1459:
3286:
1913:
archaeological, biological and cultural evidence, our phylogeographic reconstruction of the Ainu language strongly suggests that the conventional dual-structure model must be refined to explain these new bodies of evidence. The case of the Ainu language origin we report here also contributes additional detail to the global pattern of language evolution, and our language phylogeny might also provide a basis for making further inferences about the cultural dynamics of the Ainu speakers .
157:
1611:, rather than anything related to Ainu, with Ainu-speakers migrating later from Hokkaido to northern Tōhoku. The purported evidence for this are old-Japanese loanwords in the Ainu language, including basic vocabulary, as well as distinctive Japonic terms and toponyms found in Tōhoku and Hokkaido, that have been linked to the Izumo dialect.
1912:
In this paper, we reconstructed spatiotemporal evolution of 19 Ainu language varieties, and the results are in strong agreement with the hypothesis that a recent population expansion of the
Okhotsk people played a critical role in shaping the Ainu people and their culture. Together with the recent
1327:
The Ainu came into extensive contact with the
Japanese in the 14th century. Analytic grammatical constructions acquired or transformed in Ainu were probably due to contact with the Japanese language. A large number of Japanese loanwords were borrowed into Ainu and to a smaller extent vice versa.
1462:
Attested historical extent of Ainu (red) and suspected earlier extent on Honshu (pink). The latter is based on toponymic evidence (red dots) and Matagi villages (purple dots). The western limit is defined by the early eastern limit of the
Japanese language, as preserved in
1374:). Due to the low status of Ainu in Japan, many ancient loanwords may be ignored or undetected, but there is evidence of an older substrate, where older Japanese words which have no clear etymology appear related to Ainu words which do. An example is modern Japanese
2063:...his selection of features does not provide good evidence for common descent" and "we can observe convergence rather than divergence between Turkic and Mongolic languages—a pattern than is easily explainable by borrowing and diffusion rather than common descent
266:
and that much of the historically attested extent of the family was due to a relatively recent expansion northward. No genealogical relationship between Ainu and any other language family has been demonstrated, despite numerous attempts.
1265:
From a perspective more centered on Ainu, James Patrie (1982) adopted the same grouping, namely Ainu–Korean–Japanese and Turkic–Mongolic–Tungusic, with these two families linked in a common family, as in Street's "North
Asiatic".
2027:
Careful examination indicates that the established families, Turkic, Mongolian, and
Tungusic, form a linguistic area (called Altaic)...Sufficient criteria have not been given that would justify talking of a genetic relationship
1421:, based on racial theories regarding the origin of the Ainu people. The theory of an Indo-European—Ainu relation was popular until 1960; later linguists dismissed it and concentrated on more local language families.
1602:
as well as a component of the modern Ainu. However, it has also been proposed that the Ainu themselves can be identified with the
Okhotsk culture, and that they expanded south into northern Honshu as well as to the
1961:
While 'Altaic' is repeated in encyclopedias and handbooks most specialists in these languages no longer believe that the three traditional supposed Altaic groups, Turkic, Mongolian and
Tungusic, are related.
1450:(2005) reported that the status of the Ainu language was rather high and was also used by early Russian and Japanese administrative officials to communicate with each other and with the indigenous people.
1424:
Tambovtsev (2008) proposes that Ainu is typologically most similar to Native
American languages and suggests that further research is needed to establish a genetic relationship between these languages.
1591:
retain Ainu words in their hunting vocabulary. However, Elmer (2019) has also suggested
Japonic etymologies, which supposedly got borrowed into early Ainu and lost in contemporary Japonic dialects.
795:
for the glottal stop. He also tentatively proposes that there might have been a third fricative alongside *s and *h, which was voiced, its place of articulation unknown. He represents it with
1262:
hypothesis, which at the time linked Turkic, Mongolic, and
Tungusic, sometimes adding Korean; today Altaic sometimes includes Korean and rarely Japanese but not Ainu (Georg et al. 1999).
1183:, but this is only a geographic blanket term for several unrelated language families that were present in easternmost Siberia before the advances of Turkic and Tungusic languages there.
449:(on the northwestern cape), which was closest of all Hokkaidō varieties to Sakhalin Ainu. Most texts and grammatical descriptions we have of Ainu cover the Central Hokkaidō dialect.
1227:. While linguistic evidence points to an origin of these words among the Ainu languages, its spread and how these words arrived into other languages will possibly remain a mystery.
6219:
1332:
from the Japanese language in various stages of its development to Hokkaidō Ainu, and a smaller number of loanwords from Ainu into Japanese, particularly animal names such as
1594:
The direction of influence and migration is debated. It has been proposed that at least some Jōmon period groups spoke a proto-Ainu language, and that they displaced the
2382:
Further analysis of the origins of Ainu language and the earliest places names of their settlements might provide some insight into the heritage of an Okhotsk language.
1405:, i.e. have strong influences from various Japonic dialects/languages during different stages, suggesting early and intensive contact between them somewhere in the
1311:
during the course of their history. It is not known to what extent this has affected the language. Linguists believe the vocabulary shared between Ainu and
2962:
Chikoro utarapa ne Yesu Kiristo ashiri ekambakte-i Markos, Roukos, Newa Yoanne: orowa no asange ashkanne pirika shongo/St Mark, St Luke and St John in Ainu
3027:
3188:
1295:
presented his reconstruction of Proto-Ainu with evidence, in the form of proposed sound changes and cognates, of a relationship with Austroasiatic. In
1437:
and by small numbers of people in the Kuril Islands. Only the Hokkaido variant survives, with the last speaker of Sakhalin Ainu having died in 1994.
1824:
2200:
2624:
5417:
3074:
2163:
The Peoples of Northeast Asia through Time: Precolonial Ethnic and Cultural Processes along the Coast between Hokkaido and the Bering Strait
1995:
When cognates proved not to be valid, Altaic was abandoned, and the received view now is that Turkic, Mongolian, and Tungusic are unrelated.
5552:
485:, the last speaker of Sakhalin Ainu, died in 1994. The Sakhalin Ainu dialects had long vowels and a final -h phoneme, which was pronounced
2238:
6269:
3519:
2091:
1276:. Greenberg did not hold Korean–Japanese–Ainu to have an especially close relationship with Turkic–Mongolic–Tungusic within this family.
247:
1272:(2000–2002) likewise classified Ainu with Korean and Japanese. He regarded "Korean–Japanese-Ainu" as forming a branch of his proposed
1211:
The Ainu languages share a noteworthy amount of vocabulary (especially fish names) with several Northeast Asian languages, including
307:(1964) considered Ainu data from 19 regions of Hokkaidō and Sakhalin, and found the primary division to lie between the two islands.
2374:
A Peer Polity Interaction approach to the interaction, exchange and decline of a Northeast-Asian maritime culture on Hokkaido, Japan
6209:
1598:
north from southern Hokkaido when the Ainu fled Japanese expansion into northern Honshu, with the Okhotsk ancestral to the modern
1708:
275:
Recognition of the different varieties of Ainu spoken throughout northern Japan and its surrounding islands in academia varies.
3181:
2743:
Georg, Stefan; Michalove, Peter A.; Ramer, Alexis Manaster; Sidwell, Paul J. (1999). "Telling general linguists about Altaic".
1975:
2804:
2781:
2709:
2571:
2529:
1749:
4932:
4513:
5042:
3145:
2143:
4014:
2056:
2020:
1988:
1258:
in another, with the two families linked in a common "North Asiatic" family. Street's grouping was an extension of the
1172:
3134:
3103:
2161:
6429:
5199:
3174:
2613:
2594:
2548:
2175:
2105:
2077:
Crosslinguistics and linguistic crossings in Northeast Asia: papers on the languages of Sakhalin and adjacent regions
1743:
195:
6292:
5545:
5175:
4414:
4333:
4269:
3512:
2224:"The phono-typological distances between Ainu and the other world languages as a clue for closeness of languages"
1930:
1479:
people of the northern part of the main Japanese island of Honshu. The main evidence for this is the presence of
6134:
6122:
2875:(2, reprint ed.). Tokyo: Methodist Publishing House; London, Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner & Co. p.
4946:
4188:
4697:
6349:
6339:
6334:
6199:
6027:
5811:
5806:
5412:
5059:
4194:
4019:
3805:
3799:
3723:
3205:
1224:
6424:
6354:
6324:
6179:
5422:
5407:
5106:
4407:
4394:
4165:
4126:
1175:
between Ainu and any other language family has been demonstrated, despite numerous attempts. Thus, it is a
477:)) was quite divergent from the other localities. The Raychishka dialect, on the western coast near modern
230:
The primary varieties of Ainu are alternately considered a group of closely related languages or divergent
1069:
1064:
1059:
1054:
1044:
1039:
1034:
1029:
1019:
1014:
1009:
1004:
994:
989:
984:
979:
969:
964:
959:
954:
944:
939:
934:
929:
919:
914:
909:
904:
894:
889:
884:
879:
869:
864:
859:
854:
844:
839:
834:
829:
6419:
6302:
6204:
5643:
5538:
5402:
5396:
5181:
4454:
4372:
4345:
4049:
4039:
3270:
3100:
1980:
3056:
5971:
4968:
4629:
4426:
4224:
4084:
4054:
4044:
4034:
3740:
3505:
3396:
3263:
2796:
2586:
2048:
2012:
1682:
1409:, with Ainu borrowing a large amount of vocabulary and typological characteristics from early Japonic.
478:
2457:
Bugaeva, Anna (2010). "Internet applications for endangered languages: A talking dictionary of Ainu".
2192:
1196:
found evidence that the Ainu language and the early Ainu-speakers originated from the Northeast Asian/
6369:
6364:
6359:
6227:
6149:
6144:
5800:
5786:
5561:
5380:
5187:
5163:
5138:
5111:
5094:
4104:
4059:
4029:
4002:
3573:
3528:
2640:
1315:(historically spoken in the northern half of Sakhalin and on the Asian mainland facing it) is due to
488:
486:
318:
clustered into several dialects with substantial differences between them: the 'neck' of the island (
2672:
6194:
6139:
5910:
5740:
5629:
5427:
5234:
4871:
4859:
4691:
3753:
3746:
3562:
3384:
3197:
3062:
2945:(in Ainu). Printed for the Bible Societies' Committee for Japan by the Yokohama Bunsha. p. 313
2513:
1956:
1729:
284:
2903:
2876:
1077:
Reconstructed Proto-Ainu numerals (1-10) and its reflexes in selected descendants are as follows:
365:
6414:
6008:
5903:
5853:
5832:
5823:
5705:
5622:
5582:
4432:
4357:
3760:
3710:
1433:
Until the 20th century, Ainu languages were spoken throughout the southern half of the island of
1418:
1288:
1180:
2625:"Man'yōshū to Fudoki ni Mirareru Fushigina Kotoba to Jōdai Nihon Retto ni Okeru Ainugo no Bunpu"
2333:"Yayoi Wave, Kofun Wave, and Timing: The Formation of the Japanese People and Japanese Language"
6164:
6159:
5924:
5896:
5887:
5846:
5446:
5294:
5089:
4865:
4818:
4448:
4365:
4024:
4008:
3816:
3717:
3580:
3556:
3446:
3433:
2223:
1200:
population, which established themselves in northern Hokkaido and expanded into large parts of
547:
422:
384:
251:
91:
5084:
791:
The second reconstruction shows the voiced stops except for being distinct phonemes and uses
428:
325:
6316:
6189:
6169:
5917:
5712:
5650:
5492:
5390:
5079:
4882:
4672:
4661:
4623:
4230:
4204:
4109:
4099:
3782:
3698:
3549:
3464:
2681:
2659:
298:
5193:
4918:
502:
2000) suggest there was also great diversity in northern Sakhalin, which was not sampled by
444:
378:
369:
6297:
6287:
6277:
6127:
5981:
5794:
5678:
5467:
5224:
5032:
5005:
4988:
4956:
4854:
4568:
4493:
4420:
4199:
4176:
4148:
4079:
3990:
3771:
3249:
1875:
1562:
1273:
357:
319:
289:(1998:2) both speak of "Ainu languages" when comparing the varieties of language spoken in
5352:
3079:
3049:
408:
404:
8:
6344:
6117:
6102:
6037:
5839:
5761:
5671:
5664:
5615:
5573:
5244:
5148:
5048:
5037:
4999:
4978:
4876:
4835:
4610:
4592:
4586:
4561:
4554:
4547:
4460:
4443:
4182:
3848:
3835:
3729:
3679:
3536:
3439:
3294:
3214:
3112:
2899:
2268:
1604:
537:
349:
255:
224:
83:
3152:
A talking dictionary of Ainu: a new version of Kanazawa's Ainu conversational dictionary
2893:
2870:
2430:
2395:
1879:
1163:
Eight front and back vowels are reconstructed; three more central vowels are uncertain.
