572:
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view, the existence of the railway would have created a threat to
British dominance over German trade, as it would have given German industry access to oil, and a port in the Persian Gulf. The importance of oil as opposed to coal as fuel was recognised, as it could greatly improve the performance and capacity of the rival navies. The recognised strategic importance is seen by the wartime presence of the British there, and by the earlier establishment of the Sheikdom of
1118:. This left a gap of some 480 kilometres (300 miles) between the railway lines. Additionally, there were three mountains which the railway was going to go through, but the tunnels through these three mountains were not complete. So the railway was, in fact, broken into four different sections at the start of the war. The total time to get from Istanbul to Baghdad during the war was 22 days. The total distance was 2,020 kilometres (1,260 mi)
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397:, and the world. The journey home to Germany would have given German industry a direct supply of oil. This access to resources, with trade less affected by British control of shipping, would have been beneficial to German economic interests in industry and trade, and threatening to British economic dominance in colonial trade.
1047:. They argue that although the railway issue was heated before 1914 (Corrigan shows that the railway issue was driving Germany and Turkey further apart), Anglo-American conservative historians argue that it was not a cause of World War I, because the main controversies had been addressed in principle before the war started.
1219:
had completed the southeastern section from
Baghdad to Basra, so that part was under British control. The French held negotiations to obtain some degree of control over the central portion of the railway, and Turkish interests controlled the oldest sections that had been constructed inside of Turkey,
1076:
was signed, perhaps giving credence to the notion that the issue had not been fully resolved. In fact, restriction of German access to
Mesopotamia and its oil, and strategic exclusion from rail access to the Persian Gulf, was enforced by British military presence during World War I, and afterwards in
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should be admitted to the Board of the
Baghdad Railway Company; third, the terminus of the railway should be at Basra; last, no railway should be constructed from Basra to the Gulf without the sanction of HMG, which speaks to the importance of the issue. This was followed by an Anglo-German agreement
443:
rivers and reported plentiful oil of good quality, but commented that poor transportation made it doubtful these fields could compete with those already operating in Russia and the United States. In 1901, a German report announced the region had a veritable "lake of petroleum" of almost inexhaustible
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and of the D'Arcy
Exploration Company. On 23 February a contract was signed in London between Lord Inchcape and the Baghdad Railway Company. In March 1914 the German government was obliged to recognise southern Mesopotamia, as well as central and southern Persia, as the exclusive field of operations
362:
A recent history of this railway in the specific context of World War I neatly outlines in the prologue the German global interest in countering the
British Empire, and Ottoman Turkey's regional interest in countering their Russian, French and British rivals on all sides. As stated by a contemporary
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by removal of the would-be
Baghdad railway from German ownership. Thus the potential consequences to Anglo-German economic rivalry in oil and trade by the existence of the railway were ultimately addressed by ownership and outright control, rather than by agreement. Marxist historians, unpopular in
1121:
The breaks in the railway meant that the
Ottoman government had significant difficulties in sending supplies and reinforcements to the Mesopotamian Front. The fighting in Mesopotamia remained somewhat isolated from the rest of the war. During the conflict, Turkish and German workers, together with
1027:
Firstly, historians and political analysts who wrote about this issue directly after the war were not in possession of closed diplomatic records - an important piece and perspective on the historical record. Diplomatic documents of the German government were released between 1922 and 1927, British
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Marxist historians emphasise imperial rivalries and economics as the driving force for the war, as was popularly reported with respect to the railway at the time and especially as revealed in the
Russian diplomatic documents. Regardless of diplomacy, financing and agreements, and later points of
552:
During 1898 and 1899 the
Ottoman Ministry of Public Works received many applications for permission to construct a railway to Baghdad; it was not because of lack of competition that the Deutsche Bank was finally awarded the concession. A Russian plan was rejected for fear of it extending Russian
451:
was retained by the Ottoman government to develop plans for railways in Turkey. However, private enterprise would not build the railway without subsidies, so the Ottoman Government had to reserve part of its revenues to subsidise its construction, thus increasing its debt to the European powers.
400:
The railway also threatened Russia, since it was accepted as axiomatic that political influence followed economic, and the railway was expected to extend Germany's economic influence towards the Caucasian frontier and into north Persia where Russia had a dominant share of the market.
892:
announced its intention to run regular steamships between Europe and the Persian Gulf. After a futile price war, the British lines, which had lost their monopoly, came to agreement in 1913 with their competitors, ending a rivalry which had caused considerable political concern.
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Eventually an agreement over the Baghdad railway issue was reached between Britain and the Ottoman Government in 1913 in the following terms: First, there should be no differential treatment on any railway in Asiatic Turkey; second, two British representatives approved by
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in Turkey was reopened. The first train went from Mosul to Gaziantep, taking 18 hours. On 18 February a return journey departed from Gaziantep to Mosul. This line has now closed once again. There are limited train services between Baghdad and Basra until new trains are
1056:
Many economic and colonial issues which had been causing friction between French, German and British governments before 1914, such as the financing of the Berlin-Baghdad railway and the future disposition of the Portuguese colonies, had been resolved by the summer of
2638:
Die europäische Finanzkontrolle im Osmanischen Reich der Zeit von 1908 bis 1914. Die Rivalitäten der britischen, französischen und deutschen Hochfinanz und der Diplomatie vor dem ersten Weltkrieg am Beispiel der türkischen Staatsanleihen und der
3224:
571:
3151:
393:(ultimately a Hamburg to Basra) railway would have enabled transport and trade from a port in Germany through a port on the Persian Gulf, from which trade goods and supplies could be exchanged directly with the farthest of the
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350:
and diplomatic delays meant that by 1915 the railway was still 480 kilometres (300 mi) short of completion, severely limiting its use during the war in which Baghdad was captured by the British while the
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in the east, with the border being on the Syrian side of the track, leaving the track in Turkish territory. Further west, the Treaty also set the border immediately north of the town and railway station of
375:
in the hands of a great continental power was a pistol leveled at the English coast, Baghdad and the Persian Gulf in the hands of Germany (or any other strong power) would be a 42-centimetre gun pointed at
202:
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government could not offer further railway concessions without raising customs duties from 11 to 14 percent. Such a raise required the agreement of all the powers, but was vetoed by Britain after
3386:
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Some of the optimism should be attributed to the willingness of the German government to compose long-standing differences... and in June 1914 a settlement was achieved over the Baghdad railway.
1122:
allied prisoners of war, laboured to complete the railway for military purposes but with limited manpower and so many more important things to spend money on, only two of the gaps were closed.
342:. Although it has been argued that they were resolved in 1914 before the war began, it has also been suggested that the railway was a manifestation of the imperial rivalry that was the leading
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paid little attention to the building of the railway lines until 1903, when the Ottoman Government gave an Ottoman corporation permission to build the railway line from Konya to Baghdad. This
3239:
127:
935:: " ... if the money is to be used to promote railways which may be a source of doubtful advantage to British trade ... I say it will be impossible for us to agree to that increase ... ".
