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entirely concessions from the
Chinese side with no reciprocity of provisions on the British side - for instance, Britain received the right to establish consulates in treaty ports that held the right to an audience with local officials, an option denied to China should it have hypothetically wanted to send its own formal diplomatic missions to Britain. The one-sided nature of this treaty as a list of concessions, alongside the sovereignty ceded with the terms granting extraterritoriality and joint Sino-British determination of tariff, would earn the Nanking Treaty and similar settlements that followed the name, "unequal treaty," from Chinese nationalists in later centuries.
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conflicted with the Qing over control of trade along Qing frontiers. Failing to achieve results with a complete trade ban, the Qing arranged a treaty with Kokand that granted
Kokandis “the right to live, trade, and levy taxes appoint consuls with extraterritorial jurisdiction over their compatriots in China,” alongside an indemnity. The precedent set by the treaty with Kokand made the Nanking Treaty palpable enough that the Qing did not immediately regard this settlement as a disastrous capitulation.
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825:(until 1943), where foreign merchants were to be allowed to trade with anyone they wished. Britain also gained the right to send consuls to the treaty ports, which were given the right to communicate directly with local Chinese officials (Article II). The treaty stipulated that trade in the treaty ports should be subject to fixed tariffs, which were to be agreed upon between the British and the Qing governments (Article X).
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friendship—filled a glass of wine, held the picture in front of his face, muttered some words in a low voice, drank the wine, again placed the picture on his head and then sat down" to complete the ceremony of long-term amity between the two families and the two peoples. This extravagant display has been analysed as showing an "erotically charged ... reciprocity this symbolic gesture of swapping images of wives.
1357:, p. 271. (London: Allen Lane, 2007) "Under the 1842 Treaty of Nanking, five 'treaty ports' were opened to Western trade, Hong Kong island was ceded to the British, the Europeans were allowed to station consuls in the open ports, and the old Canton system was replaced by the freedom to trade and the promise that no more than 5 per cent duty would be charged on foreign imports."
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The stipulation of legal equality in diplomatic proceedings between
Britain and China ended the centuries-long Sinocentric tributary system of interstate relations that placed China atop a formal hierarchy in its interactions with other states. Despite this stipulation, the treaty's contents featured
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The Treaty itself contained no provision for the legalization of the opium trade. Stephen R. Platt writes that such a term would have provided the opponents of Lord
Palmerston, who headed the Conservative government that launched the war, with a seeming confirmation for their claim that the war was
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in
February 1840. The Foreign Office was aware that preparing a treaty containing Chinese and English characters would need special consideration. Given the distance separating the countries, the parties realised that some flexibility and a departure from established procedure in preparing treaties
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status, and were conceded by the ruling Qing dynasty in order to avert continued military defeats and under the hope that most favoured nation provision would set the foreigners against each other. Although China regained tariff autonomy in the 1920s, extraterritoriality was not formally abolished
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His
Majesty the Emperor of China cedes to Her Majesty the Queen of Great Britain, &c., the Island of Hong-Kong, to be possessed in perpetuity by Her Britannic Majesty, Her Heirs and Successors, and to be governed by such Laws and Regulations as Her Majesty the Queen of Great Britain, &c.,
1041:, and the different officers seated themselves all round the table, making plenty of guests. Almost directly after the Treaty was signed, a yellow flag for China at the main and a Union Jack for England at the mizen were hoisted, and at the same time a royal salute of twenty-one guns was fired.
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Interestingly, Joanna Waley-Cohen writes that, at the time of its signing, the Qing did not regard the treaty as “of major significance.” According to Waley-Cohen, the Treaty of
Nanking’s terms remarkably resembled another treaty signed with the central Asian state of Kokand, which had also
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celebrating the ratification, Keying insisted they ceremonially exchange miniature portraits of each member of each other's families. Upon receiving a miniature portrait of
Pottinger's wife, Pottinger wrote that Keying "placed on his head—which I am told is the highest token of respect and
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for the cost of the war (Article VI). The total sum of 21 million dollars was to be paid in instalments over three years and the Qing government would be charged an annual interest rate of 5 percent for the money that was not paid in a timely manner (Article VII).
