2615:
Magnússon, Eyjólfur; Hreinsdóttir, Sigrún; Bagnardi, Marco; Parks, Michelle M.; Hjörleifsdóttir, Vala; Pálsson, Finnur; Walter, Thomas R.; Schöpfer, Martin P. J.; Heimann, Sebastian; Reynolds, Hannah I.; Dumont, Stéphanie; Bali, Eniko; Gudfinnsson, Gudmundur H.; Dahm, Torsten; Roberts, Matthew J.; Hensch, Martin; Belart, Joaquín M. C.; Spaans, Karsten; Jakobsson, Sigurdur; Gudmundsson, Gunnar B.; Fridriksdóttir, Hildur M.; Drouin, Vincent; Dürig, Tobias; Aðalgeirsdóttir, Guðfinna; Riishuus, Morten S.; Pedersen, Gro B. M.; van
Boeckel, Tayo; Oddsson, Björn; Pfeffer, Melissa A.; Barsotti, Sara; Bergsson, Baldur; Donovan, Amy; Burton, Mike R.; Aiuppa, Alessandro (15 July 2016).
759:
been formed by meteorites, nearly all of which took place in the first few hundred million years after the Moon formed. Around 500 million years afterward, the Moon's mantle was able to be extensively melted due to the decay of radioactive elements. Massive basaltic eruptions took place generally at the base of large impact craters. Also, eruptions may have taken place due to a magma reservoir at the base of the crust. This forms a dome, possibly the same morphology of a shield volcano where calderas universally are known to form. Although caldera-like structures are rare on the Moon, they are not completely absent. The
2019:
215:
2003:
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656:
254:
548:
1991:
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119:. An eruption that ejects large volumes of magma over a short period of time can cause significant detriment to the structural integrity of such a chamber, greatly diminishing its capacity to support its own roof, and any substrate or rock resting above. The ground surface then collapses into the emptied or partially emptied magma chamber, leaving a large depression at the surface (from one to dozens of kilometers in diameter). Although sometimes described as a
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297:. Secondary volcanic vents may form above the ring fracture. As the magma chamber empties, the center of the volcano within the ring fracture begins to collapse. The collapse may occur as the result of a single cataclysmic eruption, or it may occur in stages as the result of a series of eruptions. The total area that collapses may be hundreds of square kilometers.
40:
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1972:
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has an outer shell of low-density crystalline rock that is a few hundred kilometers thick, which formed due to a rapid creation. The craters of the Moon have been well preserved through time and were once thought to have been the result of extreme volcanic activity, but are currently believed to have
131:
and collapse rather than an explosion or impact. Compared to the thousands of volcanic eruptions that occur over the course of a century, the formation of a caldera is a rare event, occurring only a few times within a given window of 100 years. Only eight caldera-forming collapses are known to have
3297:
Best, Myron G.; Christiansen, Eric H.; Deino, Alan L.; Grommé, C. Sherman; Tingey, David G. (10 December 1995). "Correlation and emplacement of a large, zoned, discontinuously exposed ash flow sheet: The 40 Ar/ 39 Ar chronology, paleomagnetism, and petrology of the
Pahranagat Formation, Nevada".
2614:
Gudmundsson, Magnús T.; Jónsdóttir, Kristín; Hooper, Andrew; Holohan, Eoghan P.; Halldórsson, Sæmundur A.; Ófeigsson, Benedikt G.; Cesca, Simone; Vogfjörd, Kristín S.; Sigmundsson, Freysteinn; Högnadóttir, Thórdís; Einarsson, Páll; Sigmarsson, Olgeir; Jarosch, Alexander H.; Jónasson, Kristján;
561:
For their 1968 paper that first introduced the concept of a resurgent caldera to geology, R.L. Smith and R.A. Bailey chose the Valles caldera as their model. Although the Valles caldera is not unusually large, it is relatively young (1.25 million years old) and unusually well preserved, and it
3727:
Petraglia, M.; Korisettar, R.; Boivin, N.; Clarkson, C.; Ditchfield, P.; Jones, S.; Koshy, J.; Lahr, M. M.; Oppenheimer, C.; Pyle, D.; Roberts, R.; Schwenninger, J.-L.; Arnold, L.; White, K. (6 July 2007). "Middle
Paleolithic Assemblages from the Indian Subcontinent Before and After the Toba
612:
proposed that the human species was reduced to approximately 5,000–10,000 people. There is no direct evidence, however, that either theory is correct, and there is no evidence for any other animal decline or extinction, even in environmentally sensitive species. There is evidence that human
734:
volcanism). Caldera structure is similar on all of these planetary bodies, though the size varies considerably. The average caldera diameter on Venus is 68 km (42 mi). The average caldera diameter on Io is close to 40 km (25 mi), and the mode is 6 km (3.7 mi);
739:
is likely the largest caldera with a diameter of 290 km (180 mi). The average caldera diameter on Mars is 48 km (30 mi), smaller than Venus. Calderas on Earth are the smallest of all planetary bodies and vary from 1.6–80 km (1–50 mi) as a maximum.
