S0190-9622(98)70543-2 1689:Carey, Clifton (2019-03-14). 1364: 895:Untreated periodontal disease 885:Defective dental restorations 790: 292:Removal of extrinsic staining 275:Certain topical medications: 5067:History of dental treatments 4584:. Elsevier Health Sciences. 4285:(Error: unknown archive URL) 4263:(Error: unknown archive URL) 3925:10.1016/j.dental.2004.04.002 3768:. Elsevier Health Sciences. 3603:Clinical Oral Investigations 3564:Food and Chemical Toxicology 3396:(7): 490–492, 494, 496–497. 3354:"Tooth Whitening Treatments" 1311:Food and Drug Administration 1053:significant contributors to 861:Pre-existing sensitive teeth 535: 7: 4965:British Orthodontic Society 4710:10.1016/j.jdent.2019.03.007 4267:FDI World Dental Federation 4204:10.1590/1678-7757-2016-0463 3805:10.1016/j.jdent.2008.11.005 3540:10.1016/j.jdent.2015.03.015 3274:10.1016/j.jebdp.2014.02.006 3243:"Tooth Whitening Treatment" 3153:10.1016/j.jebdp.2014.02.006 2846:10.1016/j.jdent.2012.04.010 1707:10.1016/j.jebdp.2014.02.006 1575:10.1016/j.jdent.2008.02.001 1495:10.1016/j.jdent.2017.09.006 1443:10.1016/j.jebdp.2014.02.006 1347: 898:Pregnant or lactating women 892:Active periapical pathology 675:Light-accelerated bleaching 198:: Dental plaque is a clear 162:Staining and discolouration 10: 5126: 4955:British Dental Association 4409:10.1177/154411130301400406 4029:Tooth Whitening Techniques 3220:10.1016/j.adaj.2017.09.006 2978:Journal of Dental Research 2443:10.1177/00220345900690s135 2431:Journal of Dental Research 2390:10.4041/kjod.2017.47.5.334 1911:10.3181/00379727-103-25479 1760:10.1186/1472-6831-6-S1-S14 1535:10.1016/j.cden.2006.12.001 1257: 1203:Bleaching agents based on 1140:Home teeth whitening risks 961: 867:Enamel development defects 752:than in-office bleaching. 739: 522: 422:Fluoridated drinking water 368:The materials used during 5034: 4998: 4985:Indian Dental Association 4942: 4874: 4781: 4500:. Springer. p. 170. 4141:10.17796/1053-4625-46.2.4 3615:10.1007/s00784-009-0302-4 3390:Compendium (Newtown, Pa.) 864:Cracks or exposed dentine 768: 468:broad-spectrum antibiotic 432:Dentinogenesis imperfecta 4904:Scaling and root planing 4265:(PDF) Stellungnahme der 4037:10.1201/9781315365503-20 3975:Compend Contin Educ Dent 2990:10.1177/0022034514537466 2886:10.4103/0300-1652.140316 2873:Nigerian Medical Journal 2250:"Antibiotic Prophylaxis" 2108:10.1177/0009922811421000 1857:10.4103/2278-0203.115081 1665:"Professional whitening" 1620:10.4103/0972-4052.155035 1134:body dysmorphic disorder 1113:– bond strength between 964:Dentine hypersensitivity 949: 830:Intrinsic tooth staining 123:diffuse light reflection 4990:National Health Service 4633:Krupp, Charla. (2008). 