1316:. Due to the strained relations between Turkey, Syria and Iraq however, continuous traffic remained rare, and other means of transport soon reduced its strategic and economic relevance.
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Other historians have argued that the sum of many other issues, including intractable nationalities and the denial of self-determination to minority groups, were the dominant
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785:
780:
264:, the railway was still 960 km (600 miles) away from its intended objective. The last stretch to Baghdad was built in the late 1930s and the first train to travel from
3130:
2656:
Bickel, Benno (2003). "Mit Agatha Christie durch die Schluchten des Taurus. Die Bagdadbahn im Spiegel der Literatur und des Reiseberichts". In Franzke, Jürgen (ed.).
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the Anglo-American perspective on process, would suggest that economic contexts, rather than nationalistic and political rivalries, underlie the root causes.
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3381:
1013:
637:
Despite obstructions at the diplomatic level, work slowly began on the railway. Both geographical and political obstacles prevented the completion of the
2867:
Preissig, Erika; Klebes, Günther (1989). "Eisenbahnbau und Eisenbahnprojekte im Orient und die damit verfolgten wirtschaftlichen und politischen Ziele".
634:). The railway might eventually have strengthened the Ottoman Empire and its ties to Germany and might have shifted the balance of power in the region.
455:
The process of constructing a rail line from Istanbul to Baghdad began during 1888 when Alfred von Kaulla, manager of Württembergische Vereinsbank, and
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1915:
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became independent from the UK. In 1936, Iraq bought all railways in its territory from the UK and started building the missing section of line from
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to various indistinct interests in those nations. Investors, speculators, and financiers were involved by 1923 in secretive and clandestine ways.
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on the similar lines in London on 15 June 1914. However these agreements, reached just prior to the outbreak of the Great War, were not realised.
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2901:
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Deutsche Schienen in osmanischem Boden. Eine virtuelle Reise mit der Anatolischen und Bagdadbahn durch Geschichte, Wahrnehmungen, Raum und Zeit
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3376:
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documents between 1926 and 1938. Only some Russian documents were released, and Italian documents came out only after the Second World War.
557:. A well-financed French proposal titled the Imperial Ottoman railway enabled them to become financiers of the winning Deutsche Bank plan.
2159:
856:
591:
416:. The Europeans saw great potential to exploit the resources of the weakening empire, irrigation could transform agriculture, there were
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for freight traffic in 1964 and for freight in 1968. It was also used for passenger traffic at least into the 1970s. This replaced a
404:
By the late 19th century the Ottoman Empire was weak, and cheap imports from industrialised Europe and the effects of the disastrous
3346:
3301:
3396:
2590:
Pongiluppi, Francesco (2015). "The Energetic Issue as a Key Factor of the Fall of the Ottoman Empire". In Biagini; Motta (eds.).
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and later marched into the Syrian Desert. Many Armenians were deported via the railways and later killed in the course of the
505:
The Ottoman Empire chose to place the line outside the range of the guns of the British Navy. Therefore, the coastal way from
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in the east, with the rail line on the Turkish side squeezed between the minefields and control strip in Turkey and Syria.
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The main British commercial interest that the British government insisted was protected, was that of the Right Honourable
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2646:
2599:
2539:
2520:
2474:
2452:
2426:
2352:
2308:
2120:
2849:
Mejcher, Helmut (1975). "Die Bagdadbahn als Instrument deutschen wirtschaftlichen Einflusses im Osmanischen Reich".
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3296:
2270:
Osmanlı Tarihi Araştırma ve Uygulama Merkezi Dergisi (Journal of the Center for Ottoman Studies, Ankara University)
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existed prior to the construction of the Bagdad railway and was used for the latter in its Yenice–Adana section.
405:
17:
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In 1930, a passenger service by road was introduced to bridge the missing section of line between Nusaybin and
1024:
Discussion of the railway's role as a contributing factor to the outbreak of war is complicated by two issues:
3391:
1290:
568:
was controlled by a few German banks. (McMurray rejects the theory that the railway tied Turkey to Germany.)
2318:
Corrigan, H.S.W. (April 1967). "German-Turkish Relations and the Outbreak of War in 1914: A Re-Assessment".
859:
was one of strong support. A long article outlining the positive benefits of the enterprise appeared in the
802:
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in 1882. If the railway had been completed, the Germans would have gained access to suspected oil fields in
2366:
1036:
as an autonomous kaza (district) of the Ottoman Empire and a de facto protectorate of Great Britain by the
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533:
3005:
2757:
Made in Germany: Deutschlands Wirtschaftsgeschichte von der Industralisierung bis heute Band 1: 1800–1945
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3067:
1893:
989:
979:
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3156:
2565:
The Train That Disappeared into History: The Berlin-to-Bagdad Railway and How It Led to the Great War
1350:
The right-of-way of the railway marks the border between Syria and Turkey for over 350 km, from
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476:
1125:
The first use of railways for genocide occurred in early 1915 when Armenian women and children from
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3209:
3194:
3136:
2362:
1921:
775:
770:
765:
748:
623:
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1625:
1208:, France, and Britain created various arrangements that gave a certain degree of control over the
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1177:
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261:
2443:
The War and the Bagdad Railway: The Story of Asia Minor and Its Relation to the Present Conflict
3060:
2208:"The Man in Seat 61: A beginner's guide toTrain travel in Turkey: Other international services"
394:
328:
123:
2594:. Vol. 2. Newcastle upon Tyne, England: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. pp. 453–464.
2266:"The Construction of the Baghdad Railway and its Impact on Anglo-Turkish Relations, 1902–1913"
1523:"The Construction of the Baghdad Railway and its Impact on Anglo-Turkish Relations, 1902–1913"
464:
3199:
1938:
Anderson, Frank Maloy; Hershey, Amos Shartle; Service, National Board for Historical (1918).
