Wusun - Knowledge

1329: 386: 1710:. The Great Kunmi and his two sons, who commanded the east and left flanks of the Wusun realm, each commanded a force of 10,000 men. The Wusun also fielded a regular army, with each freeman being considered a warrior. Their administrative apparatus was fairly sophisticated, consisting of sixteen officials. The Great Kunmi was assisted by a council of elders, which limited his power to some degree. The Wusun elite maintained itself through tribute from conquered tribes, war booty and trading profits. The booty acquired by the Wusun in their frequent conflicts enabled the administrative elite and members of the Kunmi's guard to amass enormous riches. 704: 1865: 30: 37: 1899: 2018: 7467: 895:, considering him a supernatural being, and adopted the child. When the child grew up the Chanyu made him leader of the Wusun and a Xiongnu general. He won many victories for the Xiongnu and the Wusun became powerful. Liejiaomi constantly requested the Xiongnu ruler for permission to avenge his father, and around 133–132 BC, he successfully attacked the Yuezhi in the Ili Valley. The Yuezhi then migrated to 1222:, Chinese agents were involved in a plot with a Wusun kunmi known as Wengguimi ("Fat King"), to kill a Wusun kunmi known to the Chinese as Nimi ("Mad King"). A Chinese deputy envoy called Chi Tu who brought a doctor to attend to Nimi was punished by castration by the Han dynasty when he returned to China for treating the mad king's illness instead of killing him which the Han court ordered them to do. 955: 1059:(...) It land is bare and flat, rainy and chilly. Its hills are covered with pines. Its people do not plow of plant but follow their flocks to where water and grass are found. Its customs are similar to those of the Xiongnu. The nation has plenty of horses... and its people violent, greedy and not trustworthy. There are abundant bandits and thieves. Its territories originally belonged to the 1687:. Some early Chinese descriptions of the people were pejorative, describing them as "bad, greedy and unreliable, and much given to robbery", but their state was also described as very strong. However, the Wusun were also noted for their harmony towards their neighbours, even though they were constantly raided by the Xiongnu and Kangju. 1249:. After both Yuanguimi and Chimi were dead, Jieyou asked Emperor Xuan for permission to return to China. She died in 49 BC. Over the next decades the institution of Greater and Lesser Kunmi continued, with the Lesser Kunmi being married to a Xiongnu princess and the Greater Kunmi married to a Han princess. 1110:, the Wusun became the main suppliers of horses for the Han. The Xiongnu had however also sent a princess to marry Liejiaomi, and the Xiongnu princess was declared his senior consort, with Xijun becoming his junior wife. Since Liejiaomi was already an old man, Xijun was however married to his successor Cenzou ( 1988:

One theory has suggested that the Uissun tribe of Kazakhstan is descended from the Wusun, based on the superficial similarity of the ethnonym 'Uissun' to Wusun. A 2020 study could not find support for this theory, as the Uissun have a very low frequency of Haplogroup R1a (6%), most of it belonging to

1694:. Since the climate of Zhetysu and Dzungaria did not allow constant wandering, they probably wandered with each change of season in the search of pasture and water. Numerous archaeological finds have found querns and agricultural implements and bones of domesticated animals, suggesting a semi-nomadic 946:, Wusun was a state located west of the Xiongnu. When the Xiongnu ruler died, Liejiaomi refused to serve the Xiongnu. The Xiongnu then sent a force against the Wusun but were defeated, after which the Xiongnu even more than before considered Liejiaomi a supernatural being, avoiding conflict with him. 1765:

with burials in lined "catacomb" chamber graves, of the so-called Aygîrdzhal group, are found together with the Chil-pek tombs from the 2nd century BC to the 5th century AD, and have been attributed to the Yuezhi. Graves of the Wusun period typically contain personal belongings,

1182:

Around 80 BC, the Wusun were attacked by the Xiongnu, who inflicted a devastating defeat upon them. In 72 BC, Kunmi, chief of the Wusun requested assistance from the Han against the Xiongnu. The Han sent an army of 160,000 men, inflicting a crushing defeat upon the Xiongnu, capturing

1138:

My family sent me off to be married on the other side of heaven. They sent me a long way to a strange land, to the king of Wusun. A domed lodging is my dwelling place with walls of felt. Meat is my food, with fermented milk as the sauce. I live with constant thoughts of my home, my heart is full of

4076:王明哲, 王炳華 (Mingzhe Wang & Binhua Wang): 從文獻與考古資料論烏孫歷史的幾個重大問題 (Important questions about the history of Wusun arising from the contemporary documents and archaeological investigations). In: 烏孫研究 (Wusun research), 1, 新疆人民出版社 (People's publisher Xinjiang), Ürümqi 1983, S. pp. 1–42. 1088:

The Wusun approved of a possible alliance, and Zhang Qian was sent as ambassador in 115 BC. According to the agreement the Wusun would jointly attack the Xiongnu with the Han, while they were offered a Han princess in marriage and the return of their original Gansu homeland

1287:

requested assistance from the Wusun against the city-state Quchi (Kucha) in the Tarim Basin. The Wusun were subsequently rewarded with silks, while diplomatic exchanges were resumed. During the 2nd century AD the Wusun continued their decline in political importance.

4183:臣居匈奴中，聞烏孫王號昆莫。昆莫父難兜靡本與大月氏俱在祁連、焞煌間，小國也。tr. " minister, while living among the Xiongnu, heard that the Wusun king was called Kunmo; Kunmo's father Nandoumi had originally been dwelling together with the Great Yuezhi in a small state between Qilian and Dunhuang." 1245:). Prince Wujiutu later killed Nimi, his half-brother. Fearing the wrath of the Han, Wujiutu adopted the title of Lesser Kunmi, while Yuanguimi was given the title Greater Kunmi. The Han accepted this system and bestowed both of them with the 469:, who subsequently attacked the Wusun, killing their king and seizing their land. The Xiongnu adopted the surviving Wusun prince and made him one of their generals and leader of the Wusun. Around 162 BC the Yuezhi were driven into the 1264:

and internal strife brought disorder, and in 2 BC one of the Wusun chieftains brought 80,000 Wusun to Kangju, asking for help against the Chinese. In a vain attempt to reconcile with China, he was duped and killed in 3 AD.

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Some time after the Han-Wusun negotiations had ended, the Han inflicted several blows to the Xiongnu. The Han then threatened war upon the Wusun, after which Liejiaomi finally agreed to an alliance, sending tributary horses and accepting

788:

According to legend Nandoumi's infant son Liejiaomi was left in the wild. He was miraculously saved from hunger being suckled by a she-wolf, and fed meat by ravens. The Wusun ancestor myth shares striking similarities with those of the

1748:, mostly prisoners of war. The Wusun are reported as having captured 10,000 slaves in a raid against the Xiongnu. Wusun slaves mainly laboured as servants and craftsmen, although the freemen formed the core of the Wusun economy. 1503:-speaking. The first syllable of the Wusun royal title Kunmi was probably the royal title while the second syllable referred to the royal family name. Beckwith specifically suggests an Indo-Aryan etymology of the title Kunmi. 974:, among the people of the Wusun state in the Zhetysu and Dzungaria area. The Wusun realm probably included both Yuezhi and Saka. It is clear that the majority of the population consisted of linguistically Iranian Saka tribes. 1206:

to counter Xiongnu attacks. After their crushing victory against the Xiongnu the Wusun increased in strength, achieving significant influence over the city-states of the Tarim Basin. The son of the Kunmi became the ruler of

761:, subjugating several peoples. Around 176 BC Modu Chanyu launched a fierce raid against the Yuezhi. Around 173 BC, the Yuezhi subsequently attacked the Wusun, at that time a small nation, killing their king (Kunmi 6943: 6513: 1760:

have been excavated. Most of the cemeteries are burial grounds with the dead interred in pit-graves, referred to as the Chil-pek group, which probably belong the local Saka population. A second group of

1304:. They are last mentioned in Chinese historical sources in 436 AD, when a Chinese envoy was sent to their country and the Wusun reciprocated. It is possible that they became subsumed into the later 1614:: "The origin of beg is still disputed, though it is mostly agreed that it is a loan-word. Two principal etymologies have been proposed. The first etymology is from a Middle Iranian form of Old Iranian 1364:, which describes the women of the Wusun as "with deep eyesockets, dark, ugly: their preferences are different, past their prime without spouse." A later 7th century commentary to the Hanshu by 1781:, containing jewellery, clothing, head-dress and nearly 300 gold objects. A beautiful diadem of the Kargali burial attest to the artistic skill of these ancient jewellers. Another find at 5798:

China in Central Asia: The Early Stage: 125 BC - AD 23 ; an Annotated Transl. of Chapters 61 and 96 of the History of the Former Han Dynasty. With an Introd. by M.A.N.Loewe

1821:). Their exact location of their country in Central Asia is unknown. The Issedones are "placed by some in Western Siberia and by others in Chinese Turkestan," according to E. D. Phillips. 988:

was sent to establish an alliance with the Wusun Against the Xiongnu. Qian estimated the Wusun to number 630,000, with 120,000 families and 188,000 men capable of bearing arms.

7165: 5262:, p. 45 "Many elements of non-Turkic origin also became part of Türk statecraft. Important terms, for example, often came from non-Turkic languages, as in the cases of 1491:

also suggest that the Wusun were Tocharian-speaking. Sinor finds it difficult to include the Wusun within the Tocharian category of Indo-European until further research.

4026:《汉书·西域传》：乌孙国，大昆弥治赤谷城，去长安八千九百里。户十二万，口六十三万，胜兵十八万八千八百人。……故服匈奴，后盛大，取羁属，不肯往朝会。东与匈奴、西北与康居、西与大宛、南与城郭诸国相接。本塞地也，大月氏西破走塞王，塞王南越县度，大月氏居其地。后乌孙昆莫击破大月氏，大月氏徙、西臣大夏，而乌孙昆莫居之，故乌孙民有塞种、大月氏种云。 6950: 1260:

pastures, but Wuzhuliu repulsed them, and the Wusun commander had to send his son to the Yueban court as a hostage. The forceful intervention of the Chinese usurper

1904:

Genetic makeup of Iron Age Central Asian Scythians. The three main ancestry components are shown in green, red and violet representing the ancestries maximized in

1672: 1093:). Due to fear of the Xiongnu, the Wusun however had second thoughts and suggested sending a delegation to the Han rather than moving their capital further west. 1620:; though the meaning would fit since the Middle Persian forms of the word often mean 'lord,' used of the king or others. The second etymology is from Chinese 伯 ( 6524: 4100:

Places and Peoples in Central Asia and in the Graeco-Roman Near East: A Multilingual Gazetteer Compiled for the Serica Project from Selected Pre-Islamic Sources

1989:

the Z94 clade rather than the Iranian Z93 clade. Most of the Uissun lineages were typical of Mongols, supporting their historically attested Mongolian origin.

962:

After settling in the Ili Valley the Wusun became so strong that the Han was compelled to win their friendship in alliance. Chinese sources name the Scythian

1635:

on the other hand seriously considers the possibility that the word is genuinely Turkish. Whatever the truth may be, there is no connection with Turkish

7158: 1770: 4331: 1782: 1724:. The wealthiest Wusuns are believed to have owned as many as 4,000 to 5,000 horses, and there is evidence pointing to privileged use of certain 6803: 5890:

An Introduction to the History of the Turkic Peoples: Ethnogenesis and State-formation in Medieval and Early Modern Eurasia and the Middle East

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do not make any special note of the physical appearance of the Wusun. The first description of the Wusun's physical appearance is found in a

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in eastern Zhetysu contained the grave of a high-ranking warrior, whose clothing had been decorated with around 100 golden bosses.

500:

and remained a powerful force in the region for several centuries. The Wusun are last mentioned by the Chinese as having settled in the

1163:), Cenzou's cousin and successor. Jieyou lived for fifty years among the Wusun and bore five children, including the oldest Yuanguimi ( 1675:, was sent to the ruler (Kunmi or Kunmo) of the Wusun between 110 BC and 105 BC. She describes them as nomads who lived in 6690:

A history of the relationships between the western and eastern Han, Wei, Jin northern and southern dynasties and the western regions

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The Wusun subsequently took over the Ili Valley, expanding over a large area and trying to keep away from the Xiongnu. According to

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The four tribes of the Asii and others, including the Da Yuezhi and the Wusun, were all Europoid and spoke Indo-European languages.