4578:"Chapter 14: Bleaching" 4143:(inactive 2024-06-22), 3762:"Chapter 14: Bleaching" 3318:Brazilian Oral Research 3266:J Evid Based Dent Pract 2083:. Hoboken : Wiley. 812: 450:Amelogenesis imperfecta 440:osteogenesis imperfecta 5079:Infant oral mutilation 4980:General Dental Council 4673:General Dental Council 3425:Journal of Endodontics 2722:10.1038/sj.bdj.4800959 2709:British Dental Journal 2653:10.1038/sj.bdj.4801507 2640:British Dental Journal 2307:10.1038/sj.bdj.4800959 2294:British Dental Journal 2079:Felton, Simon (2013). 1326:General Dental Council 1266:Ancient Roman dentists 1205:peroxycarboxylic acids 1049:Streptococcus sobrinus 604: 366:Restorative materials: 182: 4851:Restorative dentistry 4261:at fdiworldental.org 842:Tetracycline staining 807:Streptococcus mutans. 663:with a blue light. A 602: 370:root canal treatments 177: 5110:Dentistry procedures 4831:Dental public health 4698:Journal of Dentistry 4635:How Not To Look Old. 3792:Journal of Dentistry 3528:Journal of Dentistry 2984:(7 suppl): 66S–71S. 2834:Journal of Dentistry 2683:Dean, Laura (2005). 2437:(2_suppl): 692–700. 1563:Journal of Dentistry 1483:Journal of Dentistry 1287:calcium hypochlorite 1045:Streptococcus mutans 466:. Tetracycline is a 426:fluoride supplements 406:vitamin D deficiency 224:Streptococcus mutans 107:tooth discolouration 4929:Socket preservation 4861:Dental traumatology 4856:Forensic odontology 4846:Geriatric dentistry 4841:Dental implantology 4816:Pediatric dentistry 3720:Operative Dentistry 3201:Li, Yiming (2017). 3147:. 14 Suppl: 70–76. 2096:Clinical Pediatrics 2045:2018JPhCS1073c2028H 1437:. 14 Suppl: 70–76. 1301:Society and culture 1099:solutions increase 1079:Dental restorations 1059:Dental restorations 858:Allergy to peroxide 785:sodium hypochlorite 697:blue light spectrum 392:internal resorption 119:specular reflection 5057:Dental instruments 4894:Root canal therapy 4866:Holistic dentistry 4836:Cosmetic dentistry 4676:. 12 December 2010 4098:10.1111/jerd.12560 3324:(Suppl 1): 64–70. 3268:. 14 Suppl: 70–6. 3260:Carey, CM (2014). 3249:. 18 January 2023. 2773:10.1007/BF02913337 1354:Gum depigmentation 1307:cosmetic dentistry 1268:believed in using 1097:carbamide peroxide 879:) and yellow roots 877:gingival recession 727:Internal bleaching 633:carbamide peroxide 605: 444:autosomal dominant 332:Intrinsic staining 186:Extrinsic staining 183: 139:-rich foods, poor 78:carbamide peroxide 5097: 5096: 4884:Dental extraction 4648:"Tooth Whitening" 4591:978-0-323-08823-7 4554:The Seattle Times 4534:978-3-319-05437-7 4507:978-3-319-38849-6 4480:978-1-4786-3841-4 4346:10.3390/dj9120148 4337:Dentistry Journal 4060:"Teeth whitening" 4046:978-1-315-36550-3 4001:"Teeth Whitening" 3775:978-0-323-08823-7 3373:Ricketts, David. 