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1044:
982:
587:
537:
482:
After the line to Ankara was completed during December 1892, railway workshops were built in
343:
338:
The railway became a source of international disputes during the years immediately preceding
2842:
Die Bagdadbahn als Beispiel für die Entstehung des Finanzimperialismus in Europa (1872–1903)
602:
to the Persian Gulf would provide Germany with a connection to its southernmost colonies in
2947:
Imperialismus und Gleichgewicht. Deutschland, England und die orientalische Frage 1871–1914
2207:
1522:
1340:
1336:
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However, war began on 1 August 1914 – and one day later the secret treaty establishing the
942:. The British were worried that the Young Turks could block off oil supplies vital for the
889:
839:
490:; that line was completed in July 1896. These two lines were the first two sections of the
2986:
1761:
8:
3214:
2996:
2436:
1240:
938:
The British realised that the railways would be slightly too close to their oilfields in
553:
influence in Istanbul. A well-financed British plan collapsed due to the outbreak of the
448:
364:
3001:
2440:
2328:
2954:
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2826:
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978:. Russian support for the railway was only achieved in 1910, when in a meeting between
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327:
on the Persian Gulf. The latter would have provided access to the eastern parts of the
312:
2532:
Distant Ties: Germany, the Ottoman Empire, and the Construction of the Baghdad Railway
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before World War I commenced in 1914. Much of the construction work was undertaken by
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to haul the Taurus Express between Baghdad and Tel Kotchek. These were delivered to
2703:
2277:
1898:
1282:
1205:
1149:
Railway passes varied landscapes: bridge between the Turkish/Syrian border station
679:
642:
514:
463:, created a syndicate and obtained a concession from Turkish leaders to extend the
347:
280:
193:
673:
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inland at the cost of expensive engineering including an 8 km tunnel between
2338:
1548:"Following The Tracks To War – Britain, Germany & The Berlin-Baghdad Railway"
1410:
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1126:
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222:
214:
206:
2510:
The Berlin-Baghdad Express: The Ottoman Empire and Germany's Bid for World Power
1274:
made its first complete journey between Istanbul and Baghdad. In that year, the
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1917:
Publicity and Diplomacy with special reference to England and Germany 1890-1914
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Mit der Bagdadbahn durch unbekannte Türkei. Tagebuch einer preiswerten Reise
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World Rail Atlas and Historical Summary: Vol. 8 The Middle East and Caucasus
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1216:
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mines and some coal. Not least there were potentially vast amounts of oil.
316:
242:
2677:
Bagdadbahn und Hedjazbahn. Deutsche Eisenbahngeschichte im Vorderen Orient
2658:
Bagdadbahn und Hedjazbahn. Deutsche Eisenbahngeschichte im Vorderen Orient
2234:"After Decades of War, Iraq Adds Fleet of New Trains to Its Aging Railway"
1940:
Handbook for the Diplomatic History of Europe, Asia, and Africa, 1870-1914
522:
486:
and permission was obtained to construct a railway line from Eskişehir to
483:
1416:
1388:
1305:
1270:. On 15 July 1940 the railway had been completed, and two days later the
1267:
1244:
1170:
924:
885:
711:
594:
after 1903 as the implications of the German scheme to construct a great
339:
320:
139:
2675:
Bickel, Benno (2003). "Zeittafel Bagdadbahn". In Franzke, Jürgen (ed.).
2330:
Turkey, The Great Powers, and the Bagdad Railway: A Study in Imperialism
1110:. Additionally some rail was laid starting in Baghdad reaching north to
689:
2914:
Die Bagdadbahn. Geschichte und Gegenwart einer berühmten Eisenbahnlinie
2776:
Schotter für die Wüste. Die Bagdadbahn und ihre deutschen Bauingenieure
974:
also opposed the railway, being concerned about the territories in the
943:
939:
721:
631:
371:"It was felt in England that if, as Napoleon is said to have remarked,
332:
992:, the German Emperor assured the Tsar that no lines were planned into
953:
of Strathnaver. As well as being the foremost shipping magnate of the
2344:
A Century of War: Anglo-American Oil Politics and the New World Order
2238:
1869:
1366:
1309:
1225:
1008:
993:
861:
653:
The railway passed through the following towns and places, NW to SE:
494:. Another railway built at the same time by German engineers was the
440:
435:
As early as 1871 a commission of experts studied the geology of the
3093:
1355:
1254:
Railway passes varied landscapes: the plains north of Aleppo, Syria
1189:
1107:
1102:
By 1915, the railway ended some 80 kilometres (50 mi) east of
975:
726:
662:
619:
421:
417:
292:
265:
3073:
888:, but this would not happen for many years. However, in 1906, the
468:
271:
Funding, engineering and construction were mainly provided by the
176:
3088:
2878:
Von Stambul nach Bagdad. Die Geschichte einer berühmten Eisenbahn
2844:(in German) (2nd ed.). Bochum: Bochumer historische Studien.
2301:
Germany and the Ottoman Railways: Art, Empire, and Infrastructure
1878:
1832:
Germany and the Ottoman Railways: Art, Empire, and Infrastructure
1232:, which aroused disapprovals from France and the United Kingdom.
997:
736:
668:
627:
615:
372:
308:
245:, with a 1,600-kilometre (1,000 mi) line through modern-day
238:
2858:
Müller, Johannes (January 1989). "Syrien und die Hedschasbahn".
2156:"Today's Zaman: Train link between Turkey and Iraq to open soon"
1483:
Historische Wertpapiere - Sinnvoll sammeln - garantiert gewinnen
3387:
Imperial German collusion with war crimes by the Ottoman Empire
3166:
1874:
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1111:
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1017:
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901:
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611:
603:
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had resulted in the country's finances being controlled by the
359:. Construction resumed in the 1930s and was completed in 1940.
296:
246:
230:
105:
2698:
The Baghdad Railway (Proceedings of the Central Asian Society)
2032:
1098:
Germany's role in the Armenian Genocide § Baghdad railway
1682:
1362:
1301:
1279:
1130:
911:
In 1911 the railway company looked to build a branch line to
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487:
377:
324:
300:
250:
101:
76:
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to pick up on the valuable trade of Northern Syria and the
884:
The railway would eventually compete with British trade in
429:
425:
303:. The Ottoman Empire wished to maintain its control of the
254:
241:, from where the Germans wanted to establish a port on the
97:
39:
1848:
1396:
315:, which had been under British military control since the
2068:
1325:
Most of the line is in a usable condition and Robinson's
1278:
locomotive works in Britain built a class of streamlined
1115:
2080:
1619:"The Berlin-Baghdad Railway as a Cause of World War One"
1308:
line built in 1920 and for the first time connected the
1020:, Syria, where the line branched to Istanbul and Baghdad
335:, which was controlled by British and French interests.
881:
refused to rent any storage facilities to the Germans.
873:
faced opposition from the British and as a result, the
2515:. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.
2022:
2020:
2018:
1937:
1784:
1742:
1672:
1670:
2679:(in German). Nürnberg: W. Tummels. pp. 160–162.
2660:(in German). Nürnberg: W. Tummels. pp. 120–124.
1655:
1600:
1598:
355:
in the south was attacked by guerrilla forces led by
180:
Share of the Baghdad railway, issued 31 December 1903
2488:
The Berlin-Baghdad Railway As a Cause of World War I
2092:
1982:
1970:
1958:
1946:
1942:. U.S. Government Printing Office. pp. 410–411.
1499:
1378:
2492:. Alexandria, Virginia: Center for Naval Analyses.