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Because of the brevity of the Treaty of
Nanking and its terms being phrased only as general stipulations, the British and Chinese representatives agreed that a supplementary treaty should be concluded to establish more detailed regulations for relations. On
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There were four copies of the Treaty signed and sealed. They were bound in worked yellow silk, one Treaty in
English and the same in Chinese stitched and bound together formed a copy. This being finished they all came out of the after-cabin and sat down to
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with the Americans in 1844 explicitly banned Americans from selling opium, the trade continued as both the British and American merchants were only subject to the legal control of their permissive consuls. The opium traffic was later legalised in the
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provisions and freeing the importation of British opium which continued to have social and economic consequences for the Chinese people. These terms were imposed by the British and extended to other Western powers with
959:, in the Chinese version of the treaty), to provide British traders with a harbour where they could "careen and refit their ships and keep stores for that purpose" (Article III). Pottinger was later appointed the first
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as created in 1760. These treaties created a new framework for China's foreign relations and overseas trade, which would last for almost a hundred years and marked the start of what later nationalists called China's
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865:, as well as not to interfere with China trade generally, after the emperor had given his assent to the treaty and the first instalment of money had been received (Article XII). British troops would remain in
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fought to support the opium trade. Instead, Palmerston asked his negotiators to request the Chinese to legalize the sale of opium on their own initiative, outside of the treaty’s terms, which they refused.
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The Qing government undertook to release all British prisoners of war (Article VIII), and to give a general amnesty to all Chinese subjects who had cooperated with the British during the war (Article IX).
1370:, p. 431. (London: Allen Lane, 2007) "In 1943 the remnants of China's unequal treaties were at last swept away when the British abandoned their surviving privileges there as so much useless lumber."
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Nevertheless, the treaties of 1842–43 left several unsettled issues. In particular they did not resolve the status of the opium traffic in favour of the British Empire. Although the
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in 1839 (Article IV), 3 million dollars in compensation for debts that the merchants in Canton owed British merchants (Article V), and a further 12 million dollars in
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R. Derek Wood, 'The Treaty of Nanking: Form and the Foreign Office, 1842–1843', Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History (London) 24 (May 1996), 181–196
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on 26 June 1843. The treaty required the Chinese to pay an indemnity, to cede the Island of Hong Kong to the British as a colony, to essentially end the
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and auctioned to merchants, who then sold it to Chinese who smuggled it into China (Chinese law forbade the importation and sale of opium). When
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with China. Britain could offer nothing to China to match the growing importation of Chinese goods to Britain, such as tea and porcelain. In
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Ha-Joon Chang, "Bad Samaritans: The Myth of Free Trade and the Secret History of Capitalism," (New York: Bloomsbury Publishing, 2008), p. 24
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1065:. The emperor ratified the treaty on 27 October and Queen Victoria added her written assent on 28 December. Ratification was exchanged in
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if there was anything else, and being answered in the negative, Elepoo immediately and with great tact closed the negotiation by saying, "
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These treaties had deep and lasting effect. Nanking Treaty, together with the following treaties of 1843, 1858, and 1860, ended the
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762:. Britain's use of recently invented military technology produced a crushing victory and allowed it to impose a one-sided treaty.
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The Qing government was obliged to pay the British government 6 million silver dollars for the opium that had been confiscated by
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Treaty of Peace, Friendship, and Commerce Between Her Majesty the Queen of Great Britain and Ireland and the Emperor of China
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gave his assent for the treaty on 8 September. After his assent arrived in Nanjing on 15 September, Pottinger's secretary
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1580:. Oxford histories (3rd ed.). Oxford, United Kingdom ; New York, NY: Oxford University Press. p. 63.
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1996:
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1137:." From the perspective of modern Chinese nationalists, the most injurious terms were the fixed trade tariff,
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791:, which had been in force since 1760. Under Article V, the treaty abolished the former monopoly of the
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The fundamental purpose of the treaty was to change the framework of foreign trade imposed by the
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the senior commissioner paused, expecting something more, and at length said "is that all?" Mr.
