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distance, or radius, of the electron from the field line at any time is known as its Larmor radius. The pitch angle increases as the electron travels to a region of greater field strength nearer to the atmosphere. Thus, it is possible for some particles to return, or mirror, if the angle becomes 90° before entering the atmosphere to collide with the denser molecules there. Other particles that do not mirror enter the atmosphere and contribute to the auroral display over a range of altitudes. Other types of auroras have been observed from space; for example, "poleward arcs" stretching sunward across the polar cap, the related "theta aurora", and "dayside arcs" near noon. These are relatively infrequent and poorly understood. Other interesting effects occur such as pulsating aurora, "black aurora" and their rarer companion "anti-black aurora" and subvisual red arcs. In addition to all these, a weak glow (often deep red) observed around the two polar cusps, the field lines separating the ones that close through Earth from those that are swept into the tail and close remotely.
1385:. It is not well understood, but geomagnetic storms may vary with Earth's seasons. Two factors to consider are the tilt of both the solar and Earth's axis to the ecliptic plane. As Earth orbits throughout a year, it experiences an interplanetary magnetic field (IMF) from different latitudes of the Sun, which is tilted at 8 degrees. Similarly, the 23-degree tilt of Earth's axis about which the geomagnetic pole rotates with a diurnal variation changes the daily average angle that the geomagnetic field presents to the incident IMF throughout a year. These factors combined can lead to minor cyclical changes in the detailed way that the IMF links to the magnetosphere. In turn, this affects the average probability of opening a door through which energy from the solar wind can reach Earth's inner magnetosphere and thereby enhance auroras. Recent evidence in 2021 has shown that individual separate substorms may in fact be correlated networked communities.
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1444:) in the direction along the magnetic field line toward Earth. This field-aligned acceleration decreases the pitch angle for all of the electrons passing through the region, causing many of them to hit the upper atmosphere. In contrast to the scattering process leading to diffuse auroras, the electric field increases the kinetic energy of all of the electrons transiting downward through the acceleration region by the same amount. This accelerates electrons starting from the magnetosphere with initially low energies (tens of eV or less) to energies required to create an aurora (100s of eV or greater), allowing that large source of particles to contribute to creating auroral light.
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2730:"... molti di voi avranno più d'una volta veduto 'l Cielo nell' ore notturne, nelle parti verso Settentrione, illuminato in modo, che di lucidità non-cede alla piu candida Aurora, ne lontana allo spuntar del Sole; effetto, che per mio credere, non-ha origine altrode, che dall' essersi parte dell' aria vaporosa, che circonda la terra, per qualche cagione in modo più del consueto assottigliata, che sublimandosi assai più del suo consueto, abbia sormontato il cono dell' ombra terrestre, si che essendo la sua parte superiore ferita dal Sole abbia potuto rifletterci il suo splendore, e formarci questa boreale aurora."
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2733:("... many of you will have seen, more than once, the sky in the night hours, in parts towards the north, illuminated in a way that the clear does not yield to the brighter aurora, far from the rising of the sun; an effect that, by my thinking, has no other origin than being part of the vaporous air that surrounds the Earth, for some reason thinner than usual, which, being sublimated far more than expected, has risen above the cone of the Earth's shadow, so that its upper part, being struck by the sun, has been able to reflect its splendor and to form this aurora borealis.")
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1038:") are squeezed downstream and are carried away with the solar wind; others are squeezed toward Earth where their motion feeds strong outbursts of auroras, mainly around midnight ("unloading process"). A geomagnetic storm resulting from greater interaction adds many more particles to the plasma trapped around Earth, also producing enhancement of the "ring current". Occasionally the resulting modification of Earth's magnetic field can be so strong that it produces auroras visible at middle latitudes, on field lines much closer to the equator than those of the auroral zone.
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1455:). The energy to power this load is eventually supplied by the magnetized solar wind flowing around the obstacle of Earth's magnetic field, although exactly how that power flows through the magnetosphere is still an active area of research. While the energy to power the aurora is ultimately derived from the solar wind, the electrons themselves do not travel directly from the solar wind into Earth's auroral zone; magnetic field lines from these regions do not connect to the solar wind, so there is no direct access for solar wind electrons.
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measurements has been acquired painstakingly and with steadily improving resolution since the 1960s by many research teams using rockets and satellites to traverse the auroral zone. The main findings have been that auroral arcs and other bright forms are due to electrons that have been accelerated during the final few 10,000 km or so of their plunge into the atmosphere. These electrons often, but not always, exhibit a peak in their energy distribution, and are preferentially aligned along the local direction of the magnetic field.
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2461:. The mainly red aurora was found to be a million times brighter than the northern lights, a result of the charged particles interacting with hydrogen in the atmosphere. It has been speculated that stellar winds may be stripping off material from the surface of the brown dwarf to produce their own electrons. Another possible explanation for the auroras is that an as-yet-undetected body around the dwarf star is throwing off material, as is the case with Jupiter and its moon Io.
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direction of the guiding magnetic field. The pitch angle is thereby decreased and increases the chance of it being precipitated into the atmosphere. Both electromagnetic and electrostatic waves, produced at the time of greater geomagnetic disturbances, make a significant contribution to the energizing processes that sustain an aurora. Particle acceleration provides a complex intermediate process for transferring energy from the solar wind indirectly into the atmosphere.
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1191:, so some consider that such currents require a driving voltage, which an, as yet unspecified, dynamo mechanism can supply. Electric field probes in orbit above the polar cap suggest voltages of the order of 40,000 volts, rising up to more than 200,000 volts during intense magnetic storms. In another interpretation, the currents are the direct result of electron acceleration into the atmosphere by wave/particle interactions.
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1187:(Schield et al., 1969; Zmuda and Armstrong, 1973), which flow down into the ionosphere on one side of the pole and out on the other. In between, some of the current connects directly through the ionospheric E layer (125 km); the rest ("region 2") detours, leaving again through field lines closer to the equator and closing through the "partial ring current" carried by magnetically trapped plasma. The ionosphere is an
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1164:. Because the highest parts of the atmosphere contain a higher percentage of oxygen and lower particle densities, such collisions are rare enough to allow time for oxygen to emit red light. Collisions become more frequent progressing down into the atmosphere due to increasing density, so that red emissions do not have time to happen, and eventually, even green light emissions are prevented.
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particles cross the very weak magnetic field near the equator. As a result, the flow of electrons in that region is nearly the same in all directions ("isotropic") and assures a steady supply of leaking electrons. The leakage of electrons does not leave the tail positively charged, because each leaked electron lost to the atmosphere is replaced by a low energy electron drawn upward from the
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2368:. An uncertain fraction of Jupiter's aurorae are powered by the solar wind. In addition, the moons, especially Io, are also powerful sources of aurora. These arise from electric currents along field lines ("field aligned currents"), generated by a dynamo mechanism due to the relative motion between the rotating planet and the moving moon. Io, which has active
393:, the effect is known as the aurora borealis or the northern lights. The southern counterpart, the aurora australis or the southern lights, has features almost identical to the aurora borealis and changes simultaneously with changes in the northern auroral zone. The aurora australis is visible from high southern latitudes in
1026:("magnetic substorms"). These 'substorms' tend to occur after prolonged spells (on the order of hours) during which the interplanetary magnetic field has had an appreciable southward component. This leads to a higher rate of interconnection between its field lines and those of Earth. As a result, the solar wind moves
1271:, the lines of the magnetic field, an electric current is induced within the conductor. The strength of the current depends on a) the rate of relative motion, b) the strength of the magnetic field, c) the number of conductors ganged together and d) the distance between the conductor and the magnetic field, while the
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940:. It consists of regularly-spaced, parallel stripes of brighter emission in the green diffuse aurora which give the impression of sand dunes. The phenomenon is believed to be caused by the modulation of atomic oxygen density by a large-scale atmospheric wave travelling horizontally in a waveguide through an
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May not then the great quantity of electricity brought into the polar regions by the clouds, which are condens'd there, and fall in snow, which electricity would enter the earth, but cannot penetrate the ice; may it not, I say (as a bottle overcharged) break thro' that low atmosphere and run along in
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Just as there are many types of aurora, there are many different mechanisms that accelerate auroral particles into the atmosphere. Electron aurora in Earth's auroral zone (i.e. commonly visible aurora) can be split into two main categories with different immediate causes: diffuse and discrete aurora.
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The high latitude magnetosphere is filled with plasma as the solar wind passes Earth. The flow of plasma into the magnetosphere increases with additional turbulence, density, and speed in the solar wind. This flow is favoured by a southward component of the IMF, which can then directly connect to the
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molecule) plays a role here, as it can transfer energy by collision to an oxygen atom, which then radiates it away at the green wavelength. (Red and green can also mix together to produce pink or yellow hues.) The rapid decrease of concentration of atomic oxygen below about 100 km is responsible
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Green: At lower altitudes, the more frequent collisions suppress the 630 nm (red) mode: rather the 557.7 nm emission (green) dominates. A fairly high concentration of atomic oxygen and higher eye sensitivity in green make green auroras the most common. The excited molecular nitrogen (atomic
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This is why there is a color differential with altitude; at high altitudes oxygen red dominates, then oxygen green and nitrogen blue/purple/red, then finally nitrogen blue/purple/red when collisions prevent oxygen from emitting anything. Green is the most common colour. Then comes pink, a mixture of
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The details of these phenomena are not fully understood. However, it is clear that the prime source of auroral particles is the solar wind feeding the magnetosphere, the reservoir containing the radiation zones and temporarily magnetically trapped particles confined by the geomagnetic field, coupled
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Horse-collar auroras (HCA) are auroral features in which the auroral ellipse shifts poleward during the dawn and dusk portions and the polar cap becomes teardrop-shaped. They form during periods when the interplanetary magnetic field (IMF) is permanently northward, when the IMF clock angle is small.
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Blue: At yet lower altitudes, atomic oxygen is uncommon, and molecular nitrogen and ionized molecular nitrogen take over in producing visible light emission, radiating at a large number of wavelengths in both red and blue parts of the spectrum, with 428 nm (blue) being dominant. Blue and purple
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Red: At its highest altitudes, excited atomic oxygen emits at 630 nm (red); low concentration of atoms and lower sensitivity of eyes at this wavelength make this color visible only under more intense solar activity. The low number of oxygen atoms and their gradually diminishing concentration is
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Auroras seen within the auroral oval may be directly overhead. From farther away, they illuminate the poleward horizon as a greenish glow, or sometimes a faint red, as if the Sun were rising from an unusual direction. Auroras also occur poleward of the auroral zone as either diffuse patches or arcs,
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energies, significant to produce auroral arcs. If the electrons have a speed close to that of the wave's phase velocity, they are accelerated in a manner analogous to a surfer catching an ocean wave. This constantly-changing wave electric field can accelerate electrons along the field line, causing
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on the day-side. In addition to moving perpendicular to Earth's magnetic field, some magnetospheric plasma travels down along Earth's magnetic field lines, gains additional energy and loses it to the atmosphere in the auroral zones. The cusps of the magnetosphere, separating geomagnetic field lines
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The solar wind and the magnetosphere, being two electrically conducting fluids in relative motion, should be able in principle to generate electric currents by dynamo action and impart energy from the flow of the solar wind. However, this process is hampered by the fact that plasmas conduct readily
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of red and green or blue. Other shades of red, as well as orange and gold, may be seen on rare occasions; yellow-green is moderately common. As red, green, and blue are linearly independent colours, additive synthesis could, in theory, produce most human-perceived colours, but the ones mentioned in
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mythology, the northern lights are caused by the deceased who bled to death cutting themselves, their blood spilling on the sky. Many aboriginal peoples of northern
Eurasia and North America share similar beliefs of northern lights being the blood of the deceased, some believing they are caused by
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The oldest known written record of the aurora was in a
Chinese legend written around 2600 BC. On an autumn around 2000 BC, according to a legend, a young woman named Fubao was sitting alone in the wilderness by a bay, when suddenly a "magical band of light" appeared like "moving clouds and flowing
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The effect of the Aurora on the electric telegraph is generally to increase or diminish the electric current generated in working the wires. Sometimes it entirely neutralizes them, so that, in effect, no fluid is discoverable in them. The aurora borealis seems to be composed of a mass of electric
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In addition to the discrete and diffuse electron aurora, proton aurora is caused when magnetospheric protons collide with the upper atmosphere. The proton gains an electron in the interaction, and the resulting neutral hydrogen atom emits photons. The resulting light is too dim to be seen with the
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The immediate cause of the ionization and excitation of atmospheric constituents leading to auroral emissions was discovered in 1960, when a pioneering rocket flight from Fort
Churchill in Canada revealed a flux of electrons entering the atmosphere from above. Since then an extensive collection of
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Acceleration of auroral charged particles invariably accompanies a magnetospheric disturbance that causes an aurora. This mechanism, which is believed to predominantly arise from strong electric fields along the magnetic field or wave-particle interactions, raises the velocity of a particle in the
2401:, scientists observed that the region of the emissions corresponded to an area where the strongest magnetic field is localized. This correlation indicated that the origin of the light emission was a flux of electrons moving along the crust magnetic lines and exciting the upper atmosphere of Mars.
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In the case of discrete auroras, the trapped electrons are accelerated toward Earth by electric fields that form at an altitude of about 4000–12000 km in the "auroral acceleration region". The electric fields point away from Earth (i.e. upward) along the magnetic field line. Electrons moving
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Electrons mainly responsible for diffuse and pulsating auroras have, in contrast, a smoothly falling energy distribution, and an angular (pitch-angle) distribution favouring directions perpendicular to the local magnetic field. Pulsations were discovered to originate at or close to the equatorial
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to precipitate into the atmosphere. Once particles are lost to the atmosphere from the radiation belts, under quiet conditions, new ones replace them only slowly, and the loss-cone becomes depleted. In the magnetotail, however, particle trajectories seem constantly to reshuffle, probably when the
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Auroras change with time, over the night they begin with glows and progress toward coronas, although they may not reach them. They tend to fade in the opposite order. Until about 1963, it was thought that these changes are due to the rotation of the Earth under a pattern fixed with respect to the
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cycle or during the three years after the peak. An electron spirals (gyrates) about a field line at an angle that is determined by its velocity vectors, parallel and perpendicular, respectively, to the local geomagnetic field vector B. This angle is known as the "pitch angle" of the particle. The
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causes the auroral ovals (north and south) to expand, bringing the aurora to lower latitudes. The instantaneous distribution of auroras ("auroral oval") is slightly different, being centered about 3–5° nightward of the magnetic pole, so that auroral arcs reach furthest toward the equator when the
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were considered messengers from heaven. However, researchers from Japan's
Graduate University for Advanced Studies and National Institute of Polar Research claimed in March 2020 that red pheasant tails witnessed across the night sky over Japan in 620 A.D., might be a red aurora produced during a
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At shorter time scales, auroras can change their appearances and intensity, sometimes so slowly as to be difficult to notice, and at other times rapidly down to the sub-second scale. The phenomenon of pulsating auroras is an example of intensity variations over short timescales, typically with
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Oxygen is unusual in terms of its return to ground state: it can take 0.7 seconds to emit the 557.7 nm green light and up to two minutes for the red 630.0 nm emission. Collisions with other atoms or molecules absorb the excitation energy and prevent emission, this process is called
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Diffuse aurora appear relatively structureless to an observer on the ground, with indistinct edges and amorphous forms. Discrete aurora are structured into distinct features with well-defined edges such as arcs, rays and coronas; they also tend to be much brighter than the diffuse aurora.
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1624:"My current is very strong at times, and we can work better without the batteries, as the aurora seems to neutralize and augment our batteries alternately, making current too strong at times for our relay magnets. Suppose we work without batteries while we are affected by this trouble."
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2384:. Venus has no magnetic field and so Venusian auroras appear as bright and diffuse patches of varying shape and intensity, sometimes distributed over the full disc of the planet. A Venusian aurora originates when electrons from the solar wind collide with the night-side atmosphere.
2428:, like in terrestrial auroras) of water molecules in the comet's coma. The interaction of accelerated electrons from the solar wind with gas particles in the coma is responsible for the aurora. Since comet 67P has no magnetic field, the aurora is diffusely spread around the comet.
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Their formation is associated with the closure of the magnetic flux at the top of the dayside magnetosphere by the double lobe reconnection (DLR). There are approximately 8 HCA events per month, with no seasonal dependence, and that the IMF must be within 30 degrees of northwards.