2015:
1994:
1796:
1730:
1718:
1706:
1694:
1667:
1643:
1106:. Another spur, heading east from Aleppo, ended at
598:railway became apparent. A railway that would link
2616:. Columbia, Missouri: The University of Missouri.
2506:
1808:
1595:
1520:
2303:. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press.
1003:
3263:
3002:Newspaper clippings about Berlin–Baghdad railway
2592:The First World War: Analysis and Interpretation
2225:
1040:, blocking northern access to the Persian Gulf.
3044:
2641:(in German). Berlin: Mensch & Buch Verlag.
2567:. Soesterberg, Netherlands: Uitgeverij Aspekt.
2562:
2421:. Harrow, England: Continental Railway Circle.
2361:
2038:
1688:
1220:but talks continued to be held after 1923. The
776:Adana – Toprakkale – Fevzipaşa – Aleppo railway
2866:
2347:. Palm Desert, California: Progressive Press.
2062:The West Point Atlas of American Wars – Vol. 2
1854:
965:
850:
820:Fevzipaşa – Narlı – Yolçatı – Kurtalan railway
781:Aleppo – Karkamış – Şenyurt – Nusaybin railway
3030:
2973:The Diplomatic History of the Bagdad Railroad
2674:
2614:The Diplomatic History of the Bagdad Railroad
2180:
2074:
786:Nusaybin – Qamishli – Baiji – Baghdad railway
2908:
2839:
865:newspaper. But a plan for an extension from
260:The line was completed only in 1940. By the
44:CIOB in red (CFOA route to Istanbul in blue)
2298:
1829:
1762:"Chemin de Fer Impérial Ottoman de Baghdad"
1624:. Centre for Naval Research. Archived from
3037:
3023:
2959:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
2936:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
2900:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
2860:Dampf und Reise / Überseeische Eisenbahnen
2853:(in German). No. 1. pp. 447–481.
2831:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
2798:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
2589:
2554:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
2461:
2135:
2129:
815:Eskişehir – Afyonkarahisar – Konya railway
283:company, which in the 1890s had built the
2944:
2722:
2693:
2281:
1830:Christensen, Peter H. (24 October 2017).
1480:
528:
323:, as well as a connection to the port of
2997:David Fraser 1909 The Short Cut to India
2806:
2529:
2504:
2333:(reprint ed.). New York: Macmillan.
2317:
2110:
2059:
1790:
1748:
1649:
1578:"Berlin-Baghdad Railway - The Great War"
1516:
1514:
1505:
1332:Most of the stations are still original.
1249:
1184:as running along the railway track from
1144:
1007:
895:
830:Aleppo – Deir ez-Zor – Abu Kamal railway
570:
532:
311:into the nominally Ottoman (until 1914)
227:Chemin de Fer Impérial Ottoman de Bagdad
175:
3382:Ottoman Empire–United Kingdom relations
2848:
2735:
2635:
2483:
2435:
2337:
1676:
1661:
1616:
1604:
1228:began in 1923 when Turkey approved the
754:
513:was avoided. The line had to cross the
346:. Technical difficulties in the remote
307:and to expand its influence across the
14:
3264:
2857:
2655:
2414:
2263:
2098:
2086:
1239:. At different times the service used
957:, Lord Inchcape was a director of the
3018:
2773:
2629:
2465:Railways in the Middle East 1856–1948
2393:
2326:
2231:
2026:
2000:
1988:
1976:
1964:
1952:
1933:
1931:
1891:
1834:. Yale University Press. p. 22.
1825:
1823:
1802:
1736:
1724:
1712:
1700:
1545:
1511:
1361:On 16 February 2010 the link between
1085:
3272:Cross-border railway lines in Turkey
2967:
2875:
2754:
2608:
1924:p. 261 – via Archive.org.
1913:
1814:
1319:
1140:
412:, composed of and answerable to the
2869:Jahrbuch für Eisenbahngeschichte 21
2467:(Political and Economic Background)
2400:(2nd ed.). London: Routledge.
2183:"Iraq-Turkey railway link re-opens"
1300:railway opened between Baghdad and
1289:in 1941 and entered service as the
1161:cancelled all German rights to the
389:Had it been completed earlier, the
218:
24:
2397:The Origins of the First World War
2181:Jonathan Head (16 February 2010).
2064:. Frederick Praeger Press. map 53.
1928:
1820:
1772:from the original on 14 March 2007
962:of the Anglo-Persian Oil Company.
845:Baghdad – Basra high-speed railway
410:Ottoman Public Debt Administration
229:), was started in 1903 to connect
25:
3408:
3312:Standard gauge railways in Turkey
2980:
2702:. London: Central Asian Society.
2447:. Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott.
2372:The Coming of the First World War
1902:. No. 206. pp. 371–398.
951:James Lyle Mackay, Baron Inchcape
766:Konya – Ulukışla – Yenice railway
3377:Germany–United Kingdom relations
3322:Germany–Ottoman Empire relations
3307:Standard gauge railways in Syria
2563:Somerwil-Ayrton, Kathie (2007).
2322:. No. 36. pp. 144–152.
1423:
1409:
1395:
1381:
1312:with the Persian Gulf without a
1038:Anglo-Ottoman Convention of 1913
840:Haditha – Baiji – Kirkuk railway
475:. Thus, came into existence the
447:In 1872 German railway engineer
50:
38:
3347:Economic history of World War I
3302:Standard gauge railways in Iraq
2257:
2200:
2174:
2148:
2104:
2060:Esposito, Vincent, ed. (1959).
2053:
2044:
2006:
1907:
1885:
1860:
1754:
1276:Robert Stephenson and Hawthorns
890:Hamburg-American Steamship Line
798:Toprakkale – İskenderun railway
771:Adana – Yenice – Mersin railway
749:Adana – Yenice – Mersin railway
3397:History of transport in Berlin
2992:Robert Newman – History of Oil
2759:(in German). Books on demand.
2530:McMurray, Jonathan S. (2001).
2394:Henig, Ruth Beatrice (2002) .
2264:BİLGİN, Mustafa Sıtkı (2004).
2232:Barry, Keith (24 March 2014).
2138:"Al-Qaeda: A Force for "Good""
1610:
1570:
1539:
1474:
1451:
1169:transferred its holdings to a
1004:Role in origins of World War I
835:Deir ez-Zor – Qamishli railway
13:
1:
3327:Economy of the Ottoman Empire
2871:(in German). pp. 43–102.
2840:Manzenreiter, Johann (1982).
2469:. Beirut: Librarie du Liban.
2367:Strandmann, Hartmut Pogge von
2327:Earle, Edward Meade (1966) .
1467:
363:'on the ground' at the time,
268:to Baghdad departed in 1940.
57:
3332:Economy of the German Empire
2462:Khairallah, Shereen (1991).