3040:(11): 1535–1538. 2620:978-0-323-29130-9 2235:978-1-4377-2197-3 2163:Scully C (2013). 1966:978-0-7020-5963-6 1824:978-81-312-3800-4 1569:(Suppl 1): S2-7. 1342:tooth sensitivity 1167:Hydrogen peroxide 981:Potassium nitrate 847:Contraindications 750:tooth sensitivity 645:dental hygienists 641:dental therapists 637:hydrogen peroxide 530:ultrasonic scaler 512:homogentisic acid 476:ultraviolet light 398:Enamel hypoplasia 251:smokeless tobacco 53:Hydrogen peroxide 16:(Redirected from 5117: 5084:Mouth assessment 4899:Root end surgery 4768: 4761: 4754: 4745: 4744: 4738: 4737: 4692: 4686: 4685: 4683: 4681: 4669: 4661: 4652: 4651: 4644: 4638: 4631: 4625: 4624: 4622: 4621: 4607: 4596: 4595: 4573: 4564: 4563: 4561: 4560: 4545: 4539: 4538: 4518: 4512: 4511: 4491: 4485: 4484: 4464: 4458: 4454: 4448: 4447: 4437: 4428: 4422: 4421: 4411: 4387: 4376: 4375: 4366: 4348: 4332: 4326: 4325: 4319: 4311: 4309: 4308: 4293: 4287: 4286: 4282: 4275: 4269: 4264: 4260: 4253: 4247: 4246: 4240: 4232: 4223: 4190: 4184: 4183: 4173: 4165: 4164: 4163: 4124: 4118: 4117: 4081: 4075: 4074: 4072: 4071: 4056: 4050: 4049: 4024: 4015: 4014: 4012: 4011: 3997: 3991: 3990: 3970: 3964: 3963: 3951: 3945: 3944: 3913:Dental Materials 3908: 3895: 3894: 3874: 3868: 3867: 3835: 3826: 3823: 3817: 3816: 3786: 3780: 3779: 3757: 3746: 3745: 3735: 3711: 3705: 3704: 3684: 3678: 3677: 3649: 3643: 3642: 3598: 3589: 3588: 3558: 3552: 3551: 3522: 3516: 3515: 3487: 3481: 3480: 3478: 3477: 3463: 3457: 3456: 3420: 3414: 3413: 3385: 3379: 3378: 3370: 3364: 3363: 3361: 3360: 3350: 3344: 3343: 3333: 3309: 3296: 3295: 3285: 3257: 3251: 3250: 3239: 3233: 3232: 3222: 3198: 3183: 3182: 3172: 3136: 3130: 3129: 3119: 3094:(12): CD006202. 3079: 3066: 3065: 3029: 3020: 3019: 3009: 2969: 2963: 2962: 2951: 2945: 2944: 2932: 2926: 2925: 2918: 2912: 2911: 2898: 2888: 2864: 2858: 2857: 2829: 2823: 2822: 2801: 2795: 2794: 2784: 2758: 2749: 2743: 2742: 2724: 2700: 2691: 2690: 2680: 2674: 2673: 2655: 2631: 2625: 2624: 2604: 2598: 2597: 2561: 2555: 2554: 2548: 2540: 2504: 2495: 2494: 2492: 2491: 2477: 2471: 2470: 2426: 2420: 2419: 2409: 2369: 2363: 2362: 2334: 2328: 2327: 2309: 2285: 2264: 2263: 2261: 2260: 2246: 2240: 2239: 2219: 2206: 2205: 2203: 2202: 2188: 2179: 2178: 2160: 2154: 2153: 2142: 2136: 2135: 2091: 2085: 2084: 2076: 2067: 2066: 2056: 2024: 2018: 2017: 1977: 1971: 1970: 1950: 1939: 1938: 1894: 1888: 1887: 1877: 1859: 1835: 1829: 1828: 1808: 1791: 1790: 1780: 1762: 1738: 1729: 1728: 1718: 1686: 1680: 1679: 1669: 1660: 1651: 1650: 1640: 1622: 1598: 1587: 1586: 1558: 1547: 1546: 1518: 1507: 1506: 1478: 1465: 1464: 1454: 1426: 1322:European Council 1189:Remineralization 