436:
416:
390:
333:
6078:
6032:
5947:
5942:
5937:
5158:
5153:
5143:
5126:
5121:
5116:
5100:
5069:
5064:
5017:
5011:
4962:
4907:
4830:
4714:
4678:
4639:
4581:
4388:
4383:
4094:
3853:
3822:
3788:
3776:
3735:
3610:
3454:
3369:
2850:
2833:
2760:
2354:
1898:
1861:
1255:
1251:
1220:
1216:
5255:
5218:
1697:
1696:
Hammarström, Harald; Forke, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin; Bank, Sebastian, eds. (2020).
146:
6282:
6259:
6254:
6232:
6174:
5952:
5875:
5768:
5169:
5074:
5054:
4993:
4973:
4684:
4645:
4616:
4604:
4541:
4487:
4465:
4438:
4378:
4351:
4170:
4131:
4121:
4089:
3962:
3888:
3870:
3864:
3766:
3684:
3598:
3354:
2800:
2777:
2764:
2705:
2635:
and the Distribution of the Ainu Language in the Japanese Islands in Prehistory]
2609:
2590:
2567:
2544:
2525:
2521:
2435:
2417:
2377:
2358:
2171:
2101:
2052:
2016:
1984:
1903:
1816:
1739:
1526:
1464:
1243:
1193:
231:
63:
5260:
5249:
5229:
3567:
3285:
223:
and neighboring islands, as well as mainland, including previously southern part of
6244:
6237:
6184:
6112:
6107:
6064:
6057:
5987:
5931:
5869:
5775:
5747:
5733:
5719:
5636:
5608:
5596:
5589:
5477:
5337:
5327:
5322:
5276:
5270:
5239:
5132:
5027:
4951:
4889:
4841:
4776:
4769:
4762:
4755:
4748:
4737:
4721:
4656:
4651:
4634:
4575:
4469:
4401:
4312:
4279:
4247:
4143:
4115:
4064:
3985:
3969:
3955:
3937:
3930:
3916:
3876:
3858:
3842:
3828:
3650:
3633:
3257:
3227:
3222:
3089:
2842:
2752:
2701:
2425:
2407:
2344:
2167:
2040:
1893:
1883:
1808:
1556:
1489:
common to many northern Japanese place names is known to derive from the Ainu word
1402:
1269:
1259:
1247:
1176:
297:
speaks only of "dialects". Refsing (1986) says Hokkaidō and Sakhalin Ainu were not
235:
212:
175:
5317:
5265:
4257:
1586:
1406:
315:
6071:
6022:
5976:
5859:
5754:
5726:
5685:
5602:
5472:
5347:
5332:
5301:
5022:
4983:
4848:
4794:
4666:
4528:
4294:
4289:
4154:
4069:
3950:
3943:
3923:
3905:
3810:
3793:
3592:
3412:
3378:
3239:
3107:
2980:
2960:
2940:
2920:
1888:
1733:
1595:
1239:
1212:
1197:
568:
461:
is scarce, but it is thought to have been as divergent as Sakhalin and Hokkaidō.
208:
57:
3082:, translated by John Batchelor, digitized by Richard Mammana and Charles Wohlers
1532:
1504:
6249:
5530:
5482:
5342:
5311:
5282:
4913:
4799:
4782:
4732:
4727:
4598:
4535:
4305:
4299:
4219:
4214:
4160:
4137:
3882:
3661:
3644:
3638:
3616:
3604:
3488:
3340:
3233:
3151:
2394:
Boer, Elisabeth de; Yang, Melinda A.; Kawagoe, Aileen; Barnes, Gina L. (2020).
1607:, or that the Emishi spoke a Japonic language, most closely related to ancient
1572:
1544:
1312:
564:
2756:
2136:
6408:
5366:
5306:
5288:
4804:
4788:
4742:
4499:
4319:
4284:
4274:
4252:
4209:
4074:
3655:
3587:
3390:
3347:
3333:
3315:
3128:
3040:
3006:
2996:
2872:
An Ainu–English–Japanese Dictionary, including A Grammar of the Ainu Language
2470:
2421:
1820:
1738:. Trends in Linguistics Series. Vol. 3. Walter de Gruyter. p. 600.
1628:
1608:
1458:
1441:
532:
470:
401:, but perhaps closest to the northeastern dialect); the northeast (data from
239:
75:
46:
3497:
2520:. The Collected Works of Bronisław Piłsudski. Vol. I. Berlin-New York:
1796:
1495:("river") in Hokkaidō, and the same is suspected of similar names ending in
6154:
5962:
5696:
4263:
3309:
3166:
3094:
2439:
2118:
1907:
1812:
1599:
1512:
1308:
3159:
3124:
1471:
It is occasionally suggested that Ainu was the language of the indigenous
1287:
Shafer (1965) presented evidence suggesting a distant connection with the
131:
116:
3002:
2349:
2332:
1520:
216:
2193:"Origins of the Ainu language : the Ainu Indo-European controversy"
6329:
6048:
5998:
5864:
3910:
3033:
2412:
458:
3022:
2854:
1926:
496:
Scant data from Western voyages at the turn of the 19th–20th century (
481:, is the best documented and has a dedicated grammatical description.
2563:
2097:
2075:
Vovin, Alexander (2016). "On the Linguistic Prehistory of Hokkaidō".
1702:
1483:
that appear to be of Ainu origin in both locations. For example, the
482:
474:
139:
125:
109:
105:
3085:
2891:
2541:
The Ainu Language: The Morphology and Syntax of the Shizunai Dialect
1644:
Ainu may also have been the language of one of the peoples known as
1291:, which include many of the indigenous languages of Southeast Asia.
2846:
2727:
2479:
An Ainu dialect dictionary with Ainu, Japanese, and English indexes
1866:
1632:
1575:, have no explanation in Japanese, but do in Ainu. The traditional
1434:
1359:
1329:
1316:
1279:
The Altaic hypothesis is now rejected by the scholarly mainstream.
1230:
The most frequent proposals for relatives of Ainu are given below:
290:
259:
42:
38:
2497:
Karafuto Ainugo: Sakhalin Rayciska Ainu Dialect—Texts and Glossary
1417:
A small number of linguists suggested a relation between Ainu and
5565:
3470:
2965:(in Ainu). London: British and Foreign Bible Society. p. 348
2958:
2137:"Origins of the Japanese languages. A multidisciplinary approach"
1480:
341:
161:
Map of the historical distribution of Ainu languages and dialects
6006:
2396:"Japan considered from the hypothesis of farmer/language spread"
2265:
A Preliminary Study of Language Contact around Uilta in Sakhalin
5657:
5506:
Families with question marks (?) are disputed or controversial.
5487:
5385:
1578:
1474:
1307:
The Ainu appear to have experienced intensive contact with the
1205:
1201:
473:, an eastern coastal dialect of Taraika (near modern Gastello (
263:
243:
50:
1695:
2689:
The Third International Symposium on Language and Linguistics
220:
187:
1440:
Some linguists note that the Ainu language was an important
3459:
181:
156:
2888:(Digitized by the University of Michigan December 8, 2006)
2742:
3086:
Institute for the Study of Languages and Cultures of Ainu
16:
Language family of northern Japan and neighboring islands
1797:"Review of Vovin (1993): A Reconstruction of Proto-Ainu"
2506:
Karafuto Ainugo: Sakhalin Rayciska Ainu Dialect—Grammar
1401:
According to P. Elmer (2019), the Ainu languages are a
3146:
Radio lessons on Ainu language presented by Sapporo TV
2999:) (University of Michigan) (Digitized August 15, 2006)
1776:
2459:
Waseda Institute for Advanced Study Research Bulletin
2393:
1322:
196:
184:
1855:
1853:
1838:
1299:, he still regarded this hypothesis as preliminary.
88:
80:
2915:(Digitized by Harvard University November 30, 2007)
1764:
1302:
338:); the "classical" Ainu of central Hokkaidō around
262:evidence suggests Ainu was once spoken in northern
178:
2639:. Kokusai Nihon Bunka Kenkyū Sentā. Archived from
1862:"Evolution of the Ainu Language in Space and Time"
1490:
1393:
1387:
1369:
1351:
1339:
2955:(Harvard University) (Digitized October 8, 2008 )
2942:Chikoro Utarapa ne Yesu Kiristo Ashiri Aeuitaknup
2922:Chikoro Utarapa Ne Yesu Kiristo Ashiri Aeuitaknup
1850:
1728:
6406:
5560:
2935:(Harvard University) (Digitized October 8, 2008)
2814:Shafer, R. (1965). "Studies in Austroasian II".
2892:Basil Hall Chamberlain; John Batchelor (1887).
2829:Vergleichende Grammatik der altaischen Sprachen
2305:. Kōkogaku Library. Science Press. p. 134.
1927:"Hokkaidō "Ainu susam" and Japanese "shishamo""
1924:
3047:
3038:
2771:
1651:
1645:
1584:
1576:
1566:
1554:
1548:
1538:
1530:
1518:
1510:
1502:
1496:
1484:
1472:
1445:
1386:(鮭), meaning 'salmon', probably from the Ainu
1381:
1375:
1357:
1345:
1333:
1187:
503:
497:
442:
434:
426:
414:
402:
396:
388:
376:
363:
355:
347:
339:
331:
323:
302:
276:
5546:
3527:
3513:
3182:
2975:(Harvard University) (Digitized June 9, 2008)
2827:Street, John C. (1962). "Review of N. Poppe,
2793:The Genetic Relationship of the Ainu Language
2130:
2128:
1950:
1860:Lee, Sean; Hasegawa, Toshikazu (April 2013).