2136:Kani Xulam (9 August 2013).
921:Northern Mesopotamian valley
7:
3046:Railway companies in Turkey
3006:20th Century Press Archives
2912:; Lodemann, Jürgen (1988).
2851:Geschichte und Gesellschaft
2484:Maloney, Arthur P. (1984).
2299:Christensen, Peter (2017).
2039:Evans & Strandmann 1990
1867:"Letter from Lord Newton".
1689:Evans & Strandmann 1990
1374:
1153:and the junction Mouslemiye
1129:were deported on trains to
966:Russian view of the railway
851:British view of the railway
406:Russo-Turkish War (1877–78)
384:
10:
3413:
2945:Schöllgen, Gregor (1984).
2727:Le chemin de fer de Bagdad
1855:Preissig & Klebes 1989
1329:(2006) shows it as intact.
1095:
1089:
3342:Economic history of Syria
3252:
3175:
3114:
3107:
3052:
2807:Lodemann, Jürgen (1990).
2723:Chéradame, André (1903).
2694:Chéradame, André (1911).
2534:. Westport, Connecticut.
1914:Hale, Oron James (1940).
1459:Turkish Petroleum Company
959:Anglo-Persian Oil Company
618:and the mainland part of
477:Anatolian Railway Company
138:
133:
119:
111:
92:
82:
72:
67:
49:
37:
3337:Economic history of Iraq
2636:Besirli, Mehmet (1999).
2457:– via Archive.org.
1521:Mustafa Sıtkı Bi̇lgi̇n.
1481:Nimmergut, Jörg (1991).
1444:
1347:for heavy ore transport.
1180:in 1921 established the
855:The initial reaction of
825:Narlı – Karkamış railway
803:Şenyurt – Mardin railway
648:
624:German South-West Africa
3362:20th century in Baghdad
3297:Railway lines in Turkey
2811:(in German). Eggingen.
2778:(in German). Nürnberg.
2740:(in German). Zofingen.
2736:Civelli, Jgnaz (2010).
2505:McMeekin, Sean (2010).
2377:Oxford University Press
2283:10.1501/OTAM_0000000524
2111:Robinson, Neil (2006).
1922:D. Appleton-Century Co.
1439:Iraqi Republic Railways
1354:station in the West to
1074:Ottoman-German Alliance
576:Baghdad Central Station
566:Baghdad Railway Company
459:, Managing Director of
262:outbreak of World War I
3352:20th century in Berlin
3292:Railway lines in Syria
3282:Rail transport in Iraq
2880:(in German). München.
2876:Pohl, Manfred (1999).
2731:. Paris: Plon-Nourrit.
1892:Anon. (October 1907).
1582:www.globalsecurity.org
1255:
1154:
1070:
1059:
1053:
1021:
908:
579:
549:
529:The Baghdad Concession
382:
329:German colonial empire
226:
210:
197:
190:Berlin–Baghdad railway
181:
3367:20th century in Basra
3317:Causes of World War I
3287:Railway lines in Iraq
2949:(in German). München.
2774:Heigl, Peter (2004).
2755:Groß, Lothar (2012).
2415:Hughes, Hugh (1981).
1894:"The Baghdad Railway"
1253:
1148:
1092:Mesopotamian Campaign
1060:
1054:
1049:
1045:causes of World War I
1011:
899:
582:There was concern in
574:
536:
369:
289:Anatolische Eisenbahn
179:
3392:Transport in Baghdad
2916:(in German). Mainz.
2418:Middle East Railways
2115:. World Rail Atlas.
1899:The Edinburgh Review
1287:Iraqi State Railways
1159:Treaty of Versailles
1079:Treaty of Versailles
755:Modern line sections
344:cause of World War I
188:, also known as the
2437:Jastrow, Morris Jr.
2339:Engdahl, F. William
1920:. London, England:
1343:in Turkey has been
1224:involvement in the
1182:Syria–Turkey border
449:Wilhelm von Pressel
104:, and southeastern
34:
3254:Industrial railway
2630:In other languages
2089:, pp. 90, 98.
1881:. 4 December 1899.
1256:
1230:Chester concession
1155:
1086:During World War I
1022:
1014:Mouslimie Junction
909:
608:German East Africa
580:
550:
498:, commissioned by
331:, and avoided the
313:Khedivate of Egypt
182:
112:Dates of operation
32:
3259:
3258:
3248:
3247:
2766:978-3-8482-1042-8
2747:978-3-640-59495-5
2708:2027/uc1.b3487914
2574:978-90-5911-573-6
2386:978-0-19-822841-7
2075:Bickel: Zeittafel
2050:FO 373/5/2, p.33.
1841:978-0-300-22847-2
1617:Maloney (2008) .
1335:The part between
1320:Current situation
1283:steam locomotives
1141:After World War I
1135:Armenian genocide
900:Railway station,
678:The foothills of
560:Other nations of
479:(SCFOA, or ARC).
457:Georg von Siemens
305:Arabian Peninsula
285:Anatolian Railway
174:
173:
16:(Redirected from
3404:
3372:History of Adana
3277:Ottoman railways
3112:
3111:
3039:
3032:
3025:
3016:
3015:
2976:
2964:
2958:
2950:
2941:
2935:
2927:
2905:
2899:
2891:
2872:
2863:
2854:
2845:
2836:
2830:
2822:
2803:
2797:
2789:
2770:
2751:
2732:
2719:
2690:
2671:
2652:
2625:
2605:
2586:
2559:
2553:
2545:
2526:
2514:
2501:
2480:
2458:
2432:
2411:
2390:
2358:
2334:
2323:
2320:Past and Present
2314:
2295:
2285:
2251:
2250:
2248:
2246:
2229:
2223:
2222:
2220:
2218:
2204:
2198:
2197:
2195:
2193:
2178:
2172:
2171:
2169:
2167:
2162:on 25 March 2014
2158:. Archived from
2152:
2146:
2145:
2133:
2127:
2126:
2108:
2102:
2096:
2090:
2084:
2078:
2072:
2066:
2065:
2057:
2051:
2048:
2042:
2036:
2030:
2024:
2013:
2010:
2004:
1998:
1992:
1986:
1980:
1974:
1968:
1962:
1956:
1950:
1944:
1943:
1935:
1926:
1925:
1911:
1905:
1903:
1889:
1883:
1882:
1864:
1858:
1852:
1846:
1845:
1827:
1818:
1812:
1806:
1800:
1794:
1788:
1782:
1781:
1779:
1777:
1766:Trains of Turkey
1758:
1752:
1746:
1740:
1734:
1728:
1722:
1716:
1710:
1704:
1698:
1692:
1686:
1680:
1674:
1665:
1659:
1653:
1647:
1641:
1640:
1638:
1636:
1631:on 25 March 2014
1630:
1623:
1614:
1608:
1602:
1593:
1592:
1590:
1588:
1574:
1568:
1567:
1565:
1563:
1558:on 18 March 2017
1554:. Archived from
1543:
1537:
1536:
1534:
1532:
1527:
1518:
1509:
1503:
1497:
1496:
1478:
1461:
1455:
1433:
1428:
1427:
1426:
1419:
1414:
1413:
1405:
1400:
1399:
1391:
1386:
1385:
1384:
1327:World Rail Atlas
1178:Treaty of Ankara
1012:Railway station
933:House of Commons
643:Philipp Holzmann
515:Amanus Mountains
348:Taurus Mountains
281:Philipp Holzmann
220:
205:
198:Bağdat Demiryolu
170:
164:
162:
161:
157:
154:
146:
62:
59:
56:Baghdad railway
54:
42:
35:
31:
21:
3412:
3411:
3407:
3406:
3405:
3403:
3402:
3401:
3357:Baghdad vilayet
3262:
3261:
3260:
3255:
3244:
3171:
3103:
3048:
3043:
2987:Baghdad railway
2983:
2952:
2951:
2929:
2928:
2924:
2893:
2892:
2888:
2824:
2823:
2819:
2791:
2790:
2786:
2767:
2748:
2687:
2668:
2649:
2632:
2602:
2575:
2547:
2546:
2542:
2523:
2477:
2455:
2429:
2408:
2387:
2369:, eds. (1990).