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A quiescent solar wind flowing past Earth's magnetosphere steadily interacts with it and can both inject solar wind particles directly onto the geomagnetic field lines that are 'open', as opposed to being 'closed' in the opposite hemisphere and provide diffusion through the
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Brekke (1994) also described some auroras as "curtains". The similarity to curtains is often enhanced by folds within the arcs. Arcs can fragment or break up into separate, at times rapidly changing, often rayed features that may fill the whole sky. These are also known as
1136:. They are ionized or excited by the collision of particles precipitated into the atmosphere. Both incoming electrons and protons may be involved. Excitation energy is lost within the atmosphere by the emission of a photon, or by collision with another atom or molecule:
1030:(tubes of magnetic field lines, 'locked' together with their resident plasma) from the day side of Earth to the magnetotail, widening the obstacle it presents to the solar wind flow and constricting the tail on the night-side. Ultimately some tail plasma can separate ("
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the vacuum over the air towards the equator, diverging as the degrees of longitude enlarge, strongly visible where densest, and becoming less visible as it more diverges; till it finds a passage to the earth in more temperate climates, or is mingled with the upper air?
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on 1 September 1859. This event produced auroras so widespread and extraordinarily bright that they were seen and reported in published scientific measurements, ship logs, and newspapers throughout the United States, Europe, Japan, and
Australia. It was reported by
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The processes that cause STEVE are also associated with a picket-fence aurora, although the latter can be seen without STEVE. It is an aurora because it is caused by precipitation of electrons in the atmosphere but it appears outside the auroral oval, closer to the
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12,000 km to 15,000 km (1.9 to 2.4 Re) further upstream. The width of the magnetosphere abreast of Earth is typically 190,000 km (30 Re), and on the night side a long "magnetotail" of stretched field lines extends to great distances (> 200 Re).
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and his colleagues, who used cameras to triangulate more than 12,000 auroras. They discovered that most of the light is produced between 90 and 150 km (56 and 93 mi) above the ground, while extending at times to more than 1,000 km (620 mi).
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along magnetic field lines, but less readily perpendicular to them. Energy is more effectively transferred by the temporary magnetic connection between the field lines of the solar wind and those of the magnetosphere. Unsurprisingly this process is known as
1428:; the electron energy after interacting with the wave is similar to its energy before interaction, but the direction of motion is altered. If the final direction of motion after scattering is close to the field line (specifically, if it falls within the
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is described to be like a red dragon shining in the night sky with a body a thousand miles long. In ancient times, the
Chinese did not have a fixed word for the aurora, so it was named according to the different shapes of the aurora, such as "Sky Dog"
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and excitation of atmospheric constituents emit light of varying colour and complexity. The form of the aurora, occurring within bands around both polar regions, is also dependent on the amount of acceleration imparted to the precipitating particles.
1432:) then the electron will hit the atmosphere. Diffuse auroras are caused by the collective effect of many such scattered electrons hitting the atmosphere. The process is mediated by the plasma waves, which become stronger during periods of high
1417:: the angle between its direction of motion and the local magnetic field. An aurora is created by processes that decrease the pitch angle of many individual electrons, freeing them from the magnetic trap and causing them to hit the atmosphere.
977:, when there is little difference in the orientation of the north and south geomagnetic poles to the sun. Attempts were made to image conjugate auroras by aircraft from Alaska and New Zealand in 1967, 1968, 1970, and 1971, with some success.
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Angelopoulos, V.; McFadden, J. P.; Larson, D.; Carlson, C. W.; Mende, S. B.; Frey, H.; Phan, T.; Sibeck, D. G.; Glassmeier, K.-H.; Auster, U.; Donovan, E.; Mann, I. R.; Rae, I. J.; Russell, C. T.; Runov, A.; Zhou, X.-Z.; Kepko, L. (2008).
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at all local times (or longitudes), most clearly seen at night against a dark sky. A region that currently displays an aurora is called the "auroral oval", a band displaced by the solar wind towards the night side of Earth. Auroras at the
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Reiff, P. H.; Collin, H. L.; Craven, J. D.; Burch, J. L.; Winningham, J. D.; Shelley, E. G.; Frank, L. A.; Friedman, M. A. (1988). "Determination of auroral electrostatic potentials using high- and low-altitude particle distributions".
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power at all and working solely with the current induced by the aurora, and it was said that this was the first time on record that more than a word or two was transmitted in such manner. Such events led to the general conclusion that
1232:. The solar wind reaches Earth with a velocity typically around 400 km/s, a density of around 5 ions/cm and a magnetic field intensity of around 2–5 nT (for comparison, Earth's surface field is typically 30,000–50,000 nT). During
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on Friday 2 September 1859 the aurora was "so brilliant that at about one o'clock ordinary print could be read by the light". One o'clock EST time on Friday 2 September would have been 6:00 GMT; the self-recording magnetograph at the
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and an ionosphere, is a particularly strong source, and its currents also generate radio emissions, which have been studied since 1955. Using the Hubble Space
Telescope, auroras over Io, Europa and Ganymede have all been observed.
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some of them to hit the atmosphere. Electrons accelerated by this mechanism tend to have a broad energy spectrum, in contrast to the sharply-peaked energy spectrum typical of electrons accelerated by quasi-static electric fields.
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naked eye. Other aurora not covered by the above discussion include transpolar arcs (formed poleward of the auroral zone), cusp aurora (formed in two small high-latitude areas on the dayside) and some non-terrestrial auroras.
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at an altitude of 450 km (280 mi), with a temperature of 3,000 °C (3,270 K; 5,430 °F) and flowing at a speed of 6 km/s (3.7 mi/s) (compared to 10 m/s (33 ft/s) outside the ribbon).
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Ultraviolet: Ultraviolet radiation from auroras (within the optical window but not visible to virtually all humans) has been observed with the requisite equipment. Ultraviolet auroras have also been seen on Mars, Jupiter, and
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are dragged out by the solar wind. That alone would tend to line them up in the Sun-Earth direction, but the rotation of the Sun angles them at Earth by about 45 degrees forming a spiral in the ecliptic plane, known as the
2138:. In 1741, Hiorter was able to link large magnetic fluctuation to the observation of an aurora overhead. This evidence helped to support their theory that 'magnetic storms' are responsible for such compass fluctuations.
853:. They change in a few minutes from quiet arcs all along the auroral oval to active displays along the darkside and after 1 – 3 hours they gradually change back. Changes in auroras over time are commonly visualized using
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2397:, in the region of 177° east, 52° south. The total size of the emission region was about 30 km across, and possibly about 8 km high. By analysing a map of crustal magnetic anomalies compiled with data from
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matter, resembling in every respect, that generated by the electric galvanic battery. The currents from it change coming on the wires, and then disappear: the mass of the aurora rolls from the horizon to the zenith.
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periods of 2–20 seconds. This type of aurora is generally accompanied by decreasing peak emission heights of about 8 km for blue and green emissions and above average solar wind speeds (c. 500 km/s).
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in history. It is also notable for the fact that it is the first time where the phenomena of auroral activity and electricity were unambiguously linked. This insight was made possible not only due to scientific
2016:, ghostly spirits who spoke to the people through auroras. Sacred law forbade anyone except male elders from watching or interpreting the messages of ancestors they believed were transmitted through an aurora.
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deduced that the currents flowed in the east–west directions along the auroral arc, and such currents, flowing from the dayside toward (approximately) midnight were later named "auroral electrojets" (see also
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The aurorae on Saturn seem, like Earth's, to be powered by the solar wind. However, Jupiter's aurorae are more complex. Jupiter's main auroral oval is associated with the plasma produced by the volcanic moon
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flow. By a strange twist of physics, the magnetic disturbance on the ground due to the main current almost cancels out, so most of the observed effect of auroras is due to a secondary current, the auroral
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lines then in service being significantly disrupted for many hours throughout the storm. Some telegraph lines, however, seem to have been of the appropriate length and orientation to produce a sufficient
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Auroras are occasionally seen in latitudes below the auroral zone, when a geomagnetic storm temporarily enlarges the auroral oval. Large geomagnetic storms are most common during the peak of the 11-year
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is shaped by the impact of the solar wind on Earth's magnetic field. This forms an obstacle to the flow, diverting it, at an average distance of about 70,000 km (11 Earth radii or Re), producing a
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1228:, a flow of magnetized hot plasma (a gas of free electrons and positive ions) emitted by the Sun in all directions, a result of the two-million-degree temperature of the Sun's outermost layer, the
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Shue, J.-H; Chao, J. K.; Fu, H. C.; Russell, C. T.; Song, P.; Khurana, K. K.; Singer, H. J. (May 1997). "A new functional form to study the solar wind control of the magnetopause size and shape".
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Grandin, Maxime; Palmroth, Minna; Whipps, Graeme; Kalliokoski, Milla; Ferrier, Mark; Paxton, Larry J.; Mlynczak, Martin G.; Hilska, Jukka; Holmseth, Knut; Vinorum, Kjetil; Whenman, Barry (2021).
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fur is stroked. They believed that the lights were the spirits of their departed friends dancing in the sky, and when they shone brightly it meant that their deceased friends were very happy.
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to allow for continued communication with the telegraph operator power supplies switched off. The following conversation occurred between two operators of the
American Telegraph Line between
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1522:." The second auroral event, which occurred on 2 September 1859, was a result of the (unseen) coronal mass ejection associated with the exceptionally intense Carrington–Hodgson white light
523:
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1884:, which cascaded a pale silver brilliance, illuminating the earth and making shapes and shadows seem alive. Moved by this sight, Fubao became pregnant and gave birth to a son, the Emperor
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emissions, typically at the lower edges of the "curtains", show up at the highest levels of solar activity. The molecular nitrogen transitions are much faster than the atomic oxygen ones.
873:(AKR), discovered in 1972. Ionospheric absorption makes AKR only observable from space. X-ray emissions, originating from the particles associated with auroras, have also been detected.
1451:). Since the electric field points in the same direction as the current, there is a net conversion of electromagnetic energy into particle energy in the auroral acceleration region (an
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as saying that before the aurora of 1716, no such phenomenon had been recorded for more than 80 years, and none of any consequence since 1574. It says no appearance is recorded in the
1307:. As already mentioned, it happens most readily when the interplanetary field is directed southward, in a similar direction to the geomagnetic field in the inner regions of both the
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high latitude geomagnetic field lines. The flow pattern of magnetospheric plasma is mainly from the magnetotail toward Earth, around Earth and back into the solar wind through the
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This sequence of shots was taken 11 September 2011 from 13:45:06 to 14:01:51 GMT, from a descending pass near eastern
Australia, rounding about to an ascending pass to the east of
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Palmroth, M.; Grandin, M.; Helin, M.; Koski, P.; Oksanen, A.; Glad, M. A.; Valonen, R.; Saari, K.; Bruus, E.; Norberg, J.; Viljanen, A.; Kauristie, K.; Verronen, P. T. (2020).
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Lyons, L. R.; Kim, H.-J.; Xing, X.; Zou, S.; Lee, D.-Y.; Heinselman, C.; Nicolls, M. J.; Angelopoulos, V.; Larson, D.; McFadden, J.; Runov, A.; Fornacon, K.-H. (2009).
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The auroras that resulted from the
Carrington event on both 28 August and 2 September 1859, are thought to be the most spectacular in recent history. In a paper to the
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Most auroras occur in a band known as the "auroral zone", which is typically 3° to 6° (approximately 330–660 km) wide in latitude and between 10° and 20° from the
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2073:, and he gives three possible explanations: that the ocean was surrounded by vast fires; that the sun flares could reach around the world to its night side; or that
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is the original Latin plural and is often used by scientists. In some contexts, aurora is an uncountable noun, multiple sightings being referred to as "the aurora".
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that close through Earth from those that close remotely allow a small amount of solar wind to directly reach the top of the atmosphere, producing an auroral glow.
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These maps show the local midnight equatorward boundary of the aurora at different levels of geomagnetic activity as of 28 October 2011 – these maps change as the
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A full understanding of the physical processes which lead to different types of auroras is still incomplete, but the basic cause involves the interaction of the
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1259:'s work around 1830) that when an electrical conductor is placed within a magnetic field while relative motion occurs in a direction that the conductor cuts
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layer of the atmosphere formed during a cold night. The charged particles discharge when particles from the Sun hit the inversion layer, creating the noise.
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Armstrong, J. C.; Zmuda, A. J. (1973). "Triaxial magnetic measurements of field-aligned currents at 800 kilometers in the auroral region: Initial results".
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blue, purple or red; blue and purple if the molecule regains an electron after it has been ionized, red if returning to ground state from an excited state.
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responsible for the faint appearance of the top parts of the "curtains". Scarlet, crimson, and carmine are the most often-seen hues of red for the auroras.
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These forms are consistent with auroras being shaped by Earth's magnetic field. The appearances of arcs, rays, curtains, and coronas are determined by the
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deduced in the 1970s that the long-term averages of solar wind speed correlated with geomagnetic activity. Her work resulted from data collected by the
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2332:, compared to 0.3 gauss for Earth), and both have extensive radiation belts. Auroras have been observed on both gas planets, most clearly using the
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itself are very common and guaranteed to be visible. Early evidence for a geomagnetic connection comes from the statistics of auroral observations.
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386:(1860), and later Hermann Fritz (1881) and Sophus Tromholt (1881) in more detail, established that the aurora appeared mainly in the auroral zone.
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3204:Østgaard, N.; Mende, S. B.; Frey, H. U.; Sigwarth, J. B.; Åsnes, A.; Weygand, J. M. (2007). "Auroral conjugacy studies based on global imaging".
1714:
1203:. An auroral electrojet index (measured in nanotesla) is regularly derived from ground data and serves as a general measure of auroral activity.
993:. The varying intensity of the solar wind produces effects of different magnitudes but includes one or more of the following physical scenarios.
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5054:
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1470:), Alfvén waves develop a significant electric field parallel to the background magnetic field. This electric field can accelerate electrons to
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A Journey to the Northern Ocean: A journey from Prince of Wales' Fort in Hudson's Bay to the Northern Ocean in the years 1769, 1770, 1771, 1772
3003:"The great auroral exhibition of August 28 to September 4, 1859, and the geographical distribution of auroras and thunder storms – 5th article"
4274:
1413:
formed by the increasing magnetic field strength closer to Earth. The magnetic mirror's ability to trap a particle depends on the particle's
174:). Auroras display dynamic patterns of brilliant lights that appear as curtains, rays, spirals, or dynamic flickers covering the entire sky.
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4304:
2033:("great torches in the sky") were lit by ancestors who sailed south to a "land of ice" (or their descendants); these people were said to be
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910:", for "Strong Thermal Emission Velocity Enhancement". STEVE is not an aurora but is caused by a 25 km (16 mi) wide ribbon of hot
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that was so intense and red that a cohort of the army, stationed nearby for fire duty, galloped to the rescue. It has been suggested that
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from one night's recording by an all-sky camera, 6/7 September 2021. Keograms are commonly used to visualize changes in aurorae over time.
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4132:
Nishimura, Y.; Gallardo-Lacourt, B.; Zou, Y.; Mishin, E.; Knudsen, D. J.; Donovan, E. F.; Angelopoulos, V.; Raybell, R. (16 April 2019).
3119:"On electrical currents circulating near the earth's surface and their connection with the phenomena of the aurora polaris – 9th article"
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A translation into French of Franklin's article was read to the French Royal Academy of Sciences and an excerpt of it was published in:
2777:"The Odyssey ca. 500 B.C. by Homer (translated by Samuel Butler 1900); online at Internet Classics Archive (Retrieved 15 February 2021)"
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that an aurora was caused by a concentration of electrical charge in the polar regions intensified by the snow and moisture in the air:
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1299:. The field lines passing Earth are therefore usually linked to those near the western edge ("limb") of the visible Sun at any time.
445:. On rare occasions, the aurora borealis can be seen as far south as the Mediterranean and the southern states of the US. During the
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2245:
885:, similar to a crackling noise, begins about 70 m (230 ft) above Earth's surface and is caused by charged particles in an
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4378:
4019:
3640:"Magnetospheric source region of discrete auroras inferred from their relationship with isotropy boundaries of energetic particles"
298:
metaphorically to refer to dawn, often mentioning its play of colours across the otherwise dark sky (e.g., "rosy-fingered dawn").
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Bryant, D. A.; Collin, H. L.; Courtier, G. M.; Johnstone, A. D. (1967). "Evidence for Velocity Dispersion in Auroral Electrons".
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Observations of the rhythmic movement of compass needles due to the influence of an aurora were confirmed in the Swedish city of
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of atomic oxygen, a slow mechanism responsible for the graduality (0.7 s and 107 s respectively) of flaring and fading.