1238:John C. Street (1962) proposed linking Ainu,
6390:Families with more than 30 languages are in
5516:Families with more than 30 languages are in
3196:
2560:Early European Writings on the Ainu Language
282:
3139:by Kane Kumagai, translated by Yongdeok Cho
2039:
1951:Campbell, Lyle; Mixco, Mauricio J. (2007).
1859:
387:and Sapporo show that these were similar);
5553:
5539:
3520:
3506:
3189:
3175:
3075:Literature and materials for learning Ainu
2959:British and Foreign Bible Society (1891).
2221:
2125:
1735:The Collected Works of Bronisław Piłsudski
3023:the Glossed Audio Corpus of Ainu Folklore
2978:
2938:
2918:
2868:
2580:
2512:
2429:
2411:
2348:
2285:
1897:
1887:
1453:
1166:
3155:, with recordings of Mrs. Setsu Kurokawa
2728:"A Multilateral Look at Greater Austric"
2725:
2503:
2494:
2315:
1457:
2925:(in Ainu). Yokohama Bunsha. p. 706
2776:. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
2774:Indo-European and Its Closest Relatives
2557:
2538:
2469:
2456:
2089:
2045:Languages of the World, An Introduction
1972:
1794:
1398:for 'salmon', literally 'summer food'.
6407:
2826:
2813:
2790:
2603:
2485:
2300:
2281:
2262:
2159:
2149:from the original on 23 February 2020.
1976:Linguistic Diversity in Space and Time
1844:
5534:
3501:
3170:
2695:
2679:
2622:
2371:
2289:
2134:
2074:
2006:
1782:
1770:
1676:
1296:
1292:
1179:. Ainu is sometimes grouped with the
516:
294:
41:; formerly also southern and central
2330:
1953:A Glossary of Historical Linguistics
3114:An Ainu-English-Japanese Dictionary
2543:. Aarhus: Aarhus University Press.
2516:(1998). Majewicz, Alfred F. (ed.).
2190:
2079:. Studia Orientalia. Vol. 117.
1583:hunters of the mountain forests of
519:splits Ainu "dialects" as follows:
13:
3125:"The 'Greater Austric' hypothesis"
3028:List of Proto-Ainu reconstructions
2862:
2772:Greenberg, Joseph H. (2000–2002).
2682:"The origins of the Ainu language"
1679:The Linguistics Student's Handbook
1412:
1323:Language contact with the Japanese
14:
6441:
3080:The Book of Common Prayer in Ainu
3068:
2203:from the original on 7 April 2022
2090:Tranter, Nicolas (25 June 2012).
1328:There are also a great number of
558:
511:
3284:
2320:. Vol. 1. pp. 324–325.
2244:from the original on 26 May 2024
2160:Zgusta, Richard (10 July 2015).
2093:The Languages of Japan and Korea
1752:from the original on 26 May 2024
1303:Language contact with the Nivkhs
1282:
464:
310:
238:. The only surviving variety is
174:
155:
2450:
2387:
2365:
2324:
2309:
2294:
2275:
2256:
2215:
2184:
2153:
2083:
2068:
2033:
2000:
1966:
1944:
1933:from the original on 2024-05-26
1918:
1827:from the original on 2024-05-26
1795:Sidwell, Paul J. (1996-01-01).
1711:from the original on 2024-05-26
1638:
3118:A Grammar of the Ainu Language
3096:A Grammar of the Ainu Language
3048:
3039:
2698:A Reconstruction of Proto-Ainu
2009:The Rise and Fall of Languages
1788:
1732:; Majewicz, Alfred F. (2004).
1722:
1689:
1670:
1652:
1646:
1621:
1585:
1567:
1555:
1549:
1539:
1531:
1519:
1511:
1503:
1473:
1446:
1188:
504:
498:
443:
435:
427:
421:); the north-central dialect (
415:
403:
397:
389:
377:
356:
348:
340:
332:
324:
303:
277:
1:
2581:Shibatani, Masayoshi (1990).
2481:]. Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten.
1663:
452:
395:(on the southeastern cape in
215:, historically spoken by the
1889:10.1371/journal.pone.0062243
1491:
1428:
1394:
1388:
1370:
1352:
1340:
270:
7:
3160:Ainu language grammar guide
3016:
2979:Kindaichi, Kyōsuke (1936).
2490:. Tokyo: Charles E. Tuttle.
2486:Miller, Roy Andrew (1967).
2400:Evolutionary Human Sciences
2316:Tanigawa, Ken'ichi (1980).
1981:University of Chicago Press
1925:Alonso de la Fuente, Jose.
1650:; it is not known that the
1577:
1497:
1485:
1382:
1376:
1358:
1346:
1334:
567:was reconstructed twice by
364:
62:One of the world's primary
10:
6446:
6210:Chukotko-Kamchatkan–Amuric
2797:University Press of Hawaii
2726:Bengtson, John D. (2006).
2627:[Strange Words in the
2587:Cambridge University Press
2518:The Aborigines of Sakhalin
2380:, Faculty of Archaeology.
2372:Smale, Joran (June 2014).
2049:Cambridge University Press
2013:Cambridge University Press
1683:Edinburgh University Press
1465:modern Japanese isoglosses
1274:Eurasiatic language family
383:; historical records from
6378:
6315:
6268:
6218:
6098:
6091:
6046:
5997:
5961:
5886:
5822:
5785:
5695:
5572:
5501:
5460:
5437:
5376:
5365:
5209:
4942:
4931:
4899:
4826:
4817:
4706:
4523:
4512:
4479:
4341:
4332:
4240:
3998:
3984:
3898:
3693:
3675:
3626:
3544:
3535:
3529:Primary language families
3482:
3421:
3405:
3368:
3325:
3302:
3293:
3282:
3248:
3213:
3204:
2757:10.1017/s0022226798007312
2696:Vovin, Alexander (1993).
2680:Vovin, Alexander (1992).
2623:Vovin, Alexander (2008).
2558:Refsing, Kirsten (1996).
2539:Refsing, Kirsten (1986).
2508:. Tokyo: Kokushokankōkai.
2499:. Tokyo: Kokushokankōkai.
2475:Bunrui Ainugo hōgen jiten
2231:Asian and African Studies
2222:Tambovtsev, Yuri (2008).
1973:Nichols, Johanna (1992).
1233:
1173:genealogical relationship
1087:
774:
769:
748:
713:
698:
680:
283:
154:
138:
124:
104:
99:
69:
58:Linguistic classification
56:
31:
26:
21:
6430:Paleo-Siberian languages
4346:Arnhem/Macro-Gunwinyguan
3198:Paleo-Siberian languages
3106:14 December 2007 at the
3063:Bibliography of the Ainu
2981:
2939:Batchelor, John (1896).
2919:Batchelor, John (1897).
2869:Batchelor, John (1905).
2720:Proposed classifications
2504:Murasaki, Kyōko (1978).
2495:Murasaki, Kyōko (1977).
2263:Yamada, Yoshiko (2010).
2191:Refsing, Kirsten (ed.).
1957:University of Utah Press
1656:were a single ethnicity.
1631:indicates a conjectural
1614:
676:Consonants (Vovin 1993)
575:Consonants (Vovin 1989)
346:and the southern coast (
6387:have no living members.
6270:East and Southeast Asia
5513:have no living members.
2604:Tamura, Suzuko (2000).
1529:. Other place names in
1501:in northern Honshū and
1419:Indo-European languages
1338:(猟虎, 'sea otter'; Ainu
1289:Austroasiatic languages
1181:Paleosiberian languages
293:and Sakhalin; however,
5493:Unclassified languages
5447:list of sign languages
4415:Northeastern Tasmanian
3057:Category:Ainu language
2791:Patrie, James (1982).
2745:Journal of Linguistics
2667:Cite journal requires
2583:The Languages of Japan
2331:Hong, Wontack (2005).
2007:Dixon, R.M.W. (1997).
1813:10.1075/dia.13.1.12sid
1677:Bauer, Laurie (2007).
1468:
1454:Ainu on mainland Japan
1366:Spirinchus lanceolatus
1350:(馴鹿, 'reindeer'; Ainu
1167:External relationships
211:, often regarded as a
203:), sometimes known as
49:and possibly northern
5468:Constructed languages
2488:The Japanese Language
2301:Masaki, Kudō (1989).
1461:
529:Proto-Hokkaido–Kuril
299:mutually intelligible
248:critically endangered
4015:Binanderean–Goilalan
2514:Piłsudski, Bronisław
2350:10.1353/ks.2006.0007
2051:. pp. 211–216.
1730:Piłsudski, Bronisław
362:counties, data from
6425:Languages of Russia
6028:Chukotko-Kamchatkan
5812:Northwest Caucasian
5807:Northeast Caucasian
5297:(Maku-Auari/Jukude)
5200:Tequiraca–Canichana
5043:Harákmbut–Katukinan
3806:Northwest Caucasian
3800:Northeast Caucasian
3724:Chukotko-Kamchatkan
3206:Chukotko-Kamchatkan
2985:. 岩波書店. p. 230
2900:Imperial University
2646:on 11 February 2014
2608:. Tokyo: Sanseido.
2269:Hokkaido University
1880:2013PLoSO...862243L
1605:Kamchatka Peninsula
1225:Chukotko-Kamchatkan
1186:A study by Lee and
1082:
806:
677:
576:
225:Kamchatka Peninsula
6420:Languages of Japan
6293:Austronesian–Ongan
6092:Proposed groupings
4919:Tarascan/Purépecha
4408:Northern Tasmanian
4166:South Bougainville
4127:North Bougainville
3271:Southern Kamchadal
3136:Ainu for Beginners
2831:, Teil I (1960)".
2413:10.1017/ehs.2020.7
2135:Elmer, P. (2019).
1785:, pp. 77–154.
1469:
1246:in one family and
1080:
802:
797:⟨*H⟩
793:⟨*q⟩
675:
574:
6402:
6401:
6311:
6310:
6303:Sino-Austronesian
6087:
6086:
5562:Language families
5528:
5527:
5478:Language isolates
5456:
5455:
5361:
5360:
4927:
4926:
4813:
4812:
4508:
4507:
4455:Western Tasmanian
4373:Eastern Tasmanian
4328:
4327:
4050:East Geelvink Bay
3980:
3979:
3671:
3670:
3495:
3494:
3489:extinct languages
3397:Southern Yukaghir
3364:
3363:
3280:
3279:
3264:Eastern Kamchadal
3258:(Western) Itelmen
3121:by John Batchelor
3050:Kyōsuke Kindaichi
2816:Studia Orientalia
2806:978-0-8248-0724-5
2783:978-0-8047-3812-5
2711:978-90-04-09905-0
2606:The Ainu Language
2573:978-0-7007-0400-2
2531:978-3-11-010928-3
2522:Walter de Gruyter
2378:Leiden University
2041:Pereltsvaig, Asya
1550:Kanagawa–Shizuoka
1527:Toyama Prefecture
1194:Waseda University
1161:
1160:
1075:
1074:
789:
788:
673:
672:
548:Sakhalin dialects
533:Hokkaido dialects
258:are now extinct.