2355:
2311:
2260:
2255:
2254:
2244:
2242:
2230:
2226:
2216:
2214:
2206:
2205:
2201:
2191:
2189:
2179:
2175:
2165:
2163:
2154:
2153:
2149:
2134:
2130:
2123:
2109:
2105:
2097:
2093:
2085:
2081:
2073:
2069:
2058:
2054:
2049:
2045:
2037:
2033:
2025:
2016:
2011:
2007:
1999:
1995:
1987:
1983:
1975:
1971:
1963:
1959:
1951:
1947:
1936:
1929:
1912:
1908:
1890:
1886:
1866:
1865:
1861:
1853:
1849:
1842:
1828:
1821:
1813:
1809:
1801:
1797:
1789:
1785:
1775:
1773:
1760:
1759:
1755:
1747:
1743:
1735:
1731:
1723:
1719:
1711:
1707:
1699:
1695:
1687:
1683:
1675:
1668:
1660:
1656:
1648:
1644:
1634:
1632:
1628:
1621:
1615:
1611:
1603:
1596:
1586:
1584:
1576:
1575:
1571:
1561:
1559:
1544:
1540:
1530:
1528:
1525:
1519:
1512:
1504:
1500:
1493:
1479:
1475:
1470:
1465:
1464:
1456:
1452:
1447:
1429:
1424:
1422:
1415:
1408:
1401:
1394:
1387:
1382:
1380:
1377:
1322:
1260:Kingdom of Iraq
1210:Baghdad railway
1188:in the west to
1165:, however, the
1163:Baghdad railway
1143:
1100:
1094:
1088:
1006:
968:
929:Sir Edward Grey
853:
809:Connected lines
757:
651:
639:Baghdad railway
538:Central Station
531:
500:Sultan Hamid II
492:Baghdad railway
395:German colonies
387:
201:
186:Baghdad railway
166:
159:
155:
152:
150:
149:4 ft
148:
144:
115:1903–1934
63:
60:
45:
33:Baghdad railway
28:
23:
22:
18:Baghdad Railway
15:
12:
11:
5:
3410:
3400:
3399:
3394:
3389:
3384:
3379:
3374:
3369:
3364:
3359:
3354:
3349:
3344:
3339:
3334:
3329:
3324:
3319:
3314:
3309:
3304:
3299:
3294:
3289:
3284:
3279:
3274:
3257:
3256:
3253:
3250:
3249:
3246:
3245:
3243:
3242:
3237:
3232:
3227:
3222:
3217:
3212:
3207:
3202:
3197:
3192:
3187:
3181:
3179:
3173:
3172:
3170:
3169:
3164:
3159:
3154:
3149:
3144:
3139:
3134:
3124:
3118:
3116:
3109:
3105:
3104:
3102:
3101:
3096:
3091:
3086:
3081:
3076:
3071:
3064:
3056:
3054:
3050:
3049:
3042:
3041:
3034:
3027:
3019:
3013:
3012:
2999:
2994:
2989:
2982:
2981:External links
2979:
2978:
2977:
2965:
2942:
2922:
2906:
2886:
2873:
2864:
2855:
2846:
2837:
2817:
2804:
2784:
2771:
2765:
2752:
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2733:
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2691:
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2672:
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2628:
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2606:
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2560:
2540:
2527:
2521:
2502:
2481:
2475:
2459:
2453:
2433:
2427:
2412:
2407:978-0415261852
2406:
2391:
2385:
2359:
2353:
2335:
2324:
2315:
2309:
2296:
2259:
2256:
2253:
2252:
2224:
2199:
2173:
2147:
2128:
2121:
2103:
2091:
2079:
2067:
2052:
2043:
2041:, p. 166.
2031:
2014:
2005:
1993:
1991:, p. 261.
1981:
1979:, p. 259.
1969:
1967:, p. 111.
1957:
1955:, p. 109.
1945:
1927:
1906:
1884:
1859:
1847:
1840:
1819:
1807:
1795:
1783:
1753:
1741:
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1693:
1681:
1666:
1654:
1642:
1609:
1594:
1569:
1538:
1510:
1498:
1491:
1485:. p. 55.
1472:
1471:
1469:
1466:
1463:
1462:
1449:
1448:
1446:
1443:
1442:
1441:
1435:
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1392:
1376:
1373:
1372:
1371:
1359:
1348:
1333:
1330:
1321:
1318:
1314:break of gauge
1298:standard gauge
1272:Taurus Express
1142:
1139:
1090:Main article:
1087:
1084:
1005:
1002:
987:German Emperor
967:
964:
955:British Empire
923:. However the
852:
849:
848:
847:
842:
837:
832:
827:
822:
817:
811:
810:
806:
805:
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739:
734:
729:
724:
719:
714:
709:
703:
698:
693:
687:
685:Cilician Gates
682:
676:
671:
666:
660:
650:
647:
596:Berlin-Baghdad
530:
527:
391:Berlin-Baghdad
386:
383:
365:Morris Jastrow
357:T. E. Lawrence
233:with the then
219:سكة حديد بغداد
172:
171:
168:standard gauge
142:
136:
135:
131:
130:
121:
117:
116:
113:
109:
108:
94:
90:
89:
86:
84:Reporting mark
80:
79:
74:
70:
69:
65:
64:
61: 1900–10
55:
47:
46:
43:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3409:
3398:
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3390:
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3310:
3308:
3305:
3303:
3300:
3298:
3295:
3293:
3290:
3288:
3285:
3283:
3280:
3278:
3275:
3273:
3270:
3269:
3267:
3251:
3241:
3238:
3236:
3233:
3231:
3228:
3226:
3223:
3221:
3218:
3216:
3213:
3211:
3208:
3206:
3203:
3201:
3198:
3196:
3193:
3191:
3188:
3186:
3183:
3182:
3180:
3178:
3174:
3168:
3165:
3163:
3160:
3158:
3155:
3153:
3150:
3148:
3145:
3143:
3140:
3138:
3135:
3132:
3128:
3125:
3123:
3120:
3119:
3117:
3113:
3110:
3106:
3100:
3097:
3095:
3092:
3090:
3087:
3085:
3082:
3080:
3077:
3075:
3072:
3070:
3069:
3065:
3063:
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3058:
3057:
3055:
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3033:
3028:
3026:
3021:
3020:
3017:
3011:
3007:
3003:
3000:
2998:
2995:
2993:
2990:
2988:
2985:
2984:
2974:
2970:
2969:Wolf, John B.