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5995:; Ballantyne, Tony; Benjamin, Julie; Booth, Douglas; Brickell, Chris; Gilderdale, Peter; Haines, David; Liebich, Susan (2018).
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Green, J; Boardsen, S; Odenwald, S; Humble, J; Pazamickas, K (2006). "Eyewitness reports of the great auroral storm of 1859".
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In both cases, the electrons that eventually cause the aurora start out as electrons trapped by the magnetic field in Earth's
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5136:"Network community structure of substorms using SuperMAG magnetometers, L. Orr, S. C. Chapman, J. W. Gjerloev & W. Guo"
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6066:; Scott, Nigel J.; Beckwith, Jacinta; Pryor Rodgers, Rata; Gillies, Tasman; Van Uitregt, Vincent; Krushil, Watene (2021).
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crossing point of auroral zone magnetic field lines. Protons are also associated with auroras, both discrete and diffuse.
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for the abrupt-looking end of the lower edges of the curtains. Both the 557.7 and 630.0 nm wavelengths correspond to
458:
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dead warriors' blood spraying on the sky as they engage in playing games, riding horses or having fun in some other way.
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Partamies, N.; Whiter, D.; Kadokura, A.; Kauristie, K.; Tyssøy, H. Nesse; Massetti, S.; Stauning, P.; Raita, T. (2017).
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in the northern and southern hemispheres on the same geomagnetic field lines. These generally happen at the time of the
5492:"On the Great Magnetic Disturbance of 28 August to 7 September 1859, as Recorded by Photography at the Kew Observatory"
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4134:"Magnetospheric signatures of STEVE: Implication for the magnetospheric energy source and inter-hemispheric conjugacy"
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thought the phenomenon a great rarity before 1716. The period between approximately 1645 and 1715 corresponds to the
2175:('caribou'). According to Hearne, the Dene people saw the resemblance between an aurora and the sparks produced when
1761:
1518:–Hodgson flare event when he observed that "It is not impossible to suppose that in this case our luminary was taken
503:
This sequence of shots was taken 17 September 2011 from 17:22:27 to 17:45:12 GMT, on an ascending pass from south of
39:
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Størmer, Carl (1946). "Frequency of 12,330 measured heights of aurora from southern Norway in the years 1911–1944".
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1956:
The Aboriginal Australians associated auroras (which are mainly low on the horizon and predominantly red) with fire.
1371:. Two of the five probes, positioned approximately one third the distance to the Moon, measured events suggesting a
7458:
5491:
4737:
Schield, M. A.; Freeman, J. W.; Dessler, A. J. (1969). "A Source for Field-Aligned Currents at Auroral Latitudes".
4331:"Large-Scale Dune Aurora Event Investigation Combining Citizen Scientists' Photographs and Spacecraft Observations"
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According to Clark (2007), there are five main forms that can be seen from the ground, from least to most visible:
47:
43:
35:
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1735:
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5250:
Borovsky JE, Birn J, Echim MM, Fujita S, Lysak RL, Knudsen DJ, Marghitu O, Otto A, Watanabe TH, Tanaka T (2020).
3164:]. Internationale wissenschaftliche Bibliothek (in German). Vol. 49. Leipzig, Germany: F. A. Brockhaus.
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measurements of the era, but also as a result of a significant portion of the 125,000 miles (201,000 km) of
17:
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instability under high ionospheric resistance conditions, observed at night time and in dark Winter hemisphere.
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1699:
1515:
907:
846:
815:
Infrared: Infrared radiation, in wavelengths that are within the optical window, is also part of many auroras.
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7261:
7155:
5331:
2438:, have been suggested to experience ionization in their upper atmospheres and generate an aurora modified by
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light green and red, followed by pure red, then yellow (a mixture of red and green), and finally, pure blue.
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In addition, the aurora and associated currents produce a strong radio emission around 150 kHz known as
6392:
4827:"Effects of the seasonal asymmetry in ionospheric Pedersen conductance on the appearance of discrete aurora"
1551:
1402:
7682:
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6035:
5883:
2727:
On p. 39, Galileo explains that auroras are due to sunlight reflecting from thin, high clouds. From p. 39:
2276:
1780:, a historical chronicle of the history of ancient China, in 977 or 957 BC. An aurora was described by the
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atoms after gaining electrons from the atmosphere. Proton auroras are usually observed at lower latitudes.
1012:
870:
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Sun. Later, it was found by comparing all-sky films of auroras from different places (collected during the
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6334:
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took this as a sign that God was on their side, as the lights were rarely seen so far south. The painting
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7130:
5773:
3240:"Aurora austral en Uruguay: fotógrafos registran un hecho "histórico" y astrónomos explican por qué pasó"
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2207:
A mid 19th-century British source says auroras were a rare occurrence before the 18th century. It quotes
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120:
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5963:
5251:
3365:
3306:
3090:"On the great auroral exhibition of August 28 to September 4, 1859, and auroras generally – 8th article"
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In the case of diffuse auroras, the electron pitch angles are altered by their interaction with various
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7484:
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5861:
5185:
2212:
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2150:
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361:(invisible). Continuing with green and red bands of aurorae stretching over several hundred kilometres.
6677:
5451:"Inclined zenith aurora over Kyoto on 17 September 1770: Graphical evidence of extreme magnetic storm"
5248:
A discussion of 8 theories in use in 2020 as well as several no longer in common use can be found in:
5011:"Evidence that solar wind fluctuations substantially affect global convection and substorm occurrence"
80:
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5050:
2620:
1877:
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on 21 November 1861, Balfour Stewart described both auroral events as documented by a self-recording
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628:
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1828:
trees'); and describing their manifold colours. He wrote about whether they were above or below the
1283:"), any and all conductors, solid or otherwise are so affected, including plasmas and other fluids.
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First reported in 2020, and confirmed in 2021, the dune aurora phenomenon was discovered by Finnish
7702:
7494:
7276:
7256:
7148:
4712:"Simultaneous ground and satellite observations of an isolated proton arc at sub-auroral latitudes"
4236:
3188:
2520:
2365:
2183:
1614:"Mine is disconnected, and we are working with the auroral current. How do you receive my writing?"
1161:
1003:
990:
6550:
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences
6153:
The original English text of Benjamin Franklin's article on the cause of auroras is available at:
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7377:
7372:
7185:
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6154:
5625:. Vol. 2, no. 56. Victoria, V.I. : Amor De Cosmos. 19 October 1859. p. 1, col. 2.
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4876:"On the high correlation between long-term averages of solar wind speed and geomagnetic activity"
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4296:
4237:"Citizen Scientists Discover a New Auroral Form: Dunes Provide Insight Into the Upper Atmosphere"
1846:
1695:
1688:
1368:
1015:. The complete process, which also generates an electric ring current around Earth, is uncertain.
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886:
768:
31:
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have magnetic fields that are stronger than Earth's (Jupiter's equatorial field strength is 4.3
1507:
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7712:
7687:
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7329:
2333:
2115:
Aurora Borealis, Suppositions and Conjectures towards forming an Hypothesis for its Explanation
1961:
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210:
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4697:
3366:"Solar cycle effects in planetary geomagnetic activity: Analysis of 36-year long OMNI dataset"
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from AD 1230. The chronicler has heard about this phenomenon from compatriots returning from
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4145:
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3692:
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Clark, Stuart (2007). "Astronomical fire: Richard Carrington and the solar flare of 1859".
3511:
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3380:
3321:
3277:
3213:
3193:(in Danish and French). Copenhagen, Denmark: Danske Meteorologiske Institut. pp. I–LX.
3187:
Tromholt, Sophus (1881). "Om Nordlysets Perioder / Sur les périodes de l'aurore boréale ".
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2485:
2409:
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1969:
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These two both include detailed descriptions of historical observations and descriptions.
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533:
This sequence of shots was taken 7 September 2011 from 17:38:03 to 17:49:15 GMT, from the
8:
7654:
5363:"Laboratory measurements of the physics of auroral electron acceleration by Alfvén waves"
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downward through these fields gain a substantial amount of energy (on the order of a few
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probes were able to determine, for the first time, the triggering event for the onset of
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Lui, A., 2019. Imaging global auroras in space. Light: Science & Applications, 8(1).
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to cure infectious diseases 'brought on by the sulphurous vapours of the Aurora Borealis
2064:
1318:
Auroras are more frequent and brighter during the intense phase of the solar cycle when
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7387:
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1965:
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449:, the greatest geomagnetic storm ever observed, auroras were seen even in the tropics.
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269:
109:
Images of auroras from across the world, including those with rarer red and blue lights
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4952:
3593:
2008:
as the campfires of spirits in the 'Land of the Dead'. Aboriginal people in southwest
1462:. At small wavelengths transverse to the background magnetic field (comparable to the
1447:
The accelerated electrons carry an electric current along the magnetic field lines (a
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7363:
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The aurorae seen in northern latitudes, around the Arctic, can be referred to as the
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laid the foundation for the current understanding of geomagnetism and polar auroras.
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1941:
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466:
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6307:
6178:[Extract of Suppositions and conjectures on the cause of auroras borealis].
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1011:. Such replacement of "hot" electrons by "cold" ones is in complete accord with the
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than typical auroras. When the picket-fence aurora appears with STEVE, it is below.
906:
observations described what was to them an unknown type of aurora which they named "
7606:
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7550:
7413:
6874:
6847:
6728:
6583:
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6496:
6488:
6354:
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6079:
5947:
5812:
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5555:
5503:
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5390:
5382:
5312:
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5208:
5155:
5147:
5098:
5030:
4991:
4895:
4846:
4789:
4754:
4679:
4667:
4632:
4596:
4579:
McIlwain, C E (1960). "Direct Measurement of Particles Producing Visible Auroras".
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An aurora was detected on Mars, on 14 August 2004, by the SPICAM instrument aboard
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911:
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798:
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366:
198:
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5252:"Quiescent Discrete Auroral Arcs: A Review of Magnetospheric Generator Mechanisms"
5051:"NASA – THEMIS Satellites Discover What Triggers Eruptions of the Northern Lights"
3772:"NASA's MAVEN Orbiter Detects Ultraviolet Aurora on Mars | Space Exploration"
1514:
and established the connection between the 2 September 1859 auroral storm and the
354:
185:. Major disturbances result from enhancements in the speed of the solar wind from
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7094:
6991:
6851:
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6161:
5992:
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2553:, while those seen in southern latitudes, around the Antarctic, are known as the
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2005:
1991:
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903:
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Lysak R, Echim M, Karlsson T, Marghitu O, Rankin R, Song Y, Watanabe TH (2020).
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The theory of acceleration by parallel electric fields is reviewed in detail by
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3225:
2304:
2020:
687:
7666:
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7514:
7294:
6996:
6968:
6670:
6176:"Extrait des suppositions et des conjectures sur la cause des Aurores Boréales"
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5386:
5212:
5151:
4711:
3685:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
2826:
2776:
2713:] (in Italian). Firenze (Florence), Italy: Pietro Cecconcelli. p. 39.
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6252:. Richard Glover (ed.). Toronto: The MacMillan Company of Canada. pp. 221–222.
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5638:
5585:"The great auroral exhibition of August 28 to September 4, 1859 – 2nd article"
5559:
5270:
4430:
3980:
Anderson, K. A. (1960). "Balloon observations of X-rays in the auroral zone".
3664:
3639:
3061:"The great auroral exhibition of August 28 to September 4, 1859 – 7th article"
3032:"The great auroral exhibition of August 28 to September 4, 1859 – 6th article"
2974:"The great auroral exhibition of August 28 to September 4, 1859 – 4th article"
2945:"The great auroral exhibition of August 28 to September 4, 1859 – 3rd article"
2916:"The great auroral exhibition of August 28 to September 4, 1859 – 2nd article"
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Some auroral features are also created by electrons accelerated by dispersive
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Effects of the active auroral ionosphere on magnetosphere-ionosphere coupling
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1546:, which was then one hour old, at its full intensity. Between 1859 and 1862,
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398:
329:
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Sandholt, Even; Carlson, Herbert C.; Egeland, Alv (2002). "Optical Aurora".
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6212:
The Ingenious Dr. Franklin: Selected Scientific Letters of Benjamin Franklin
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4001:
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observations revealed atomic emissions of hydrogen and oxygen caused by the
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are light and dark stripes across arcs, reaching upwards by various amounts.
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7241:
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6741:
6640:"First Alien Auroras Found, Are 1 Million Times Brighter Than Any on Earth"
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7027:
3638:
Yahnin, A. G.; Sergeev, V. A.; Gvozdevsky, B. B.; Vennerstrøm, S. (1997).
2248:" (1908), a Yukon prospector discovers that the aurora is the glow from a
1964:, the Aurora Australis is commonly associated with fire. For example, the
333:
Earth's night-side upper atmosphere appearing from the bottom as bands of
7545:
7451:
7314:
7304:
7057:
6546:"Lightning and charge processes in brown dwarf and exoplanet atmospheres"
5475:
5450:
5035:
5010:
4851:
4826:
4486:
4477:
4355:
4330:
4252:
4158:
4133:
3903:
3572:
Zhu, L.; Schunk, R. W.; Sojka, J. J. (1997). "Polar cap arcs: A review".
3457:
3432:
3402:
3393:
3334:
3290:
3265:
2744:
2454:
2443:
2435:
2263:
2091:
2024:
1895:
1523:
1245:
556:
434:
406:
338:
242:
4261:
2281:
1619:"Better than with our batteries on. – Current comes and goes gradually."
1563:
That aurora is thought to have been produced by one of the most intense
591:
7286:
7236:
7210:
7205:
6842:
Hultqvist, Bengt (2007). "The Aurora". In Kamide, Y.; Chian, A (eds.).
4873:
4452:
Bower, G. E.; Milan, S. E.; Paxton, L. J.; Anderson, B. J. (May 2022).
4400:
3848:
3705:
2671:
2099:
2095:
2009:
1881:
1866:
1702: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
1425:
1225:
1200:
1019:
1008:
986:
945:
504:
394:
379:
371:
349:(pink area) extends to the orange and faintly green line of the lowest
346:
222:
182:
115:
100:
7661:
6732:
6469:"Far-ultraviolet aurora identified at comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko"
5316:
4995:
3364:
Papitashvili, V. O.; Papitashva, N. E.; King, J. H. (September 2000).
1381:
that ignite auroras may occur more often during the months around the
1212:). Ionosphere can contribute to the formation of auroral arcs via the
1194:
Ionospheric resistance has a complex nature, and leads to a secondary
1171:
Precipitating protons generally produce optical emissions as incident
769:
shapes of the luminous parts of the atmosphere and a viewer's position
413:. The aurora borealis is visible from areas around the Arctic such as
7535:
7530:
7231:
7200:
6690:
6130:
4671:
2654:(1986). "An historical footnote on the origin of 'aurora borealis'".
2532:
The name "auroras" is now the more common plural in the US; however,
2431:
2369:
2361:
2308:
An aurora high above the northern part of Saturn; image taken by the
2289:
2166:
2085:
2070:
1945:
1347:
1291:
999:
508:
426:
334:
218:
171:
71:
7108:
6708:
5731:"Earliest Known Report of Aurora Found in Ancient Chinese Chronicle"
4206:"'Steve': the mystery purple aurora that rivals the northern lights"
2805:
Feldstein, Y. I. (2011). "A Quarter Century with the Auroral Oval".
2252:
mine. He stakes his claim, then goes to town looking for investors.
1677:
832:
764:, which are at times bright enough to read a newspaper by at night.
686:
radar. The altitudes where auroral emissions occur were revealed by
626:
corresponds to relatively low levels of geomagnetic activity, while
6772:
Akasofu, Syun-Ichi (April 2002). "Secrets of the Aurora Borealis".
6562:
5134:
Orr, L.; Chapman, S. C.; Gjerloev, J. W.; Guo, W. (23 March 2021).
4813:. New York: Christiania (Oslo): H. Aschehoug & Co. p. 720.
1983:
1952:
1885:
1833:
1784:
1255:(ionized gas), which conducts electricity. It is well known (since
1213:
1172:
1149:
1125:
1117:
1035:
438:
390:
202:
7140:
6137:
6126:
5934:
4431:"Revontulien 'dyynit', uusia löydöksiä – Aurora 'dunes' revisited"
4401:"The discovery of the auroral dunes: How one thing led to another"
4131:
3637:
2044:
1042:
309:
are derived from the names of the ancient gods of the north wind (
60:
7382:
7134:
7116:
7098:
7051:
6999:– The Northwest Territories is the world's Northern Lights mecca.