376: 883:(lit. "Raven-Water River"), as vassals of the Xiongnu. It is not clear whether the river was named after the tribe or vice versa. 7031: 6406: 5357:

Phillips, E. D. (1955). "The Legend of Aristeas: Fact and Fancy in Early Greek Notions of East Russia, Siberia, and Inner Asia".

6433: 1075:, the Wusun Kunmo replaced them and lived there. For that reason, the Wusun population is admixed with Sakas and Yuezhi peoples. 6649:

At Home in Many Worlds: Reading, Writing and Translating from Chinese and Jewish Cultures : Essays in Honour of Irene Eber

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At Home in Many Worlds: Reading, Writing and Translating from Chinese and Jewish Cultures : Essays in Honour of Irene Eber

29: 6037: 4646: 3774: 3746: 7466: 7125: 6523:. Language and Linguistics Monograph Series (53). Taipei, Taiwan: Institute of Linguistics, Academia Sinica. Archived from 2625: 1328: 1272:

issued a list of four regulations to the allied Xiongnu that the taking of any hostages from Chinese vassals, i.e. Wusun,

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region), a previous ally of the Xiongnu, giving them direct contact with the Wusun. Afterwards the Wusun allied with the

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History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The Development of Sedentary and Nomadic Civilizations, 700 B. C. to A. D. 250

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History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The Development of Sedentary and Nomadic Civilizations, 700 B. C. to A. D. 250

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History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The Development of Sedentary and Nomadic Civilizations, 700 B. C. to A. D. 250

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History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The Development of Sedentary and Nomadic Civilizations, 700 B. C. to A. D. 250

1793:

Some scholars such as Peter B. Golden have proposed that the Wusun may have been identical with the people described by

1706:

The social structure of the Wusun resembled that of the Xiongnu. They were governed by the Great Kunmi, whose power was

7813: 7808: 6787: 6660: 6280: 6171: 6101: 5968: 5933: 5677: 5645: 5610: 5579: 4054: 3796: 3753: 2684: 1469:, besides other non-Chinese peoples. Archaeological evidence also supports the idea that Wusuns were Iranian speakers. 936: 493:

as vassals of the Xiongnu. In 133–132 BC, the Wusun drove the Yuezhi out of the Ili Valley and settled the area.

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kingdoms. After the Yuezhi retreat the Wusun subsequently settled the modern province of Gansu, in the valley of the

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were obliged to remain within the family of their late husband by marrying one of his relatives, a concept known as

1308:. After this event the Wusun seem to disappear from Chinese records: Wusun were last mentioned in 938 AD alongsides 1283:

In 74 AD the Wusun are recorded as having sent tribute to the Han military commanders in Cheshi. In 80 AD

992:

described them as occupying land that previously belonged to the Saka (Sai). To their north-west the Wusun bordered

7131: 5870:. Canberra: Australian National University Institute of Advanced Studies Department of Far Eastern History: 23–79. 3760: 2524: 4555: 1543:'wolf'. This suggestion however is rejected by Classical Chinese Literature expert Francis K. H. So, Professor at 6847:

Zadneprovskiy, Y. A. (1 January 1994). "The Nomads of Northern Central Asia After The Invasion of Alexander". In

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Migration and Settlement of the Yuezhi-Kushan: Interaction and Interdependence of Nomadic and Sedentary Societies

2035: 1544: 1179:) was born to a Xiongnu mother. She sent numerous letters to the Han requesting assistance against the Xiongnu. 7803: 7798: 7793: 6866: 6830: 6761: 6753: 6626: 6595: 6560: 6388: 6315: 6245: 6237: 6136: 6128: 6026:

Through the Jade Gate to Rome: A Study of the Silk Routes during the Later Han Dynasty, 1st to 2nd Centuries CE

6007: 5845: 5810: 5774: 5151: 3883: 3616: 3391: 2795: 943: 606:'mare'. The name would thus mean 'the horse people'. Hence he put forward the hypothesis that the Wusun used a 1028:'Red Valley'), was located in a side valley leading to Issyk Kul. Lying on one of the branches of the 5247:, used to identify the ruler's retinue as 'wolves,' probably also derived from one of the Iranian languages." 3875: 3789: 3361: 2630: 2567: 2368: 2254: 1913: 1384:

Initially, when only a few number of skulls from Wusun territory were known, the Wusun were recognized as a

1225:

In 64 BC another Han princess was sent to Kunmi Wengguimi, but he died before her arrival. Han emperor

674:

and means "tent". Vaissière hypothesized that the Wusun likely spoke an Iranian language closely related to

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http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/baga-an-old-iranian-term-for-god-sometimes-designating-a-specific-god

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Damgaard, P. B.; et al. (May 9, 2018). "137 ancient human genomes from across the Eurasian steppes".

1559:, who explain that none of the mentioned words are actually Turkic in origin. Findley notes that the term 3366: 2861: 2562: 2441: 2427: 2408: 1958: 1905: 6698: 6552: 6380: 6202: 6029: 5571: 5172: 4326: 4046: 2704: 2662: 2262: 1246: 5755:

Enoki, K.; Koshelenko, G. A.; Haidary, Z. (1 January 1994). "The Yu'eh-chih and their migrations". In

1004:), and to the south were various city states. The Royal Court of the Wusun, the walled city of Chigu ( 7318: 6725: 6272: 3832: 3406: 3371: 3044: 2348: 4098: 1981:(WSHs) of the Late Bronze Age who admixed with Siberian hunter-gatherers and peoples related to the 1380:) who have green eyes and red hair, and look like macaque monkeys, are the offspring of this people. 7119: 3666: 3556: 3376: 2907: 2739: 2690: 2586: 2388: 2343: 2338: 2258: 1495:

has suggested that the Wusun contained both Tocharian and Iranian elements. Central Asian scholar

703: 6227: 5960: 5837: 5561: 4545: 3561: 3288: 2398: 2393: 2383: 2027: 1496: 1409: 1376:) in the Western Regions, the look of the Wusun is the most unusual. The present barbarians (胡人; 619: 611: 6059: 1611: 6153: 3551: 3523: 3307: 3209: 2975: 2821: 2445: 2283: 2175: 2114: 2069: 2009: 2001: 1978: 1744:

among the Wusun created social unrest among the lower strata. Wusun society also included many

1421: 1413: 53: 5484:

Materials on the history of Kyrgyz-kazakh people. Tashkent: Eastern branch of the Kyrgyz State

4636: 1864: 1854: 1850: 1555:'lord'. This theory has been criticized by modern Turkologists, including Peter B. Golden and 1475:

has suggested that the Wusun, along with the Yuezhi, the Dayuan, the Kangju and the people of

6192: 5950: 5919: 5884: 3698: 3527: 2435: 2431: 2416: 2412: 1950: 1714: 1443: 607: 6718:

Records of the Grand Historian of China. Han Dynasty II. Chapter 123. The Account of Ta-yüan

4875: 1870:

Genetic proximity of Eastern Indo-Europeans: the Wusun had great genetic proximity with the

1511: 1400:, the six skulls of the Wusun period were determined to be purely Caucasoid or close to it. 855:, the Yuezhi were defeated by the rising Xiongnu empire and fled westward, driving away the 7313: 6680:, 5 vols. London & Oxford. Clarendon Press. Reprint: Delhi. Motilal Banarsidass. 1980. 6521:

Studies in Chinese and Sino-Tibetan Linguistics: Dialect, Phonology, Transcription and Text

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A survey of theories of ethnic affiliations and identification of the Wusun and the Yuezhi.

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Xijun bore the Wusun a daughter but died soon afterward, at which point the Han court sent

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History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The crossroads of civilizations, A.D. 250 to 750

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Empires of the Silk Road: A History of Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the Present

5513:. Moscow-Leningrad: Publishing House of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR. p. 151. 4293: 4251: 3901: 2917: 2912: 2808: 2732: 2697: 2620: 2610: 2469: 2170: 2165: 2134: 1828: 1707: 1530: 1480: 1351: 1334: 1226: 682:

and Chinese to transcribe their endonym with a native Chinese /s/ standing for a foreign

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Rider burial mound Tenlik (III.-II. B.C.) The Tenlik kurgan is associated with the Wusun.

130: 5713: 5434: 5270:

for 'aristocrat', both terms of Sogdian origin and ever since in common use in Turkish."

1071:

took over and settled on the land. (...) Later, when the Yuezhi moved west to subjugate

1032:

Chigu was an important trading centre, but its exact location has not been established.

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The Cambridge History of Ancient China: From the Origins of Civilization to 221 BC

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In 162 BC, the Yuezhi were finally defeated by the Xiongnu, after which they fled

735: 241: 7143: 6448: 6343:

The Tarim Mummies: Ancient China and the Mystery of the Earliest Peoples from the West

5303: 4584: 757:, who were also vassals of the Yuezhi, became leader of the Xiongnu and conquered the 7694: 7551: 7493: 7265: 7025: 6916: 6862: 6826: 6783: 6757: 6656: 6622: 6591: 6580:; Klyashtorny, S. G. (1 January 1996). "The Türk Empire". In Litvinsky, B. A. (ed.). 6556: 6489: 6421: 6384: 6356: 6341: 6311: 6276: 6241: 6206: 6167: 6132: 6097: 6072: 6033: 6003: 5964: 5929: 5898: 5871: 5841: 5827: 5806: 5770: 5735: 5673: 5641: 5606: 5575: 5528:

Atwood, Christopher P. (2015). "The Kai, the Khongai, and the Names of the Xiōngnú".

5464: 5446: 5397: 4834: 4642: 4050: 3817: 3637: 3603: 3595: 3539: 3533: 3515: 3486: 3465: 3451: 3443: 3213: 3074: 3014: 2996: 2937: 2932: 2927: 2894: 2889: 2718: 2581: 2230: 2223: 2216: 2202: 2188: 2148: 2127: 2064: 2056: 1966: 1741: 1737: 1556: 1514:, A. Scherbak, P. Budberg, L. Bazin and V.P. Yudin, noted that the Wusun king's name 1417: 1229:

then permitted the princess to return, since Jieyou had married the new Kunmi, Nimi (

981: 668: 539: 524: 84: 6848: 6812: 5989: 5985: 5792: 5756: 5747: 4776: 4490: 4177: 1539:), as reported in Chinese sources and translated as 'wolf', resembles Proto-Turkic * 1428: 7233: 7066: 6906: 6896: 6163: 5802: 5725: 5717: 5696: 5669: 5627: 5553: 5454: 5438: 5366: 4505: 4424: 3631: 3581: 3398: 3204: 3092: 3032: 3009: 2952: 2947: 2884: 2871: 2866: 2856: 2529: 2142: 2090: 2082: 2075: 1925: 1604: 1577: 1507: 1238: 1230: 1172: 1164: 1156: 1148: 1123: 1111: 1005: 904: 778: 770: 762: 720: 683: 675: 638: 446: 400: 325: 143: 6928: 6811:

Yong, Ma; Bingua, Wang (1 January 1994). "The Culture of the Xinjiang Region". In

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Gardiner-Garden, J.R. (March 1986). "Chang-Ch'ien and Central Asian Ethnography".

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Hill (2009), "Appendix I: Chigu 赤谷 (Royal Court of the Wusun Kunmo)," pp. 527–531.