166:
165:
64:language families
6437:
6370:Proto-Euphratean
6096:
6095:
6004:
6003:
5972:Great Andamanese
5555:
5548:
5541:
5532:
5531:
5374:
5373:
5328:Huaorani/Waorani
5212:(extant in 2000)
5176:Esmeralda–Yaruro
4947:Andoque–Urequena
4940:
4939:
4824:
4823:
4630:Plateau Penutian
4521:
4520:
4496:(Northern Daly?)
4339:
4338:
4225:Northwest Papuan
4189:Trans–New Guinea
4055:East New Britain
4030:Central Solomons
3996:
3995:
3741:Great Andamanese
3691:
3690:
3542:
3541:
3522:
3515:
3508:
3499:
3498:
3300:
3299:
3288:
3211:
3210:
3191:
3184:
3177:
3168:
3167:
3144:
3090:Samani, Hokkaido
3053:
3052:
3044:
3043:
2994:
2992:
2990:
2974:
2972:
2970:
2954:
2952:
2950:
2934:
2932:
2930:
2914:
2912:
2910:
2887:
2885:
2883:
2858:
2823:
2810:
2787:
2768:
2739:
2715:
2692:
2686:
2676:
2670:
2665:
2663:
2655:
2653:
2651:
2645:
2638:
2619:
2600:
2577:
2554:
2535:
2509:
2500:
2491:
2482:
2466:
2444:
2443:
2433:
2415:
2391:
2385:
2384:
2369:
2363:
2362:
2352:
2328:
2322:
2321:
2313:
2307:
2306:
2303:Jōsaku to emishi
2298:
2292:
2286:Shibatani (1990)
2279:
2273:
2272:
2260:
2254:
2253:
2251:
2249:
2243:
2228:
2219:
2213:
2212:
2210:
2208:
2188:
2182:
2181:
2157:
2151:
2150:
2148:
2141:
2132:
2123:
2122:
2116:
2114:
2087:
2081:
2080:
2072:
2066:
2065:
2037:
2031:
2030:
2004:
1998:
1997:
1970:
1964:
1963:
1948:
1942:
1941:
1939:
1938:
1922:
1916:
1915:
1901:
1891:
1857:
1848:
1842:
1836:
1835:
1833:
1832:
1792:
1786:
1780:
1774:
1768:
1762:
1761:
1759:
1757:
1726:
1720:
1719:
1717:
1716:
1693:
1687:
1686:
1674:
1657:
1655:
1654:
1649:
1648:
1642:
1636:
1625:
1590:
1589:
1582:
1570:
1569:
1561:(modern Tokyo),
1560:
1559:
1552:
1551:
1542:
1541:
1536:
1535:
1524:
1523:
1516:
1515:
1508:
1507:
1500:
1494:
1488:
1478:
1477:
1449:
1448:
1403:contact language
1397:
1391:
1385:
1379:
1373:
1363:
1355:
1349:
1343:
1337:
1270:Joseph Greenberg
1191:
1190:
1177:language isolate
1083:
1079:
1071:
1066:
1061:
1056:
1046:
1041:
1036:
1031:
1021:
1016:
1011:
1006:
996:
991:
986:
981:
971:
966:
961:
956:
946:
941:
936:
931:
921:
916:
911:
906:
896:
891:
886:
881:
871:
866:
861:
856:
846:
841:
836:
831:
807:
801:
798:
794:
678:
674:
577:
573:
507:
506:
501:
500:
492:
448:
447:
440:
439:
432:
431:
420:
419:
412:
411:
400:
399:
394:
393:
382:
381:
374:
361:
360:
353:
352:
345:
344:
337:
336:
329:
328:
306:
305:
288:
287:
280:
279:
236:language isolate
213:language isolate
199:
194:
193:
190:
189:
186:
183:
180:
159:
150:
149:
134:
120:
119:
90:
82:
19:
18:
6445:
6444:
6440:
6439:
6438:
6436:
6435:
6434:
6405:
6404:
6403:
6398:
6397:
6374:
6365:Paleo-Laplandic
6360:Pre-Finno-Ugric
6307:
6264:
6228:Greater Siangic
6214:
6200:Uralic–Yukaghir
6150:Ibero-Caucasian
6145:Elamo-Dravidian
6083:
6042:
5993:
5957:
5882:
5818:
5801:North Caucasian
5781:
5691:
5630:Paleo-Sardinian
5568:
5559:
5529:
5524:
5523:
5497:
5483:Mixed languages
5452:
5433:
5368:
5357:
5211:
5205:
5060:Katembri–Taruma
4934:
4923:
4895:
4809:
4702:
4515:
4504:
4475:
4324:
4236:
4195:Turama–Kikorian
4105:Lower Mamberamo
4060:East Strickland
3988:
3976:
3894:
3682:
3677:
3667:
3622:
3531:
3526:
3496:
3491:
3478:
3417:
3401:
3385:Tundra Yukaghir
3360:
3321:
3289:
3276:
3244:
3200:
3195:
3142:
3108:Wayback Machine
3071:
3019:
2988:
2986:
2983:
2968:
2966:
2948:
2946:
2928:
2926:
2908:
2906:
2881:
2879:
2865:
2863:Further reading
2807:
2784:
2712:
2684:
2668:
2666:
2657:
2656:
2649:
2647:
2643:
2636:
2616:
2597:
2574:
2551:
2532:
2524:. p. 792.
2453:
2448:
2447:
2392:
2388:
2370:
2366:
2329:
2325:
2318:Collected works
2314:
2310:
2299:
2295:
2284:, p. 239;
2280:
2276:
2261:
2257:
2247:
2245:
2241:
2226:
2220:
2216:
2206:
2204:
2189:
2185:
2178:
2158:
2154:
2146:
2139:
2133:
2126:
2112:
2110:
2108:
2088:
2084:
2073:
2069:
2059:
2038:
2034:
2023:
2005:
2001:
1991:
1971:
1967:
1949:
1945:
1936:
1934:
1923:
1919:
1858:
1851:
1843:
1839:
1830:
1828:
1793:
1789:
1781:
1777:
1769:
1765:
1755:
1753:
1746:
1727:
1723:
1714:
1712:
1694:
1690:
1675:
1671:
1666:
1661:
1660:
1643:
1639:
1626:
1622:
1617:
1596:Okhotsk culture
1456:
1431:
1415:
1413:Other proposals
1325:
1305:
1285:
1236:
1169:
1030:*si=nE=pE=hdan=
796:
792:
687:
586:
569:Alexander Vovin
561:
556:
544:Proto-Sakhalin
514:
467:
455:
423:Kamikawa County
385:Ishikari County
313:
273:
209:language family
197:
177:
173:
162:
145:
144:
130:
115:
114:
37:Currently only
33:
17:
12:
11:
5:
6443:
6433:
6432:
6427:
6422:
6417:
6415:Ainu languages
6400:
6399:
6396:
6395:
6388:
6380:
6379:
6376:
6375:
6373:
6372:
6367:
6362:
6357:
6352:
6347:
6342:
6337:
6332:
6327:
6321:
6319:
6313:
6312:
6309:
6308:
6306:
6305:
6300:
6295:
6290:
6285:
6280:
6274:
6272:
6266:
6265:
6263:
6262:
6257:
6252:
6247:
6242:
6241:
6240:
6235:
6224:
6222:
6216:
6215:
6213:
6212:
6207:
6202:
6197:
6195:Uralo-Siberian
6192:
6187:
6182:
6180:Serbi–Mongolic
6177:
6172:
6167:
6162:
6157:
6152:
6147:
6142:
6140:Dravido-Korean
6137:
6135:Dené–Yeniseian
6132:
6131:
6130:
6125:
6123:Dené–Caucasian
6120:
6110:
6105:
6099:
6093:
6089:
6088:
6085:
6084:
6082:
6081:
6076:
6068:
6061:
6053:
6051:
6044:
6043:
6041:
6040:
6035:
6030:
6025:
6020:
6014:
6012:
6001:
5995:
5994:
5992:
5991:
5984:
5979:
5974:
5968:
5966:
5959:
5958:
5956:
5955:
5950:
5945:
5940:
5935:
5928:
5921:
5914:
5907:
5900:
5892:
5890:
5884:
5883:
5881:
5880:
5872:
5867:
5862:
5857:
5850:
5843:
5836:
5828:
5826:
5820:
5819:
5817:
5816:
5815:
5814:
5809:
5797:
5791:
5789:
5783:
5782:
5780:
5779:
5772:
5765:
5758:
5751:
5744:
5741:Hurro-Urartian
5737:
5730:
5723:
5716:
5709:
5701:
5699:
5693:
5692:
5690:
5689:
5682:
5675:
5668:
5661:
5654:
5647:
5640:
5633:
5626:
5623:Paleo-Corsican
5619:
5612:
5605:
5600:
5593:
5586:
5578:
5576:
5570:
5569:
5558:
5557:
5550:
5543:
5535:
5526:
5525:
5522:
5521:
5514:
5507:
5503:
5502:
5499:
5498:
5496:
5495:
5490:
5485:
5480:
5475:
5470:
5464:
5462:
5458:
5457:
5454:
5453:
5451:
5450:
5441:
5439:
5435:
5434:
5432:
5431:
5425:
5420:
5415:
5410:
5408:Indo-Pakistani
5405:
5400:
5393:
5388:
5383:
5377:
5371:
5363:
5362:
5359:
5358:
5356:
5355:
5350:
5345:
5340:
5335:
5330:
5325:
5320:
5315:
5309:
5304:
5299:
5291:
5286:
5279:
5274:
5268:
5263:
5258:
5253:
5247:
5242:
5237:
5232:
5227:
5222:
5215:
5213:
5207:
5206:
5204:
5203:
5197:
5191:
5185:
5179:
5173:
5167:
5161:
5156:
5151:
5146:
5141:
5136:
5129:
5124:
5119:
5114:
5109:
5107:Piaroa–Saliban
5104:
5097:
5092:
5087:
5082:
5077:
5072:
5067:
5062:
5057:
5052:
5045:
5040:
5035:
5030:
5025:
5020:
5015:
5008:
5003:
4996:
4991:
4986:
4981:
4976:
4971:
4966:
4959:
4954:
4949:
4943:
4937:
4929:
4928:
4925:
4924:
4922:
4921:
4916:
4911:
4903:
4901:
4897:
4896:
4894:
4893:
4886:
4879:
4874:
4872:Tequistlatecan
4869:
4862:
4857:
4852:
4845:
4838:
4833:
4827:
4821:
4815:
4814:
4811:
4810:
4808:
4807:
4802:
4797:
4792:
4785:
4780:
4773:
4766:
4759:
4752:
4745:
4740:
4735:
4730:
4725:
4718:
4710:
4708:
4704:
4703:
4701:
4700:
4695:
4688:
4681:
4676:
4669:
4664:
4659:
4654:
4649:
4642:
4637:
4632:
4627:
4620:
4613:
4608:
4601:
4596:
4589:
4584:
4579:
4572:
4565:
4558:
4551:
4544:
4539:
4532:
4524:
4518:
4510:
4509:
4506:
4505:
4503:
4502:
4497:
4491:
4483:
4481:
4477:
4476:
4474:
4473:
4463:
4458:
4451:
4446:
4441:
4436:
4430:
4423:
4418:
4411:
4404:
4399:
4395:Marrku–Wurrugu
4391:
4386:
4381:
4376:
4369:
4362:
4354:
4349:
4342:
4336:
4330:
4329:
4326:
4325:
4323:
4322:
4317:
4309:
4303:
4297:
4292:
4287:
4282:
4277:
4272:
4267:
4261:
4255:
4250:
4244:
4242:
4238:
4237:
4235:
4234:
4228:
4222:
4217:
4212:
4207:
4202:
4197:
4192:
4185:
4180:
4173:
4168:
4163:
4158:
4151:
4146:
4141:
4134:
4129:
4124:
4119:
4112:
4107:
4102:
4097:
4092:
4087:
4082:
4077:
4072:
4067:
4062:
4057:
4052:
4047:
4042:
4037:
4032:
4027:
4022:
4017:
4012:
4005:
3999:
3993:
3982:
3981:
3978:
3977:
3975:
3974:
3966:
3959:
3953:
3948:
3940:
3935:
3927:
3920:
3913:
3908:
3902:
3900:
3896:
3895:
3893:
3892:
3886:
3880:
3874:
3868:
3862:
3856:
3851:
3846:
3839:
3832:
3825:
3820:
3813:
3808:
3803:
3796:
3791:
3786:
3779:
3774:
3769:
3764:
3757:
3754:Hurro-Urartian
3750:
3743:
3738:
3733:
3726:
3721:
3714:
3707:
3702:
3694:
3688:
3673:
3672:
3669:
3668:
3666:
3665:
3659:
3653:
3648:
3641:
3636:
3630:
3628:
3624:
3623:
3621:
3620:
3614:
3608:
3602:
3596:
3590:
3585:
3577:
3570:
3565:
3560:
3553:
3545:
3539:
3533:
3532:
3525:
3524:
3517:
3510:
3502:
3493:
3492:
3483:
3480:
3479:
3477:
3476:
3475:
3474:
3467:
3462:
3452:
3451:
3450:
3443:
3436:
3425:
3423:
3419:
3418:
3416:
3415:
3409:
3407:
3403:
3402:
3400:
3399:
3394:
3387:
3382:
3374:
3372:
3366:
3365:
3362:
3361:
3359:
3358:
3351:
3344:
3337:
3329:
3327:
3323:
3322:
3320:
3319:
3312:
3306:
3304:
3297:
3291:
3290:
3283:
3281:
3278:
3277:
3275:
3274:
3267:
3260:
3254:
3252:
3246:
3245:
3243:
3242:
3237:
3230:
3225:
3219:
3217:
3208:
3202:
3201:
3194:
3193:
3186:
3179:
3171:
3165:
3164:
3156:
3148:
3140:
3132:
3122:
3110:
3101:John Batchelor
3092:
3083:
3077:
3070:
3069:External links
3067:
3066:
3065:
3060:
3054:
3045:
3036:
3031:
3025:
3018:
3015:
3014:
3013:
3000:
2976:
2956:
2936:
2916:
2889:
2864:
2861:
2860:
2859:
2847:10.2307/411195
2824:
2811:
2805:
2788:
2782:
2769:
2740:
2722:
2721:
2717:
2716:
2710:
2693:
2677:
2669:|journal=
2620:
2614:
2601:
2595:
2578:
2572:
2555:
2549:
2536:
2530:
2510:
2501:
2492:
2483:
2473:, ed. (1964).