1065:Weakened dentine 1033:Damage to enamel 974:dentinal tubules 958:Hypersensitivity 836:Dental fluorosis 746:over the counter 573: 556: 412:Pulpal hyperemia 121:at the surface; 99:dental hygienist 75: 74: 73: 65: 64: 21: 5125: 5124: 5120: 5119: 5118: 5116: 5115: 5114: 5100: 5099: 5098: 5093: 5062:Dental material 5030: 4994: 4938: 4924:Tooth bleaching 4919:Tooth polishing 4870: 4777: 4772: 4742: 4741: 4693: 4689: 4679: 4677: 4667: 4663: 4662: 4655: 4646: 4645: 4641: 4632: 4628: 4619: 4617: 4609: 4608: 4599: 4592: 4574: 4567: 4558: 4556: 4546: 4542: 4535: 4519: 4515: 4508: 4492: 4488: 4481: 4465: 4461: 4455: 4451: 4435: 4429: 4425: 4388: 4379: 4333: 4329: 4313: 4312: 4306: 4304: 4294: 4290: 4284: 4280: 4276: 4272: 4262: 4258: 4254: 4250: 4234: 4233: 4191: 4187: 4167: 4166: 4161: 4159: 4125: 4121: 4082: 4078: 4069: 4067: 4058: 4057: 4053: 4047: 4025: 4018: 4009: 4007: 3999: 3998: 3994: 3971: 3967: 3952: 3948: 3909: 3898: 3875: 3871: 3836: 3829: 3824: 3820: 3787: 3783: 3776: 3758: 3749: 3712: 3708: 3685: 3681: 3650: 3646: 3599: 3592: 3559: 3555: 3523: 3519: 3488: 3484: 3475: 3473: 3465: 3464: 3460: 3421: 3417: 3386: 3382: 3371: 3367: 3358: 3356: 3352: 3351: 3347: 3310: 3299: 3258: 3254: 3247:Take Home Smile 3241: 3240: 3236: 3213:(11): S20–S26. 3199: 3186: 3137: 3133: 3080: 3069: 3030: 3023: 2970: 2966: 2953: 2952: 2948: 2933: 2929: 2920: 2919: 2915: 2865: 2861: 2830: 2826: 2802: 2798: 2756: 2750: 2746: 2701: 2694: 2681: 2677: 2632: 2628: 2621: 2605: 2601: 2562: 2558: 2542: 2541: 2505: 2498: 2489: 2487: 2479: 2478: 2474: 2427: 2423: 2370: 2366: 2335: 2331: 2286: 2267: 2258: 2256: 2248: 2247: 2243: 2236: 2220: 2209: 2200: 2198: 2190: 2189: 2182: 2175: 2161: 2157: 2144: 2143: 2139: 2092: 2088: 2077: 2070: 2025: 2021: 1978: 1974: 1967: 1951: 1942: 1895: 1891: 1836: 1832: 1825: 1809: 1794: 1747:BMC Oral Health 1739: 1732: 1687: 1683: 1667: 1661: 1654: 1599: 1590: 1559: 1550: 1519: 1510: 1479: 1468: 1427: 1372: 1367: 1350: 1303: 1279:Guy de Chauliac 1260: 1233: 1217:tumour promoter 1213: 1201: 1164: 1159: 1142: 1130: 1111:Resin composite 1076: 1067: 1055:dental cavities 1035: 1026: 1017: 1009: 993: 985:sodium fluoride 966: 960: 952: 919:dental amalgams 875:Receding gums ( 849: 824: 815: 802: 793: 780: 771: 758: 756:Strips and gels 742: 729: 713: 677: 585: 584: 583: 582: 581: 574: 565: 564: 563: 557: 548: 547: 538: 525: 502:Root resorption 360:Dental cavities 334: 294: 188: 164: 115: 86:oxidising agent 72: 69: 68: 67: 63: 60: 59: 58: 56: 35:tooth bleaching 31:Tooth whitening 28: 23: 22: 18:Teeth whitening 15: 12: 11: 5: 5123: 5113: 5112: 5095: 5094: 5092: 5091: 5086: 5081: 5076: 5075: 5074: 5064: 5059: 5054: 5049: 5044: 5038: 5036: 5032: 5031: 5029: 5028: 5023: 