2966:
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2923:3-7758-1189-3
2919:
2915:
2911:
2910:Pohl, Manfred
2907:
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2887:3-492-04113-2
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2667:3-921590-05-1
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2648:9783933346513
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2615:
2611:
2610:Wolf, John B.
2607:
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2601:9781443885317
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2541:0-275-97063-9
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2522:9780674057395
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2476:1-85341-121-3
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2454:1-4021-6786-5
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2428:0-9503469-7-7
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2363:Evans, R.J.W.
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2354:0-7453-2310-3
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2122:954-12-0128-8
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2101:, p. 90.
2100:
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2071:
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2047:
2040:
2035:
2029:, p. 39.
2028:
2023:
2021:
2019:
2009:
2003:, p. 34.
2002:
1997:
1990:
1985:
1978:
1973:
1966:
1961:
1954:
1949:
1941:
1934:
1932:
1923:
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1918:
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1824:
1817:, p. 50.
1816:
1811:
1805:, p. 58.
1804:
1799:
1793:, p. 30.
1792:
1791:McMurray 2001
1787:
1771:
1767:
1763:
1757:
1751:, p. 29.
1750:
1749:McMurray 2001
1745:
1739:, p. 31.
1738:
1733:
1727:, p. 19.
1726:
1721:
1715:, p. 14.
1714:
1709:
1703:, p. 10.
1702:
1697:
1691:, p. 83.
1690:
1685:
1678:
1673:
1671:
1664:, p. 97.
1663:
1658:
1651:
1650:McMeekin 2010
1646:
1627:
1620:
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1601:
1599:
1583:
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1507:
1506:McMurray 2001
1502:
1494:
1488:
1484:
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1454:
1450:
1440:
1437:
1436:
1432:
1431:Turkey portal
1421:
1418:
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1403:Trains portal
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1261:
1258:In 1932, the
1252:
1248:
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1238:
1233:
1231:
1227:
1223:
1222:United States
1218:
1213:
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1198:
1196:
1191:
1187:
1183:
1179:
1174:
1172:
1168:
1167:Deutsche Bank
1164:
1160:
1157:In 1919, the
1152:
1147:
1138:
1136:
1132:
1128:
1123:
1119:
1117:
1114:and south to
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1109:
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931:spoke in the
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629:
626:(present-day
625:
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610:(present-day
609:
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547:
543:
539:
535:
526:
524:
520:
519:Ayran station
516:
512:
508:
503:
501:
497:
496:Hejaz railway
493:
489:
485:
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461:Deutsche Bank
458:
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353:Hejaz railway
349:
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318:
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306:
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298:
294:
291:) connecting
290:
286:
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277:Deutsche Bank
274:
273:German Empire
269:
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145:1,435 mm
143:
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53:
48:
41:
36:
30:
19:
3234:
3115:1923-present
3066:
3059:
2972:
2946:
2913:
2877:
2868:
2862:(in German).
2859:
2850:
2841:
2808:
2775:
2756:
2737:
2728:
2725:
2699:
2696:
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2657:
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2511:
2508:
2489:
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2463:
2444:
2441:
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2416:
2398:
2395:
2375:. New York:
2373:
2370:
2345:
2342:
2329:
2319:
2300:
2273:
2269:
2258:Bibliography
2245:27 September
2243:. Retrieved
2237:
2227:
2215:. Retrieved
2211:
2202:
2190:. Retrieved
2186:
2176:
2164:. Retrieved
2160:the original
2150:
2141:
2131:
2112:
2106:
2094:
2082:
2070:
2061:
2055:
2046:
2034:
2008:
1996:
1984:
1972:
1960:
1948:
1939:
1916:
1909:
1904:(see p. 371)
1897:
1887:
1868:
1862:
1850:
1831:
1810:
1798:
1786:
1774:. Retrieved
1765:
1756:
1744:
1732:
1720:
1708:
1696:
1684:
1677:Engdahl 2004
1662:Jastrow 1917
1657:
1645:
1633:. Retrieved
1626:the original
1612:
1605:Jastrow 1917
1585:. Retrieved
1581:
1572:
1560:. Retrieved
1556:the original
1551:
1541:
1529:. Retrieved
1508:, p. 2.
1501:
1482:
1476:
1453:
1365:in Iraq and
1326:
1295:
1257:
1234:
1217:British Army
1214:
1209:
1199:
1195:Meidan Ekbis
1175:
1166:
1162:
1156:
1151:Meydan Ekbez
1124:
1120:
1101:
1071:
1061:
1055:
1050:
1042:
1030:
1026:
1023:
969:
948:
937:
913:Alexandretta
910:
883:
871:Persian Gulf
869:towards the
860:
854:
792:Branch lines
746:
652:
638:
636:
606:, i.e. with
595:
581:
565:
559:
551:
507:Alexandretta
504:
491:
481:
454:
446:
434:
414:Great Powers
403:
399:
390:
388:
370:
361:
337:
317:Urabi Revolt
288:
270:
259:
243:Persian Gulf
189:
185:
183:
73:Headquarters
29:
27:Railway line
3190:SCR&SCP
2276:: 109–130.
2166:16 February
2099:Hughes 1981
2087:Hughes 1981
1587:25 November
1546:Jeff Reed.
1417:Asia portal
1389:Iraq portal
1345:electrified
1306:metre gauge
1264:Tel Kotchek
1245:Thornycroft
1241:Rolls-Royce
983:Nicholas II
886:Mesopotamia
665:table lands
471:railway to
340:World War I
321:Mesopotamia
140:Track gauge
100:, northern
96:Modern-day
3266:Categories
2639:Bagdadbahn
2212:seat61.com
2192:6 December
2027:Henig 2002
2001:Henig 2002
1989:Earle 1966
1977:Earle 1966
1965:Earle 1966
1953:Earle 1966
1803:Earle 1966
1737:Earle 1966
1725:Earle 1966
1713:Earle 1966
1701:Earle 1966
1562:6 December
1531:6 December
1492:3894410426
1468:References
1370:delivered.