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Commentationes Iranicae. Vladimiro F. Aaron Livschits Nonagenario Donum Natalicium

7096: 7090: 6852: 6816: 6747: 6688: 6644: 6616: 6581: 6546: 6463: 6374: 6370: 6301: 6266: 6231: 6196: 6157: 6122: 6087: 6083: 5993: 5954: 5923: 5888: 5831: 5796: 5760: 5705: 5663: 5631: 5600: 5565: 5279: 4764: 4335: 4040: 3712: 3681: 3676: 3671: 3652: 3588: 3567: 3545: 3130: 3019: 2942: 2851: 2784: 2725: 2591: 2323: 2308: 2298: 2293: 2209: 2181: 1632: 1591: 1488: 1458: 1439: 1432: 1313: 1301: 1277: 1107: 743: 739: 535:'grandson, descendant'. There are several theories about the origin of the name. 501: 435: 432: 380:

The Wusun and neighbouring polities circa 200 BC, before their westward migration

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Turks and Khazars: Origins, Institutions, and Interactions in Pre-Mongol Eurasia

1690:

The principal activity of the Wusun was cattle-raising, but they also practiced

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Serindia: Detailed report of explorations in Central Asia and westernmost China

6336: 6262: 5596: 5541: 5442: 5152:"Correspondences of Cultural Words Between Old Chinese and Proto-Indo-European" 5147: 4711: 4289: 4256: 4036: 3457: 3324: 3199: 2757: 2711: 2679: 2615: 2106: 1668: 1621: 1584: 1389: 1385: 1208: 1103: 928: 876: 822: 818: 810: 543: 439: 169: 95: 7223: 6885:"The medieval Mongolian roots of Y-chromosomal lineages from South Kazakhstan" 5721: 1457:"foreigners, barbarians", which had been used since the 6th century to denote 1049:

Wusun as a nation, has its great Kunmi presiding at Chigu City which is 8900

19:

This article is about the ancient nomadic people. For the mountain range, see

7782: 7628: 7604: 7594: 7572: 7518: 7513: 7398: 7102: 6995: 6977: 6721: 6713: 6332: 6297: 6188: 5875: 5450: 5310:昆莫年老，言語不通，公主悲愁，自為作歌曰：「吾家嫁我兮天一方，遠托異國兮烏孫王。穹廬為室兮旃為牆，以肉為食兮酪為漿。居常土思兮心內傷，願為黃鵠兮歸故鄉。」 3717: 3181: 3097: 2814: 2672: 2534: 2288: 1938: 1887: 1492: 1360: 1215:. They came to play a role as a third force between the Han and the Xiongnu. 908: 841: 821:. Based on the similarities between the ancestor myth of the Wusun and later 294: 215: 195: 156: 117: 7218: 6514:"Phonological Notes on Hàn Period Transcriptions of Foreign Names and Words" 2504: 7735: 7633: 7280: 7270: 6920: 6780:

The Western Regions, Xiongnu and Han, from the Shiji, Hanshu and Hou Hanshu

6743: 5739: 5468: 4161:"Iranian in Wusun? A tentative reinterpretation of the Kultobe Inscription" 4160: 3336: 3174: 2648: 2519: 2318: 2313: 2303: 1563:

is probably derived from one of the Iranian languages of Central Asia (cf.

1484: 1466: 1393: 1317: 1305: 838: 802: 794: 758: 622:'s analysis is similar to Mair's, reconstructing the Chinese term Wusun as 509: 442:

records from the 2nd century BC to the 5th century AD.

228: 1898: 7699: 7582: 7508: 7503: 7275: 7258: 7175: 7072: 7049: 6883:

Zhabagin, Maxat; Sabitov, Zhaxylyk; Tarlykov, Pavel; et al. (2020).

6612: 6577: 6542: 6488:. Vol. 1. Aldershot, Hampshire; Burlington, VT: Ashgate Publishing. 6056:: A Third Century Chinese Account Composed between 239 and 265 CE (sic.). 4829: 4752: 3909: 3312: 3298: 3262: 2970: 1691: 1519: 1219: 1184: 1056: 978: 924: 920: 826: 750: 623: 551: 497: 305: 5730: 4042:

The Amazons: Lives and Legends of Warrior Women across the Ancient World

2499: 731:). although different locations have been suggested for these toponyms. 7709: 7704: 7541: 7488: 7425: 7333: 7228: 5637: 5378: 3275: 3189: 3067: 2832: 1909: 1879: 1729: 1355: 1187: 1155:) to succeed her. After the death of Cenzou, Jieyou married Wengguimi ( 1144: 985: 971: 872: 852: 651:, mentioned on Kultobe inscriptions as enemies of the Sogdian-speaking 360: 4591:本塞地也，大月氏西破走塞王，塞王南越縣度。大月氏居其地。後烏孫昆莫擊破大月氏，大月氏徙西臣大夏，而烏孫昆莫居之，故烏孫民有塞種、大月氏種雲。 7643: 7525: 7297: 6647:. In Findeisen, Raoul David; Isay, Gad C.; Katz-Goehr, Amira (eds.). 6093: 5216:

Zuev, Yu.A. (2002) Early Türks: Essays on history and ideology, p. 35

4322: 3478: 3255: 3247: 3240: 3233: 3219: 3087: 1875: 1806: 1794: 1757: 1721: 1447: 1436: 1365: 1269: 1261: 1256:(8 BC – AD 13), the Wusun attempted to raid 1131: 1064: 1051: 1036: 1029: 932: 868: 860: 798: 631: 578: 562: 482: 478: 470: 347: 5370: 7430: 7403: 7348: 7078: 7019: 7007: 7001: 3870: 3837: 3827: 3421: 3412: 3303: 3104: 3079: 2983: 2474: 2050: 1766:

with the burials of the Aygîrdzhal group often containing weapons.

1718: 1695: 1680: 1595: 1476: 1462: 1425: 1284: 1253: 1199: 1001: 912: 830: 806: 790: 724: 589: 450: 204: 6681: 6645:"In Search of the Lost Indo-Europeans in Chinese Dynastic History" 5602:

The Yuezhi: Origin, Migration and the Conquest of Northern Bactria

1139:

sorrow. I wish I were a golden swan, returning to my home country.

336: 7761: 7638: 7614: 7609: 7577: 7546: 7498: 7447: 7420: 7413: 7391: 7386: 7353: 7253: 7248: 3822: 3471: 3435: 3428: 3226: 2846: 2479: 1970: 1798: 1725: 1309: 1183:

much booty and many slaves. In the campaign the Han captured the

1072: 900: 814: 754: 641: 570: 462: 316: 44: 6303:

In Search of the Indo-Europeans: Language, Archaeology, and Myth

6268:

The Shorter Columbia Anthology of Traditional Chinese Literature

6089:

The Religious Traditions of Asia: Religion, History, and Culture

1977:. Both the Wusun and Kangju were suggested to be descended from 1756:

Numerous sites belonging to the Wusun period in Zhetysu and the

1296:

In the 5th century AD the Wusun were pressured by the

734:

Beckwith suggests that the Wusun were an eastern remnant of the

7751: 7730: 7665: 7660: 7435: 7408: 7365: 7343: 7292: 7287: 7243: 7238: 7213: 7197: 6858: 6822: 6587: 6348: 5999: 5766: 5549: 3891: 3842: 3194: 3148: 2667: 2484: 1962: 1871: 1824: 1778: 1774: 1762: 1397: 1373: 1297: 1273: 1257: 1203: 1195: 1191: 1068: 1013: 997: 993: 989: 916: 896: 864: 716: 652: 566: 505: 474: 466: 458: 250: 5045: 5043: 4121: 1929:

in May 2018 examined the remains of four Wusun buried between

1130:), in which she complains about her exile in the land of the " 7655: 7648: 7452: 7440: 7381: 7358: 7328: 7043: 7013: 3293: 3167: 3161: 2514: 2489: 1942: 1934: 1883: 1745: 1733: 1684: 1616: 1599: 1212: 1090: 1060: 1041: 954: 848: 728: 712: 490: 454: 409: 75: 1717:. The main source of this stratification seems to have been 1506:

In the past, some scholars suggested that the Wusun spoke a

1450:(581–645) described the Wusun's descendants with the exonym 7599: 7323: 6694: 6470:

University of British Columbia, Department of Asian Studies

6233:

The World of the Huns: Studies in Their History and Culture

6071:). Beijing: China Financial and Economic Publishing House. 5633:

The History of Central Asia: The Age of the Steppe Warriors

5490: 5419:"The genomic origins of the Bronze Age Tarim Basin mummies" 5338: 5168: 5067: 5055: 5040: 3685: 1974: 1832: 1676: 856: 486: 4079: 5326: 5186: 1572: 1547:. Other words listed by these scholars include the title 1106:

as his wife. Along with the Yuezhi and the Kangju of the

738:, who had been suddenly pushed to the extremities of the 504:

in the 5th century AD due to pressure from the

415: 4791: 4008: 686:. Therefore, Vaissière reconstructs Wusun's endonym as * 7173: 6735:王明哲. 王明哲,王炳华著. 王炳华 (Wang Mingzhe et al.) (1983). 乌孙硏究 ( 931:

and played an important role in the development of the

6749:

The Silk Road: Two Thousand Years in the Heart of Asia

5754: 4371: 4111: 4109: 1237:), the son of Cenzou. Jieyou bore Nimi the son Chimi ( 1118:), to which Wu agreed. Xijun wrote a famous poem, the 949: 647:Étienne de la Vaissière identifies the Wusun with the 6486:

Central Asia and non-Chinese peoples of ancient China

984:(156–87 BC), the Chinese traveller and diplomat 678:, permitting Sogdians to translate their endonym as * 614:. However, the latter hypothesis is not supported by 427: 418: 412: 406: 5028: 1961:. The authors of the study found that the Wusun and 1788: 1211:, while his daughter became the wife of the lord of 527:'烏孫'. The Chinese name '烏孫' (Wūsūn) literally means 6958: 6548:

The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia, Volume 1

5391: 4284: 4282: 4280: 4278: 4276: 4274: 4106: 753:, a former hostage of the Yuezhi and prince of the 542:reconstructed the pronunciation of 烏孫' Wūsūn as in 403: 6682:国立情報学研究所『東洋文庫所蔵』貴重書デジタルアーカイブ – ディジタル・シルクロード・プロジェクト 6340: 4809: 4807: 4805: 4803: 4526: 4246: 4244: 4242: 4240: 4238: 4236: 4234: 4232: 4230: 4228: 4226: 6484:Pulleyblank, Edwin G. (2002). "Why Tocharians?". 4224: 4222: 4220: 4218: 4216: 4214: 4212: 4210: 4208: 4206: 1523: 7780: 6576: 6434:"The consonantal system of Old Chinese. Part II" 6187: 5486:. Tashkent: Kyrgyz State Publishing. p. 77. 5085: 4478: 4271: 3998: 3996: 3994: 3992: 3990: 3988: 3986: 3984: 3982: 3980: 3978: 3976: 3974: 3972: 3970: 3968: 3966: 3964: 3962: 3960: 3958: 3956: 3954: 3952: 1777:discovered at an altitude of 2,300 m, near 1510:language. Chinese scholar Han Rulin, as well as 996:, located in modern Kazakhstan. To the west was 6882: 6226: 5861: 5790: 5693: 5496: 5344: 5049: 4813: 4800: 4740: 4697: 4520: 4412: 4158: 3950: 3948: 3946: 3944: 3942: 3940: 3938: 3936: 3934: 3932: 508:. They possibly became subsumed into the later 5280:http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/beg-pers 4796:. Ürümqi: Xinjiang People's Press. p. 43. 4203: 4142: 4140: 4138: 4136: 1392:admixture. Later, in a more thorough study by 958:Wusun and their neighbours around 200 AD. 886: 871:area. The Sai would subsequently migrate into 7159: 6944: 6846: 5007: 5005: 4855: 4538: 4193: 4191: 4189: 4152: 4002: 3797: 1533: 1412:people and speak a language belonging to the 6431: 6404: 5661: 5255: 5253: 5236: 5234: 5061: 4984: 4978: 4396: 4394: 4392: 4390: 4388: 4386: 4384: 4382: 4380: 4085: 3929: 577:(VI.16.3). Another theory links them to the 6483: 6458: 6331: 5127: 5073: 4897: 4895: 4861: 4824: 4822: 4474: 4472: 4353: 4133: 4127: 1023: 907:and expanded into South Asia, founding the 837:influence, or even the origin of the royal 485:, which had formerly been inhabited by the 16:Ancient semi-nomadic people in Central Asia 7166: 7152: 6951: 6937: 6810: 6802:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 6511: 6505:ABC Etymological Dictionary of Old Chinese 6502: 6117: 5662:Durand-Guédy, David (September 13, 2013). 5481: 5332: 5219: 5192: 5121: 5115: 5091: 5002: 4990: 4341: 4186: 4014: 3804: 3790: 3768:Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch 1831:suggests that the Wusun may have been the 1570:). Meanwhile, Findley considers the title 1408:The Wusun are generally believed to be an 496:The Wusun then became close allies of the 6910: 6900: 5729: 5665:Turko-Mongol Rulers, Cities and City Life 5530:International Journal of Eurasian Studies 5511:Collection of histories. Volume 1, Book 1 5458: 5250: 5231: 4918: 4722: 4703: 4641:. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 133. 4634: 4445: 4377: 1396:archaeologists of eighty-seven skulls of 6507:. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. 6082: 5984: 5595: 5560: 5356: 5097: 5016: 4972: 4966: 4960: 4954: 4907: 4892: 4819: 4709: 4469: 4463: 4439: 4400: 4359: 4347: 4288: 4197: 4146: 1713:Wusun society seems to have been highly 1327: 953: 702: 384: 7032:Protectorate General to Pacify the West 6686: 6407:"The consonantal system of Old Chinese" 6296: 6152: 6048:The Peoples of the West from the Weilue 5826: 5546:Four studies in history of Central Asia 5540: 5259: 5240: 5133: 4948: 4942: 4728: 1983:Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex 1332:A Chinese depiction of the Wusun, from 1063:, the latter king went south to Bolor ( 445:The Wusun originally lived between the 7781: 6712: 6695:East Asian Languages and Civilizations 6369: 5949: 5918: 5883: 5626: 5527: 5508: 5225: 5169:East Asian Languages and Civilizations 5109: 5103: 5034: 5011: 4996: 4924: 4679: 4667: 4655: 4451: 4115: 4070: 1740:. Y. A. Zadneprovskiy writes that the 1323: 557:and linked the Wusun to the Άσμίραιοι 292: 226: 7147: 6932: 6611: 6541: 6067:陈连开 (Liankai, Chen) (1999). 中国民族史纲要 ( 6058:Draft annotated English translation. 5416: 5198: 5022: 4930: 4901: 4843: 4734: 4691: 4514: 4406: 4035: 3869: 3775:Indo-European Etymological Dictionary 3747:Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture 1631:) 'eldest (brother), (feudal) lord'. 891:The Xiongnu ruler was impressed with 334: 323: 314: 303: 270: 257: 248: 239: 213: 202: 193: 180: 167: 154: 141: 128: 115: 104: 93: 82: 73: 42: 6742: 6261: 6023: 5145: 5139: 5079: 4913: 4785: 4685: 4673: 4661: 4372:Enoki, Koshelenko & Haidary 1994 4029: 746:in the 2nd millennium BC. 715:sources as living together with the 358: 281: 62: 51: 6990:Protectorate of the Western Regions 6777: 6124:The Origins of Chinese Civilization 5988:(1 January 1994). "Conclusion". In 4840::　烏孫於西域諸戎其形最異。今之胡人青眼、赤須，狀類彌猴者，本其種也。 4792:Wang Mingzhe; Wang Binghua (1983). 4532: 4365: 3912:(140 BC – 436 AD): * 3732:Copenhagen Studies in Indo-European 1701: 950:Establishing relations with the Han 584:Sinologist Victor H. Mair compared 345: 13: 6739:. Ürümqi: Xinjiang People's Press. 6642: 6618:Aspects of Altaic Civilization III 5204: 4936: 4873: 4849: 4600: 3754:The Horse, the Wheel, and Language 1914:Hunter Gatherers from West Siberia 1252:In 5 BC, during the reign of 903:, where they became unified under 711:The Wusun were first mentioned by 14: 7825: 6024:Hill, John E. (January 5, 2011). 4294:"The Yuezhi Migration and Sogdia" 4159:de la Vaissière, Étienne (2013). 1933:300 BC and 100 BC. The sample of 1855:Andronovo culture § Genetics 1851:Sintashta culture § Genetics 1789:Connection to Western histography 523:is a modern pronunciation of the 7465: 7132:Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region 3761:Journal of Indo-European Studies 2525:Bible translations into Armenian 2016: 1897: 1863: 1291: 1218:Around 64 BC, according to 1096: 698: 637:'the horsemen', the name of the 399: 35: 28: 6974:(5th century BC–5th century AD) 6959:Historical polities in Xinjiang 6432:Pulleyblank, Edwin G. (1963b). 6405:Pulleyblank, Edwin G. (1963a). 6159:The Origin of the Indo-Iranians 6069:Outlines on China's Ethnicities 6060:Weilue: The Peoples of the West 5502: 5475: 5410: 5385: 5350: 5313: 5297: 5285: 5273: 5210: 4867: 4770: 4758: 4746: 4718:. Science (in Russian). Moscow. 4635:Findeisen, Raoul David (2009). 4628: 4619: 4606: 4594: 4578: 4569: 4499: 4484: 4457: 4433: 4418: 4316: 4171: 2036:List of Indo-European languages 1671:, a daughter of the Han prince 1545:National Sun Yat-sen University 1420:-speaking by the archaeologist 1171:), whose half-brother Wujiutu ( 749:Around 210–200 BC, prince 6754:University of California Press 6238:University of California Press 6129:University of California Press 4551:Encyclopædia Britannica Online 4091: 4020: 3896: 3887: 3879: 3860: 1751: 1590:(as used by the rulers of the 1576:as certainly derived from the 1018: 829:has suggested that the Wusun, 489:. The Wusun then resettled in 1: 5956:Central Asia in World History 5864:Papers of Far Eastern History 4556:Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 4430:: 匈奴攻殺其父，而昆莫生棄於野。烏嗛肉蜚其上，狼往乳之。 4304:(Ēran ud Anērān). Transoxiana 3848: 3362:Proto-Indo-European mythology 2631:Paleolithic continuity theory 1930: 1923:A genetic study published in 1499:suggests that the Wusun were 1300:and may have migrated to the 875:, where they founded various 833:, or both could represent an 36: 5417:Zhang, Fan (November 2021). 5392:Iaroslav Lebedinsky (2006). 5294:Baga at Encyclopædia Iranica 5086:Loewe & Shaughnessy 1999 4835:with commentary by Yan Shigu 4479:Sinor & Klyashtorny 1996 4252:"Chinese History – Wusun 烏孫" 3923: 3050:Northern Black Polished Ware 2249:Proto-Indo-European language 1732:stratified societies, Wusun 970:who are often identified as 515: 7: 6032:: John E. Hill. BookSurge. 5396:. Errance. pp. 60–63. 5282:Beg at Encyclopædia Iranica 4767:, vol. 4 "庚子，吐谷渾、烏孫、靺鞨皆來貢。" 4741:François & Hulsewé 1979 4698:François & Hulsewé 1979 4521:François & Hulsewé 1979 4413:François & Hulsewé 1979 3367:Proto-Indo-Iranian paganism 1992: 1844: 1403: 887:Migration to the Ili Valley 10: 7830: 6902:10.1186/s12863-020-00897-5 6699:University of Pennsylvania 6643:So, Francis K. H. (2009). 6553:Cambridge University Press 6465:Chinese and Indo-Europeans 6381:Cambridge University Press 6203:Cambridge University Press 6030:Charleston, South Carolina 5833:The Turks in World History 5572:Princeton University Press 5520: 5443:10.1038/s41586-021-04052-7 5173:University of Pennsylvania 4298:Transoxiana Webfestschrift 4047:Princeton University Press 2663:Domestication of the horse 1848: 1654: 1280:, would not be tolerated. 977:In 125 BC, under the 911:, which at its peak under 693: 610:-like language within the 18: 7814:History of Imperial China 7809:Nomadic groups in Eurasia 7744: 7718: 7687: 7680: 7565: 7534: 7481: 7474: 7463: 7374: 7306: 7206: 7190: 7183: 7112: 7059: 6964: 6726:Columbia University Press 6512:Schuessler, Axel (2014). 