6942:
6458:
5075:
4042:"News: Acoustics researcher finds explanation for auroral sounds"
2470:
2446:. However, there is no current detection of an exoplanet aurora.
2439:
2353:
2321:
2285:
2230:
2222:
2176:
2127:
2074:
2049:
1825:
1787:
1657:
1382:
1287:
1114:
974:
969:
Conjugate auroras are nearly exact mirror-image auroras found at
925:
854:
837:
802:
2024 appearance seen in England radiating blue through red aurora
683:
678:
Early work on the imaging of the auroras was done in 1949 by the
647:
608:
422:
410:
350:
262:
6709:"A Brief History of Magnetospheric Physics During the Space Age"
5361:
Schroeder JW, Howes GG, Kletzing CA, et al. (7 June 2021).
4328:
3877:
3307:"Solar causes of the long-term increase in geomagnetic activity"
1491:
in 2017 depicting auroras above the ancient Japanese capital of
1146:
green or orange-red, depending on the amount of energy absorbed.
702:
7436:
7408:
7112:
7031:
5990:
4297:"Citizen scientists discover a new form of the Northern Lights"
2404:
Between 2014 and 2016, cometary auroras were observed on comet
2349:
2325:
2249:
2221:
for 1797 was called a very rare event. One observed in 1723 at
1987:
1829:
1656:
caused the aurora borealis to be observed from as far south as
1586:
1534:
1364:
1276:
1140:
1121:
1106:
442:
418:
414:
290:, who travelled from east to west announcing the coming of the
230:
206:
167:
6302:
6300:
6062:
6037:
The Astronomical Knowledge of the Maori, Genuine and Empirical
5884:"Modern science reveals ancient secret in Japanese literature"
2887:"The great auroral exhibition of August 28 to September, 1859"
2316:
shows images from 81 hours of observations of Saturn's aurora.
1638:
The conversation was carried on for around two hours using no
7126:
7067:
6755:
Majestic Lights: The Aurora in Science, History, and The Arts
6215:. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 3.
4649:
2377:
1857:
1851:
1819:
1813:
1807:
1801:
1774:
The earliest datable record of an aurora was recorded in the
1492:
1488:
882:
849:) that they often undergo global changes in a process called
246:
159:
6948:
Current global map showing the probability of visible aurora
4175:"Scientists discover what powers celestial phenomenon STEVE"
4100:"Steve the odd 'aurora' revealed to be two sky shows in one"
2843:
Illustrated Glossary for Solar and Solar-Terrestrial Physics
1604:"Please cut off your battery entirely for fifteen minutes."
1275:
of flow is dependent upon the direction of relative motion.
465:. The aurora can be seen best at this time, which is called
6333:
Phillips, J. L.; Stewart, A. I. F.; Luhmann, J. G. (1986).
6297:
5537:
3827:. Washington, D.C.: American Geophysical Union. p. 5.
2381:
1661:
1560:
where he collected worldwide reports of the auroral event.
1219:
1065:
Aurora australis (11 September 2005) as captured by NASA's
1046:
286:
is derived from the name of the Roman goddess of the dawn,
7613:
6544:
Helling, Christiane; Rimmer, Paul B. (23 September 2019).
6467:; Deca, J.; Beth, A.; Stephenson, P. (21 September 2020).
5183:
4874:
Crooker, N. U.; Feynman, J.; Gosling, J. T. (1 May 1977).
4066:
3363:
2288:
aurora; the far left bright spot connects magnetically to
2061:(the northern lights) is found in the Norwegian chronicle
1495:
suggested that the storm may have been 7% larger than the
774:
5653:"وقتی طوفان خورشیدی، آسمان ایران و جهان را رنگآمیزی کرد"
5496:
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London
4234:
3203:
2048:
Aurora pictured as wreath of rays in the coat of arms of
1471:
740:
462:
295:
291:
6846:. Berlin Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag. pp. 331–354.
6335:"The Venus ultraviolet aurora: Observations at 130.4 nm"
6263:"Aurora Borealis | Smithsonian American Art Museum"
5778:, pp. 39–41, London: Macmillan, accessed 1 January 2017.
4824:
4451:
3305:
Stamper, J.; Lockwood, M.; Wild, M. N. (December 1999).
1236:, in particular, flows can be several times faster; the
1079:
created using the same satellite data is also available.
5249:
5186:"Quiet, Discrete Auroral Arcs: Acceleration Mechanisms"
2364:, and the transport of this plasma within the planet's
2217:
between 1666 and 1716; and that one aurora recorded in
2200:
is widely interpreted to represent the conflict of the
2000:, an evil spirit creating a large fire. Similarly, the
1593:, on the night of 2 September 1859 and reported in the
755:
cover much of the sky and diverge from one point on it.
6981:– Aurora forecasts for Europe (archived 11 March 2019)
6868:
6332:
5449:
Kataoka, Ryuho; Iwahashi, Kiyomi (17 September 2017).
5360:
4613:
2846:. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 190.
1865:
The earliest depiction of the aurora may have been in
1436:, leading to increased diffuse aurora at those times.
785:
nitrogen being rare due to the high stability of the N
177:
Auroras are the result of disturbances in the Earth's
7578:
6873:. Netherlands: Springer Netherlands. pp. 33–51.
6785:
Daglis, Ioannis; Akasofu, Syun-Ichi (November 2004).
6308:"ESA Portal – Mars Express discovers auroras on Mars"
6292:
The National Cyclopaedia of Useful Knowledge, Vol. II
5133:
4736:
3945:
Gurnett, D.A. (1974). "The Earth as a radio source".
3880:"Occurrence and average behavior of pulsating aurora"
2004:
people of South Australia refer to auroras seen over
1862:, "falling red flames", and "daylight in the night".
1409:
and are prevented from hitting the atmosphere by the
1002:. It can also cause particles already trapped in the
3574:
Journal of Atmospheric and Solar-Terrestrial Physics
3206:
Journal of Atmospheric and Solar-Terrestrial Physics
2161:
myths surround the spectacle. The European explorer
480:
Videos of the aurora australis taken by the crew of
409:
and under exceptional circumstances as far north as
6613:"Monstrous Aurora Detected Beyond our Solar System"
6463:; Biver, N.; Cheng, Y.-C.; Rinaldi, G.; Rubin, M.;
4825:Pokhotelov, D.; Lotko, W.; Streltsov, A.V. (2002).
4554:Burch, J L (1987). Akasofu S-I and Y Kamide (ed.).
3304:
1375:event 96 seconds prior to auroral intensification.
7087:Island – 6/7 April 2000) (archived 17 August 2011)
6816:
5804:
2077:could store energy so that they eventually became
1482:
823:this article comprise a virtually exhaustive list.
294:. Ancient Greek poets used the corresponding name
30:Several terms redirect here. For other uses, see
7024:– Views taken 2009–2011 (archived 4 October 2011)
5811:(2nd ed.). New York: Springer. p. 357.
5793:, Vol. II, London: Bohn, accessed 1 January 2017.
5761:Explorers: Great Tales of Adventure and Endurance
4973:
4810:The Norwegian Aurora Polaris Expedition 1902–1903
4127:
4125:
3504:Terrestrial Magnetism and Atmospheric Electricity
2800:
2798:
7674:
7107:(time-lapse) − Auroras – Ground-Level View from
7093:(time-lapse) − Auroras – Ground-Level View from
6943:Aurora forecast – Will there be northern lights?
6701:. Vol. 2 (11th ed.). pp. 927–934.
5998:New Zealand and the Sea: Historical Perspectives
4533:. University of Alaska Press. pp. 117–124.
4016:"Auroras Make Weird Noises, and Now We Know Why"
3849:"Eyes on the Aurora, Part 2: What is a Keogram?"
2569:are the more general equivalents of these terms.
2519:Modern style guides recommend that the names of
1667:
1424:. Each interaction is essentially wave-particle
1388:
537:in the South Indian Ocean to southern Australia.
6681:. Vol. III (9th ed.). pp. 90–99.
6454:
6452:
6450:
6448:
5679:"چطور شد که شفق قطبی در ایران هم دیده شد؟ +عکس"
5448:
5008:
4324:
4322:
2702:
2292:; the spots at the bottom of the image lead to
2186:, an aurora was seen from the battlefield. The
2170:
2062:
2056:
1892:and the ancestor of all Chinese people. In the
461:in question is in between the observer and the
193:. These disturbances alter the trajectories of
7012:– Shot in Iceland over the winter of 2013/2014
6757:. Washington, DC: American Geophysical Union.
6742:"The Exploration of the Earth's Magnetosphere"
6068:"A short scan of Māori journeys to Antarctica"
6052:– via Victoria University of Wellington.
5332:"Physicists determine how auroras are created"
4771:
4458:Journal of Geophysical Research: Space Physics
4454:"Occurrence Statistics of Horse Collar Aurora"
4122:
3884:Journal of Geophysical Research: Space Physics
3633:
3631:
3571:
2877:
2875:
2795:
2453:auroras were discovered in July 2015 over the
2214:Transactions of the French Academy of Sciences
341:in orange with silhouettes of clouds, and the
7156:
6844:Handbook of the Solar-Terrestrial Environment
6784:
6543:
5986:
5984:
5915:"Aurorae in Australian Aboriginal Traditions"
5851:
5533:
5531:
5329:
5079:"Tail Reconnection Triggering Substorm Onset"
4067:American Geophysical Union (20 August 2018).
3766:
3764:
2839:
2728:
2169:Dene in 1771 and recorded their views on the
1932:
1926:
1920:
1914:
1908:
1901:
1893:
1794:wrote about auroras in the first book of his
1286:The IMF originates on the Sun, linked to the
1183:Bright auroras are generally associated with
6445:
5922:Journal of Astronomical History and Heritage
4319:
4069:"New kind of aurora is not an aurora at all"
3433:"Observations of non-conjugate theta aurora"
2523:, such as aurora borealis, be uncapitalized.
2255:In the early 1900s, the Norwegian scientist
2225:was stated to be the first ever seen there.
1629:"Very well. Shall I go ahead with business?"
1251:The solar wind and magnetosphere consist of
674:, superimposed over a digital image of Earth
7010:Amazing time-lapse video of Aurora Borealis
6610:
6208:
6072:Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand
6040:. Wellington: Dominion Museum. p. 58.
4951:. Nasa.gov. 7 February 2011. Archived from
3628:
2872:
2591:"Southern Lights over the Australian Bight"
2270:
2028:
2012:believe the auroras to be the fires of the
1995:
1973:
1711:"Aurora" Historical views and folklore
27:Atmospheric effect caused by the solar wind
7163:
7149:
6959:Official MET aurora forecasting in Iceland
6787:"Aurora – The magnificent northern lights"
6102:. Irf.se. 12 November 2003. Archived from
5981:
5528:
5306:
3761:
3614:. Grøndahl and Dreyer, Oslo. p. 137.
3266:"Localized aurora beyond the auroral oval"
2703:Guiducci, Mario; Galilei, Galileo (1619).
1836:, an aurora formed above the port city of
1322:increase the intensity of the solar wind.
864:
670:Video of the complete aurora australis by
6841:
6587:
6561:
6500:
6310:. European Space Agency. 11 August 2004.
6173:
6083:
5933:
5567:
5507:
5474:
5394:
5159:
5102:
5034:
4850:
4806:
4714:. Journal of Geophysical Research. 2007.
4485:
4354:
4260:
4157:
3714:
3704:
3663:
3605:
3603:
3456:
3392:
3333:
3289:
2804:
2412:spacecraft. The auroras were observed at
1982:of eastern Victoria perceived auroras as
1762:Learn how and when to remove this message
1550:published a series of nine papers on the
1018:Geomagnetic disturbance from an enhanced
353:, at about one hundred kilometres at the
6895:
5912:
4578:
3979:
3430:
3186:
2619:. .umn.edu. 18 July 2007. Archived from
2303:
2280:
2140:
2084:Walter William Bryant wrote in his book
2043:
2037:'s expedition party who had reached the
1951:
1888:, known legendarily as the initiator of
1329:
1220:Interaction of the solar wind with Earth
1060:
1041:
831:
797:
709:
701:
658:
484:on board the International Space Station
328:
114:
7723:Sources of electromagnetic interference
6771:
6739:
6668:
6637:
6155:U.S. National Archives: Founders Online
5489:
4371:"Confirmation of an auroral phenomenon"
4097:
3944:
3822:
3678:
3501:
2277:Magnetosphere of Jupiter § Aurorae
1872:of northern Spain dating to 30,000 BC.
1602:Boston operator (to Portland operator):
775:Colors and wavelengths of auroral light
374:itself are rare due to it being on the
14:
7675:
6819:Aurora: The Mysterious Northern Lights
6814:
6752:
6294:(1847), London: Charles Knight, p. 496
6044:from the original on 13 September 2021
6001:. Bridget Williams Books. p. 46.
5802:
5582:
4441:from the original on 11 December 2021.
3600:
3116:
3087:
3058:
3029:
3000:
2971:
2942:
2913:
2884:
2650:
2617:"University of Minnesota Style Manual"
2229:(1733) states the oldest residents of
1113:, above 80 km (50 mi), from
1084:with particle acceleration processes.
955:
918:
7144:
6916:
6706:
6685:
6403:from the original on 10 February 2007
6273:from the original on 27 February 2024
6237:Energy Medicine: The Scientific Basis
5787:Bostock, J. and Riley, H. T. (1855),
5417:
4553:
4528:
4203:
3859:from the original on 24 February 2022
3749:from the original on 19 December 2014
3536:
3190:Meteorologisk Aarbog for 1880. Part 1
3153:
2055:In Scandinavia, the first mention of
1800:, classifying them, for instance, as
1609:"Will do so. It is now disconnected."
1499:, which affected telegraph networks.
1279:make use of this basic process ("the
7070:– Northern lights video in real time
7038:Videos and Photos – Auroras at Night
6433:from the original on 16 January 2021
6393:"Mars Express Finds Auroras on Mars"
6373:from the original on 22 January 2021
6314:from the original on 19 October 2012
6033:
5775:Physical Science in the time of Nero
5430:from the original on 13 October 2017
4906:from the original on 4 November 2016
4098:Andrews, Robin George (3 May 2019).
3823:T., Potemra; S.-I., Akasofu (1991).
3263:
2597:from the original on 21 October 2022
2506:
1844:depicted the aurora borealis in his
1700:adding citations to reliable sources
1671:
1224:Earth is constantly immersed in the
1087:
964:
827:
714:Divergence point of a coronal aurora
7170:
6740:Stern, David P.; Peredo, Mauricio.
5852:Administrator, NASA (7 June 2013).
5619:"Aurora Borealis and the Telegraph"
5516:from the original on 28 August 2021
3168:from the original on 28 August 2021
2840:Bruzek, A.; Durrant, C. J. (2012).
2757:from the original on 2 January 2019
2376:Auroras have also been observed on
2094:"seems to have been something of a
1069:satellite, digitally overlaid onto
535:French Southern and Antarctic Lands
132:
24:
6896:Phillips, Tony (21 October 2001).
6669:Procter, Henry Richardson (1878).
6662:
6423:"Comet Chury's ultraviolet aurora"
6190:from the original on 27 April 2021
6015:from the original on 18 April 2024
4718:from the original on 5 August 2015
4216:from the original on 22 March 2018
4172:
4079:from the original on 30 March 2022
3609:
3345:from the original on 30 April 2019
2783:from the original on 22 April 2021
2742:
1128:based molecules returning from an
277:Boreas, god of the cold north wind
25:
7744:
7464:Sura Ionospheric Heating Facility
7030:– "Full-Sky Aurora" over Eastern
6936:
6646:from the original on 30 July 2015
6638:Q. Choi, Charles (29 July 2015).
6525:from the original on 9 April 2022
5952:10.3724/SP.J.1440-2807.2013.02.05
5894:from the original on 1 April 2020
5418:Frost, Natasha (4 October 2017).
5311:(PhD Thesis). Dartmouth College.
5057:from the original on 29 June 2011
3778:from the original on 25 July 2015
3483:from the original on 1 March 2024
2246:The Ballad of the Northern Lights
1487:The discovery of a 1770 Japanese
1240:(IMF) may also be much stronger.