5021:United Kingdom 5018: 5013: 5008: 5002: 5000: 4996: 4995: 4993: 4992: 4987: 4982: 4977: 4972: 4967: 4962: 4957: 4952: 4946: 4944: 4940: 4939: 4937: 4936: 4934:Dental implant 4931: 4926: 4921: 4916: 4914:Dental bonding 4911: 4909:Teeth cleaning 4906: 4901: 4896: 4891: 4886: 4880: 4878: 4876:Dental surgery 4872: 4871: 4869: 4868: 4863: 4858: 4853: 4848: 4843: 4838: 4833: 4828: 4826:Prosthodontics 4823: 4818: 4813: 4808: 4803: 4798: 4793: 4787: 4785: 4779: 4778: 4771: 4770: 4763: 4756: 4748: 4740: 4739: 4687: 4653: 4639: 4626: 4597: 4590: 4565: 4540: 4533: 4513: 4506: 4486: 4479: 4459: 4449: 4423: 4402:(4): 292–304. 4377: 4327: 4288: 4281:(Date missing) 4270: 4259:(Date missing) 4248: 4185: 4119: 4076: 4051: 4045: 4016: 3992: 3981:(8): 815–820. 3965: 3946: 3919:(9): 852–861. 3896: 3885:(6): 305–309. 3869: 3850:(4): 506–509. 3827: 3818: 3781: 3774: 3747: 3706: 3679: 3644: 3590: 3571:(9): 887–904. 3553: 3517: 3498:(8): 527–534. 3482: 3471:www.cda-adc.ca 3458: 3431:(5): 134–138. 3415: 3380: 3365: 3345: 3297: 3252: 3234: 3184: 3131: 3067: 3021: 2964: 2946: 2927: 2913: 2859: 2824: 2796: 2767:(2): 158–161. 2744: 2715:(6): 309–316. 2692: 2675: 2646:(3): 145–146. 2626: 2619: 2599: 2556: 2515:(10): 709–15. 2496: 2472: 2421: 2384:(5): 334–339. 2364: 2345:(6): 441–452. 2329: 2300:(6): 309–316. 2265: 2241: 2234: 2207: 2180: 2173: 2155: 2150:www.bupa.co.uk 2137: 2102:(2): 181–185. 2086: 2068: 2019: 1972: 1965: 1940: 1905:(2): 257–260. 1889: 1830: 1823: 1792: 1730: 1681: 1652: 1613:(2): 138–141. 1588: 1548: 1529:(2): 319–331. 1508: 1466: 1369: 1368: 1366: 1363: 1362: 1361: 1356: 1349: 1346: 1302: 1299: 1259: 1256: 1255: 1254: 1250: 1247: 1243: 1240: 1232: 1229: 1212: 1209: 1200: 1197: 1196: 1195: 1192: 1184: 1180: 1163: 1160: 1158: 1155: 1141: 1138: 1129: 1126: 1095:– exposure to 1075: 1072: 1066: 1063: 1034: 1031: 1025: 1024:Over-bleaching 1022: 1016: 1013: 1008: 1007:Uneven results 1005: 992: 989: 962:Main article: 959: 956: 951: 948: 947: 946: 943: 940:dental bonding 903: 899: 896: 893: 890: 886: 883: 882:Sensitive gums 880: 873: 868: 865: 862: 859: 856: 848: 845: 844: 843: 840: 837: 834: 831: 823: 820: 814: 811: 801: 798: 792: 789: 779: 776: 770: 767: 757: 754: 741: 738: 728: 725: 721:photocatalysts 712: 709: 676: 673: 625:chemical burns 575: 568: 567: 566: 558: 551: 550: 549: 546:. Shade guides 542: 541: 540: 539: 537: 534: 524: 521: 520: 519: 505: 499: 489: 479: 457: 447: 429: 415: 409: 395: 381: 363: 357: 333: 330: 329: 328: 318: 315:Micro-abrasion 312: 293: 290: 289: 288: 284: 273: 270: 266: 259: 240: 234: 187: 184: 163: 160: 141:tooth brushing 114: 111: 70: 61: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5122: 5111: 5108: 5107: 5105: 5090: 5087: 