6503:Schuessler, Axel (2007). 6447:: 206–265. Archived from 6273:Columbia University Press 5722:10.1038/s41586-018-0094-2 5266:for the ruler's wife and 4876:"A Study of Saka History" 4874:Yu, Taishan (July 1998). 4616:東與匈奴、西北與康居、西與大宛、南與城郭諸國相接。 4097:Lieu, Samuel N.C. (2014) 3372:Historical Vedic religion 2649:Chalcolithic (Copper Age) 1451: 1416:. They are thought to be 1372:Among the barbarians (戎; 1276:and the statelets of the 1242: 1234: 1176: 1168: 1160: 1152: 1127: 1115: 1009: 782: 774: 766: 461:. Around 176 BC the 7789:Ancient peoples of China 7120:Xinjiang under Qing rule 6653:Otto Harrassowitz Verlag 6420:: 58–144. Archived from 6376:The Indo-Aryan Languages 6228:Maenchen-Helfen, Otto J. 5562:Beckwith, Christopher I. 5146:Jixu, Zhou (July 2003). 4794:Research on Wusun (乌孙研究) 3853: 3377:Ancient Iranian religion 2740:Novotitarovskaya culture 2587:Indo-European migrations 1797:(IV. 16–25) and in 937:transmission of Buddhism 667:, which is cognate with 465:raided the lands of the 34: 6778:Yap, Joseph P. (2019). 6154:Kusmina, Elena Efimovna 5961:Oxford University Press 5838:Oxford University Press 5793:Hulsewé, Paulus Hulsewé 5509:Al-Din, Rashid (1952). 5243:, p. 39 "The term 4862:Mallory & Mair 2000 4575:Hanshu, ch.61 & 96. 2878:Northern/Eastern Steppe 1536:pʰuoᴮ-liai ~ *pʰuoᴮ-lie 1535: 1525: 1497:Christopher I. Beckwith 659:contains two morphemes 630:, which he compares to 620:Christopher I. Beckwith 612:Indo-European languages 561:, who inhabited modern 431:) were an ancient semi- 6676:Stein, Aurel M. 1921. 6193:Shaughnessy, Edward L. 5828:Findley, Carter Vaughn 5482:Tynyshpaev, M (1925). 5333:Yong & Bingua 1994 4777:《焦氏易林 – Jiaoshi Yilin》 4039:(September 22, 2014). 3867:Chinese pronunciation: 3349:Religion and mythology 3308:Medieval Scandinavians 2599:Alternative and fringe 1979:Western Steppe Herders 1945:extracted belonged to 1937:extracted belonged to 1663:(c. 123) and the 1435:, David Durand-Guédy, 1382: 1339: 1141: 1086: 959: 708: 707:Migration of the Wusun 569:and were mentioned in 390: 7804:Indo-European peoples 7799:History of Kyrgyzstan 7794:History of Kazakhstan 6460:Pulleyblank, Edwin G. 6373:(September 9, 1993). 6086:(September 5, 2013). 4782::烏孫氏女，深目黑醜；嗜欲不同，過時無偶。 4716:History of Hun People 3699:Indo-European studies 3062:Peoples and societies 1769:A famous find is the 1685:fermented mare's milk 1583:'lord', a cognate of 1446:scholar Denis Sinor. 1370: 1331: 1136: 1047: 957: 859:(Scythians) from the 706: 388: 6861:. pp. 457–472. 6825:. pp. 209–227. 6746:(1 September 2004). 6687:Taishan, Tu (2004). 6655:. pp. 131–138. 6621:. Psychology Press. 6590:. pp. 327–346. 6119:Kneightley, David N. 6046:Hill, John E. 2004. 6002:. pp. 485–492. 5928:. Ashgate/Variorum. 5769:. pp. 171–191. 5630:(11 December 2012). 5497:Zhabagin et al. 2020 5345:Gardiner-Garden 1986 5160:Sino-Platonic Papers 5050:Damgaard et al. 2018 4883:Sino-Platonic Papers 4814:Maenchen-Helfen 1973 2606:Anatolian hypothesis 2558:Proto-Indo-Europeans 2465:Hittite inscriptions 2010:Indo-European topics 1643:'strong' or Turkish 1612:Encyclopædia Iranica 1473:Edwin G. Pulleyblank 642:twin equestrian gods 616:Edwin G. Pulleyblank 538:Canadian Sinologist 438:people mentioned in 377:class=notpageimage| 7038:Kara-Khanid Khanate 6353:Thames & Hudson 6121:(January 1, 1983). 5953:(January 5, 2011). 5791:François, Anthony; 5714:2018Natur.557..369D 5435:2021Natur.599..256Z 5304:Hanshu 《漢書·卷九十六下》 4585:Hanshu 《漢書·卷九十六下》 4130:, pp. 426–427. 3902:Eastern Han Chinese 3884:traditional Chinese 2862:Multi-cordoned ware 2733:Mikhaylovka culture 2621:Indigenous Aryanism 2611:Armenian hypothesis 2470:Hieroglyphic Luwian 1969:admixture than the 1829:Iaroslav Lebedynsky 1728:. Typical of early 1651:'wizard, shaman.'" 1414:Indo-Iranian branch 1388:people with slight 1352:Western Han dynasty 1335:Gujin Tushu Jicheng 1324:Physical appearance 669:Manichaean Parthian 6782:. Middletown, DE. 6737:Research on Wusun) 6265:(20 August 2013). 5795:(1 January 1979). 5323:民剛惡，貪狼無信，多寇盜，最為強國。 5228:, pp. 121–122 5207:, pp. 133–134 5124:, pp. 457–460 4963:, pp. 488–489 4816:, pp. 369–375 4491:Hanshu 《漢書·張騫李廣利傳》 4481:, pp. 328–329 4454:, pp. 237–238 4374:, pp. 171–191 4362:, pp. 380–383 4334:2016-03-04 at the 4178:Hanshu 《漢書·張騫李廣利傳》 4149:, pp. 376–377 4005:, pp. 458–462 4003:Zadneprovskiy 1994 3876:simplified Chinese 2442:Proto-Indo-Iranian 2428:Proto-Balto-Slavic 2409:Proto-Italo-Celtic 1479:, could have been 1340: 960: 709: 525:Chinese Characters 391: 7776: 7775: 7772: 7771: 7676: 7675: 7461: 7460: 7141: 7140: 7026:Kingdom of Khotan 6965:Pre-Mongol Empire 6308:Thames and Hudson 6039:978-1-4392-2134-1 5628:Baumer, Christoph 5564:(16 March 2009). 5429:(7884): 256–261. 5062:Pulleyblank 1963b 4985:Durand-Guédy 2013 4951:, pp. 78, 83 4648:978-3-447-06135-3 4086:Pulleyblank 1963a 3871:[wúswə́n] 3818:Iranians in China 3814: 3813: 3075:Anatolian peoples 3045:Painted Grey Ware 2933:Nordic Bronze Age 2582:Kurgan hypothesis 2535:Old Irish glosses 2500:Gaulish epigraphy 1941:. The samples of 1906:Anatolian farmers 1742:social inequality 1738:levirate marriage 1659:According to the 1557:Carter V. Findley 1026: 540:Edwin Pulleyblank 7821: 7685: 7684: 7479: 7478: 7469: 7188: 7187: 7178:peoples in China 7168: 7161: 7154: 7145: 7144: 7067:Chagatai Khanate 6953: 6946: 6939: 6930: 6929: 6924: 6914: 6904: 6889:BMC Genomic Data 6879: 6877: 6875: 6843: 6841: 6839: 6807: 6801: 6793: 6774: 6772: 6770: 6734: 6729: 6709: 6707: 6705: 6673: 6671: 6669: 6639: 6637: 6635: 6608: 6606: 6604: 6573: 6571: 6569: 6545:(1 March 1990). 6538: 6536: 6535: 6529: 6518: 6508: 6499: 6480: 6478: 6476: 6455: 6453: 6438: 6428: 6426: 6411: 6401: 6399: 6397: 6371:Masica, Colin P. 6366: 6346: 6328: 6326: 6324: 6293: 6291: 6289: 6258: 6256: 6254: 6223: 6221: 6219: 6184: 6182: 6180: 6149: 6147: 6145: 6114: 6112: 6110: 6084:Kitagawa, Joseph 6066: 6043: 6020: 6018: 6016: 5981: 5979: 5977: 5951:Golden, Peter B. 5946: 5944: 5942: 5920:Golden, Peter B. 5915: 5913: 5911: 5885:Golden, Peter B. 5879: 5858: 5856: 5854: 5823: 5821: 5819: 5787: 5785: 5783: 5751: 5733: 5690: 5688: 5686: 5658: 5656: 5654: 5623: 5621: 5619: 5592: 5590: 5588: 5557: 5537: 5515: 5514: 5506: 5500: 5494: 5488: 5487: 5479: 5473: 5472: 5462: 5414: 5408: 5407: 5389: 5383: 5382: 5354: 5348: 5342: 5336: 5330: 5324: 5317: 5311: 5301: 5295: 5289: 5283: 5277: 5271: 5257: 5248: 5238: 5229: 5223: 5217: 5214: 5208: 5202: 5196: 5190: 5184: 5183: 5181: 5179: 5167:. Department of 5156: 5143: 5137: 5136:, pp. 59–60 5131: 5125: 5119: 5113: 5107: 5101: 5095: 5089: 5088:, pp. 87–88 5083: 5077: 5076:, pp. 9–39. 5074:Pulleyblank 1966 5071: 5065: 5059: 5053: 5047: 5038: 5032: 5026: 5020: 5014: 5009: 5000: 4994: 4988: 4987:, pp. 24–25 4982: 4976: 4970: 4964: 4958: 4952: 4946: 4940: 4934: 4928: 4922: 4916: 4911: 4905: 4899: 4890: 4889: 4880: 4871: 4865: 4864:, pp. 93–94 4859: 4853: 4847: 4841: 4826: 4817: 4811: 4798: 4797: 4789: 4783: 4774: 4768: 4762: 4756: 4750: 4744: 4738: 4732: 4726: 4720: 4719: 4707: 4701: 4695: 4689: 4683: 4677: 4671: 4665: 4664:, pp. 53–54 4659: 4653: 4652: 4632: 4626: 4623: 4617: 4610: 4604: 4598: 4592: 4582: 4576: 4573: 4567: 4566: 4564: 4562: 4542: 4536: 4530: 4524: 4518: 4512: 4503: 4497: 4496:時，月氏已為匈奴所破，西擊塞王。 4488: 4482: 4476: 4467: 4461: 4455: 4449: 4443: 4437: 4431: 4422: 4416: 4410: 4404: 4398: 4375: 4369: 4363: 4357: 4351: 4350:, pp. 29–38 4345: 4339: 4320: 4314: 4313: 4311: 4309: 4292:(October 2003). 4286: 4269: 4268: 4266: 4264: 4248: 4201: 4200:, pp. 84–85 4195: 4184: 4175: 4169: 4168: 4156: 4150: 4144: 4131: 4128:Pulleyblank 2002 4125: 4119: 4113: 4104: 4095: 4089: 4083: 4077: 4074: 4068: 4067: 4065: 4063: 4033: 4027: 4024: 4018: 4012: 4006: 4000: 3917: 3898: 3889: 3881: 3873: 3868: 3864: 3806: 3799: 3792: 3647: 3640: 3626: 3619: 3612: 3598: 3591: 3584: 3577: 3570: 3495: 3481: 3474: 3460: 3438: 3431: 3424: 3415: 3250: 3243: 3236: 3229: 3222: 3205:Germanic peoples 3195:Hellenic peoples 3184: 3177: 3170: 3093:Mycenaean Greeks 3082: 3010:Thraco-Cimmerian 2908:Globular Amphora 2885:Abashevo culture 2824: 2817: 2787: 2742: 2735: 2728: 2721: 2714: 2707: 2700: 2693: 2530:Tocharian script 2233: 2226: 2219: 2212: 2205: 2198: 2191: 2184: 2151: 2137: 2130: 2123: 2109: 2085: 2078: 2059: 2020: 1997: 1996: 1932: 1901: 1867: 1702:Social structure 1538: 1528: 1453: 1314:tributary states 1244: 1236: 1178: 1170: 1162: 1154: 1129: 1117: 1084: 1027: 1024: 1020: 1011: 966:(Saka), and the 905:Kujula Kadphises 784: 776: 768: 721:Qilian Mountains 684:dental fricative 531:'crow, raven' + 447:Qilian Mountains 425: 424: 421: 420: 417: 414: 411: 408: 405: 371: 369: 356: 354: 343: 341: 332: 330: 321: 319: 312: 310: 301: 299: 290: 288: 279: 277: 268: 266: 255: 253: 246: 244: 237: 235: 224: 222: 211: 209: 200: 198: 191: 189: 178: 176: 165: 163: 152: 150: 139: 137: 126: 124: 113: 111: 102: 100: 91: 89: 80: 78: 71: 69: 60: 58: 49: 47: 39: 38: 32: 7829: 7828: 7824: 7823: 7822: 7820: 7819: 7818: 7779: 7778: 7777: 7768: 7740: 7714: 7672: 7561: 7530: 7470: 7457: 7370: 7302: 7202: 7179: 7174:Historical non- 7172: 7142: 7137: 7108: 7097:Dzungar Khanate 7091:Yarkent Khanate 7055: 7022:(?