2471:Hattori, Shirō
2467:
2452:
2449:
2446:
2445:
2386:
2364:
2337:Korean Studies
2323:
2308:
2293:
2274:
2255:
2214:
2183:
2176:
2152:
2124:
2106:
2082:
2067:
2058:978-0521175777
2057:
2032:
2022:978-0521626545
2021:
2015:. p. 32.
1999:
1990:978-0226580579
1989:
1965:
1943:
1917:
1849:
1847:, p. 116.
1837:
1807:(1): 179–186.
1787:
1775:
1773:, p. 157.
1763:
1744:
1721:
1688:
1668:
1667:
1665:
1662:
1659:
1658:
1637:
1619:
1618:
1616:
1613:
1573:Noto Peninsula
1545:Mount Ashigara
1509:, such as the
1455:
1452:
1430:
1427:
1414:
1411:
1364:(柳葉魚, a fish,
1324:
1321:
1304:
1301:
1284:
1281:
1235:
1232:
1168:
1165:
1159:
1158:
1155:
1153:
1151:
1148:
1144:
1143:
1140:
1138:
1136:
1133:
1129:
1128:
1125:
1122:
1120:
1117:
1113:
1112:
1109:
1106:
1103:
1100:
1096:
1095:
1092:
1089:
1086:
1073:
1072:
1067:
1062:
1057:
1052:
1048:
1047:
1042:
1037:
1032:
1027:
1023:
1022:
1017:
1012:
1007:
1002:
998:
997:
992:
987:
982:
977:
973:
972:
967:
962:
957:
952:
948:
947:
942:
937:
932:
927:
923:
922:
917:
912:
907:
902:
898:
897:
892:
887:
882:
877:
873:
872:
867:
862:
857:
852:
848:
847:
842:
837:
832:
827:
823:
822:
819:
818:Sakhalin Ainu
816:
815:Hokkaido Ainu
813:
810:
787:
786:
784:
781:
778:
776:
772:
771:
768:
764:
763:
760:
758:
755:
753:
750:
746:
745:
743:
740:
737:
735:
731:
730:
727:
724:
721:
718:
715:
711:
710:
708:
706:
703:
700:
696:
695:
692:
689:
684:
681:
671:
670:
668:
666:
663:
661:
657:
656:
654:
652:
649:
647:
643:
642:
639:
636:
633:
630:
626:
625:
623:
620:
617:
614:
610:
609:
607:
605:
602:
599:
595:
594:
593:Dorso-Glottal
591:
588:
583:
580:
565:proto-language
560:
559:Proto-language
557:
555:
554:
553:
552:
551:
550:
542:
541:
540:
538:Kuril dialects
535:
521:
513:
512:Classification
510:
466:
463:
454:
451:
312:
309:
272:
269:
207:, are a small
170:Ainu languages
164:
163:
160:
152:
151:
142:
136:
135:
128:
122:
121:
112:
102:
101:
100:Language codes
97:
96:
95:
94:
86:
78:
71:
67:
66:
60:
54:
53:
35:
29:
28:
24:
23:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
6442:
6431:
6428:
6426:
6423:
6421:
6418:
6416:
6413:
6412:
6410:
6393:
6389:
6386:
6382:
6381:
6377:
6371:
6368:
6366:
6363:
6361:
6358:
6356:
6353:
6351:
6348:
6346:
6343:
6341:
6338:
6336:
6333:
6331:
6328:
6326:
6323:
6322:
6320:
6318:
6314:
6304:
6301:
6299:
6296:
6294:
6291:
6289:
6286:
6284:
6281:
6279:
6276:
6275:
6273:
6271:
6267:
6261:
6258:
6256:
6253:
6251:
6248:
6246:
6243:
6239:
6236:
6234:
6231:
6230:
6229:
6226:
6225:
6223:
6221:
6217:
6211:
6208:
6206:
6205:Eskimo–Uralic
6203:
6201:
6198:
6196:
6193:
6191:
6188:
6186:
6183:
6181:
6178:
6176:
6173:
6171:
6168:
6166:
6163:
6161:
6158:
6156:
6153:
6151:
6148:
6146:
6143:
6141:
6138:
6136:
6133:
6129:
6126:
6124:
6121:
6119:
6116:
6115:
6114:
6111:
6109:
6106:
6104:
6101:
6100:
6097:
6094:
6090:
6080:
6077:
6074:
6073:
6069:
6067:
6066:
6062:
6060:
6059:
6055:
6054:
6052:
6050:
6045:
6039:
6036:
6034:
6031:
6029:
6026:
6024:
6021:
6019:
6016:
6015:
6013:
6010:
6009:Paleosiberian
6005:
6002:
6000:
5996:
5990:
5989:
5985:
5983:
5980:
5978:
5975:
5973:
5970:
5969:
5967:
5964:
5960:
5954:
5951:
5949:
5946:
5944:
5941:
5939:
5936:
5934:
5933:
5929:
5927:
5926:
5922:
5920:
5919:
5915:
5913:
5912:
5908:
5906:
5905:
5904:Austroasiatic
5901:
5899:
5898:
5894:
5893:
5891:
5889:
5885:
5878:
5877:
5873:
5871:
5868:
5866:
5863:
5861:
5858:
5856:
5855:
5854:Austroasiatic
5851:
5849:
5848:
5844:
5842:
5841:
5837:
5835:
5834:
5833:Indo-European
5830:
5829:
5827:
5825:
5821:
5813:
5810:
5808:
5805:
5804:
5803:
5802:
5798:
5796:
5793:
5792:
5790:
5788:
5784:
5778:
5777:
5773:
5771:
5770:
5766:
5764:
5763:
5759:
5757:
5756:
5752:
5750:
5749:
5745:
5743:
5742:
5738:
5736:
5735:
5731:
5729:
5728:
5724:
5722:
5721:
5717:
5715:
5714:
5710:
5708:
5707:
5706:Indo-European
5703:
5702:
5700:
5698:
5694:
5688:
5687:
5683:
5681:
5680:
5676:
5674:
5673:
5669:
5667:
5666:
5662:
5660:
5659:
5655:
5653:
5652:
5648:
5646:
5645:
5641:
5639:
5638:
5634:
5632:
5631:
5627:
5625:
5624:
5620:
5618:
5617:
5613:
5611:
5610:
5606:
5604:
5601:
5599:
5598:
5594:
5592:
5591:
5587:
5585:
5584:
5583:Indo-European
5580:
5579:
5577:
5575:
5571:
5567:
5563:
5556:
5551:
5549:
5544:
5542:
5537:
5536:
5533:
5519:
5515:
5512:
5508:
5505:
5504:
5500:
5494:
5491:
5489:
5486:
5484:
5481:
5479:
5476:
5474:
5471:
5469:
5466:
5465:
5463:
5459:
5449:
5448:
5443:
5442:
5440:
5436:
5429:
5426:
5424:
5421:
5419:
5418:Original Thai
5416:
5414:
5411:
5409:
5406:
5404:
5401:
5399:
5398:
5394:
5392:
5389:
5387:
5384:
5382:
5379:
5378:
5375:
5372:
5370:
5364:
5354:
5351:
5349:
5346:
5344:
5341:
5339:
5336:
5334:
5331:
5329:
5326:
5324:
5321:
5319:
5316:
5313:
5310:
5308:
5305:
5303:
5300:
5298:
5296:
5292:
5290:
5287:
5285:
5284:
5280:
5278:
5275:
5272:
5269:
5267:
5264:
5262:
5259:
5257:
5254:
5251:
5248:
5246:
5243:
5241:
5238:
5236:
5233:
5231:
5228:
5226:
5223:
5220:
5217:
5216:
5214:
5208:
5201:
5198:
5195:
5192:
5189:
5186:
5183:
5182:Hibito–Cholón
5180:
5177:
5174:
5171:
5168:
5165:
5162:
5160:
5157:
5155:
5152:
5150:
5147:
5145:
5142:
5140:
5137:
5135:
5134:
5130:
5128:
5125:
5123:
5120:
5118:
5115:
5113:
5110:
5108:
5105:
5103:
5102:
5098:
5096:
5093:
5091:
5088:
5086:
5083:
5081:
5078:
5076:
5073:
5071:
5068:
5066:
5063:
5061:
5058:
5056:
5053:
5051:
5050:
5046:
5044:
5041:
5039:
5036:
5034:
5031:
5029:
5026:
5024:
5021:
5019:
5016:
5014:
5013:
5009:
5007:
5004:
5002:
5001:
4997:
4995:
4992:
4990:
4987:
4985:
4982:
4980:
4977:
4975:
4972:
4970:
4967:
4965:
4964:
4960:
4958:
4955:
4953:
4950:
4948:
4945:
4944:
4941:
4938:
4936:
4930:
4920:
4917:
4915:
4912:
4910:
4909:
4905:
4904:
4902:
4898:
4892:
4891:
4887:
4885:
4884:
4880:
4878:
4875:
4873:
4870:
4868:
4867:
4863:
4861:
4858:
4856:
4853:
4851:
4850:
4846:
4844:
4843:
4839:
4837:
4834:
4832:
4829:
4828:
4825:
4822:
4820:
4816:
4806:
4803:
4801:
4798:
4796:
4793:
4791:
4790:
4786:
4784:
4781:
4779:
4778:
4774:
4772:
4771:
4767:
4765:
4764:
4760:
4758:
4757:
4753:
4751:
4750:
4746:
4744:
4741:
4739:
4736:
4734:
4731:
4729:
4726:
4724:
4723:
4719:
4717:
4716:
4712:
4711:
4709:
4705:
4699:
4698:Yuman–Cochimí
4696:
4694:
4693:
4689:
4687:
4686:
4682:
4680:
4677:
4675:
4674:
4670:
4668:
4665:
4663:
4660:
4658:
4655:
4653:
4650:
4648:
4647:
4643:
4641:
4638:
4636:
4633:
4631:
4628:
4626:
4625:
4621:
4619:
4618:
4614:
4612:
4609:
4607:
4606:
4602:
4600:
4597:
4595:
4594:
4590:
4588:
4585:
4583:
4580:
4578:
4577:
4573:
4571:
4570:
4566:
4564:
4563:
4559:
4557:
4556:
4552:
4550:
4549:
4545:
4543:
4540:
4538:
4537:
4533:
4531:
4530:
4526:
4525:
4522:
4519:
4517:
4511:
4501:
4498:
4495:
4492:
4490:
4489:
4485:
4484:
4482:
4478:
4471:
4467:
4464:
4462:
4459:
4457:
4456:
4452:
4450:
4447:
4445:
4442:
4440:
4437:
4434:
4433:Southern Daly
4431:
4429:
4428:
4424:
4422:
4419:
4417:
4416:
4412:
4410:
4409:
4405:
4403:
4400:
4397:
4396:
4392:
4390:
4387:
4385:
4382:
4380:
4377:
4375:
4374:
4370:
4368:
4367:
4363:
4360:
4359:
4358:Darwin Region
4355:
4353:
4350:
4347:
4344:
4343:
4340:
4337:
4335:
4331:
4321:
4318:
4316:
4314:
4310:
4307:
4304:
4301:
4298:
4296:
4293:
4291:
4288:
4286:
4283:
4281:
4278:
4276:
4273:
4271:
4268:
4265:
4262:
4259:
4256:
4254:
4251:
4249:
4246:
4245:
4243:
4239:
4232:
4229:
4226:
4223:
4221:
4218:
4216:
4213:
4211:
4208:
4206:
4203:
4201:
4198:
4196:
4193:
4191:
4190:
4186:
4184:
4181:
4179:
4178:
4174:
4172:
4169:
4167:
4164:
4162:
4159:
4157:
4156:
4152:
4150:
4147:
4145:
4142:
4140:
4139:
4135:
4133:
4130:
4128:
4125:
4123:
4120:
4118:
4117:
4113:
4111:
4108:
4106:
4103:
4101:
4098:
4096:
4093:
4091:
4088:
4086:
4083:
4081:
4078:
4076:
4073:
4071:
4068:
4066:
4063:
4061:
4058:
4056:
4053:
4051:
4048:
4046:
4043:
4041:
4040:Demta–Sentani
4038:
4036:
4033:
4031:
4028:
4026:
4023:
4021:
4018:
4016:
4013:
4011:
4010:
4006:
4004:
4001:
4000:
3997:
3994:
3992:
3987:
3983:
3973:
3971:
3967:
3965:
3964:
3960:
3957:
3954:
3952:
3949:
3947:
3945:
3941:
3939:
3936:
3934:
3932:
3928:
3926:
3925:
3921:
3919:
3918:
3914:
3912:
3909:
3907:
3904:
3903:
3901:
3897:
3890:
3887:
3884:
3881:
3878:
3875:
3872:
3869:
3866:
3863:
3860:
3857:
3855:
3852:
3850:
3847:
3845:
3844:
3840:
3838:
3837:
3833:
3831:
3830:
3826:
3824:
3821:
3819:
3818:
3814:
3812:
3809:
3807:
3804:
3802:
3801:
3797:
3795:
3792:
3790:
3787:
3785:
3784:
3780:
3778:
3775:
3773:
3770:
3768:
3765:
3763:
3762:
3761:Indo-European
3758:
3756:
3755:
3751:
3749:
3748:
3744:
3742:
3739:
3737:
3734:
3732:
3731:
3727:
3725:
3722:
3720:
3719:
3715:
3713:
3712:
3711:Austroasiatic
3708:
3706:
3703:
3701:
3700:
3696:
3695:
3692:
3689:
3686:
3681:
3674:
3663:
3660:
3657:
3654:
3652:
3649:
3647:
3646:
3642:
3640:
3637:
3635:
3632:
3631:
3629:
3625:
3618:
3615:
3612:
3609:
3606:
3603:
3600:
3597:
3594:
3591:
3589:
3586:
3583:
3582:
3578:
3576:
3575:
3571:
3569:
3566:
3564:
3561:
3559:
3558:
3554:
3552:
3551:
3547:
3546:
3543:
3540:
3538:
3534:
3530:
3523:
3518:
3516:
3511:
3509:
3504:
3503:
3500:
3490:
3486:
3481:
3473:
3472:
3468:
3466:
3463:
3461:
3458:
3457:
3456:
3453:
3449:
3448:
3444:
3442:
3441:
3437:
3435:
3432:
3431:
3430:
3427:
3426:
3424:
3420:
3414:
3411:
3410:
3408:
3404:
3398:
3395:
3393:
3392:
3388:
3386:
3383:
3381:
3380:
3376:
3375:
3373:
3371:
3367:
3357:
3356:
3352:
3350:
3349:
3345:
3343:
3342:
3338:
3336:
3335:
3331:
3330:
3328:
3324:
3318:
3317:
3313:
3311:
3308:
3307:
3305:
3301:
3298:
3296:
3292:
3287:
3273:
3272:
3268:
3266:
3265:
3261:
3259:
3256:
3255:
3253:
3251:
3247:
3241:
3238:
3236:
3235:
3231:
3229:
3226:
3224:
3221:
3220:
3218:
3216:
3212:
3209:
3207:
3203:
3199:
3192:
3187:
3185:
3180:
3178:
3173:
3172:
3169:
3163:by Silja Ijas
3162:
3161:
3157:
3154:
3153:
3149:
3147:
3143:(in Japanese)
3141:
3138:
3137:
3133:
3130:
3129:John Bengtson
3126:
3123:
3120:
3119:
3115:
3111:
3109:
3105:
3102:
3098:
3097:
3093:
3091:
3087:
3084:
3081:
3078:
3076:
3073:
3072:
3064:
3061:
3058:
3055:
3051:
3046:
3042:
3041:Kannari Matsu
3037:
3035:
3032:
3029:
3026:
3024:
3021:
3020:
3012:
3010:
3004:
3001:
2998:
2997:Mashiho Chiri
2995:(Compiled by
2984:
2977:
2964:
2963:
2957:
2944:
2943:
2937:
2924:
2923:
2917:
2905:
2901:
2897:
2896:
2890:
2878:
2874:
2873:
2867:
2866:
2856:
2852:
2848:
2844:
2840:
2836:
2835:
2830:
2825:
2821:
2817:
2812:
2808:
2802:
2798:
2794:
2789:
2785:
2779:
2775:
2770:
2766:
2762:
2758:
2754:
2750:
2746:
2741:
2737:
2733:
2732:Mother Tongue
2729:
2724:
2723:
2719:
2718:
2713:
2707:
2703:
2699:
2694:
2690:
2683:
2678:
2674:
2661:
2642:
2634:
2630:
2626:
2621:
2617:
2615:4-385-35976-8
2611:
2607:
2602:
2598:
2596:0-521-36918-5
2592:
2588:
2585:. Cambridge:
2584:
2579:
2575:
2569:
2565:
2561:
2556:
2552:
2550:87-7288-020-1
2546:
2542:
2537:
2533:
2527:
2523:
2519:
2515:
2511:
2507:
2502:
2498:
2493:
2489:
2484:
2480:
2476:
2472:
2468:
2464:
2460:
2455:
2454:
2441:
2437:
2432:
2427:
2423:
2419:
2414:
2409:
2405:
2401:
2397:
2390:
2383:
2379:
2375:
2368:
2360:
2356:
2351:
2346:
2342:
2338:
2334:
2327:
2319:
2312:
2304:
2297:
2291:
2288:, p. 3;
2287:
2283:
2282:Miller (1967)
2278:
2270:
2266:
2259:
2240:
2236:
2232:
2225:
2218:
2202:
2198:
2194:
2187:
2179:
2177:9789004300439
2173:
2169:
2165:
2164:
2156:
2145:
2138:
2131:
2129:
2120:
2109:
2107:9781136446580
2103:
2099:
2095:
2094:
2086:
2078:
2071:
2064:
2060:
2054:
2050:
2047:. Cambridge:
2046:
2042:
2036:
2029:
2024:
2018:
2014:
2011:. Cambridge:
2010:
2003:
1996:
1992:
1986:
1983:. p. 4.
1982:
1978:
1977:
1969:
1962:
1959:. p. 7.
1958:
1954:
1947:
1932:
1928:
1921:
1914:
1909:
1905:
1900:
1895:
1890:
1885:
1881:
1877:
1874:(4): e62243.
1873:
1869:
1868:
1863:
1856:
1854:
1846:
1845:Patrie (1982)
1841:
1826:
1822:
1818:
1814:
1810:
1806:
1802:
1798:
1791:
1784:
1779:
1772:
1767:
1751:
1747:
1745:9783110176148
1741:
1737:
1736:
1731:
1725:
1710:
1706:
1704:
1699:
1692:
1684:
1681:. Edinburgh:
1680:
1673:
1669:
1641:
1634:
1630:
1629:double hyphen
1624:
1620:
1612:
1610:
1609:Izumo dialect
1606:
1601:
1597:
1592:
1588:
1581:
1580:
1574:
1564:
1558:
1546:
1534:
1528:
1522:
1514:
1506:
1499:
1493:
1487:
1482:
1476:
1466:
1460:
1451:
1444:on Sakhalin.