1120:atoms regaining an electron, and
1105:Auroras result from emissions of
605:location of the geomagnetic poles
572:maps of North America and Eurasia
158:), is a natural light display in
40:Aurora Australis (disambiguation)
7660:
7648:
7636:
7624:
7612:
7600:
7588:
7016:Popular video of Aurora Borealis
6631:
6604:
6537:
6415:
6385:
6326:
6285:
6255:
6242:
6229:
6136:
6125:
5833:from the original on 12 May 2024
5741:from the original on 5 June 2022
5599:from the original on 14 May 2021
5342:from the original on 8 June 2021
5288:from the original on 12 May 2024
5230:from the original on 12 May 2024
4510:from the original on 12 May 2024
4411:from the original on 13 May 2021
4381:from the original on 22 May 2021
4307:from the original on 22 May 2021
4277:from the original on 22 May 2021
4048:from the original on 1 July 2016
3926:from the original on 12 May 2024
3412:from the original on 12 May 2024
3133:from the original on 14 May 2021
3104:from the original on 14 May 2021
3088:Loomis, Elias (September 1861).
3075:from the original on 14 May 2021
3046:from the original on 13 May 2021
3017:from the original on 14 May 2021
2988:from the original on 13 May 2021
2959:from the original on 15 May 2021
2930:from the original on 14 May 2021
2901:from the original on 13 May 2021
2860:from the original on 12 May 2024
2717:from the original on 12 May 2024
1676:
1552:Great Auroral Exhibition of 1859
1325:
892:
590:
578:
542:
520:
490:
99:
90:
79:
70:
59:
48:Southern Lights (disambiguation)
44:Northern Lights (disambiguation)
36:Aurora Borealis (disambiguation)
6202:
6166:
6147:
6118:
6092:
6056:
6027:
5906:
5876:
5845:
5796:
5781:
5766:
5753:
5723:
5697:
5671:
5645:
5611:
5589:The American Journal of Science
5576:
5483:
5442:
5411:
5354:
5323:
5300:
5242:
5176:
5127:
5069:
5043:
5002:
4967:
4941:
4918:
4880:Journal of Geophysical Research
4867:
4818:
4800:
4774:Journal of Geophysical Research
4765:
4739:Journal of Geophysical Research
4730:
4704:
4686:
4643:
4617:Journal of Geophysical Research
4607:
4581:Journal of Geophysical Research
4572:
4547:
4522:
4445:
4423:
4393:
4363:
4289:
4228:
4197:
4185:from the original on 4 May 2019
4166:
4091:
4060:
4034:
4008:
3982:Journal of Geophysical Research
3973:
3947:Journal of Geophysical Research
3938:
3871:
3841:
3816:
3790:
3731:
3681:"Inferences concerning auroras"
3672:
3565:
3551:10.1016/j.endeavour.2007.07.004
3530:
3495:
3465:
3424:
3357:
3314:Journal of Geophysical Research
3298:
3257:
3232:
3197:
3180:
3147:
3123:The American Journal of Science
3094:The American Journal of Science
3065:The American Journal of Science
3036:The American Journal of Science
3030:Loomis, Elias (November 1860).
3007:The American Journal of Science
2978:The American Journal of Science
2949:The American Journal of Science
2943:Loomis, Elias (February 1860).
2920:The American Journal of Science
2891:The American Journal of Science
2885:Loomis, Elias (November 1859).
2833:
2769:
2658:. Vol. 2. pp. 11–14.
2408:by multiple instruments on the
1994:say that an auroral display is
1687:needs additional citations for
1579:geomagnetically induced current
1483:Historically significant events
119:Aurora australis seen from the
7129:and Auroras – Viewed from the
6985:Live Northern Lights webstream
6921:. University of Alaska Press.
6815:Savage, Candace Sherk (1994).
6239:(Elsevier, Edinburgh), p. 275.
5807:Physics of the Plasma Universe
5705:"شفق قطبی در آسمان کویر ایران"
5583:Loomis, Elias (January 1860).
4815:out-of-print, full text online
4204:Saner, Emine (19 March 2018).
4181:. American Geophysical Union.
4018:. 27 June 2016. Archived from
3610:A, Brekke; A, Egeland (1994).
2914:Loomis, Elias (January 1860).
2736:
2696:
2644:
2635:
2609:
2583:
2539:
2526:
2513:
1876:water", turning into a bright
931:
847:International Geophysical Year
162:'s sky, predominantly seen in
142:), also commonly known as the
13:
1:
7698:Atmospheric optical phenomena
7320:Interplanetary magnetic field
7262:Magnetosphere particle motion
7115:, 24 November 2010 (video on
7003:
6919:The Aurora Watcher's Handbook
6898:"'tis the Season for Auroras"
6611:O'Neill, Ian (29 July 2015).
6085:10.1080/03036758.2021.1917633
5641:– via Internet Archive.
5330:Richard Lewis (7 June 2021).
4934:, Solar wind forecast from a
4531:The Aurora Watcher's Handbook
3594:10.1016/S1364-6826(96)00113-7
2576:
1668:Historical views and folklore
1389:Auroral particle acceleration
1238:interplanetary magnetic field
1178:
1100:
324:
7046:– Aurora Borealis – How The
6964:Aurora Borealis – Predicting
6871:Dayside and Polar Cap Aurora
6852:10.1007/978-3-540-46315-3_13
6459:Galand, M.; Feldman, P. D.;
6339:Geophysical Research Letters
5790:The Natural History of Pliny
4949:"NASA – NASA and World Book"
4807:Birkeland, Kristian (1908).
4556:The solar wind and the Earth
4138:Geophysical Research Letters
3739:"Auroral colors and spectra"
3437:Geophysical Research Letters
3373:Geophysical Research Letters
2393:. The aurora was located at
1858:
1852:
1820:
1814:
1808:
1802:
1405:bounce back and forth along
1292:field lines (lines of force)
1013:second law of thermodynamics
871:auroral kilometric radiation
345:in white and blue. Next the
252:
7:
7131:International Space Station
7040:(archived 2 September 2010)
6955:(archived 24 November 2016)
6615:. Discovery. Archived from
5803:Peratt, Anthony L. (2014).
3800:. dapep.org. Archived from
3226:10.1016/j.jastp.2006.05.026
3117:Loomis, Elias (July 1862).
3059:Loomis, Elias (July 1861).
3001:Loomis, Elias (July 1860).
2750:Online Etymology Dictionary
2464:
2182:During the night after the
1902:
1894:
1557:American Journal of Science
270:Aurora, goddess of the dawn
213:into the upper atmosphere (
10:
7749:
7693:Polar regions of the Earth
7325:Heliospheric current sheet
7078:Northern Light – Story of
6800:(9): 45–48. Archived from
6753:Eather, Robert H. (1980).
5540:Advances in Space Research
5387:10.1038/s41467-021-23377-5
5213:10.1007/s11214-020-00715-5
5152:10.1038/s41467-021-22112-4
4558:. D. Reidel. p. 103.
2972:Loomis, Elias (May 1860).
2827:10.1029/EO067i040p00761-02
2348:spacecraft, as well as on
2274:
2041:. around the 7th century.
1931:), and "Stars like Rain" (
1832:, and recalled that under
1022:causes distortions of the
680:University of Saskatchewan
357:and the lower edge of the
201:. These particles, mainly
29:
7523:
7472:
7429:
7353:
7285:
7219:
7178:
7018:– Taken in Norway in 2011
6493:10.1038/s41550-020-1171-7
6209:Goodman, N., ed. (2011).
5817:10.1007/978-1-4614-7819-5
5711:(in Persian). 12 May 2024
5659:(in Persian). 13 May 2024
5560:10.1016/j.asr.2005.12.021
5490:Stewart, Balfour (1861).
5271:10.1007/s11214-019-0619-5
3665:10.1007/s00585-997-0943-z
2406:67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko
1986:in the spirit world. The
1933:
1927:
1921:
1915:
1909:
980:
902:In 2016, more than fifty
654:
7277:Van Allen radiation belt
7257:Magnetosphere chronology
6774:Alaska Geographic Series
6707:Stern, David P. (1996).
5913:Hamacher, D. W. (2013).
5854:"The History of Auroras"
4930:20 December 2006 at the
3825:Magnetospheric Substorms
3320:(A12): 28, 325–28, 342.
2521:meteorological phenomena
2271:Extraterrestrial aurorae
2184:Battle of Fredericksburg
1464:electron inertial length
1369:magnetospheric substorms
897:
876:
694:
7186:Atmospheric circulation
6879:10.1007/0-306-47969-9_3
6698:Encyclopædia Britannica
6678:Encyclopædia Britannica
6359:10.1029/GL013i010p01047
6248:Hearne, Samuel (1958).
6174:Francklin (June 1779).
6135:. Macmillan Co. (1920)
6124:Walter William Bryant,
5307:Pokhotelov, D. (2002).
5104:10.1126/science.1160495
4900:10.1029/JA082i013p01933
4794:10.1029/JA078i028p06802
4759:10.1029/JA074i001p00247
4637:10.1029/JA093iA07p07441
4601:10.1029/JZ065i009p02727
4002:10.1029/jz065i002p00551
3967:10.1029/JA079i028p04227
3743:Windows to the Universe
3524:10.1029/te051i004p00501
3244:El Observador (Uruguay)
3154:Fritz, Hermann (1881).
2743:Harper, Douglas (ed.).
2171:
2113:theorized in his paper
2063:
2057:
1996:
1913:), "Sword/Knife Star" (
1790:in the 4th century BC.
865:Other auroral radiation
638:represents high levels.
473:which can be subvisual.
378:, while auroras at the
32:Aurora (disambiguation)
7196:Earth's magnetic field
7050:Are Created (video on
6969:Solar Terrestrial Data
6900:. NASA. Archived from
6692:"Aurora Polaris"
6672:"Aurora Polaris"
6580:10.1098/rsta.2018.0398
5509:10.1098/rstl.1861.0023
2729:
2334:Hubble Space Telescope
2317:
2301:
2154:
2124:
2052:
2029:
2027:, aurora australis or
1974:
1962:Aboriginal Australians
1957:
1925:), "Sky's Open Eyes" (
1654:series of solar storms
1650:
1636:
1565:coronal mass ejections
1338:
1320:coronal mass ejections
1080:
1050:
950:electron precipitation
841:
803:
733:that look like clouds.
715:
707:
675:
362:
313:) and the south wind (
197:in the magnetospheric
191:coronal mass ejections
124:
7300:Coronal mass ejection
7220:Earth's magnetosphere
6990:27 April 2021 at the
6979:Aurora Service Europe
6971:– Online Converter –
6713:Reviews of Geophysics
6429:. 21 September 2020.
6034:Best, Elsdon (1922).
5367:Nature Communications
5259:Space Science Reviews
5193:Space Science Reviews
5140:Nature Communications
3431:Østgaard, N. (2003).
3270:Reviews of Geophysics
2706:Discorso delle Comete
2656:History of Geophysics
2307:
2284:
2237:in sunspot activity.
2198:Frederic Edwin Church
2146:Frederic Edwin Church
2144:
2119:
2047:
1978:('ashes'), while the
1960:In the traditions of
1955:
1797:Naturales Quaestiones
1645:
1599:
1583:electromagnetic field
1373:magnetic reconnection
1363:On 26 February 2008,
1334:Schematic of Earth's
1333:
1305:magnetic reconnection
1162:collisional quenching
1064:
1045:
1032:magnetic reconnection
991:Earth's magnetosphere
835:
801:
792:forbidden transitions
713:
705:
669:
332:
319:Greco-Roman mythology
164:high-latitude regions
118:
7708:Electrical phenomena
7473:Other magnetospheres
7335:Solar particle event
7028:Aurora Photo Gallery
7022:Aurora Photo Gallery
6953:Aurora – Forecasting
6917:Davis, Neil (1992).
6399:. 18 February 2006.
6160:31 July 2019 at the
5623:The British Colonist
5476:10.1002/2017SW001690
5036:10.1029/2009JA014281
4936:University of Alaska
4852:10.1029/2001GL014010
4529:Davis, Neil (1992).
4478:10.1029/2022JA030385
4356:10.1029/2020AV000338
4253:10.1029/2019AV000133
4159:10.1029/2019GL082460
3904:10.1002/2017JA024039
3855:. 9 September 2020.
3679:Thomson, E. (1917).
3458:10.1029/2003GL017914
3394:10.1029/2000GL000064
3335:10.1029/1999JA900311
3291:10.1029/2005RG000174
3264:Frey, H. U. (2007).
2486:List of solar storms
2399:Mars Global Surveyor
2098:, for he recommends
1919:), "Chiyou banner" (
1850:, when he refers to
1696:improve this article
1434:geomagnetic activity
1407:magnetic field lines
818:Yellow and pink are
7683:Terrestrial plasmas
6997:World's Best Aurora
6725:1996RvGeo..34....1S
6572:2019RSPTA.37780398H
6485:2020NatAs...4.1084G
6461:Bockelée-Morvan, D.
6351:1986GeoRL..13.1047P
6235:J. Oschman (2016),
6180:Journal de Physique
5944:2013JAHH...16..207H
5772:Clarke, J. (1910),
5552:2006AdSpR..38..145G
5467:2017SpWea..15.1314K
5379:2021NatCo..12.3103S
5205:2020SSRv..216...92L
5095:2008Sci...321..931A
5027:2009JGRA..11411306L
4988:1997JGR...102.9497S
4955:on 5 September 2005
4892:1977JGR....82.1933C
4843:2002GeoRL..29.1437P
4786:1973JGR....78.6802A
4751:1969JGR....74..247S
4700:on 27 January 2011.
4694:"Ultraviolet Waves"
4664:1967Natur.215...45B
4629:1988JGR....93.7441R
4593:1960JGR....65.2727M
4470:2022JGRA..12730385B
4347:2021EGUGA..23.5986G
4150:2019GeoRL..46.5637N
4104:National Geographic
3994:1960JGR....65..551A
3959:1974JGR....79.4227G
3896:2017JGRA..122.5606P
3697:1917PNAS....3....1T
3656:1997AnGeo..15..943Y
3644:Annales Geophysicae
3612:The Northern Lights
3586:1997JASTP..59.1087Z
3516:1946TeMAE..51..501S
3449:2003GeoRL..30.2125O
3385:2000GeoRL..27.2797P
3326:1999JGR...10428325S
3282:2007RvGeo..45.1003F
3218:2007JASTP..69..249O
2819:1986EOSTr..67..761F
2711:Discourse on Comets
2664:1986HGeo....2...11S
2442:in their turbulent
2244:'s satirical poem "
1900:, a creature named
1313:south magnetic pole
1309:north magnetic pole
956:Horse-collar aurora
919:Picket-fence aurora
249:also host auroras.
6556:(2154): 20180398.
6267:americanart.si.edu
6100:"Norrsken history"
6064:Wehi, Priscilla M.
5969:on 20 October 2013
5420:"1770 Kyoto Diary"
4831:Geophys. Res. Lett
3706:10.1073/pnas.3.1.1
2672:10.1029/HG002p0011
2318:
2310:Cassini spacecraft
2302:
2257:Kristian Birkeland
2202:American Civil War
2155:
2053:
1966:Gunditjmara people
1958:
1607:Portland operator:
1542:was recording the
1530:The New York Times
1379:Geomagnetic storms
1339:
1210:Birkeland currents
1205:Kristian Birkeland
1185:Birkeland currents
1081:
1075:composite image.
1051:
938:citizen scientists
842:
836:Construction of a
804:
716:
708:
676:
363:
265:in 1619, from the
239:natural satellites
125:
46:, and
7718:Planetary science
7576:
7575:
7430:Research projects
7398:
7369:
7310:Geomagnetic storm
7227:Birkeland current
6888:978-0-306-47969-4
6861:978-3-540-46314-6
6834:978-0-87156-419-1
6827:/ Firefly Books.
6825:Sierra Club Books
6823:. San Francisco:
6764:978-0-87590-215-9
6733:10.1029/95rg03508
6479:(11): 1084–1091.
6345:(10): 1047–1050.
6222:978-0-8122-0561-9
6008:978-0-947518-71-4
5890:. 30 March 2020.
5826:978-1-4614-7819-5
5737:. 12 April 2022.
5461:(10): 1314–1320.
5317:10.1349/ddlp.3332
4996:10.1029/97JA00196
4982:(A5): 9497–9511.
4837:(10): 79-1–79-4.
4780:(28): 6802–6807.
4565:978-90-277-2471-7
4341:(2): EGU21-5986.
4144:(11): 5637–5644.
3798:"Aurora Borealis"
3621:978-82-504-2105-9
3473:"Northern Lights"
3379:(17): 2797–2800.