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990:, under which the sovereignty of the leased territories, together with Hong Kong Island and
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on 27 October and Queen Victoria on 28 December. The exchange of ratification took place in
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China: Political, Commercial, and Social; In an Official Report to Her Majesty's Government
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A copy of the treaty is kept by the British government while another copy is kept by the
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The British on their part, undertook to withdraw all of their troops from Nanjing, the
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Trade and Diplomacy on the China Coast: The Opening of the Treaty Ports, 1842–1854
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Sino-British Treaty for the Relinquishment of Extra-Territorial Rights in China
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676:(then romanized as Nanking), British and Chinese officials negotiated on board
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In the wake of China's military defeat, with British warships poised to attack
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Narratives of Free Trade: The Commercial Cultures of Early US-China Relations
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Narratives of Free Trade: The Commercial Cultures of Early US-China Relations
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758:, Britain first demanded reparations, then declared what became known as the
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and the British squadron in Nanjing, saluting the conclusion of the treaty
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Constitutional and Mainland Affairs Bureau, The Government of the HKSAR.
870:
699:, and Niu Jian signed the treaty, which consisted of thirteen articles.
72:
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Treaty of Nanking Historical Materials Exhibition Hall in modern Nanjing
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1685:(1st ed.). New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 133.
1657:(1st ed.). New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 138.
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Imperial twilight: the Opium War and the End of China's Last Golden Age
1301:
The Opium War Ya pian zhan zheng: drugs, dreams and the making of China
747:
199:
1799:
1552:"The Face of Diplomacy in 19th-Century China: Qiying's Portrait Gifts"
1533:"The Face of Diplomacy in 19th-Century China: Qiying's Portrait Gifts"
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until the Qing government had paid reparations in full (Article XII).
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The first working draft for articles of a treaty was prepared at the
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of". Pottinger sent this old draft treaty on shore, with the letter
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1532:
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In 1841, a rough outline for a treaty was sent for the guidance of
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In the late 18th and early 19th centuries, Britain faced a growing
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1289:(4th ed.). Shanghai: North-China Herald, London (1871)ld. p. 1.
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1616:(1st ed.). New York: Alfred A. Knopf. pp. 555–556.
344:
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Convention Between Great Britain and China Respecting Tibet
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The sextants of Beijing: global currents in Chinese history
1655:
The sextants of Beijing: global currents in Chinese history
1339:
The Treaty of Nanking: Form and the Foreign Office, 1842–43
988:
Sino-British Joint Declaration on the Question of Hong Kong
978:
further expanded the colony with the 99-year lease of the
966:
In 1860, the colony was extended with the addition of the
1708:"National Palace Museum displays ROC diplomatic archives"
1574:
Platt, Stephen R. (2022). Wasserstrom, Jeffrey N. (ed.).
982:. In 1984, the governments of the United Kingdom and the
310:
1748:. 2 vols. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1953.
1435:
1286:
Treaties Between the Empire of China and Foreign Powers
908:, treasurer of Hong Kong, wrote in an official report:
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that had limited trade to that port and allow trade at
1089:
October 1843, the parties concluded the supplementary
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at the city. On 29 August, British representative Sir
888:. It had a blank after the words "the cession of the
268:
1189:
2956:
Convention for the Extension of Hong Kong Territory
289:
754:seized this privately owned opium and ordered the
1113:resulted in another defeat for the Qing dynasty.
926:all shall be granted—it is settled—it is finished
828:
3212:
1507:. Volume 1. London: Macmillan and Co. pp. 47–48.
1467:. National Palace Museum (Taipei). 9 August 2011
1343:The Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History
1028:for the British and Wang Tajin for the Chinese.
481:Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of China
142:
1558:. Hong Kong University Press. pp. 139–140.
1539:. Hong Kong University Press. pp. 131–148.