1443:
1442:lingua franca
1438:
1436:
1426:
1422:
1420:
1410:
1408:
1407:Tōhoku region
1404:
1399:
1396:
1390:
1384:
1378:
1372:
1367:
1362:
1361:
1354:
1348:
1342:
1336:
1331:
1320:
1318:
1314:
1310:
1300:
1298:
1294:
1290:
1283:Austroasiatic
1280:
1277:
1275:
1271:
1267:
1263:
1261:
1257:
1253:
1249:
1245:
1241:
1231:
1228:
1226:
1222:
1218:
1214:
1209:
1207:
1203:
1199:
1195:
1184:
1182:
1178:
1174:
1164:
1156:
1154:
1152:
1149:
1146:
1145:
1141:
1139:
1137:
1134:
1131:
1130:
1126:
1123:
1121:
1118:
1115:
1114:
1110:
1107:
1104:
1101:
1098:
1097:
1093:
1090:
1085:
1084:
1078:
1068:
1063:
1058:
1053:
1050:
1049:
1043:
1038:
1033:
1028:
1025:
1024:
1018:
1013:
1008:
1003:
1000:
999:
993:
988:
983:
978:
975:
974:
968:
963:
958:
953:
950:
949:
943:
938:
933:
928:
925:
924:
918:
913:
908:
903:
900:
899:
893:
888:
883:
878:
875:
874:
868:
863:
858:
853:
850:
849:
843:
838:
833:
828:
825:
824:
820:
817:
814:
811:
809:
808:
805:
800:
785:
782:
779:
777:
773:
766:
765:
761:
759:
756:
754:
751:
747:
744:
741:
738:
736:
733:
732:
728:
725:
722:
719:
716:
712:
709:
707:
704:
701:
697:
693:
690:
685:
682:
679:
669:
667:
664:
662:
659:
658:
655:
653:
650:
648:
645:
644:
640:
637:
634:
631:
628:
627:
624:
621:
618:
615:
612:
611:
608:
606:
603:
600:
597:
596:
592:
589:
584:
581:
579:
578:
572:
570:
566:
549:
546:
545:
543:
539:
536:
534:
531:
530:
528:
527:
526:
523:
522:
520:
518:
509:
494:
490:
484:
480:
476:
472:
471:Sakhalin Ainu
465:Sakhalin Ainu
462:
460:
450:
446:
438:
430:
424:
418:
410:
406:
392:
386:
380:
373:
371:
367:
359:
351:
343:
335:
327:
321:
320:Oshima County
317:
316:Hokkaidō Ainu
311:Hokkaidō Ainu
308:
300:
296:
292:
286:
281:(1990:9) and
268:
265:
261:
257:
253:
252:Sakhalin Ainu
249:
245:
241:
240:Hokkaido Ainu
237:
233:
228:
226:
222:
218:
214:
210:
206:
202:
201:
192:
171:
158:
153:
148:
143:
141:
137:
133:
129:
127:
123:
118:
113:
111:
107:
103:
98:
93:
92:Sakhalin Ainu
87:
85:
79:
77:
76:Hokkaido Ainu
74:
73:
72:
68:
65:
61:
59:
55:
52:
48:
47:Kuril Islands
44:
40:
36:
30:
25:
20:
6391:
6384:
6383:Families in
6340:Pre-Goidelic
6335:Pre-Germanic
6165:Indo-Semitic
6160:Indo-Pacific
6155:Indo-Hittite
6070:
6063:
6056:
6017:
5986:
5963:Indian Ocean
5930:
5925:Austronesian
5923:
5916:
5909:
5902:
5897:Sino-Tibetan
5895:
5874:
5852:
5847:Sino-Tibetan
5845:
5838:
5831:
5799:
5774:
5767:
5760:
5753:
5746:
5739:
5732:
5725:
5718:
5711:
5704:
5684:
5677:
5670:
5663:
5656:
5651:North Picene
5649:
5642:
5635:
5628:
5621:
5614:
5607:
5595:
5588:
5581:
5517:
5510:
5509:Families in
5444:
5395:
5293:
5281:
5131:
5099:
5090:Pano-Tacanan
5047:
5010:
4998:
4969:Arutani–Sape
4961:
4906:
4888:
4881:
4866:Oto-Manguean
4864:
4847:
4840:
4787:
4775:
4768:
4761:
4754:
4747:
4720:
4713:
4690:
4683:
4671:
4644:
4622:
4615:
4603:
4591:
4574:
4567:
4560:
4553:
4546:
4534:
4527:
4486:
4453:
4449:Western Daly
4427:Pama–Nyungan
4425:
4413:
4406:
4393:
4371:
4366:Eastern Daly
4364:
4356:
4311:
4187:
4175:
4153:
4136:
4114:
4085:Kaure–Kosare
4045:Doso–Turumsa
4035:Chimbu–Wahgi
4025:Bulaka River
4009:Austronesian
4007:
3968:
3961:
3942:
3929:
3922:
3915:
3841:
3834:
3827:
3817:Sino-Tibetan
3815:
3798:
3781:
3759:
3752:
3745:
3728:
3718:Austronesian
3716:
3709:
3704:
3697:
3643:
3581:Nilo-Saharan
3579:
3572:
3557:Austronesian
3555:
3548:
3484:
3469:
3445:
3438:
3428:
3389:
3377:
3353:
3346:
3339:
3332:
3314:
3269:
3262:
3232:
3158:
3150:
3135:
3117:
3116:, including
3113:
3095:
3059:(Wiktionary)
3030:(Wiktionary)
3008:
3003:Miyake, Marc
2987:. Retrieved
2967:. Retrieved
2961:
2947:. Retrieved
2941:
2927:. Retrieved
2921:
2907:. Retrieved
2895:Ainu grammar
2894:
2880:. Retrieved
2871:
2841:(1): 92–98.
2838:
2832:
2828:
2819:
2815:
2795:. Honolulu:
2792:
2773:
2751:(1): 65–98.
2748:
2744:
2735:
2731:
2697:
2688:
2660:cite journal
2648:. Retrieved
2641:the original
2632:
2628:
2605:
2582:
2559:
2540:
2517:
2505:
2496:
2487:
2478:
2474:
2462:
2458:
2451:Bibliography
2403:
2399:
2389:
2381:
2373:
2367:
2340:
2336:
2326:
2317:
2311:
2302:
2296:
2290:Vovin (2008)
2277:
2264:
2258:
2248:30 September
2246:. Retrieved
2237:(1): 40–62.
2234:
2230:
2217:
2207:17 September
2205:. Retrieved
2196:
2186:
2162:
2155:
2119:Google Books
2117:– via
2111:. Retrieved
2092:
2085:
2076:
2070:
2062:
2044:
2035:
2026:
2008:
2002:
1994:
1974:
1968:
1960:
1952:
1946:
1935:. Retrieved
1920:
1911:
1871:
1865:
1840:
1829:. Retrieved
1804:
1800:
1790:
1778:
1766:
1754:. Retrieved
1734:
1724:
1713:. Retrieved
1701:
1691:
1678:
1672:
1640:
1623:
1593:
1470:
1439:
1432:
1423:
1416:
1400:
1365:
1326:
1306:
1297:Vovin (1993)
1293:Vovin (1992)
1286:
1278:
1268:
1264:
1237:
1229:
1210:
1185:
1170:
1162:
1076:
1045:shinimesampe
1005:*tu=pE=hdan=
803:
790:
562:
524:
517:Vovin (1993)
515:
495:
468:
456:
425:, data from
372:, Nukkibetsu
322:, data from
314:
295:Vovin (1993)
274:
234:of a single
229:
219:of northern
204:
169:
167:
70:Subdivisions
34:distribution
6190:Ural-Altaic
6170:Indo-Uralic
5982:Sentinelese
5713:Afroasiatic
5679:Eteocypriot
5403:Germanosign
5307:Mura-Pirahã
5188:Lule–Vilela
5164:Bora-Witoto
5139:Uru–Chipaya
5112:Ticuna–Yuri
5095:Peba–Yaguan
5080:Nambikwaran
4883:Uto-Aztecan
4819:Mesoamerica
4673:Uto-Aztecan
4662:Tsimshianic
4624:Palaihnihan
4494:Malak-Malak
4231:Papuan Gulf
4205:West Papuan
4110:Lower Sepik
4100:Lakes Plain
4003:Arai–Samaia
3991:the Pacific
3699:Afroasiatic
3574:Niger–Congo
3550:Afroasiatic
3011:an isolate?
2343:(1): 1–29.
1979:. Chicago:
1801:Diachronica
1571:), and the
1563:Keta Shrine
1481:place names
1035:sinepesanpe
821:Kuril Ainu
812:Proto-Ainu
629:Continuant
217:Ainu people
6409:Categories
6330:Pre-Celtic
6298:East Asian
6288:Austro-Tai
6278:Andamanese
6128:Eurasiatic
6049:North Asia
5999:North Asia
5911:Hmong–Mien
5865:Burushaski
5824:South Asia
5795:Kartvelian
5762:Philistine
5672:Eteocretan
5616:Tartessian
5397:Francosign
5245:Chiquitano
5225:Alacalufan
5033:Guaicuruan
5006:Chapacuran
4989:Cahuapanan
4957:Araucanian
4860:Mixe–Zoque
4855:Misumalpan
4569:Comecrudan
4421:Nyulnyulan
4200:Upper Yuat
4177:Torricelli
4149:Senu River
4080:Foja Range
3986:New Guinea
3911:Burushaski
3772:Kartvelian
3747:Hmong–Mien
3563:Khoe–Kwadi
3250:Kamchatkan
3034:Ainu music
2902:. p.
2738:: 219–258.
2700:. Leiden:
2691:: 672–686.
2650:17 January
2562:. London:
2376:. Leiden:
1937:2020-12-18
1831:2023-05-15
1783:Vovin 1993
1771:Vovin 1993
1715:2020-12-01
1664:References
1543:, such as
1525:rivers in
1116:Close-Mid
980:*a=d=hdan=
752:voiceless
749:Fricative
717:voiceless
525:Proto-Ainu
459:Kuril Ainu
453:Kuril Ainu
256:Kuril Ainu
84:Kuril Ainu
32:Geographic
6355:Pre-Vedic
6345:Pre-Greek
6317:Substrata
6220:Arunachal
6118:Nostratic
6103:Alarodian
6038:Yeniseian
5888:East Asia
5840:Dravidian
5697:West Asia
5665:Tyrsenian
5428:Tanzanian
5369:languages
5266:Hodï/Joti
5210:Isolates
5149:Yanomaman
5085:Otomákoan
5049:Jirajaran
5038:Guajiboan
5000:Catacaoan
4979:Barbacoan
4908:Cuitlatec
4877:Totonacan
4836:Jicaquean
4715:Chimariko
4611:Muskogean
4593:Kalapuyan
4587:Iroquoian
4562:Chumashan
4555:Chinookan
4548:Chimakuan
4466:Yangmanic
4461:Worrorran
4444:Wagaydyic
4334:Australia
4183:Trans-Fly
3849:Yeniseian
3836:Tyrsenian
3730:Dravidian
3487:indicate
3295:Yeniseian
3215:Chukotkan
3131:(undated)
2898:. Tokyo:
2765:144613877
2629:Man'yoshū
2564:Routledge
2422:2513-843X
2359:162188849
2098:Routledge
1821:0176-4225
1703:Glottolog
1635:boundary.