2853:978-94-010-1245-4
2681:978-0-87590-276-0
2507:Explanatory notes
2476:Aurora (heraldry)
2422:photodissociation
2242:Robert W. Service
2219:Berlin Miscellany
2148:'s 1865 painting
2111:Benjamin Franklin
1942:Japanese folklore
1806:('barrel-like');
1772:
1771:
1764:
1746:
1634:"Yes. Go ahead."
1544:geomagnetic storm
1449:Birkeland current
1403:trapped particles
1109:in Earth's upper
1088:Auroral particles
1034:"); some blobs ("
965:Conjugate auroras
828:Changes with time
739:curve across the
667:
550:
528:
507:to just north of
498:
467:magnetic midnight
454:geomagnetic storm
367:geomagnetic poles
337:illuminating the
221:). The resulting
195:charged particles
16:(Redirected from
7740:
7665:
7664:
7653:
7652:
7651:
7641:
7640:
7639:
7629:
7628:
7627:
7617:
7616:
7605:
7604:
7603:
7593:
7592:
7584:
7414:Van Allen Probes
7396:
7367:
7179:Submagnetosphere
7165:
7158:
7151:
7142:
7141:
7080:Geomagnetc Storm
6932:
6913:
6911:
6909:
6904:on 11 April 2006
6892:
6865:
6838:
6822:
6808:
6807:on 14 June 2020.
6806:
6791:
6781:
6768:
6749:
6736:
6702:
6694:
6682:
6674:
6656:
6655:
6653:
6651:
6635:
6629:
6628:
6626:
6624:
6608:
6602:
6601:
6591:
6565:
6541:
6535:
6534:
6532:
6530:
6504:
6473:Nature Astronomy
6456:
6443:
6442:
6440:
6438:
6419:
6413:
6412:
6410:
6408:
6389:
6383:
6382:
6380:
6378:
6330:
6324:
6323:
6321:
6319:
6304:
6295:
6289:
6283:
6282:
6280:
6278:
6259:
6253:
6246:
6240:
6233:
6227:
6226:
6206:
6200:
6199:
6197:
6195:
6170:
6164:
6151:
6145:
6140:
6129:
6122:
6116:
6115:
6113:
6111:
6096:
6090:
6089:
6087:
6060:
6054:
6053:
6051:
6049:
6031:
6025:
6024:
6022:
6020:
5993:Anderson, Atholl
5991:Steel, Frances;
5988:
5979:
5978:
5976:
5974:
5968:
5962:. Archived from
5937:
5919:
5910:
5904:
5903:
5901:
5899:
5880:
5874:
5873:
5871:
5869:
5864:on 29 March 2023
5860:. Archived from
5849:
5843:
5842:
5840:
5838:
5810:
5800:
5794:
5785:
5779:
5770:
5764:
5757:
5751:
5750:
5748:
5746:
5727:
5721:
5720:
5718:
5716:
5701:
5695:
5694:
5692:
5690:
5675:
5669:
5668:
5666:
5664:
5649:
5643:
5642:
5615:
5609:
5608:
5606:
5604:
5580:
5574:
5573:
5571:
5569:2060/20050210157
5535:
5526:
5525:
5523:
5521:
5511:
5487:
5481:
5480:
5478:
5446:
5440:
5439:
5437:
5435:
5415:
5409:
5408:
5398:
5358:
5352:
5351:
5349:
5347:
5327:
5321:
5320:
5304:
5298:
5297:
5295:
5293:
5287:
5256:
5246:
5240:
5239:
5237:
5235:
5229:
5190:
5180:
5174:
5173:
5163:
5131:
5125:
5124:
5106:
5073:
5067:
5066:
5064:
5062:
5047:
5041:
5040:
5038:
5021:(A11306): 1–14.
5006:
5000:
4999:
4971:
4965:
4964:
4962:
4960:
4945:
4939:
4922:
4916:
4915:
4913:
4911:
4871:
4865:
4864:
4854:
4822:
4816:
4814:
4804:
4798:
4797:
4769:
4763:
4762:
4734:
4728:
4727:
4725:
4723:
4708:
4702:
4701:
4696:. Archived from
4690:
4684:
4683:
4672:10.1038/215045a0
4647:
4641:
4640:
4611:
4605:
4604:
4576:
4570:
4569:
4551:
4545:
4544:
4526:
4520:
4519:
4517:
4515:
4489:
4449:
4443:
4442:
4427:
4421:
4420:
4418:
4416:
4397:
4391:
4390:
4388:
4386:
4367:
4361:
4360:
4358:
4326:
4317:
4316:
4314:
4312:
4293:
4287:
4286:
4284:
4282:
4264:
4232:
4226:
4225:
4223:
4221:
4201:
4195:
4194:
4192:
4190:
4173:Lipuma, Lauren.
4170:
4164:
4163:
4161:
4129:
4120:
4119:
4117:
4115:
4106:. Archived from
4095:
4089:
4088:
4086:
4084:
4064:
4058:
4057:
4055:
4053:
4044:. 21 June 2016.
4038:
4032:
4031:
4029:
4027:
4012:
4006:
4005:
3977:
3971:
3970:
3942:
3936:
3935:
3933:
3931:
3890:(5): 5606–5618.
3875:
3869:
3868:
3866:
3864:
3845:
3839:
3838:
3820:
3814:
3813:
3811:
3809:
3804:on 19 April 2015
3794:
3788:
3787:
3785:
3783:
3774:. Sci-News.com.
3768:
3759:
3758:
3756:
3754:
3735:
3729:
3728:
3718:
3708:
3676:
3670:
3669:
3667:
3635:
3626:
3625:
3607:
3598:
3597:
3569:
3563:
3562:
3534:
3528:
3527:
3499:
3493:
3492:
3490:
3488:
3469:
3463:
3462:
3460:
3428:
3422:
3421:
3419:
3417:
3411:
3396:
3370:
3361:
3355:
3354:
3352:
3350:
3344:
3337:
3311:
3302:
3296:
3295:
3293:
3261:
3255:
3254:
3252:
3250:
3236:
3230:
3229:
3201:
3195:
3194:
3184:
3178:
3177:
3175:
3173:
3151:
3145:
3142:
3140:
3138:
3113:
3111:
3109:
3084:
3082:
3080:
3055:
3053:
3051:
3026:
3024:
3022:
2997:
2995:
2993:
2968:
2966:
2964:
2939:
2937:
2935:
2910:
2908:
2906:
2879:
2870:
2869:
2867:
2865:
2837:
2831:
2830:
2802:
2793:
2792:
2790:
2788:
2773:
2767:
2766:
2764:
2762:
2740:
2734:
2732:
2726:
2724:
2722:
2700:
2694:
2693:
2648:
2642:
2639:
2633:
2632:
2630:
2628:
2613:
2607:
2606:
2604:
2602:
2587:
2570:
2559:aurora australis
2543:
2537:
2530:
2524:
2517:
2188:Confederate Army
2174:
2105:
2068:
2065:Konungs Skuggsjá
2060:
2032:
1999:
1977:
1949:magnetic storm.
1936:
1935:
1930:
1929:
1924:
1923:
1918:
1917:
1912:
1911:
1905:
1899:
1861:
1855:
1823:
1817:
1811:
1805:
1767:
1760:
1756:
1753:
1747:
1745:
1704:
1680:
1672:
1595:Boston Traveller
1497:Carrington event
971:conjugate points
851:auroral substorm
762:discrete auroras
668:
594:
582:
552:
551:
530:
529:
500:
499:
447:Carrington Event
156:aurora australis
134:
103:
94:
83:
74:
63:
21:
7748:
7747:
7743:
7742:
7741:
7739:
7738:
7737:
7703:Earth phenomena
7673:
7672:
7671:
7659:
7649:
7647:
7637:
7635:
7625:
7623:
7611:
7601:
7599:
7587:
7579:
7577:
7572:
7519:
7468:
7425:
7349:
7281:
7215:
7174:
7172:Magnetospherics
7169:
7125:(time-lapse) –
7097:2011 (video on
7095:Finnish Lapland
7062:Northern Lights
7048:Northern Lights
7034:. December 2011
7006:
6992:Wayback Machine
6973:Northern Lights
6939:
6929:
6907:
6905:
6889:
6862:
6835:
6804:
6789:
6765:
6665:
6663:Further reading
6660:
6659:
6649:
6647:
6636:
6632:
6622:
6620:
6619:on 31 July 2015
6609:
6605:
6542:
6538:
6528:
6526:
6457:
6446:
6436:
6434:
6421:
6420:
6416:
6406:
6404:
6391:
6390:
6386:
6376:
6374:
6331:
6327:
6317:
6315:
6306:
6305:
6298:
6290:
6286:
6276:
6274:
6261:
6260:
6256:
6247:
6243:
6234:
6230:
6223:
6207:
6203:
6193:
6191:
6171:
6167:
6162:Wayback Machine
6152:
6148:
6123:
6119:
6109:
6107:
6106:on 21 July 2011
6098:
6097:
6093:
6061:
6057:
6047:
6045:
6032:
6028:
6018:
6016:
6009:
5989:
5982:
5972:
5970:
5966:
5917:
5911:
5907:
5897:
5895:
5882:
5881:
5877:
5867:
5865:
5850:
5846:
5836:
5834:
5827:
5801:
5797:
5786:
5782:
5771:
5767:
5758:
5754:
5744:
5742:
5729:
5728:
5724:
5714:
5712:
5703:
5702:
5698:
5688:
5686:
5677:
5676:
5672:
5662:
5660:
5651:
5650:
5646:
5617:
5616:
5612:
5602:
5600:
5581:
5577:
5536:
5529:
5519:
5517:
5488:
5484:
5447:
5443:
5433:
5431:
5416:
5412:
5359:
5355:
5345:
5343:
5336:IOWA university
5328:
5324:
5305:
5301:
5291:
5289:
5285:
5254:
5247:
5243:
5233:
5231:
5227:
5188:
5181:
5177:
5132:
5128:
5089:(5891): 931–5.
5074:
5070:
5060:
5058:
5049:
5048:
5044:
5015:J. Geophys. Res
5007:
5003:
4976:J. Geophys. Res
4972:
4968:
4958:
4956:
4947:
4946:
4942:
4932:Wayback Machine
4923:
4919:
4909:
4907:
4872:
4868:
4823:
4819:
4805:
4801:
4770:
4766:
4735:
4731:
4721:
4719:
4710:
4709:
4705:
4692:
4691:
4687:
4648:
4644:
4612:
4608:
4577:
4573:
4566:
4552:
4548:
4541:
4527:
4523:
4513:
4511:
4450:
4446:
4429:
4428:
4424:
4414:
4412:
4399:
4398:
4394:
4384:
4382:
4369:
4368:
4364:
4327:
4320:
4310:
4308:
4295:
4294:
4290:
4280:
4278:
4233:
4229:
4219:
4217:
4202:
4198:
4188:
4186:
4171:
4167:
4130:
4123:
4113:
4111:
4096:
4092:
4082:
4080:
4065:
4061:
4051:
4049:
4040:
4039:
4035:
4025:
4023:
4022:on 27 June 2016
4014:
4013:
4009:
3978:
3974:
3943:
3939:
3929:
3927:
3876:
3872:
3862:
3860:
3847:
3846:
3842:
3835:
3821:
3817:
3807:
3805:
3796:
3795:
3791:
3781:
3779:
3770:
3769:
3762:
3752:
3750:
3737:
3736:
3732:
3677:
3673:
3636:
3629:
3622:
3608:
3601:
3570:
3566:
3535:
3531:
3500:
3496:
3486:
3484:
3477:Geiranger Guide
3471:
3470:
3466:
3429:
3425:
3415:
3413:
3409:
3368:
3362:
3358:
3348:
3346:
3342:
3309:
3303:
3299:
3262:
3258:
3248:
3246:
3238:
3237:
3233:
3202:
3198:
3185:
3181:
3171:
3169:
3152:
3148:
3136:
3134:
3107:
3105:
3078:
3076:
3049:
3047:
3020:
3018:
2991:
2989:
2962:
2960:
2933:
2931:
2904:
2902:
2880:
2873:
2863:
2861:
2854:
2838:
2834:
2803:
2796:
2786:
2784:
2775:
2774:
2770:
2760:
2758:
2741:
2737:
2720:
2718:
2701:
2697:
2682:
2649:
2645:
2640:
2636:
2626:
2624:
2623:on 22 July 2010
2615:
2614:
2610:
2600:
2598:
2589:
2588:
2584:
2579:
2574:
2573:
2555:southern lights
2551:aurora borealis
2547:northern lights
2544:
2540:
2531:
2527:
2518:
2514:
2509:
2467:
2449:The first ever
2426:photoionization
2414:far-ultraviolet
2279:
2273:
2235:Maunder minimum
2193:Aurora Borealis
2165:travelled with
2159:Native American
2151:Aurora Borealis
2103:
2030:Tahunui-a-rangi
2006:Kangaroo Island
1992:South Australia
1972:called auroras
1890:Chinese culture
1847:Natural History
1842:Pliny the Elder
1768:
1757:
1751:
1748:
1705:
1703:
1693:
1681:
1670:
1652:In May 2024, a
1630:
1625:
1620:
1615:
1610:
1605:
1591:Portland, Maine
1540:Kew Observatory
1512:Kew Observatory
1485:
1411:magnetic mirror
1391:
1328:
1267:), rather than
1257:Michael Faraday
1234:magnetic storms
1222:
1189:ohmic conductor
1181:
1103:
1090:
1072:The Blue Marble
1004:radiation belts
983:
967:
958:
948:in presence of
934:
921:
904:citizen science
900:
895:
879:
867:
830:
788:
777:
706:Different forms
697:
659:
657:
643:
642:
641:
640:
639:
634:
622:
600:
599:
598:
595:
587:
586:
583:
574:
573:
564:
563:
562:
561:
560:
553:
543:
539:
538:
531:
521:
517:
516:
501:
491:
486:
485:
327:
259:aurora borealis
255:
152:southern lights
148:aurora borealis
144:northern lights
113:
112:
111:
110:
106:
105:
104:
96:
95:
86:
85:
84:
76:
75:
66:
65:
64:
51:
28:
23:
22:
18:Aurora Borealis
15:
12:
11:
5:
7746:
7736:
7735:
7730:
7725:
7720:
7715:
7710:
7705:
7700:
7695:
7690:
7685:
7670:
7669:
7657:
7645:
7633:
7621:
7609:
7597:
7574:
7573:
7571:
7570:
7569:
7568:
7563:
7558:
7553:
7543:
7538:
7533:
7527:
7525:
7524:Related topics
7521:
7520:
7518:
7517:
7512:
7507:
7502:
7497:
7492:
7487:
7482:
7476:
7474:
7470:
7469:
7467:
7466:
7461:
7456:
7455:
7454:
7444:
7439:
7433:
7431:
7427:
7426:
7424:
7423:
7416:
7411:
7406:
7399:
7390:
7385:
7380:
7375:
7370:
7361:
7357:
7355:
7351:
7350:
7348:
7347:
7342:
7337:
7332:
7327:
7322:
7317:
7312:
7307:
7302:
7297:
7295:Magnetic cloud
7291:
7289:
7283:
7282:
7280:
7279:
7274:
7269:
7264:
7259:
7254:
7249:
7244:
7239:
7234:
7229:
7223:
7221:
7217:
7216:
7214:
7213:
7208:
7203:
7198:
7193:
7188:
7182:
7180:
7176:
7175:
7168:
7167:
7160:
7153:
7145:
7139:
7138:
7120:
7102:
7088:
7071:
7065:
7055:
7041:
7035:
7025:
7019:
7013:
7005:
7002:
7001:
7000:
6994:
6982:
6976:
6966:
6961:
6956:
6950:
6945:
6938:
6937:External links
6935:
6934:
6933:
6927:
6914:
6893:
6887:
6866:
6860:
6839:
6833:
6812:
6782:
6769:
6763:
6750:
6737:
6704:
6687:Chree, Charles
6683:
6664:
6661:
6658:
6657:
6630:
6603:
6536:
6444:
6414:
6397:Universe Today
6384:
6325:
6296:
6284:
6254:
6241:
6228:
6221:
6201:
6165:
6146:
6117:
6091:
6078:(5): 587–598.
6055:
6026:
6007:
5980:
5928:(2): 207–219.
5905:
5875:
5844:
5825:
5795:
5780:
5765:
5752:
5722:
5709:BBC News فارسی
5696:
5670:
5644:
5610:
5591:. 2nd series.
5575:
5546:(2): 145–154.
5527:
5482:
5441:
5410:
5353:
5322:
5299:
5241:
5175:
5126:
5068:
5042:
5001:
4966:
4940:
4917:
4866:
4817:
4799:
4764:
4745:(1): 247–256.