2356:Dates of establishment of diplomatic relations
2776:Complete Classics Collection of Ancient China
2747:Imperial Tombs of the Ming and Qing Dynasties
1815:
1777:Original Treaty of Nanking in English-Chinese
1441:A biographical sketch-book of early Hong Kong
1368:After Tamerlane: The Global History of Empire
1355:After Tamerlane: The Global History of Empire
945:
805:" opened for foreign trade alongside Canton (
630:
238:
224:
1796:(Differs in some respects from Chinese text)
837:Chinese and English Pages, Treaty of Nanking
429:Japanese occupation (1941–1945)
1758:Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1944.
1680:
1652:
994:(south of Boundary Street) ceded under the
3281:Treaties of the United Kingdom (1801–1922)
1822:
1808:
1756:Chang Hsi and the Treaty of Nanking, 1842.
637:
623:
16:1842 treaty between Qing China and Britain
2436:Royal and noble ranks of the Qing dynasty
2285:Imperial Edict of the Abdication of Puyi
1406:. Volume 2. London: James Madden. p. 84.
1396:
1394:
1382:
1380:
1378:
1376:
1119:
1076:the following year that at a feast with
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2892:Complete Library of the Four Treasuries
1829:
876:
669:(1839–1842), signed on 29 August 1842.
331:This article is part of a series on the
3271:Treaties involving territorial changes
3213:
1718:from the original on 16 September 2023
1333:
1331:
1329:
1298:
3190:Timeline of late anti-Qing rebellions
2431:Principles of the Constitution (1908)
1803:
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1611:
1607:
1605:
1573:
1569:
1567:
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1024:The treaty was sealed by interpreter
912:The terms of peace having been read,
3266:Peace treaties of the United Kingdom
2411:Ministry of Posts and Communications
1549:
1530:
1053:was dispatched on board the steamer
3159:History of Qing (People's Republic)
1705:
1326:
1072:Pottinger wrote in a letter to the
932:The Qing government agreed to make
13:
2876:Sacred Edict of the Kangxi Emperor
2245:Chinese expedition to Tibet (1910)
2238:1909 Provincial Assembly elections
2118:Japanese invasion of Taiwan (1874)
1942:Chinese expedition to Tibet (1720)
1671:
1643:
1602:
1577:The Oxford history of modern China
1562:
1521:. Volume 11. Canton. 1842. p. 680.
1400:Martin, Robert Montgomery (1847).
1299:Lovell, Julia (20 December 2012).
1109:, which China concluded after the
14:
3297:
3165:Imperial hunt of the Qing dynasty
3006:Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1881)
2881:Shamanism during the Qing dynasty
2033:Dogra–Tibetan war (Sino-Sikh war)
1770:
1489:and following pages, 1 July 2007.
718:. It was followed in 1843 by the
2976:Sino-Portuguese Treaty of Peking
2292:Articles of Favourable Treatment
2048:Red Turban Rebellion (1854–1856)
1303:. London: Picador. p. 304.
1220:
1206:
1192:
1061:with a copy for ratification by
782:
419:Convention for the Extension of
343:
190:
144:
117:
32:
2023:Eight Trigrams uprising of 1813
1909:Revolt of the Three Feudatories
1706:Liu, Kwangyin (9 August 2011).
1699:
1630:
1543:
1524:
1510:
1492:
1479:
1457:
1429:
942:Queen Victoria of Great Britain
920:enquired of Lieutenant-colonel
702:The treaty was ratified by the
380:Bao'an County and Xin'an County
311:
290:
38:Signing of the treaty on board
3241:China–United Kingdom relations
2677:Guest House of Imperial Envoys
1967:Revolt of the Altishahr Khojas
1794:English Text in London Gazette
1443:. Hong Kong University Press.
1409:
1360:
1347:
1317:
1292:
829:Reparations and demobilisation
269:
239:
225:
1:
3246:Military history of Hong Kong
3111:Banknotes of the Da Qing Bank
2886:Islam during the Qing dynasty
2742:Zhao Mausoleum (Qing dynasty)
2426:Provincial military commander
2416:Nine Gates Infantry Commander
2401:Imperial Household Department
2228:Preparative Constitutionalism
1932:Sino-Russian border conflicts
1734:
1554:. In Johnson, Kendall (ed.).
1535:. In Johnson, Kendall (ed.).