–9th century) 6980:(200 BC-709 AD) 6960: 6957: 6927: 6873: 6871: 6869: 6849:Harmatta, János 6837: 6835: 6833: 6813:Harmatta, János 6795: 6794: 6790: 6768: 6766: 6764: 6732: 6703: 6701: 6667: 6665: 6663: 6633: 6631: 6629: 6602: 6600: 6598: 6567: 6565: 6563: 6533: 6531: 6527: 6516: 6496: 6474: 6472: 6451: 6436: 6424: 6409: 6395: 6393: 6391: 6363: 6337:Mair, Victor H. 6322: 6320: 6318: 6287: 6285: 6283: 6263:Mair, Victor H. 6252: 6250: 6248: 6217: 6215: 6213: 6178: 6176: 6174: 6143: 6141: 6139: 6108: 6106: 6104: 6064: 6040: 6014: 6012: 6010: 5990:Harmatta, János 5986:Harmatta, János 5975: 5973: 5971: 5940: 5938: 5936: 5909: 5907: 5905: 5895:O. Harrassowitz 5852: 5850: 5848: 5817: 5815: 5813: 5781: 5779: 5777: 5757:Harmatta, János 5706:Nature Research 5684: 5682: 5680: 5652: 5650: 5648: 5617: 5615: 5613: 5597:Benjamin, Craig 5586: 5584: 5582: 5523: 5518: 5507: 5503: 5495: 5491: 5480: 5476: 5415: 5411: 5404: 5390: 5386: 5371:10.2307/3248792 5365:(2): 161–177 . 5355: 5351: 5343: 5339: 5331: 5327: 5318: 5314: 5302: 5298: 5290: 5286: 5278: 5274: 5258: 5251: 5239: 5232: 5224: 5220: 5215: 5211: 5203: 5199: 5193:Schuessler 2014 5191: 5187: 5177: 5175: 5154: 5148:Mair, Victor H. 5144: 5140: 5132: 5128: 5122:Kneightley 1983 5120: 5116: 5108: 5104: 5096: 5092: 5084: 5080: 5072: 5068: 5060: 5056: 5048: 5041: 5033: 5029: 5021: 5017: 5010: 5003: 4995: 4991: 4983: 4979: 4971: 4967: 4959: 4955: 4947: 4943: 4935: 4931: 4923: 4919: 4912: 4908: 4900: 4893: 4878: 4872: 4868: 4860: 4856: 4848: 4844: 4827: 4820: 4812: 4801: 4790: 4786: 4775: 4771: 4763: 4759: 4751: 4747: 4739: 4735: 4727: 4723: 4708: 4704: 4696: 4692: 4684: 4680: 4672: 4668: 4660: 4656: 4649: 4633: 4629: 4624: 4620: 4611: 4607: 4599: 4595: 4583: 4579: 4574: 4570: 4560: 4558: 4544: 4543: 4539: 4531: 4527: 4519: 4515: 4506:Shiji 《史記·大宛列傳》 4504: 4500: 4489: 4485: 4477: 4470: 4462: 4458: 4450: 4446: 4438: 4434: 4425:Shiji 《史記·大宛列傳》 4423: 4419: 4411: 4407: 4399: 4378: 4370: 4366: 4358: 4354: 4346: 4342: 4336:Wayback Machine 4321: 4317: 4307: 4305: 4290:Benjamin, Craig 4287: 4272: 4262: 4260: 4250: 4249: 4204: 4196: 4187: 4176: 4172: 4157: 4153: 4145: 4134: 4126: 4122: 4114: 4107: 4096: 4092: 4084: 4080: 4075: 4071: 4061: 4059: 4057: 4049:. p. 421. 4037:Mayor, Adrienne 4034: 4030: 4025: 4021: 4015:Schuessler 2014 4013: 4009: 4001: 3930: 3926: 3921: 3920: 3866: 3865: 3861: 3856: 3851: 3810: 3781: 3780: 3713:Marija Gimbutas 3701: 3691: 3690: 3682:Winter solstice 3672:Horse sacrifice 3643: 3636: 3622: 3615: 3608: 3594: 3587: 3580: 3573: 3566: 3519: 3504: 3491: 3477: 3470: 3456: 3447: 3434: 3427: 3420: 3411: 3402: 3381: 3350: 3342: 3341: 3284: 3271: 3246: 3239: 3232: 3225: 3218: 3180: 3173: 3166: 3157: 3139: 3126: 3113: 3084: 3078: 3063: 3055: 3054: 3028: 3005: 2992: 2980: 2961: 2903: 2880: 2842: 2835: 2829: 2820: 2813: 2804: 2802:Northern Europe 2783: 2779: 2766: 2753: 2738: 2731: 2724: 2717: 2710: 2703: 2696: 2689: 2685:Steppe cultures 2658: 2651: 2644: 2636: 2635: 2626:Baltic homeland 2600: 2596: 2592:Eurasian nomads 2576: 2572: 2548: 2540: 2539: 2510:Runic epigraphy 2505:Latin epigraphy 2460: 2452: 2451: 2389:Proto-Anatolian 2373: 2328: 2324:Thraco-Illyrian 2309:Graeco-Phrygian 2299:Graeco-Armenian 2294:Graeco-Albanian 2273: 2251: 2238: 2229: 2222: 2215: 2208: 2201: 2194: 2187: 2180: 2147: 2133: 2126: 2119: 2105: 2081: 2074: 2055: 2040: 2032: 2030: 1995: 1921: 1920: 1919: 1918: 1917: 1916:, respectively. 1910:Iranian farmers 1902: 1893: 1892: 1891: 1868: 1857: 1847: 1791: 1754: 1704: 1657: 1633:Gerhard Doerfer 1610:. According to 1592:Sassanid Empire 1489:David Keightley 1459:Iranian peoples 1440:Peter B. Golden 1433:Joseph Kitagawa 1406: 1338:, 18th century. 1326: 1302:Pamir Mountains 1294: 1278:Western Regions 1254:Wuzhuliu Chanyu 1145:Princess Jieyou 1108:Ferghana Valley 1099: 1085: 1079: 952: 915:stretched from 889: 851:. According to 759:Mongolian Plain 744:Iranian peoples 740:Eurasian Steppe 701: 696: 655:confederation. 518: 502:Pamir Mountains 402: 398: 383: 382: 381: 379: 373: 372: 365: 361: 359: 357: 348: 346: 344: 337: 335: 333: 328: 326: 324: 322: 317: 315: 313: 308: 306: 304: 302: 297: 295: 293: 291: 286: 284: 282: 280: 273: 271: 269: 260: 258: 256: 251: 249: 247: 242: 240: 238: 232: 229: 227: 225: 219: 216: 214: 212: 205: 203: 201: 196: 194: 192: 186: 183: 181: 179: 170: 168: 166: 157: 155: 153: 144: 142: 140: 131: 129: 127: 118: 116: 114: 107: 105: 103: 96: 94: 92: 85: 83: 81: 76: 74: 72: 67: 65: 63: 61: 56: 54: 52: 50: 45: 43: 41: 40: 24: 21:Wusun Mountains 17: 12: 11: 5: 7827: 7817: 7816: 7811: 7806: 7801: 7796: 7791: 7774: 7773: 7770: 7769: 7767: 7766: 7765: 7764: 7759: 7748: 7746: 7742: 7741: 7739: 7738: 7733: 7728: 7726:Khalkha Mongol 7722: 7720: 7716: 7715: 7713: 7712: 7707: 7702: 7697: 7691: 7689: 7682: 7678: 7677: 7674: 7673: 7671: 7670: 7669: 7668: 7658: 7653: 7652: 7651: 7646: 7641: 7631: 7626: 7625: 7624: 7623: 7622: 7617: 7612: 7607: 7592: 7591: 7590: 7580: 7575: 7569: 7567: 7563: 7562: 7560: 7559: 7554: 7549: 7544: 7538: 7536: 7532: 7531: 7529: 7528: 7523: 7522: 7521: 7516: 7506: 7501: 7496: 7491: 7485: 7483: 7476: 7472: 7471: 7464: 7462: 7459: 7458: 7456: 7455: 7450: 7445: 7444: 7443: 7433: 7428: 7423: 7418: 7417: 7416: 7411: 7406: 7396: 7395: 7394: 7384: 7378: 7376: 7372: 7371: 7369: 7368: 7363: 7362: 7361: 7356: 7351: 7341: 7336: 7331: 7326: 7321: 7316: 7310: 7308: 7304: 7303: 7301: 7300: 7295: 7290: 7285: 7284: 7283: 7273: 7268: 7263: 7262: 7261: 7256: 7251: 7246: 7241: 7236: 7231: 7226: 7221: 7210: 7208: 7204: 7203: 7201: 7200: 7194: 7192: 7185: 7181: 7180: 7171: 7170: 7163: 7156: 7148: 7139: 7138: 7136: 7135: 7129: 7126:Xinjiang (ROC) 7123: 7116: 7114: 7110: 7109: 7107: 7106: 7100: 7094: 7088: 7085:Turpan Khanate 7082: 7076: 7070: 7063: 7061: 7057: 7056: 7054: 7053: 7047: 7041: 7035: 7029: 7023: 7017: 7011: 7005: 6999: 6993: 6987: 6984:Loulan Kingdom 6981: 6975: 6968: 6966: 6962: 6961: 6956: 6955: 6948: 6941: 6933: 6926: 6925: 6880: 6867: 6844: 6831: 6808: 6789:978-1792829154 6788: 6775: 6762: 6740: 6730: 6714:Watson, Burton 6710: 6684: 6674: 6662:978-3447061353 6661: 6640: 6627: 6609: 6596: 6574: 6561: 6539: 6509: 6500: 6494: 6481: 6456: 6454:on 2014-12-16. 6429: 6427:on 2014-12-16. 6402: 6389: 6367: 6361: 6333:Mallory, J. P. 6329: 6316: 6298:Mallory, J. P. 6294: 6282:978-0231505628 6281: 6259: 6246: 6224: 6211: 6189:Loewe, Michael 6185: 6173:978-0521299442 6172: 6150: 6137: 6115: 6103:978-1136875977 6102: 6080: 6062: 6044: 6038: 6021: 6008: 5982: 5970:978-0199722037 5969: 5947: 5935:978-1409400035 5934: 5916: 5903: 5881: 5859: 5846: 5824: 5811: 5788: 5775: 5752: 5691: 5679:978-9004257009 5678: 5659: 5647:978-1780760605 5646: 5624: 5612:978-2503524290 5611: 5593: 5581:978-1400829941 5580: 5558: 5542:Bartold, W. W. 5538: 5524: 5522: 5519: 5517: 5516: 5501: 5489: 5474: 5409: 5402: 5384: 5349: 5337: 5335:, p. 225. 5325: 5321:Original text: 5312: 5308:Original text: 5296: 5284: 5272: 5249: 5230: 5218: 5209: 5197: 5195:, p. 283. 5185: 5138: 5126: 5114: 5102: 5090: 5078: 5066: 5064:, p. 227. 5054: 5039: 5027: 5015: 5001: 4989: 4977: 4965: 4953: 4941: 4929: 4917: 4906: 4891: 4866: 4854: 4842: 4818: 4799: 4784: 4769: 4757: 4755:, ch. 102 4745: 4733: 4721: 4702: 4690: 4678: 4666: 4654: 4647: 4627: 4618: 4614:Original text: 4605: 4593: 4589:Original text: 4577: 4568: 4537: 4535:, p. 164. 4525: 4513: 4498: 4483: 4468: 4456: 4444: 4432: 4417: 4405: 4403:, pp. 6–7 4376: 4364: 4352: 4340: 4315: 4270: 4257:Chinaknowledge 4202: 4185: 4170: 4151: 4132: 4120: 4105: 4090: 4088:, p. 136. 4078: 4069: 4056:978-1400865130 4055: 4028: 4019: 4017:, p. 264. 