5085: 5082: 5080: 5077: 5073: 5070: 5069: 5068: 5065: 5063: 5060: 5058: 5055: 5053: 5050: 5048: 5045: 5043: 5040: 5039: 5037: 5033: 5027: 5026:United States 5024: 5022: 5019: 5017: 5014: 5012: 5009: 5007: 5004: 5003: 5001: 4997: 4991: 4988: 4986: 4983: 4981: 4978: 4976: 4973: 4971: 4968: 4966: 4963: 4961: 4958: 4956: 4953: 4951: 4948: 4947: 4945: 4943:Organisations 4941: 4935: 4932: 4930: 4927: 4925: 4922: 4920: 4917: 4915: 4912: 4910: 4907: 4905: 4902: 4900: 4897: 4895: 4892: 4890: 4889:Tooth filling 4887: 4885: 4882: 4881: 4879: 4877: 4873: 4867: 4864: 4862: 4859: 4857: 4854: 4852: 4849: 4847: 4844: 4842: 4839: 4837: 4834: 4832: 4829: 4827: 4824: 4822: 4819: 4817: 4814: 4812: 4809: 4807: 4804: 4802: 4799: 4797: 4794: 4792: 4789: 4788: 4786: 4784: 4780: 4776: 4769: 4764: 4762: 4757: 4755: 4750: 4749: 4746: 4735: 4731: 4727: 4723: 4719: 4715: 4711: 4707: 4703: 4699: 4691: 4675: 4674: 4666: 4660: 4658: 4650:. 8 Dec 2014. 4649: 4643: 4636: 4630: 4616: 4612: 4606: 4604: 4602: 4593: 4587: 4583: 4579: 4572: 4570: 4555: 4551: 4544: 4536: 4530: 4526: 4525: 4517: 4509: 4503: 4499: 4498: 4490: 4482: 4476: 4472: 4471: 4463: 4453: 4445: 4441: 4434: 4427: 4419: 4415: 4410: 4405: 4401: 4397: 4393: 4386: 4384: 4382: 4374: 4370: 4365: 4360: 4356: 4352: 4347: 4342: 4338: 4331: 4323: 4317: 4303: 4299: 4292: 4279: 4274: 4268: 4257: 4252: 4244: 4238: 4231: 4227: 4222: 4217: 4213: 4209: 4205: 4201: 4197: 4189: 4181: 4177: 4171: 4158: 4154: 4150: 4146: 4142: 4138: 4134: 4130: 4123: 4115: 4111: 4107: 4103: 4099: 4095: 4091: 4087: 4080: 4065: 4061: 4055: 4048: 4042: 4038: 4034: 4030: 4023: 4021: 4006: 4002: 3996: 3988: 3984: 3980: 3976: 3969: 3961: 3957: 3950: 3942: 3938: 3934: 3930: 3926: 3922: 3918: 3914: 3907: 3905: 3903: 3901: 3892: 3888: 3884: 3880: 3873: 3865: 3861: 3857: 3853: 3849: 3845: 3841: 3834: 3832: 3822: 3814: 3810: 3806: 3802: 3799:(3): 185–90. 3798: 3794: 3793: 3785: 3777: 3771: 3767: 3763: 3756: 3754: 3752: 3743: 3739: 3734: 3733:10.2341/05-89 3729: 3726:(5): 536–42. 3725: 3721: 3717: 3710: 3702: 3698: 3694: 3690: 3683: 3675: 3671: 3667: 3663: 3660:(5): 336–47. 3659: 3655: 3648: 3640: 3636: 3632: 3628: 3624: 3620: 3616: 3612: 3608: 3604: 3597: 3595: 3586: 3582: 3578: 3574: 3570: 3566: 3565: 3557: 3549: 3545: 3541: 3537: 3534:(8): 913–23. 3533: 3529: 3521: 3513: 3509: 3505: 3501: 3497: 3493: 3486: 3472: 3468: 3462: 3454: 3450: 3446: 3442: 3438: 3434: 3430: 3426: 3419: 3411: 3407: 3403: 3399: 3395: 3391: 3384: 3376: 3369: 3355: 3349: 3341: 3337: 3332: 3327: 3323: 3319: 3315: 3308: 3306: 3304: 3302: 3293: 3289: 3284: 3279: 3275: 3271: 3267: 3263: 3256: 3248: 3244: 3238: 3230: 3226: 3221: 3216: 3212: 3208: 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