689:
than the magma of a rhyolitic volcano, and the magma chamber is drained by large lava flows rather than by explosive events. The resulting calderas are also known as subsidence calderas and can form more gradually than explosive calderas. For instance, the caldera atop
835:
that range in size from 150–400 km (95–250 mi) in diameter and 2–4 km (1.2–2.5 mi) high. More than 80 of these large shield volcanoes have summit calderas averaging 60 km (37 mi) across.
480:
Because a silicic caldera may erupt hundreds or even thousands of cubic kilometers of material in a single event, it can cause catastrophic environmental effects. Even small caldera-forming eruptions, such as
3333:
Cook, Geoffrey W.; Wolff, John A.; Self, Stephen (February 2016). "Estimating the eruptive volume of a large pyroclastic body: the Otowi Member of the
Bandelier Tuff, Valles caldera, New Mexico".
332:, ore veins were emplaced in fractures associated with several calderas, with the greatest mineralization taking place near the youngest and most silicic intrusions associated with each caldera.
309:. Metal-rich fluids can circulate through the caldera, forming hydrothermal ore deposits of metals such as lead, silver, gold, mercury, lithium, and uranium. One of the world's best-preserved
2896:
4000:
Clemens, J.D.; Birch, W.D. (December 2012). "Assembly of a zoned volcanic magma chamber from multiple magma batches: The
Cerberean Cauldron, Marysville Igneous Complex, Australia".
4165:
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662:
Caldera, located in central Chile near the border with
Argentina, filled with ice. The volcano is in the southern Andes Mountains within Chile's Parque Nacional Villarica.
2729:
Druitt, T. H.; Costa, F.; Deloule, E.; Dungan, M.; Scaillet, B. (2012). "Decadal to monthly timescales of magma transfer and reservoir growth at a caldera volcano".
3089:
Steven, Thomas A.; Luedke, Robert G.; Lipman, Peter W. (1974). "Relation of mineralization to calderas in the San Juan volcanic field, southwestern
Colorado".
805:, which is more than three times the height of Mount Everest, with a diameter of 520 km (323 miles). The summit of the mountain has six nested calderas.
410:
last erupted some 650,000 years ago, it released about 1,000 km of material (as measured in dense rock equivalent (DRE)), covering a substantial part of
3920:
Chauhan, M.; Bhattacharya, S.; Saran, S.; Chauhan, P.; Dagar, A. (June 2015). "Compton–Belkovich
Volcanic Complex (CBVC): An ash flow caldera on the Moon".
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around the world. Large calderas may have even greater effects. The ecological effects of the eruption of a large caldera can be seen in the record of the
1892:
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3378:"Experimental and petrological constraints on long-term magma dynamics and post-climactic eruptions at the Cerro Galán caldera system, NW Argentina"
4176:
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period (the last 2.6 million years) and the largest known explosive eruption during the last 25 million years. In the late 1990s,
4072:
Gudmundsson, Agust (2008). "Magma-Chamber
Geometry, Fluid Transport, Local Stresses and Rock Behaviour During Collapse Caldera Formation".
3887:
Gudmundsson, Agust (2008). "Magma-Chamber
Geometry, Fluid Transport, Local Stresses and Rock Behaviour During Collapse Caldera Formation".
801:. The surfaces are dominated by lava flows, and all have one or more collapse calderas. Mars has the tallest volcano in the Solar System,
797:. Each province contains a series of giant shield volcanoes that are similar to what we see on Earth and likely are the result of mantle
4177:
Largest Explosive Eruptions: New results for the 27.8 Ma Fish Canyon Tuff and the La Garita caldera, San Juan volcanic field, Colorado
3159:"Steam Explosions, Earthquakes, and Volcanic Eruptions—What's in Yellowstone's Future? – U.S. Geological Survey Fact Sheet 2005–3024"
886:
spacecraft detected nine erupting volcanoes while passing Io in 1979. Io has many calderas with diameters tens of kilometers across.
3419:"Magma and fluid migration at Yellowstone Caldera in the last three decades inferred from InSAR, leveling, and gravity measurements"
5160:
1051:
3044:
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If magma continues to be injected into the collapsed magma chamber, the center of the caldera may be uplifted in the form of a
4160:
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enough air to remain buoyant, and the eruption column collapses into a tephra fountain that falls back to the surface to form
4089:
3904:
3863:
3684:
Gathorne-Hardy, F.J; Harcourt-Smith, W.E.H (September 2003). "The super-eruption of Toba, did it cause a human bottleneck?".