1429:Geography
1395:shak embe
1330:loanwords
1317:borrowing
1132:Open-Mid
1020:tumisampe
1010:tupesanpe
955:*ii=hdan=
775:Sonorant
688:Alveolar
683:Bilabial
646:Sibilant
587:Alveolar
483:Take Asai
479:Uglegorsk
475:Poronaysk
429:Asahikawa
366:Horobetsu
326:Oshamambe
285:Piłsudski
278:Shibatani
271:Varieties
260:Toponymic
246:lists as
140:Glottolog
126:ISO 639-3
106:ISO 639-2
6350:Vasconic
6325:Atlantic
6079:Eskaleut
6033:Yukaghir
5948:Koreanic
5943:Tungusic
5938:Mongolic
5876:Harappan
5787:Caucasus
5769:Sumerian
5644:Ligurian
5461:See also
5438:Isolates
5413:Japanese
5353:Yuracaré
5235:Candoshi
5194:Macro-Jê
5159:Zaparoan
5154:Zamucoan
5144:Witotoan
5127:Tucanoan
5122:Tiniguan
5117:Timotean
5101:Quechuan
5070:Matacoan
5065:Mascoian
5055:Jivaroan
5018:Chibchan
5012:Charruan
4963:Arawakan
4900:Isolates
4831:Chibchan
4707:Isolates
4679:Wakashan
4640:Salishan
4582:Eskaleut
4488:Giimbiyu
4480:Isolates
4389:Jarrakan
4384:Iwaidjan
4241:Isolates
4095:Kutubuan
3963:Sumerian
3899:Isolates
3854:Yukaghir
3823:Tungusic
3789:Mongolic
3777:Koreanic
3736:Eskaleut
3627:Isolates
3611:Ubangian
3455:Eskaleut
3447:Sakhalin
3434:Hokkaido
3370:Yukaghir
3355:Pumpokol
3326:Southern
3303:Northern
3104:Archived
3017:See also
3005:. 2010.
2969:March 1,
2949:March 1,
2929:March 1,
2909:March 1,
2834:Language
2631:and the
2465:: 73–81.
2440:37588377
2431:10427481
2239:Archived
2201:Archived
2197:新潟大学OPAC
2144:Archived
2113:29 March
2043:(2012).
1931:Archived
1908:23638014
1867:PLOS ONE
1825:Archived
1750:Archived
1709:Archived
1647:'Emishi'
1633:morpheme
1435:Sakhalin
1360:shishamo
1353:tunakkay
1256:Tungusic
1252:Mongolic
1244:Japanese
1221:Mongolic
1217:Tungusic
1204:and the
1189:Hasegawa
1091:Central
804:Numerals
694:Glottal
457:Data on
379:Niikappu
370:Biratori
291:Hokkaidō
242:, which
232:dialects
147:ainu1252
43:Sakhalin
39:Hokkaido
6385:italics
6283:Austric
6260:Kho-Bwa
6255:Hrusish
6233:Siangic
6175:Karasuk
6075: ?
5988:Kenaboi
5953:Japonic
5918:Kra–Dai
5879: ?
5870:Kusunda
5776:Elamite
5748:Kassite
5734:Kaskian
5637:Camunic
5609:Iberian
5566:Eurasia
5511:italics
5488:Pidgins
5473:Creoles
5423:Swedish
5391:Chinese
5338:Urarina
5323:Puinave
5277:Itonama
5271:Irantxe
5240:Chimane
5170:Chimuan
5075:Nadahup
4994:Cariban
4974:Aymaran
4935:America
4777:Waikuri
4770:Tonkawa
4763:Timucua
4756:Takelma
4749:Siuslaw
4738:Kutenai
4722:Esselen
4685:Wintuan
4646:Shastan
4617:Na-Dene
4605:Maiduan
4542:Caddoan
4516:America
4470:Wagiman
4468:(incl.
4439:Tangkic
4379:Garawan
4352:Bunuban
4313:Tambora
4280:Maybrat
4248:Abinomn
4171:Teberan
4132:Pauwasi
4122:Mairasi
4090:Kiwaian
3970:Tambora
3956:Shompen
3938:Kusunda
3931:Kenaboi
3917:Elamite
3889:Siangic
3871:Kho-Bwa
3865:Hrusish
3783:Kra–Dai
3767:Japonic
3676:Eurasia
3651:Sandawe
3634:Bangime
3599:Songhay
3485:Italics
3471:Sirenik
3228:Chukchi
3223:Alyutor
3007:Is the
2989:1 March
2982:アイヌ語法概說
2882:1 March
2406:: e13.
1899:3637396
1876:Bibcode
1557:Musashi
1389:sak ipe
1368:; Ainu
1356:), and
1347:tonakai
1198:Okhotsk
1081:Vowels
1040:sinspis
995:arawamp
970:oshwamp
945:ashinep
935:asiknep
905:*íì=nÈ=
830:*sì=nÉ=
767:voiced
734:voiced
691:Dorsal
686:Dental/
660:Rhotic
590:Dorsal
585:Dental/
582:Labial
505:Hattori
409:Kushiro
405:Obihiro
342:Sapporo
304:Hattori
6245:Mijiic
6238:Digaro
6185:Pontic
6113:Borean
6108:Altaic
6072:Rouran
6065:Turkic
6058:Uralic
6047:Other
5932:Turkic
5860:Nihali
5755:Gutian
5727:Hattic
5720:Turkic
5686:Minoan
5658:Sicani
5603:Basque
5597:Turkic
5590:Uralic
5574:Europe
5386:BANZSL
5348:Yamana
5333:Trumai
5302:Movima
5256:Fulniô
5219:Aikanã
5133:Tupian
5028:Chonan
4952:Arauan
4890:Xincan
4842:Lencan
4795:Yokuts
4692:Yukian
4657:Tanoan
4652:Siouan
4635:Pomoan
4576:Coosan
4402:Mirndi
4295:Porome
4290:Pawaia
4144:Senagi
4116:Madang
4065:Eleman
4020:Border
3951:Nihali
3944:Minoan
3924:Hattic
3906:Basque
3877:Mijiic
3859:Digaro
3843:Uralic
3829:Turkic
3680:Europe
3537:Africa
3465:Naukan
3422:Others
3379:Chuvan
3240:Koryak
2855:411195
2853:
2803:
2780:
2763:
2708:
2633:Fudoki
2612:
2593:
2570:
2547:
2528:
2438:
2428:
2420:
2357:
2174:
2104:
2055:
2019:
1987:
1906:
1896:
1819:
1756:22 May
1742:
1698:"Ainu"
1653:Emishi
1587:Tōhoku
1579:matagi
1568:Toyama
1513:Kurobe
1486:-betsu
1475:Emishi
1309:Nivkhs
1260:Altaic
1254:, and
1248:Turkic
1242:, and
1240:Korean
1234:Altaic
1223:, and
1206:Kurils
1202:Honshu
1099:Close
1088:Front
1055:*hdán=
845:shinep
699:Nasal
598:Nasal
499:Tamura
441:) and
437:Nayoro
417:Bihoro
398:Hidaka
391:Samani
358:Hidaka
334:Yakumo
264:Honshu
244:UNESCO
205:Ainuic
51:Honshu
45:, the
27:Ainuic
6023:Nivkh
5977:Ongan
5343:Warao
5312:Nukak
5283:Kunza
5261:Guató
5250:Cofán
5230:Camsá
5023:Choco
4984:Boran
4933:South
4914:Huave
4849:Mayan
4800:Yuchi
4783:Washo
4733:Karuk
4728:Haida
4667:Utian
4599:Keres
4536:Alsea
4529:Algic
4514:North
4306:Taiap
4300:Sulka
4155:Sepik
4070:Engan
3811:Ongan
3794:Nivkh
3662:Shabo
3645:Jalaa
3639:Hadza
3593:Mande
3440:Kuril
3413:Nivkh
3406:Nivkh
3341:Assan
3234:Kerek
2851:JSTOR
2761:S2CID
2702:Brill
2685:(PDF)
2644:(PDF)
2637:(PDF)
2477:[
2355:S2CID
2242:(PDF)
2227:(PDF)
2168:BRILL
2147:(PDF)
2140:(PDF)
2028:here.
1615:Notes
1600:Nivkh
1540:Chūbu
1533:Kantō
1521:Oyabe
1505:Chūbu
1492:'pet'
1447:Asahi
1383:shake
1371:susam
1341:rakko
1335:rakko
1313:Nivkh
1213:Nivkh
1147:Open
1124:(*ë)
1108:(*ï)
1105:(*ü)
1094:Back
1070:oampe
1065:uupis
1015:tubis
990:arwam
985:arwan
930:*áskì
855:*tuu=
840:sinep
835:sinep
770:(*H)
729:(*q)
714:Stop
613:Stop
491:]
487:[
350:Iburi
221:Japan
6392:bold
6250:Miju
6018:Ainu
5518:bold
5445:See
5381:Arab
5367:Sign
5318:Páez
5295:Maku
5289:Leco
4805:Zuni
4789:Yana
4743:Seri
4500:Tiwi
4320:Wiru
4285:Mpur
4275:Kuot
4258:Anêm
4253:Abun
4220:Yuat
4215:Yawa
4161:Skou
4138:Ramu
3989:and
3883:Miju
3705:Ainu
3685:Asia
3683:and
3656:Laal
3617:Kadu
3605:Ijaw
3568:Kx'a
3460:Yuit
3429:Ainu
3391:Omok
3348:Kott
3334:Arin
3316:Yugh
3009:itak
2991:2012
2971:2012
2951:2012
2931:2012
2911:2012
2884:2012
2822:(5).
2801:ISBN
2778:ISBN
2706:ISBN
2673:help
2652:2011
2610:ISBN
2591:ISBN
2568:ISBN
2545:ISBN
2526:ISBN
2436:PMID
2418:ISSN
2250:2019
2209:2019
2172:ISBN
2115:2019
2102:ISBN
2053:ISBN
2017:ISBN
1985:ISBN
1904:PMID
1817:ISSN
1758:2012
1740:ISBN
1627:The
1537:and
1517:and
1377:sake
965:iwan
960:iwan
940:asik
920:inep
915:inep
910:inep
880:*dE=
563:The
445:Sōya
433:and
413:and
375:and
354:and
330:and
254:and
200:-noo
168:The
22:Ainu
5965:rim
5564:of
4270:Kol
4264:Ata
4210:Yam
4075:Fas
3588:Tuu
3310:Ket
3127:by
3099:by
3088:in
2904:174
2877:525
2843:doi
2753:doi
2426:PMC
2408:doi
2345:doi
1894:PMC
1884:doi
1809:doi
1705:4.3
1553:),
1498:-be
1392:or
1380:or
1344:),
1192:of
1171:No
1157:*A
1150:*a
1142:*O
1135:*E
1127:*o
1119:*e
1111:*u
1102:*i
1060:wan
1051:10
895:nep
890:rep
870:tup
865:tup
860:tup
783:*j
780:*ɾ
762:*h
757:*s
742:*g
739:*d
726:*k
723:*t
720:*p
705:*n
702:*m
665:*r
651:*s
641:*h
638:*ɣ
635:*ð
632:*w
622:*k
619:*t
616:*p
604:*n
601:*m
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