4007: 3927: 3925: 3922: 3919: 3918: 3858: 3857: 3855: 3852: 3850: 3847: 3846: 3845: 3840: 3835: 3830: 3825: 3820: 3812: 3811: 3809: 3808: 3801: 3794: 3786: 3783: 3782: 3779: 3778: 3771: 3764: 3757: 3750: 3742: 3741: 3735: 3734: 3728: 3727: 3721: 3720: 3715: 3709: 3708: 3702: 3697: 3696: 3693: 3692: 3689: 3688: 3679: 3674: 3669: 3667:Fire sacrifice 3663: 3662: 3656: 3655: 3650: 3649: 3648: 3641: 3629: 3628: 3627: 3620: 3613: 3601: 3600: 3599: 3592: 3585: 3578: 3571: 3559: 3554: 3549: 3512: 3511: 3499: 3498: 3497: 3496: 3484: 3483: 3482: 3475: 3463: 3462: 3461: 3458:Zoroastrianism 3440: 3439: 3432: 3425: 3418: 3417: 3416: 3395: 3394: 3388: 3387: 3380: 3379: 3374: 3369: 3364: 3358: 3357: 3351: 3348: 3347: 3344: 3343: 3340: 3339: 3328: 3327: 3325:Medieval India 3316: 3315: 3310: 3301: 3296: 3291: 3279: 3278: 3266: 3265: 3259: 3258: 3253: 3252: 3251: 3244: 3237: 3230: 3223: 3207: 3202: 3200:Italic peoples 3197: 3192: 3187: 3186: 3185: 3178: 3171: 3152: 3151: 3146: 3134: 3133: 3121: 3120: 3108: 3107: 3101: 3100: 3095: 3090: 3085: 3071: 3070: 3064: 3061: 3060: 3057: 3056: 3053: 3052: 3047: 3036: 3035: 3023: 3022: 3017: 3012: 3000: 2999: 2987: 2986: 2979: 2978: 2976:Gandhara grave 2973: 2968: 2956: 2955: 2950: 2945: 2940: 2935: 2930: 2925: 2920: 2915: 2910: 2898: 2897: 2892: 2887: 2875: 2874: 2869: 2864: 2859: 2854: 2849: 2837: 2836: 2828: 2827: 2826: 2825: 2822:Middle Dnieper 2818: 2799: 2798: 2793: 2788: 2777:Eastern Europe 2774: 2773: 2761: 2760: 2748: 2747: 2746: 2745: 2744: 2743: 2736: 2722: 2715: 2708: 2705:Dnieper–Donets 2701: 2694: 2682: 2680:Kurgan culture 2677: 2676: 2675: 2665: 2653: 2652: 2645: 2642: 2641: 2638: 2637: 2634: 2633: 2628: 2623: 2618: 2616:Beech argument 2613: 2608: 2602: 2601: 2595: 2594: 2589: 2584: 2578: 2577: 2571: 2570: 2565: 2560: 2555: 2549: 2546: 2545: 2542: 2541: 2538: 2537: 2532: 2527: 2522: 2517: 2512: 2507: 2502: 2497: 2492: 2487: 2482: 2477: 2472: 2467: 2461: 2458: 2457: 2454: 2453: 2450: 2449: 2439: 2425: 2420: 2406: 2399:Proto-Germanic 2396: 2394:Proto-Armenian 2391: 2386: 2384:Proto-Albanian 2380: 2379: 2372: 2371: 2366: 2361: 2356: 2351: 2346: 2341: 2335: 2334: 2327: 2326: 2321: 2316: 2311: 2306: 2301: 2296: 2291: 2286: 2280: 2279: 2272: 2271: 2270: 2269: 2245: 2244: 2237: 2236: 2235: 2234: 2227: 2220: 2213: 2206: 2199: 2192: 2185: 2173: 2168: 2162: 2161: 2155: 2154: 2153: 2152: 2140: 2139: 2138: 2131: 2124: 2112: 2111: 2110: 2098: 2093: 2088: 2087: 2086: 2079: 2067: 2062: 2061: 2060: 2047: 2046: 2039: 2038: 2031: 2026: 2025: 2022: 2021: 2013: 2012: 2006: 2005: 1994: 1991: 1903: 1896: 1895: 1894: 1869: 1862: 1861: 1860: 1859: 1858: 1846: 1843: 1790: 1787: 1771:Kargali burial 1753: 1750: 1703: 1700: 1667:(c. 96), 1656: 1653: 1594:), as well as 1585:Middle Persian 1429:János Harmatta 1405: 1402: 1325: 1322: 1293: 1290: 1268:In 2 AD, 1104:Princess Xijun 1098: 1095: 1077: 1067:) whereby the 951: 948: 929:Gangetic plain 888: 885: 823:Turkic peoples 700: 697: 695: 692: 663:"people" and * 544:Middle Chinese 517: 514: 375: 374: 33: 27: 26: 25: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7826: 7815: 7812: 7810: 7807: 7805: 7802: 7800: 7797: 7795: 7792: 7790: 7787: 7786: 7784: 7763: 7760: 7758: 7755: 7754: 7753: 7750: 7749: 7747: 7743: 7737: 7734: 7732: 7729: 7727: 7724: 7723: 7721: 7717: 7711: 7708: 7706: 7703: 7701: 7698: 7696: 7693: 7692: 7690: 7686: 7683: 7679: 7667: 7664: 7663: 7662: 7659: 7657: 7654: 7650: 7647: 7645: 7642: 7640: 7637: 7636: 7635: 7632: 7630: 7627: 7621: 7618: 7616: 7613: 7611: 7608: 7606: 7605:Khamag Mongol 7603: 7602: 7601: 7598: 7597: 7596: 7593: 7589: 7586: 7585: 7584: 7581: 7579: 7576: 7574: 7571: 7570: 7568: 7564: 7558: 7555: 7553: 7550: 7548: 7545: 7543: 7540: 7539: 7537: 7533: 7527: 7524: 7520: 7517: 7515: 7512: 7511: 7510: 7507: 7505: 7502: 7500: 7497: 7495: 7492: 7490: 7487: 7486: 7484: 7480: 7477: 7473: 7468: 7454: 7451: 7449: 7446: 7442: 7439: 7438: 7437: 7434: 7432: 7429: 7427: 7424: 7422: 7419: 7415: 7412: 7410: 7407: 7405: 7402: 7401: 7400: 7397: 7393: 7390: 7389: 7388: 7385: 7383: 7380: 7379: 7377: 7373: 7367: 7364: 7360: 7357: 7355: 7352: 7350: 7347: 7346: 7345: 7342: 7340: 7337: 7335: 7332: 7330: 7327: 7325: 7322: 7320: 7317: 7315: 7312: 7311: 7309: 7305: 7299: 7296: 7294: 7291: 7289: 7286: 7282: 7279: 7278: 7277: 7274: 7272: 7269: 7267: 7264: 7260: 7257: 7255: 7252: 7250: 7247: 7245: 7242: 7240: 7237: 7235: 7232: 7230: 7227: 7225: 7222: 7220: 7217: 7216: 7215: 7212: 7211: 7209: 7205: 7199: 7196: 7195: 7193: 7189: 7186: 7182: 7177: 7169: 7164: 7162: 7157: 7155: 7150: 7149: 7146: 7133: 7130: 7127: 7124: 7121: 7118: 7117: 7115: 7111: 7104: 7103:Kumul Khanate 7101: 7098: 7095: 7092: 7089: 7086: 7083: 7080: 7077: 7074: 7071: 7068: 7065: 7064: 7062: 7058: 7051: 7048: 7045: 7042: 7039: 7036: 7033: 7030: 7027: 7024: 7021: 7018: 7015: 7012: 7009: 7006: 7003: 7000: 6997: 6996:Jushi Kingdom 6994: 6991: 6988: 6985: 6982: 6979: 6978:Shule Kingdom 6976: 6973: 6970: 6969: 6967: 6963: 6954: 6949: 6947: 6942: 6940: 6935: 6934: 6931: 6922: 6918: 6913: 6908: 6903: 6898: 6894: 6890: 6886: 6881: 6870: 6864: 6860: 6856: 6855: 6850: 6845: 6834: 6828: 6824: 6820: 6819: 6814: 6809: 6805: 6799: 6791: 6785: 6781: 6776: 6765: 6759: 6755: 6751: 6750: 6745: 6744:Wood, Frances 6741: 6738: 6731: 6727: 6723: 6722:New York City 6719: 6715: 6711: 6700: 6696: 6692: 6691: 6685: 6683: 6679: 6675: 6664: 6658: 6654: 6650: 6646: 6641: 6630: 6624: 6620: 6619: 6614: 6610: 6599: 6593: 6589: 6585: 6584: 6579: 6575: 6564: 6558: 6554: 6550: 6549: 6544: 6540: 6530:on 2021-06-07 6526: 6522: 6515: 6510: 6506: 6501: 6497: 6495:0-86078-859-8 6491: 6487: 6482: 6471: 6467: 6466: 6461: 6457: 6450: 6446: 6442: 6435: 6430: 6423: 6419: 6415: 6408: 6403: 6392: 6386: 6382: 6378: 6377: 6372: 6368: 6364: 6362:0-500-05101-1 6358: 6354: 6350: 6345: 6344: 6338: 6334: 6330: 6319: 6313: 6309: 6305: 6304: 6299: 6295: 6284: 6278: 6274: 6270: 6269: 6264: 6260: 6249: 6243: 6239: 6235: 6234: 6229: 6225: 6214: 6212:0-5214-7030-7 6208: 6204: 6200: 6199: 6194: 6190: 6186: 6175: 6169: 6165: 6161: 6160: 6155: 6151: 6140: 6134: 6130: 6126: 6125: 6120: 6116: 6105: 6099: 6095: 6091: 6090: 6085: 6081: 6078: 6077:7-5005-4301-8 6074: 6070: 6063: 6061: 6057: 6053: 6049: 6045: 6041: 6035: 6031: 6027: 6022: 6011: 6005: 6001: 5997: 5996: 5991: 5987: 5983: 5972: 5966: 5962: 5958: 5957: 5952: 5948: 5937: 5931: 5927: 5926: 5921: 5917: 5906: 5904:3-447-03274-X 5900: 5896: 5892: 5891: 5886: 5882: 5877: 5873: 5869: 5865: 5860: 5849: 5843: 5839: 5835: 5834: 5829: 5825: 5814: 5808: 5804: 5803:Brill Archive 5800: 5799: 5794: 5789: 5778: 5772: 5768: 5764: 5763: 5758: 5753: 5749: 5745: 5741: 5737: 5732: 5727: 5723: 5719: 5715: 5711: 5707: 5703: 5699: 5698: 5692: 5681: 5675: 5671: 5667: 5666: 5660: 5649: 5643: 5639: 5635: 5634: 5629: 5625: 5614: 5608: 5604: 5603: 5598: 5594: 5583: 5577: 5573: 5569: 5568: 5563: 5559: 5555: 5551: 5547: 5543: 5539: 5535: 5531: 5526: 5525: 5512: 5505: 5498: 5493: 5485: 5478: 5470: 5466: 5461: 5456: 5452: 5448: 5444: 5440: 5436: 5432: 5428: 5424: 5420: 5413: 5405: 5403:2-87772-337-2 5399: 5395: 5388: 5380: 5376: 5372: 5368: 5364: 5360: 5359:Artibus Asiae 5353: 5346: 5341: 5334: 5329: 5322: 5316: 5309: 5305: 5300: 5293: 5288: 5281: 5276: 5269: 5265: 5261: 5256: 5254: 5246: 5242: 5237: 5235: 5227: 5222: 5213: 5206: 5201: 5194: 5189: 5174: 5170: 5166: 5162: 5161: 5153: 5149: 5142: 5135: 5130: 5123: 5118: 5111: 5106: 5099: 5098:Benjamin 2007 5094: 5087: 5082: 5075: 5070: 5063: 5058: 5051: 5046: 5044: 5037:, p. 62. 5036: 5031: 5025:, p. 236 5024: 5019: 5013: 5008: 5006: 4998: 4993: 4986: 4981: 4975:, p. 228 4974: 4973:Kitagawa 2013 4969: 4962: 4961:Harmatta 1994 4957: 4950: 4945: 4939:, p. 131 4938: 4933: 4927:, p. 212 4926: 4921: 4915: 4910: 4904:, p. 153 4903: 4898: 4896: 4888: 4884: 4877: 4870: 4863: 4858: 4852:, p. 134 4851: 4846: 4839: 4838:Original text 4836: 4832: 4831: 4825: 4823: 4815: 4810: 4808: 4806: 4804: 4795: 4788: 4781: 4780:Original text 4778: 4773: 4766: 4761: 4754: 4749: 4743:, p. 192 4742: 4737: 4730: 4725: 4717: 4713: 4710:Gumilev L.N. 4706: 4700:, p. 155 4699: 4694: 4687: 4682: 4675: 4670: 4663: 4658: 4650: 4644: 4640: 4639: 4631: 4622: 4615: 4609: 4603:, p. 133 4602: 4597: 4590: 4586: 4581: 4572: 4557: 4553: 4552: 4547: 4541: 4534: 4529: 4523:, p. 145 4522: 4517: 4510: 4509:Original text 4507: 4502: 4495: 4494:Original text 4492: 4487: 4480: 4475: 4473: 4465: 4464:Beckwith 2009 4460: 4453: 4448: 4441: 4440:Beckwith 2009 4436: 4429: 4428:Original text 4426: 4421: 4415:, p. 215 4414: 4409: 4402: 4401:Beckwith 2009 4397: 4395: 4393: 4391: 4389: 4387: 4385: 4383: 4381: 4373: 4368: 4361: 4360:Beckwith 2009 4356: 4349: 4348:Beckwith 2009 4344: 4337: 4333: 4330: 4329: 4324: 4319: 4303: 4299: 4295: 4291: 4285: 4283: 4281: 4279: 4277: 4275: 4259: 4258: 4253: 4247: 4245: 4243: 4241: 4239: 4237: 4235: 4233: 4231: 4229: 4227: 4225: 4223: 4221: 4219: 4217: 4215: 4213: 4211: 4209: 4207: 4199: 4198:Beckwith 2009 4194: 4192: 4190: 4182: 4181:Original text 4179: 4174: 4166: 4162: 4155: 4148: 4147:Beckwith 2009 4143: 4141: 4139: 4137: 4129: 4124: 4118:, p. 51. 