4729:
4703:
4685:
4642:
4606:
4571:
4564:
4546:
4539:
4521:
4444:
4437:. 4 May 2021.
4422:
4392:
4362:
4318:
4288:
4227:
4196:
4165:
4121:
4090:
4059:
4033:
4007:
3988:(2): 551–564.
3972:
3937:
3870:
3840:
3833:
3815:
3789:
3760:
3730:
3671:
3627:
3620:
3599:
3564:
3545:(3): 104–109.
3529:
3510:(4): 501–504.
3494:
3464:
3423:
3356:
3297:
3256:
3231:
3196:
3179:
3157:Das Polarlicht
3146:
3144:
3143:
3125:. 2nd series.
3114:
3096:. 2nd series.
3085:
3067:. 2nd series.
3056:
3038:. 2nd series.
3027:
3009:. 2nd series.
2998:
2980:. 2nd series.
2969:
2951:. 2nd series.
2940:
2922:. 2nd series.
2911:
2893:. 2nd series.
2871:
2852:
2832:
2794:
2768:
2735:
2695:
2680:
2643:
2634:
2608:
2581:
2580:
2578:
2575:
2572:
2571:
2567:aurora polaris
2538:
2525:
2511:
2510:
2508:
2505:
2504:
2503:
2498:
2493:
2488:
2483:
2478:
2473:
2466:
2463:
2459:LSR J1835+3259
2395:Terra Cimmeria
2272:
2269:
2132:Anders Celsius
2039:Southern Ocean
2035:Ui-te-Rangiora
1870:cave paintings
1770:
1769:
1684:
1682:
1675:
1669:
1666:
1484:
1481:
1468:ion gyroradius
1390:
1387:
1327:
1324:
1221:
1218:
1180:
1177:
1157:
1156:
1153:
1147:
1144:
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1059:
1058:
1054:
1053:
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1016:
982:
979:
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920:
917:
899:
896:
894:
891:
878:
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863:
829:
826:
825:
824:
816:
813:
809:
796:
795:
786:
782:
776:
773:
757:
756:
750:
744:
734:
724:
696:
693:
656:
653:
632:
620:
602:
601:
596:
589:
588:
584:
577:
576:
575:
568:
567:
566:
565:
554:
541:
540:
532:
519:
518:
502:
489:
488:
487:
479:
478:
477:
476:
475:
326:
323:
261:was coined by
254:
251:
181:caused by the
108:
107:
98:
97:
89:
88:
87:
78:
77:
69:
68:
67:
58:
57:
56:
55:
54:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
7745:
7734:
7731:
7729:
7728:Space weather
7726:
7724:
7721:
7719:
7716:
7714:
7713:Light sources
7711:
7709:
7706:
7704:
7701:
7699:
7696:
7694:
7691:
7689:
7688:Space plasmas
7686:
7684:
7681:
7680:
7678:
7668:
7663:
7658:
7656:
7646:
7644:
7634:
7632:
7622:
7620:
7615:
7610:
7608:
7598:
7596:
7591:
7586:
7585:
7582:
7567:
7564:
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7559:
7557:
7554:
7552:
7549:
7548:
7547:
7544:
7542:
7539:
7537:
7534:
7532:
7529:
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7522:
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7513:
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7501:
7498:
7496:
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7491:
7488:
7486:
7483:
7481:
7478:
7477:
7475:
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7465:
7462:
7460:
7457:
7453:
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7449:
7448:
7445:
7443:
7440:
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7417:
7415:
7412:
7410:
7407:
7405:
7404:
7400:
7394:
7391:
7389:
7386:
7384:
7381:
7379:
7376:
7374:
7371:
7365:
7362:
7359:
7358:
7356:
7352:
7346:
7345:Space weather
7343:
7341:
7340:Space climate
7338:
7336:
7333:
7331:
7328:
7326:
7323:
7321:
7318:
7316:
7313:
7311:
7308:
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7284:
7278:
7275:
7273:
7270:
7268:
7265:
7263:
7260:
7258:
7255:
7253:
7252:Magnetosphere
7250:
7248:
7247:Magnetosheath
7245:
7243:
7240:
7238:
7235:
7233:
7230:
7228:
7225:
7224:
7222:
7218:
7212:
7209:
7207:
7204:
7202:
7199:
7197:
7194:
7192:
7189:
7187:
7184:
7183:
7181:
7177:
7173:
7166:
7161:
7159:
7154:
7152:
7147:
7146:
7143:
7136:
7132:
7128:
7124:
7123:Video (00:27)
7121:
7118:
7114:
7110:
7106:
7105:Video (02:43)
7103:
7100:
7096:
7092:
7091:Video (01:56)
7089:
7086:
7082:
7081:
7075:
7074:Video (01:42)
7072:
7069:
7066:
7064:– Documentary
7063:
7059:
7058:Video (47:40)
7056:
7053:
7049:
7045:
7044:Video (04:49)
7042:
7039:
7036:
7033:
7029:
7026:
7023:
7020:
7017:
7014:
7011:
7008:
7007:
6998:
6995:
6993:
6989:
6986:
6983:
6980:
6977:
6974:
6970:
6967:
6965:
6962:
6960:
6957:
6954:
6951:
6949:
6946:
6944:
6941:
6940:
6930:
6928:0-912006-60-9
6924:
6920:
6915:
6903:
6899:
6894:
6890:
6884:
6880:
6876:
6872:
6867:
6863:
6857:
6853:
6849:
6845:
6840:
6836:
6830:
6826:
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6813:
6811:
6803:
6799:
6795:
6788:
6783:
6779:
6775:
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6756:
6751:
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6734:
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6726:
6722:
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6714:
6710:
6705:
6700:
6699:
6693:
6688:
6684:
6680:
6679:
6673:
6667:
6666:
6645:
6642:. space.com.
6641:
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6508:
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6502:10044/1/82183
6498:
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6402:
6398:
6394:
6388:
6372:
6368:
6364:
6360:
6356:
6352:
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6213:
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6189:
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6182:(in French).
6181:
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5477:
5472:
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5456:
5455:Space Weather
5452:
5445:
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5425:
5424:Atlas Obscura
5421:
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4110:on 4 May 2019
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3276:(1): RG1003.
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2657:
2653:
2652:Siscoe, G. L.
2647:
2638:
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2596:
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2582:
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2564:
2560:
2556:
2552:
2548:
2542:
2535:
2529:
2522:
2516:
2512:
2502:
2501:Space weather
2499:
2497:
2496:Space tornado
2494:
2492:
2491:Paschen's law
2489:
2487:
2484:
2482:
2479:
2477:
2474:
2472:
2469:
2468:
2462:
2460:
2456:
2452:
2447:
2445:
2441:
2437:
2433:
2429:
2427:
2423:
2419:
2416:wavelengths.
2415:
2411:
2407:
2402:
2400:
2396:
2392:
2391:
2385:
2383:
2379:
2374:
2371:
2367:
2366:magnetosphere
2363:
2357:
2355:
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2347:
2346:
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2340:
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2327:
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2203:
2199:
2195:
2194:
2189:
2185:
2180:
2178:
2173:
2168:
2164:
2163:Samuel Hearne
2160:
2157:A variety of
2153:
2152:
2147:
2143:
2139:
2137:
2133:
2129:
2123:
2118:
2116:
2112:
2107:
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2097:
2093:
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2080:
2076:
2072:
2067:
2066:
2059:
2051:
2046:
2042:
2040:
2036:
2031:
2026:
2022:
2017:
2015:
2011:
2007:
2003:
1998:
1993:
1989:
1985:
1981:
1976:
1971:
1967:
1963:
1954:
1950:
1947:
1943:
1938:
1904:
1898:
1897:
1891:
1887:
1883:
1879:
1873:
1871:
1868:
1863:
1860:
1854:
1849:
1848:
1843:
1839:
1835:
1831:
1827:
1822:
1818:('bearded');
1816:
1810:
1804:
1799:
1798:
1793:
1789:
1786:
1783:
1779:
1778:
1777:Bamboo Annals
1766:
1763:
1755:
1744:
1741:
1737:
1734:
1730:
1727:
1723:
1720:
1716:
1713: –
1712:
1708:
1707:Find sources:
1701:
1697:
1691:
1690:
1685:This section
1683:
1679:
1674:
1673:
1665:
1663:
1659:
1655:
1649:
1644:
1641:
1635:
1633:
1628:
1623:
1618:
1613:
1608:
1603:
1598:
1596:
1592:
1588:
1584:
1580:
1575:
1571:
1566:
1561:
1559:
1558:
1553:
1549:
1545:
1541:
1536:
1532:
1531:
1525:
1521:
1517:
1513:
1509:
1505:
1504:Royal Society
1500:
1498:
1494:
1490:
1480:
1476:
1473:
1469:
1465:
1461:
1456:
1454:
1453:electric load
1450:
1445:
1443:
1437:
1435:
1431:
1427:
1423:
1418:
1416:
1412:
1408:
1404:
1400:
1399:magnetosphere
1395:
1386:
1384:
1380:
1376:
1374:
1370:
1366:
1361:
1358:
1352:
1349:
1344:
1343:magnetosphere
1337:
1336:magnetosphere
1332:
1326:Magnetosphere
1323:
1321:
1316:
1314:
1310:
1306:
1300:
1298:
1297:Parker spiral
1293:
1289:
1284:
1282:
1281:dynamo effect
1278:
1274:
1270:
1266:
1262:
1258:
1254:
1249:
1247:
1243:
1239:
1235:
1231:
1227:
1217:
1215:
1211:
1206:
1202:
1197:
1192:
1190:
1186:
1176:
1174:
1169:
1165:
1163:
1154:
1151:
1148:
1145:
1142:
1139:
1138:
1137:
1135:
1131:
1130:excited state
1127:
1123:
1119:
1116:
1112:
1108:
1098:
1094:
1085:
1078:
1074:
1073:
1068:
1063:
1055:
1048:
1044:
1040:
1039:
1037:
1033:
1029:
1028:magnetic flux
1025:
1021:
1017:
1014:
1010:
1005:
1001:
996:
995:
994:
992:
988:
978:
976:
972:
962:
953:
951:
947:
944:layer in the
943:
939:
929:
927:
916:
913:
909:
905:
893:Unusual types
890:
888:
884:
874:
872:
862:
858:
856:
852:
848:
839:
834:
821:
817:
814:
810:
806:
805:
800:
793:
783:
779:
778:
772:
770:
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763:
754:
751:
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745:
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712:
704:
700:
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689:
685:
681:
673:
652:
649:
637:
635:
631:
625:
623:
619:
613:
611:
606:
593:
585:North America
581:
571:
558:
536:
514:
510:
506:
483:
482:Expedition 28
474:
470:
468:
464:
460:
459:magnetic pole
455:
450:
448:
444:
440:
436:
432:
431:Faroe Islands
428:
424:
420:
416:
412:
408:
404:
400:
399:Southern Cone
396:
392:
387:
385:
381:
377:
373:
368:
360:
356:
355:edge of space
352:
348:
344:
340:
336:
331:
322:
320:
316:
312:
308:
304:
299:
297:
293:
289:
285:
280:
278:
275:
271:
268:
264:
260:
250:
248:
244:
240:
236:
232:
227:
224:
220:
216:
212:
208:
204:
200:
196:
192:
188:
187:coronal holes
184:
180:
179:magnetosphere
175:
173:
169:
165:
161:
157:
153:
149:
145:
141:
137:
130:
122:
117:
102:
93:
82:
73:
62:
53:
49:
45:
41:
37:
33:
19:
7733:Geomagnetism
7655:Solar System
7546:Ring systems
7541:Lunar swirls
7418:
7401:
7272:Ring current
7267:Plasmasphere
7242:Magnetopause
7190:
7085:Terschelling
7077:
7068:Video (5:00)
7061:
7047:
6972:
6918:
6906:. Retrieved
6902:the original
6870:
6843:
6818:
6802:the original
6797:
6793:
6777:
6773:
6754:
6745:
6716:
6712:
6696:
6676:
6648:. Retrieved
6633:
6621:. Retrieved
6617:the original
6606:
6553:
6549:
6539:
6527:. Retrieved
6476:
6472:
6435:. Retrieved
6426:
6417:
6405:. Retrieved
6396:
6387:
6375:. Retrieved
6342:
6338:
6328:
6316:. Retrieved
6291:
6287:
6275:. Retrieved
6266:
6257:
6249:
6244:
6236:
6231:
6211:
6204:
6192:. Retrieved
6183:
6179:
6168:
6149:
6131:
6120:
6108:. Retrieved
6104:the original
6094:
6075:
6071:
6058:
6048:13 September
6046:. Retrieved
6036:
6029:
6017:. Retrieved
5997:
5971:. Retrieved
5964:the original
5925:
5921:
5908:
5896:. Retrieved
5887:
5878:
5866:. Retrieved
5862:the original
5857:
5847:
5835:. Retrieved
5806:
5798:
5789:
5783:
5774:
5768:
5760:
5755:
5743:. Retrieved
5734:
5725:
5713:. Retrieved
5708:
5699:
5687:. Retrieved
5685:(in Persian)
5682:
5673:
5661:. Retrieved
5656:
5647:
5622:
5613:
5601:. Retrieved
5592:
5588:
5578:
5543:
5539:
5518:. Retrieved
5502:: 423–430 .
5499:
5495:
5485:
5458:
5454:
5444:
5432:. Retrieved
5423:
5413:
5370:
5366:
5356:
5344:. Retrieved
5335:
5325:
5308:
5302:
5290:. Retrieved
5262:
5258:
5244:
5232:. Retrieved
5196:
5192:
5178:
5143:
5139:
5129:
5086:
5082:
5071:
5059:. Retrieved
5053:. Nasa.gov.
5045:
5018:
5014:
5004:
4979:
4975:
4969:
4957:. Retrieved
4953:the original
4943:
4920:
4908:. Retrieved
4886:(13): 1933.
4883:
4879:
4869:
4834:
4830:
4820:
4809:
4802:
4777:
4773:
4767:
4742:
4738:
4732:
4720:. Retrieved
4706:
4698:the original
4688:
4658:(5096): 45.
4655:
4651:
4645:
4623:(A7): 7441.
4620:
4616:
4609:
4584:
4580:
4574:
4555:
4549:
4530:
4524:
4512:. Retrieved
4461:
4457:
4447:
4434:
4425:
4413:. Retrieved
4405:Aurorasaurus
4404:
4395:
4383:. Retrieved
4374:
4365:
4338:
4335:AGU Advances
4334:
4309:. Retrieved
4300:
4291:
4279:. Retrieved
4262:10138/322003
4244:
4241:AGU Advances
4240:
4230:
4218:. Retrieved
4210:The Guardian
4209:
4199:
4187:. Retrieved
4178:
4168:
4141:
4137:
4112:. Retrieved
4108:the original
4103:
4093:
4081:. Retrieved
4072:
4062:
4050:. Retrieved
4036:
4024:. Retrieved
4020:the original
4010:
3985:
3981:
3975:
3953:(28): 4227.
3950:
3946:
3940:
3928:. Retrieved
3887:
3883:
3873:
3861:. Retrieved
3853:Aurorasaurus
3852:
3843:
3824:
3818:
3806:. Retrieved
3802:the original
3792:
3780:. Retrieved
3751:. Retrieved
3742:
3733:
3688:
3684:
3674:
3647:
3643:
3611:
3580:(10): 1087.
3577:
3573:
3567:
3542:
3538:
3532:
3507:
3503:
3497:
3485:. Retrieved
3476:
3467:
3443:(21): 2125.