1337:Toprakkale
1200:People in
1104:Diyarbakır
1096:See also:
990:Wilhelm II
925:Young Turk
760:Main lines
722:Tell Abyad
632:Walvis Bay
465:Haydarpaşa
333:Suez Canal
211:Bagdadbahn
3162:Sümerbank
3053:Operating
2955:cite book
2932:cite book
2896:cite book
2827:cite book
2794:cite book
2583:227331940
2550:cite book
2292:1019-469X
2239:Wired.com
2217:4 October
1870:The Times
1815:Groß 2012
1635:17 August
1367:Gaziantep
1310:Bosphorus
1243:cars and
1226:Near East
1016:north of
663:Anatolian
523:Fevzipaşa
484:Eskişehir
441:Euphrates
203:‹See Tfd›
134:Technical
120:Successor
3177:pre-1922
2971:(1973).
2716:52087046
2612:(1936).
2498:10818256
2439:(1917).
2341:(2004).
2187:BBC News
1776:24 March
1770:Archived
1375:See also
1356:Nusaybin
1291:PC class
1190:Nusaybin
1108:Nusaybin
998:Armenian
985:and the
976:Caucasus
972:Russians
727:Nusaybin
690:Çukurova
620:Tanzania
555:Boer War
444:supply.
422:antimony
418:chromium
385:Overview
293:Istanbul
279:and the
275:through
266:Istanbul
237:city of
163: in
68:Overview
3108:Defunct
3008:of the
3004:in the
2622:2495942
1879:England
1280:Pacific
1247:buses.
1000:areas.
994:Kurdish
857:Britain
737:Baghdad
669:Karaman
630:, less
628:Namibia
616:Burundi
592:Britain
373:Antwerp
367:wrote:
309:Red Sea
239:Baghdad
235:Ottoman
194:Turkish
158:⁄
2920:
2884:
2815:
2782:
2763:
2744:
2714:
2683:
2664:
2645:
2620:
2598:
2581:
2571:
2538:
2519:
2496:
2473:
2451:
2425:
2404:
2383:
2351:
2307:
2290:
2119:
1875:London
1838:
1552:Oilpro
1489:
1352:Al-Rai
1296:A new
1237:Kirkuk
1202:Turkey
1186:Al-Rai
1173:bank.
1127:Zeitun
1112:Tikrit
1034:Kuwait
1018:Aleppo
940:Persia
917:Aleppo
902:Aleppo
879:Kuwait
875:Sheikh
717:Aleppo
706:Amanus
696:Yenice
680:Taurus
674:Ereğli
622:) and
612:Rwanda
604:Africa
600:Berlin
590:, and
588:France
584:Russia
578:, 2012
562:Europe
548:, 1913
546:Turkey
511:Aleppo
473:Ankara
437:Tigris
297:Ankara
253:, and
247:Turkey
231:Berlin
223:French
215:Arabic
207:German
106:Turkey
93:Locale
3094:KRDMA
3089:EREGL
3079:Omsan
3074:İZBAN
3068:TCDDT
2142:Rudaw
1629:(PDF)
1622:(PDF)
1526:(PDF)
1457:See:
1445:Notes
1363:Mosul
1341:Narlı
1302:Basra
1268:Baiji
1206:Italy
1171:Swiss
1131:Konya
1057:1914.
915:from
906:Syria
867:Basra
862:Times
742:Basra
732:Mosul
708:range
701:Adana
692:plain
658:Konya
649:Route
542:Adana
488:Konya
469:İzmit
378:India
325:Basra
301:Konya
251:Syria
102:Syria
77:Adana
3235:CIOB
3220:CFMB
3215:Buca
3205:CFOA
3200:ZZhD
3152:BANP
3147:DDYL
3122:CFAB
3084:KUAŞ
3061:TCDD
2961:link
2938:link
2918:ISBN
2902:link
2882:ISBN
2833:link
2813:ISBN
2800:link
2780:ISBN
2761:ISBN
2742:ISBN
2712:OCLC
2681:ISBN
2662:ISBN
2643:ISBN
2618:OCLC
2596:ISBN
2579:OCLC
2569:ISBN
2556:link
2536:ISBN
2517:ISBN
2494:OCLC
2471:ISBN
2449:ISBN
2423:ISBN
2402:ISBN
2381:ISBN
2349:ISBN
2305:ISBN
2288:ISSN
2247:2015
2219:2017
2194:2016
2168:2010
2117:ISBN
1836:ISBN
1778:2007
1637:2014
1589:2021
1564:2016
1533:2016
1487:ISBN
1339:and
1215:The
1176:The
1077:the
980:Tsar
970:The
944:navy
747:The
712:Rajo
614:and
521:and
439:and
430:zinc
428:and
426:lead
299:and
255:Iraq
184:The
124:TCDD
98:Iraq
88:CIOB
3240:CNS
3225:JSC
3210:MTA
3185:ORC
3167:ADA
3142:DYY
3137:ŞDİ
3131:TAŞ
3127:SSD
3099:TTK
3010:ZBW
2704:hdl
2278:doi
2012:ref
1266:to
1116:Kut
1065:HMG
996:or
877:of
540:in
509:to
257:.
128:CNS
3268::
3230:HR
3195:CO
3157:CD
2957:}}
2953:{{
2934:}}
2930:{{
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2272:.
2268:.
2236:.
2210:.
2185:.
2140:.
2017:^
1930:^
1896:.
1877:,
1873:.
1822:^
1768:.
1764:.
1669:^
1597:^
1580:.
1550:.
1513:^
1293:.
1204:,
1197:.
1137:.
946:.
904:,
645:.
586:,
544:,
525:.
502:.
467:–
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420:,
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295:,
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225::
221:,
217::
213:,
209::
200:,
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3133:)
3129:(
3038:e
3031:t
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2975:.
2963:)
2940:)
2926:.
2904:)
2890:.
2835:)
2821:.
2802:)
2788:.
2769:.
2750:.
2718:.
2706::
2689:.
2670:.
2651:.
2624:.
2604:.
2585:.
2558:)
2544:.
2525:.
2500:.
2479:.
2431:.
2410:.
2389:.
2357:.
2313:.
2294:.
2280::
2249:.
2221:.
2196:.
2170:.
2144:.
2125:.
2077:.
1857:.
1844:.
1780:.
1679:.
1652:.
1639:.
1607:.
1591:.
1566:.
1535:.
1495:.
287:(
192:(
160:2
156:1
153:+
151:8
147:(
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