756:destruction of opium at Humen
733:
3276:Treaties of the Qing dynasty
2870:Researches on Manchu Origins
2275:Mongolian Revolution of 1911
1885:Transition from Ming to Qing
1875:Later Jin invasion of Joseon
1681:Waley-Cohen, Joanna (2000).
1653:Waley-Cohen, Joanna (2000).
1504:The Life of Sir Harry Parkes
1439:; Carroll, John M. (2005) .
1337:Wood, R. Derek (May 1996). "
1005:
801:in Canton. Four additional "
7:
3251:Military history of Nanjing
2770:Changzhou School of Thought
2280:1911 Revolution in Xinjiang
2255:Railway Protection Movement
2233:1909 Parliamentary election
2218:British expedition to Tibet
2128:Qing reconquest of Xinjiang
2088:Self-Strengthening Movement
2063:Nepal–Tibet War (1855–1856)
1236:Western imperialism in Asia
1185:
1168:Ministry of Foreign Affairs
1002:to the PRC on 1 July 1997.
976:Second Convention of Peking
10:
3302:
3226:1842 in the United Kingdom
3170:Legacy of the Qing dynasty
2058:Miao Rebellion (1854–1873)
1997:Miao Rebellion (1795–1806)
1987:Battle of Ngọc Hồi-Đống Đa
1957:Miao Rebellion (1735–1736)
1612:Platt, Stephen R. (2018).
984:People's Republic of China
3180:Names of the Qing dynasty
3123:
3091:
3048:
3041:
2910:
2828:Manchu Han Imperial Feast
2755:
2687:
2608:
2513:
2309:
2200:
2158:Dungan Revolt (1895–1896)
2153:Gongche Shangshu movement
2098:Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)
2010:
1947:Chinese Rites controversy
1917:
1847:
1838:
1281:Mayers, William Frederick
1253:(photographed the treaty)
946:
861:and the military post at
691:and Qing representatives
322:
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297:
283:
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262:
255:
250:
246:
232:
218:
214:
209:
189:
184:
176:
160:
131:
101:
97:Exchange of ratifications
93:
78:
64:
49:
31:
26:
3101:Great Qing Treasure Note
2921:Treaty of Kyakhta (1727)
2631:Administrative divisions
2448:Administrative divisions
2376:Flag of the Qing dynasty
1638:The Rise of Modern China
1424:shall see fit to direct.
1267:
1057:the next morning to the
1051:George Alexander Malcolm
906:Robert Montgomery Martin
777:
220:Traditional Chinese
53:29 August 1842
3261:Peace treaties of China
2697:Chengde Mountain Resort
2498:Three Eastern Provinces
2148:First Sino-Japanese War
2123:Northern Chinese Famine
1982:Lin Shuangwen rebellion
1880:Qing invasion of Joseon
1487:"The Joint Declaration"
1246:Anglo-Chinese relations
813:(or Amoy; until 1930),
809:from 1859 until 1943):
515:National security law (
391:(1841–1941, 1945–1997)
234:Simplified Chinese
3078:Great Qing Copper Coin
2966:Convention of Tientsin
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397:(1800s–1930s)
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3195:Treaty ports
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3124:Other topics
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2834:Peiwen Yunfu
2832:
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2774:
2523:Beiyang Army
2505:Zongli Yamen
2361:Da-Qing Bank
2178:Red Lanterns
1831:Qing dynasty
1755:
1745:
1722:15 September
1720:. Retrieved
1712:Taiwan Today
1711:
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1613:
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1469:. Retrieved
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1200:China portal
1165:
1161:
1157:
1127:
1115:
1099:
1095:Bocca Tigris
1083:
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1030:Harry Parkes
1023:
1016:
998:(1860), was
965:
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938:crown colony
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893:
889:
880:
856:
852:
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803:treaty ports
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671:
663:Qing dynasty
650:
648:
606:
605:
483:(since 1997)
479:
407:
386:
372:
369:
361:
285:Romanization
264:Hanyu Pinyin
138:Qing dynasty
41:
18:
3131:Aisin Gioro
3093:Paper money
2852:Qing poetry
2573:Wuwei Corps
2568:Shuishiying
2329:Family tree
1752:Têng Ssu-yü
1000:transferred
871:Zhaobaoshan
859:Grand Canal
748:plantations
363:Prehistoric
102:Signatories
73:Qing Empire
3215:Categories
2799:Four Wangs
2690:mausoleums
2643:Golden Urn
2616:Inner Asia
2593:Xiang Army
2563:Hushenying
2488:Liangguang
2468:Liangjiang
2406:Lifan Yuan
2311:Government
1735:References
1640:: 190–192.