3440:
3436:
3426:
3414:. Retrieved
3376:
3372:
3359:
3347:. Retrieved
3317:
3313:
3300:
3273:
3269:
3259:
3247:. Retrieved
3243:
3234:
3209:
3205:
3199:
3189:
3182:
3170:. Retrieved
3161:
3156:
3149:
3135:. Retrieved
3126:
3122:
3106:. Retrieved
3097:
3093:
3077:. Retrieved
3068:
3064:
3048:. Retrieved
3039:
3035:
3019:. Retrieved
3010:
3006:
2990:. Retrieved
2981:
2977:
2961:. Retrieved
2952:
2948:
2932:. Retrieved
2923:
2919:
2903:. Retrieved
2894:
2890:
2862:. Retrieved
2842:
2835:
2810:
2806:
2785:. Retrieved
2771:
2759:. Retrieved
2748:
2738:
2719:. Retrieved
2710:
2705:
2698:
2655:
2646:
2637:
2625:. Retrieved
2621:the original
2611:
2601:12 September
2599:. Retrieved
2585:
2566:
2563:Polar lights
2562:
2558:
2554:
2550:
2546:
2541:
2533:
2528:
2515:
2481:Heliophysics
2448:
2444:tropospheres
2436:hot Jupiters
2430:
2403:
2390:Mars Express
2388:
2386:
2375:
2358:
2344:
2338:
2319:
2261:
2254:
2239:
2218:
2213:
2206:
2191:
2181:
2156:
2149:
2136:Olof Hiorter
2125:
2120:
2114:
2108:
2096:homœopathist
2090:(1920) that
2086:
2083:
2054:
2021:Māori people
2018:
2013:
2002:Ngarrindjeri
1980:Gunai people
1959:
1939:
1874:
1864:
1845:
1795:
1775:
1773:
1758:
1749:
1739:
1732:
1725:
1718:
1706:
1694:Please help
1689:verification
1686:
1651:
1646:
1637:
1631:
1626:
1621:
1616:
1611:
1606:
1601:
1600:
1594:
1570:magnetometer
1562:
1555:
1548:Elias Loomis
1528:
1519:
1508:magnetograph
1501:
1486:
1477:
1460:Alfvén waves
1457:
1446:
1438:
1422:plasma waves
1419:
1396:
1392:
1377:
1362:
1357:magnetopause
1353:
1340:
1317:
1301:
1285:
1272:
1268:
1264:
1260:
1250:
1248:spacecraft.
1242:Joan Feynman
1223:
1196:Hall current
1193:
1182:
1170:
1166:
1158:
1134:ground state
1104:
1095:
1091:
1082:
1077:An animation
1070:
984:
968:
959:
935:
922:
901:
880:
868:
859:
843:
766:
761:
758:
752:
746:
736:
730:
726:
720:
698:
688:Carl Størmer
677:
644:
629:
627:
617:
615:
609:
513:Indian Ocean
471:
451:
403:South Africa
389:In northern
388:
384:Elias Loomis
376:Arctic Ocean
364:
359:thermosphere
343:stratosphere
306:
302:
300:
283:
281:
258:
256:
243:brown dwarfs
235:Solar System
229:Most of the
228:
215:thermosphere
176:
166:(around the
155:
151:
147:
143:
139:
135:
128:
126:
52:
7643:Outer space
7631:Spaceflight
7452:Unwin Radar
7378:Double Star
7315:Heliosphere
7305:Solar flare
6719:(1): 1–31.
6465:Altwegg, K.
6186:: 409–412.
5373:(1): 3103.
5146:(1): 1842.
4910:10 November
4587:(9): 2727.
3863:26 February
3100:: 318–335.
3042:: 339–361.
2984:: 386–399.
2955:: 249–266.
2897:: 385–408.
2813:(40): 761.
2787:16 February
2761:14 February
2455:brown dwarf
2451:extra-solar
2092:Tycho Brahe
2079:fluorescent
2025:New Zealand
1968:of western
1896:Shanhaijing
1880:around the
1812:('chasm');
1524:solar flare
1415:pitch angle
1263:(or is cut
1246:Explorer 33
1024:magnetotail
932:Dune aurora
557:New Zealand
435:Scandinavia
407:Australasia
339:troposphere
245:, and even
211:precipitate
7677:Categories
7500:Ganymedian
7373:Cluster II
7354:Satellites
7330:Heliopause
7287:Solar wind
7237:Ionosphere
7211:Polar wind
7206:Jet stream
7133:(video on
7004:Multimedia
6563:1903.04565
6529:17 January
6437:17 January
6377:17 January
5973:19 October
5639:1115103262
5434:13 October
5199:(92): 92.
4925:Alaska.edu
4514:1 December
3930:7 December
3753:13 January
3691:(1): 1–7.
3650:(8): 943.
3349:7 December
3212:(3): 249.
3162:The Aurora
3013:: 79–100.
2577:References
2434:, such as
2432:Exoplanets
2336:, and the
2275:See also:
2019:Among the
2014:Oola Pikka
2010:Queensland
1990:people of
1882:Big Dipper
1867:Cro-Magnon
1821:cyparissae
1722:newspapers
1520:in the act
1516:Carrington
1426:scattering
1290:, and its
1226:solar wind
1201:electrojet
1179:Ionosphere
1124:atoms and
1111:atmosphere
1101:Atmosphere
1049:and aurora
1020:solar wind
1009:ionosphere
987:solar wind
946:mesosphere
682:using the
607:change. A
505:Madagascar
395:Antarctica
380:South Pole
372:North Pole
347:mesosphere
325:Occurrence
301:The words
272:, and the
223:ionization
183:solar wind
7607:Astronomy
7536:Gas torus
7531:Flux tube
7515:Neptunian
7505:Saturnian
7459:SuperDARN
7360:Full list
7232:Bow shock
7201:Geosphere
6519:221884342
6511:2397-3366
6367:1944-8007
5960:118102443
5935:1309.3367
5759:Macleod,
5631:0839-4229
5595:: 92–97.
5279:214002762
5221:220509575
5121:206514133
4861:123637108
4504:248842161
4496:2169-9380
4271:213839228
4083:21 August
3912:2169-9402
3808:16 August
3782:16 August
3539:Endeavour
3129:: 34–45.
3071:: 71–84.
2926:: 92–97.
2864:30 August
2690:8755-1217
2370:volcanism
2167:Chipewyan
2109:In 1778,
2071:Greenland
2058:norðrljós
1984:bushfires
1975:puae buae
1946:pheasants
1627:Portland:
1617:Portland:
1581:from the
1574:telegraph
1430:loss cone
1383:equinoxes
1348:bow shock
1273:direction
1152:emissions
1143:emissions
1036:plasmoids
1000:bow shock
975:equinoxes
942:inversion
887:inversion
636:= 9
624:= 3
511:over the
509:Australia
427:Greenland
391:latitudes
335:afterglow
307:australis
282:The word
257:The term
253:Etymology
219:exosphere
203:electrons
172:Antarctic
6988:Archived
6975:Latitude
6794:Recorder
6746:phy6.org
6689:(1911).
6644:Archived
6598:31378171
6523:Archived
6431:Archived
6407:5 August
6401:Archived
6371:Archived
6318:5 August
6312:Archived
6277:18 April
6271:Archived
6188:Archived
6158:Archived
6042:Archived
6013:Archived
5892:Archived
5888:phys.org
5837:18 March
5831:Archived
5763:, p. 21.
5739:Archived
5735:SCI News
5597:Archived
5514:Archived
5428:Archived
5405:34099653
5340:Archived
5283:Archived
5225:Archived
5170:33758181
5113:18653845
5055:Archived
4928:Archived
4904:Archived
4722:5 August
4716:Archived
4508:Archived
4439:Archived
4409:Archived
4379:Archived
4375:phys.org
4305:Archived
4301:phys.org
4275:Archived
4220:22 March
4214:Archived
4183:Archived
4179:AGU News
4077:Archived
4073:Phys.org
4046:Archived
3924:Archived
3920:38394431
3857:Archived
3776:Archived
3747:Archived
3725:16586674
3559:17764743
3481:Archived
3416:20 April
3407:Archived
3340:Archived
3166:Archived
3131:Archived
3102:Archived
3073:Archived
3044:Archived
3015:Archived
2986:Archived
2957:Archived
2928:Archived
2899:Archived
2858:Archived
2781:Archived
2779:. 1993.
2755:Archived
2745:"Aurora"
2715:Archived
2627:5 August
2595:Archived
2593:. NASA.
2465:See also
2294:Ganymede
2075:glaciers
1997:kootchee
1970:Victoria
1886:Xuanyuan
1834:Tiberius
1815:pogoniae
1809:chasmata
1785:explorer
1752:May 2024
1533:that in
1401:. These
1341:Earth's
1288:sunspots
1214:feedback
1173:hydrogen
1150:Nitrogen
1126:nitrogen
1118:nitrogen
855:keograms
731:surfaces
439:Scotland
303:borealis
7667:Science
7595:Weather
7581:Portals
7566:Neptune
7551:Jupiter
7510:Uranian
7490:Martian
7480:Hermian
7383:Geotail
7135:YouTube
7117:YouTube
7099:YouTube
7052:YouTube
6810:Alt URL
6721:Bibcode
6650:29 July
6623:29 July
6589:6710897
6568:Bibcode
6481:Bibcode
6347:Bibcode
6194:31 July
6110:26 July
5940:Bibcode
5898:3 April
5715:20 July
5689:20 July
5663:20 July
5603:30 July
5548:Bibcode
5520:30 July
5463:Bibcode
5396:8184961
5375:Bibcode
5201:Bibcode
5161:7988152
5091:Bibcode
5083:Science
5061:26 July
5023:Bibcode
4984:Bibcode
4959:26 July
4938:website
4888:Bibcode
4839:Bibcode
4782:Bibcode
4747:Bibcode
4680:4173665
4660:Bibcode
4625:Bibcode
4589:Bibcode
4466:Bibcode
4435:YouTube
4343:Bibcode
4146:Bibcode
4052:28 June
4026:28 June
3990:Bibcode
3955:Bibcode
3892:Bibcode
3716:1091158
3693:Bibcode
3652:Bibcode
3582:Bibcode
3512:Bibcode
3487:1 March
3445:Bibcode
3381:Bibcode
3322:Bibcode
3278:Bibcode
3214:Bibcode
3172:31 July
3137:30 July
3108:30 July
3079:30 July
3050:30 July
3021:30 July
2992:30 July
2963:30 July
2934:30 July
2905:30 July
2815:Bibcode
2721:31 July
2660:Bibcode
2534:aurorae
2471:Airglow
2440:weather
2410:Rosetta
2354:Neptune
2345:Galileo
2339:Cassini
2322:Jupiter
2314:A movie
2286:Jupiter
2231:Uppsala
2227:Celsius
2223:Bologna
2177:caribou
2172:ed-thin
2128:Uppsala
2050:Utsjoki
1903:Shilong
1826:cypress
1824:('like
1803:pithaei
1788:Pytheas
1736:scholar
1658:Ferdows
1640:battery
1632:Boston:
1622:Boston:
1612:Boston:
1554:in the
1510:at the
1277:Dynamos
1115:ionized
1107:photons
926:equator
881:Aurora
838:keogram
812:Saturn.
753:Coronas
727:Patches
719:A mild
684:SCR-270
648:sunspot
597:Eurasia
423:Iceland
411:Uruguay
351:airglow
263:Galileo
237:, some
233:in the
231:planets
207:protons
140:auroras
136:aurorae
7561:Uranus
7556:Saturn
7495:Jovian
7437:EISCAT
7409:THEMIS
7397:(2015)
7395:
7368:(2016)
7366:
7191:Aurora
7113:Norway
7109:Tromsø
7032:Norway
6925:
6908:15 May
6885:
6858:
6831:
6761:
6596:
6586:
6517:
6509:
6427:Portal
6365:
6219:
6132:Kepler
6019:1 June
6005:
5958:
5868:22 May
5823:
5745:5 June
5637:
5629:
5403:
5393:
5346:8 June
5292:1 June
5277:
5265:(92).
5234:1 June
5219:
5168:
5158:
5119:
5111:
4859:
4678:
4652:Nature
4562:
4537:
4502:
4494:
4415:22 May
4385:22 May
4311:22 May
4281:22 May
4269:
3918:
3910:
3831:
3723:
3713:
3618:
3557:
3249:13 May
2850:
2688:
2678:
2350:Uranus
2326:Saturn
2298:Europa
2250:radium
2209:Halley
2100:sulfur
2087:Kepler
1859:chasma
1853:trabes
1830:clouds
1792:Seneca
1738:
1731:
1724:
1717:
1709:
1587:Boston
1535:Boston
1365:THEMIS
1261:across
1253:plasma
1230:corona
1141:Oxygen
1122:oxygen
981:Causes
912:plasma
655:Images
612:-index
443:Russia
441:, and
429:, the
419:Canada
415:Alaska
397:, the
315:Auster
311:Boreas
288:Aurora
284:aurora
247:comets
199:plasma
168:Arctic
129:aurora
123:, 2017
42:,
38:,
34:,
7619:Stars
7485:Lunar
7447:SHARE
7442:HAARP
7403:Polar
7388:IMAGE
7364:Arase
7127:Earth
6805:(PDF)
6790:(PDF)
6558:arXiv
6515:S2CID
6142:p. 23
5967:(PDF)
5956:S2CID
5930:arXiv
5918:(PDF)
5657:زومیت
5286:(PDF)
5275:S2CID
5255:(PDF)
5228:(PDF)
5217:S2CID
5189:(PDF)
5117:S2CID
4857:S2CID
4676:S2CID
4500:S2CID
4464:(5).
4267:S2CID
4189:4 May
4114:4 May
3916:S2CID
3410:(PDF)
3369:(PDF)
3343:(PDF)
3310:(PDF)
3160:[
2881:See:
2709:[
2457:star
2424:(not
2378:Venus
2330:gauss
2320:Both
1988:Dieri
1838:Ostia
1782:Greek
1743:JSTOR
1729:books
1493:Kyoto
1489:diary
1269:along
1067:IMAGE
989:with
908:STEVE
898:STEVE
883:noise
877:Noise
820:a mix
695:Forms
672:IMAGE
317:) in
274:Greek
267:Roman
160:Earth
150:) or
7420:Wind
6923:ISBN
6910:2006
6883:ISBN
6856:ISBN
6829:ISBN
6780:(1).
6759:ISBN
6652:2015
6625:2015
6594:PMID
6531:2021
6507:ISSN
6439:2021
6409:2010
6379:2021
6363:ISSN
6320:2010
6279:2024
6217:ISBN
6196:2019
6112:2011
6050:2021
6021:2022
6003:ISBN
5975:2013
5900:2020
5870:2022
5858:NASA
5839:2024
5821:ISBN
5747:2022
5717:2024
5691:2024
5665:2024
5635:OCLC
5627:ISSN
5605:2019
5522:2019
5436:2017
5401:PMID
5348:2021
5294:2021
5236:2021
5166:PMID
5109:PMID
5063:2011
4961:2011
4912:2017
4724:2015
4560:ISBN
4535:ISBN
4516:2022
4492:ISSN
4417:2021
4387:2021
4313:2021
4283:2021
4222:2018
4191:2019
4116:2019
4085:2018
4054:2016
4028:2016
3932:2019
3908:ISSN
3865:2022
3829:ISBN
3810:2015
3784:2015
3755:2014
3721:PMID
3616:ISBN
3555:PMID
3489:2024
3418:2018
3351:2019
3251:2024
3174:2019
3139:2019
3110:2019
3081:2019
3052:2019
3023:2019
2994:2019
2965:2019
2936:2019
2907:2019
2866:2017
2848:ISBN
2789:2021
2763:2019
2723:2019
2686:ISSN
2676:ISBN
2629:2010
2603:2022
2565:and
2418:Coma
2382:Mars
2380:and
2352:and
2342:and
2324:and
2296:and
2264:Sami
2134:and
1934:星陨如雨
1878:halo
1715:news
1662:Iran
1589:and
1311:and
1047:Moon
747:Rays
737:Arcs
721:glow
570:NOAA
305:and
205:and
189:and
170:and
7393:MMS
6875:doi
6848:doi
6729:doi
6584:PMC
6576:doi
6554:377
6497:hdl
6489:doi
6355:doi
6080:doi
5948:doi
5813:doi
5564:hdl
5556:doi
5504:doi
5500:151
5471:doi
5391:PMC
5383:doi
5313:doi
5267:doi
5263:216
5209:doi
5197:216
5156:PMC
5148:doi
5099:doi
5087:321
5031:doi
5019:114
4992:doi
4980:102
4896:doi
4847:doi
4790:doi
4755:doi
4668:doi
4656:215
4633:doi
4597:doi
4482:hdl
4474:doi
4462:127
4351:doi
4257:hdl
4249:doi
4154:doi
3998:doi
3963:doi
3900:doi
3888:122
3711:PMC
3701:doi
3660:doi
3590:doi
3547:doi
3520:doi
3453:doi
3399:hdl
3389:doi
3330:doi
3318:104
3286:doi
3222:doi
2823:doi
2807:EOS
2668:doi
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2196:by
2130:by
2106:".
2023:of
1940:In
1937:).
1928:天开眼
1922:蚩尤旗
1698:by
1472:keV
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1442:keV
1132:to
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729:or
614:of
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296:Eos
292:Sun
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