4117: 4112: 4110: 4102: 4101: 4094: 4087: 4082: 4073: 4058: 4052: 4048: 4044: 4043: 4038: 4032: 4023: 4016: 4011: 4004: 3999: 3997: 3995: 3993: 3991: 3989: 3987: 3985: 3983: 3981: 3979: 3977: 3975: 3973: 3971: 3969: 3967: 3965: 3963: 3961: 3959: 3957: 3955: 3953: 3951: 3949: 3947: 3945: 3943: 3941: 3939: 3937: 3935: 3933: 3928: 3915: 3911: 3907: 3903: 3899: 3893: 3885: 3877: 3872: 3863: 3859: 3844: 3841: 3839: 3836: 3834: 3831: 3829: 3826: 3824: 3821: 3819: 3816: 3815: 3807: 3802: 3800: 3795: 3793: 3788: 3787: 3785: 3784: 3777: 3776: 3772: 3770: 3769: 3765: 3763: 3762: 3758: 3756: 3755: 3751: 3749: 3748: 3744: 3743: 3740: 3737: 3736: 3733: 3730: 3729: 3726: 3723: 3722: 3719: 3718:J. P. Mallory 3716: 3714: 3711: 3710: 3707: 3704: 3703: 3700: 3695: 3694: 3687: 3683: 3680: 3678: 3675: 3673: 3670: 3668: 3665: 3664: 3661: 3658: 3657: 3654: 3651: 3646: 3642: 3639: 3635: 3634: 3633: 3630: 3625: 3621: 3618: 3614: 3611: 3607: 3606: 3605: 3602: 3597: 3593: 3590: 3586: 3583: 3579: 3576: 3572: 3569: 3565: 3564: 3563: 3560: 3558: 3555: 3553: 3550: 3547: 3544: 3541: 3538: 3535: 3532: 3529: 3525: 3522: 3521: 3520: 3518: 3517: 3510: 3507: 3506: 3505: 3503: 3494: 3490: 3489: 3488: 3485: 3480: 3476: 3473: 3469: 3468: 3467: 3464: 3459: 3455: 3454: 3453: 3450: 3449: 3448: 3446: 3445: 3437: 3433: 3430: 3426: 3423: 3419: 3414: 3410: 3409: 3408: 3405: 3404: 3403: 3401: 3400: 3393: 3390: 3389: 3386: 3383: 3382: 3378: 3375: 3373: 3370: 3368: 3365: 3363: 3360: 3359: 3356: 3355:Reconstructed 3353: 3352: 3346: 3345: 3338: 3335: 3334: 3333: 3332: 3326: 3323: 3322: 3321: 3320: 3314: 3311: 3309: 3305: 3302: 3300: 3297: 3295: 3292: 3290: 3287: 3286: 3285: 3283: 3277: 3274: 3273: 3272: 3270: 3264: 3261: 3260: 3257: 3254: 3249: 3245: 3242: 3238: 3235: 3231: 3228: 3224: 3221: 3217: 3216: 3215: 3211: 3208: 3206: 3203: 3201: 3198: 3196: 3193: 3191: 3188: 3183: 3182:Insular Celts 3179: 3176: 3172: 3169: 3165: 3164: 3163: 3160: 3159: 3158: 3156: 3150: 3147: 3145: 3142: 3141: 3140: 3138: 3132: 3129: 3128: 3127: 3125: 3119: 3116: 3115: 3114: 3112: 3106: 3103: 3102: 3099: 3098:Indo-Iranians 3096: 3094: 3091: 3089: 3086: 3081: 3076: 3073: 3072: 3069: 3066: 3065: 3059: 3058: 3051: 3048: 3046: 3043: 3042: 3041: 3040: 3034: 3031: 3030: 3029: 3027: 3021: 3018: 3016: 3013: 3011: 3008: 3007: 3006: 3004: 2998: 2995: 2994: 2993: 2991: 2985: 2982: 2981: 2977: 2974: 2972: 2969: 2967: 2964: 2963: 2962: 2960: 2954: 2951: 2949: 2946: 2944: 2941: 2939: 2936: 2934: 2931: 2929: 2926: 2924: 2921: 2919: 2916: 2914: 2911: 2909: 2906: 2905: 2904: 2902: 2896: 2893: 2891: 2888: 2886: 2883: 2882: 2881: 2879: 2873: 2870: 2868: 2865: 2863: 2860: 2858: 2855: 2853: 2850: 2848: 2845: 2844: 2843: 2841: 2840:Pontic Steppe 2834: 2831: 2830: 2823: 2819: 2816: 2812: 2811: 2810: 2807: 2806: 2805: 2803: 2797: 2794: 2792: 2789: 2786: 2782: 2781: 2780: 2778: 2772: 2769: 2768: 2767: 2765: 2759: 2756: 2755: 2754: 2752: 2741: 2737: 2734: 2730: 2729: 2727: 2723: 2720: 2716: 2713: 2709: 2706: 2702: 2699: 2695: 2692: 2688: 2687: 2686: 2683: 2681: 2678: 2674: 2673:Kurgan stelae 2671: 2670: 2669: 2666: 2664: 2661: 2660: 2659: 2657: 2656:Pontic Steppe 2650: 2647: 2646: 2640: 2639: 2632: 2629: 2627: 2624: 2622: 2619: 2617: 2614: 2612: 2609: 2607: 2604: 2603: 2598: 2597: 2593: 2590: 2588: 2585: 2583: 2580: 2579: 2574: 2573: 2569: 2566: 2564: 2561: 2559: 2556: 2554: 2551: 2550: 2544: 2543: 2536: 2533: 2531: 2528: 2526: 2523: 2521: 2518: 2516: 2513: 2511: 2508: 2506: 2503: 2501: 2498: 2496: 2493: 2491: 2488: 2486: 2483: 2481: 2478: 2476: 2473: 2471: 2468: 2466: 2463: 2462: 2456: 2455: 2447: 2446:Proto-Iranian 2443: 2440: 2437: 2433: 2429: 2426: 2424: 2421: 2418: 2414: 2410: 2407: 2404: 2400: 2397: 2395: 2392: 2390: 2387: 2385: 2382: 2381: 2378: 2375: 2374: 2370: 2367: 2365: 2362: 2360: 2357: 2355: 2352: 2350: 2347: 2345: 2342: 2340: 2337: 2336: 2333: 2330: 2329: 2325: 2322: 2320: 2317: 2315: 2312: 2310: 2307: 2305: 2302: 2300: 2297: 2295: 2292: 2290: 2289:Daco-Thracian 2287: 2285: 2282: 2281: 2278: 2275: 2274: 2268: 2264: 2260: 2256: 2253: 2252: 2250: 2247: 2246: 2243: 2242:Reconstructed 2240: 2239: 2232: 2228: 2225: 2221: 2218: 2214: 2211: 2207: 2204: 2200: 2197: 2193: 2190: 2186: 2183: 2179: 2178: 2177: 2174: 2172: 2169: 2167: 2164: 2163: 2160: 2157: 2156: 2150: 2146: 2145: 2144: 2141: 2136: 2132: 2129: 2125: 2122: 2118: 2117: 2116: 2113: 2108: 2104: 2103: 2102: 2099: 2097: 2094: 2092: 2089: 2084: 2080: 2077: 2073: 2072: 2071: 2068: 2066: 2063: 2058: 2054: 2053: 2052: 2049: 2048: 2045: 2042: 2041: 2037: 2034: 2033: 2029: 2024: 2023: 2019: 2015: 2014: 2011: 2008: 2007: 2003: 1999: 1998: 1990: 1986: 1984: 1980: 1976: 1972: 1968: 1964: 1960: 1956: 1952: 1948: 1944: 1940: 1939:haplogroup R1 1936: 1928: 1927: 1915: 1911: 1907: 1900: 1889: 1885: 1881: 1877: 1873: 1866: 1856: 1852: 1842: 1840: 1839: 1834: 1830: 1826: 1822: 1820: 1816: 1812: 1808: 1804: 1800: 1796: 1786: 1784: 1780: 1776: 1772: 1767: 1764: 1759: 1749: 1747: 1743: 1739: 1735: 1731: 1727: 1723: 1720: 1716: 1711: 1709: 1699: 1697: 1693: 1688: 1686: 1682: 1678: 1674: 1670: 1666: 1662: 1652: 1650: 1646: 1642: 1638: 1634: 1630: 1626: 1623: 1619: 1618: 1613: 1609: 1606: 1602: 1601: 1597: 1593: 1589: 1586: 1582: 1579: 1575: 1574: 1569: 1566: 1562: 1558: 1554: 1550: 1546: 1542: 1537: 1532: 1527: 1521: 1517: 1513: 1509: 1504: 1502: 1498: 1494: 1493:J. P. Mallory 1490: 1486: 1482: 1478: 1474: 1470: 1468: 1464: 1461:, especially 1460: 1456: 1449: 1445: 1444:Central Asian 1441: 1438: 1434: 1430: 1427: 1423: 1422:Elena Kuzmina 1419: 1415: 1411: 1410:Indo-European 1401: 1399: 1395: 1391: 1387: 1381: 1379: 1375: 1369: 1367: 1363: 1362: 1361:Jiaoshi Yilin 1357: 1353: 1349: 1345: 1337: 1336: 1330: 1321: 1319: 1315: 1312:and Mohe, as 1311: 1307: 1303: 1299: 1292:Later history 1289: 1286: 1281: 1279: 1275: 1271: 1266: 1263: 1259: 1255: 1250: 1248: 1247:imperial seal 1240: 1232: 1228: 1223: 1221: 1216: 1214: 1210: 1205: 1201: 1197: 1193: 1189: 1186: 1180: 1174: 1166: 1158: 1150: 1146: 1140: 1135: 1133: 1125: 1121: 1113: 1109: 1105: 1097:As Han allies 1094: 1092: 1083: 1076: 1074: 1070: 1066: 1062: 1058: 1054: 1053: 1046: 1044: 1043: 1038: 1035:According to 1033: 1031: 1021: 1015: 1007: 1003: 999: 995: 991: 987: 983: 980: 975: 973: 969: 965: 956: 947: 945: 940: 938: 934: 930: 926: 922: 918: 914: 910: 909:Kushan Empire 906: 902: 898: 894: 884: 882: 878: 877:Indo-Scythian 874: 870: 866: 862: 858: 854: 850: 845: 843: 840: 836: 832: 828: 824: 820: 816: 812: 808: 804: 800: 796: 792: 786: 780: 772: 764: 760: 756: 752: 747: 745: 741: 737: 732: 730: 726: 722: 718: 714: 705: 699:Early history 691: 689: 685: 681: 677: 673: 670: 666: 662: 658: 654: 650: 645: 643: 640: 636: 633: 629: 625: 621: 617: 613: 609: 605: 602: 598: 594: 591: 587: 582: 580: 576: 572: 568: 564: 560: 556: 553: 549: 545: 541: 536: 534: 530: 526: 522: 513: 511: 507: 503: 499: 494: 492: 488: 484: 480: 476: 472: 468: 464: 460: 456: 452: 448: 443: 441: 437: 434: 430: 429: 423: 396: 387: 378: 370: 368: 367: 355: 353: 352: 342: 340: 331: 320: 311: 300: 289: 278: 276: 267: 265: 264: 254: 245: 236: 234: 223: 221: 210: 208: 199: 190: 188: 177: 175: 174: 164: 162: 161: 151: 149: 148: 138: 136: 135: 125: 123: 122: 112: 110: 101: 99: 90: 88: 79: 70: 59: 48: 31: 22: 7681:Early Modern 7338: 7087:(1487-1660?) 7075:(1347–1680s) 6971: 6892: 6888: 6872:. Retrieved 6853: 6836:. Retrieved 6817: 6779: 6767:. Retrieved 6748: 6736: 6733:(in Chinese) 6717: 6702:. Retrieved 6689: 6677: 6666:. Retrieved 6648: 6634:February 13, 6632:. Retrieved 6617: 6613:Sinor, Denis 6601:. Retrieved 6582: 6578:Sinor, Denis 6566:. Retrieved 6547: 6543:Sinor, Denis 6532:. Retrieved 6525:the original 6520: 6504: 6485: 6475:February 14, 6473:. Retrieved 6464: 6449:the original 6444: 6440: 6422:the original 6417: 6413: 6396:February 13, 6394:. Retrieved 6375: 6342: 6323:February 14, 6321:. Retrieved 6302: 6286:. Retrieved 6267: 6251:. Retrieved 6232: 6216:. Retrieved 6197: 6179:February 13, 6177:. Retrieved 6158: 6144:February 13, 6142:. Retrieved 6123: 6109:February 13, 6107:. Retrieved 6088: 6068: 6065:(in Chinese) 6055: 6051: 6047: 6025: 6013:. Retrieved 5994: 5976:February 14, 5974:. Retrieved 5955: 5941:February 13, 5939:. Retrieved 5924: 5910:February 15, 5908:. Retrieved 5889: 5867: 5863: 5853:February 15, 5851:. Retrieved 5832: 5816:. 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Retrieved 5164: 5158: 5141: 5134:Mallory 1989 5129: 5117: 5112:, p. 48 5105: 5100:, p. 52 5093: 5081: 5069: 5057: 5030: 5018: 4999:, p. 29 4992: 4980: 4968: 4956: 4949:Kusmina 2007 4944: 4932: 4920: 4909: 4886: 4882: 4869: 4857: 4845: 4837: 4828: 4793: 4787: 4779: 4772: 4760: 4748: 4736: 4731:, p. 45 4729:Taishan 2004 4724: 4715: 4705: 4693: 4688:, p. 59 4681: 4676:, p. 57 4669: 4657: 4637: 4630: 4621: 4613: 4612:《漢書·卷九十六下》 4608: 4596: 4588: 4580: 4571: 4549: 4546:"Zhang Qian" 4540: 4528: 4516: 4508: 4501: 4493: 4486: 4459: 4447: 4435: 4427: 4420: 4408: 4367: 4355: 4343: 4327: 4318: 4306:. Retrieved 4301: 4297: 4261:. Retrieved 4255: 4180: 4173: 4164: 4154: 4123: 4099: 4093: 4081: 4072: 4062:February 13, 4060:. 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Dept. of 6218:November 1, 5708:: 369–373. 5587:30 December 5554:E. J. 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