1596:1260821193
1182:, Taiwan.
1017:Cornwallis
957:Cháng yuǎn
797:and their
734:Background
680:Cornwallis
449:1967 riots
200:Wikisource
161:Depositary
86:1843-06-26
57:1842-08-29
42:Cornwallis
2621:Manchuria
2588:Huai Army
2578:Yong Ying
2463:Shaan-Gan
1919:High Qing
1865:Later Jin
1471:27 August
1067:Hong Kong
1006:Aftermath
902:Hong Kong
708:Hong Kong
574:Geography
569:Education
185:Full text
177:Languages
94:Condition
79:Effective
3073:Hongqian
3042:Currency
2912:Treaties
2818:Kaozheng
2765:Booi Aha
2707:Hetu Ala
2660:Timeline
2655:Xinjiang
2626:Mongolia
2583:Chu Army
2558:New Army
2515:Military
2453:Viceroys
1790:, Taipei
1780:Archived
1716:Archived
1501:(1894).
1283:(1902).
1186:See also
1055:Auckland
918:Morrison
867:Gulangyu
843:Lin Zexu
823:Shanghai
752:Lin Zexu
730:status.
661:and the
657:between
599: /
579:Politics
549:Aviation
540:By topic
370:Imperial
353:Timeline
306:Jyutping
167:, Taiwan
65:Location
3058:Zhiqian
3050:Coinage
2787:Economy
2758:culture
2493:Yun-Gui
2483:Min-Zhe
2478:Sichuan
2473:Huguang
2319:Emperor
1840:History
1174:at the
1093:at the
992:Kowloon
968:Kowloon
922:Malcolm
898:islands
890:islands
863:Zhenhai
685:Yangtze
674:Nanjing
653:was an
564:Economy
559:Culture
431:(1940s)
132:Parties
84: (
69:Nanjing
55: (
2672:Taiwan
1848:Early
1833:topics
1763:online
1689:
1661:
1620:
1594:
1584:
1447:
1307:
1180:Taipei
1141:, the
1087:
1078:Keying
1039:tiffin
914:Elepoo
819:Ningbo
815:Fuzhou
811:Xiamen
794:Cohong
771:London
697:Yilibu
693:Keying
149:
112:Yilibu
108:Keying
50:Signed
2864:Queue
2782:Dibao
2638:Tibet
2458:Zhili
2341:Amban
1786:from
1636:Hsu,
1268:Notes
778:Terms
501:2020s
496:2010s
491:2000s
465:1990s
460:1980s
455:1970s
445:1960s
440:1950s
278:Hakka
2600:Navy
2441:Ejen
2324:List
1724:2023
1687:ISBN
1659:ISBN
1618:ISBN
1592:OCLC
1582:ISBN
1473:2018
1445:ISBN
1305:ISBN
1045:The
1015:HMS
869:and
821:and
726:and
678:HMS
649:The
521:2024
517:2020
240:南京条约
226:南京條約
110:and
40:HMS
1341:".
1178:in
1170:of
928:."
769:in
554:Bus
198:at
3217::
1754:.
1744:.
1710:.
1673:^
1645:^
1604:^
1590:.
1564:^
1393:^
1375:^
1328:^
1155:.
963:.
955:,
936:a
817:,
695:,
519:,
71:,
1823:e
1816:t
1809:v
1765:.
1726:.
1695:.
1667:.
1626:.
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1475:.
1453:.
1313:.
1133:"
1085:3
951:遠
948:常
894:s
638:e
631:t
624:v
523:)
451:)
447:(
88:)
59:)
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