3200:"The 36–18 Ma Indian Peak–Caliente ignimbrite field and calderas, southeastern Great Basin, USA: Multicyclic super-eruptions"
2981:
760:
508:, rhyolitic calderas have appeared in distinct clusters. The remnants of such clusters may be found in places such as the
4836:
3198:
Best, Myron G.; Christiansen, Eric H.; Deino, Alan L.; Gromme, Sherman; Hart, Garret L.; Tingey, David G. (August 2013).
4206:
562:
remains one of the best studied examples of a resurgent caldera. The ash flow tuffs of the Valles caldera, such as the
3987:"Borrowdale Volcanic Group, upper silicic eruptive phase, Caradoc magmatism, Ordovician, Northern England – Earthwise"
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4107:
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is ejected, the emptied chamber is unable to support the weight of the volcanic edifice above it. A roughly circular
98:
3565:
Goff, Fraser; Gardner, Jamie N.; Reneau, Steven L.; Kelley, Shari A.; Kempter, Kirt A.; Lawrence, John R. (2011).
5247:
3162:
2282:
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17:
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Lowenstern, Jacob B.; Christiansen, Robert L.; Smith, Robert B.; Morgan, Lisa A.; Heasler, Henry (10 May 2005).
2589:
5274:
1399:
270:
4110:. Pub. British Geological Survey, Keyworth, Nottinghamshire. There is an associated 1:25000 solid geology map.
831:. This causes enormous lava flows, accounting for 80% of Venus' surface area. Many of the mountains are large
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About 74,000 years ago, this Indonesian volcano released about 2,800 cubic kilometres (670 cu mi)
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1953:
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causes the trapped gases to rapidly bubble out of the magma, fragmenting the magma to produce a mixture of
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induced by this eruption reduced the human population to about 2,000–20,000 individuals, resulting in a
5223:
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5185:
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1976:
1377:
730:, which contributes approximately 60% of the Earth's volcanic activity (the other 40% is attributed to
702:
Since the early 1960s, it has been known that volcanism has occurred on other planets and moons in the
289:, the "ring fault", develops around the edge of the chamber. Ring fractures serve as feeders for fault
136:, Hawaii in 2018. Volcanoes that have formed a caldera are sometimes described as "caldera volcanoes".
5294:
1079:
874:. Unlike any of the planets mentioned, Io is continuously volcanically active. For example, the NASA
218:
Animation of an analogue experiment showing the origin of a volcanic caldera in box filled with flour
178:
refers to a caldera that has been deeply eroded to expose the beds under the caldera floor. The term
3810:
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emplaced by silicic caldera eruptions are the only volcanic product with volumes rivaling those of
310:
31:
3839:
3176:
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4829:
3815:
3075:
2936:
2018:
1822:
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for the most silica-rich magmas. When the magma approaches the surface of the Earth, the drop in
329:
214:
5279:
3855:
3805:
2161:
1527:
1228:
2617:"Gradual caldera collapse at Bárdarbunga volcano, Iceland, regulated by lateral magma outflow"
4235:
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2415:
2041:
1238:
1167:
936:
749:
601:
585:
314:
274:
199:
3843:
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Cole, J; Milner, D; Spinks, K (February 2005). "Calderas and caldera structures: a review".
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2682:"Anatomy of a Caldera Collapse: Kīlauea 2018 Summit Seismicity Sequence in High Resolution"
2577:
1537:
1202:
871:
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318:
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2564:"Cyclic caldera collapse: Piston or piecemeal subsidence? Field and experimental evidence"
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2002:
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8:
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390:. However, as the volume of erupted material increases, the eruption column is unable to
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4138:
University of California Publications Bulletin of the Department of Geological Sciences
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3524:
3417:
Tizzani, P.; Battaglia, M.; Castaldo, R.; Pepe, A.; Zeni, G.; Lanari, R. (April 2015).
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706:. Through the use of crewed and uncrewed spacecraft, volcanism has been discovered on
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collapsed in 1968 when parts of the caldera floor dropped 350 metres (1,150 ft).
241:(100 km/62 mi long and 30 km/19 mi wide, one of the world's largest calderas). A
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2007:
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3470:"Climate effects of the 1883 Krakatoa eruption: Historical and present perspectives"
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Grocke, Stephanie B.; Andrews, Benjamin J.; de Silva, Shanaka L. (November 2017).
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3546:. Missouri Department of Natural Resources, Division of Geology and Land Survey.
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The mixture of ash and volcanic gases initially rises into the atmosphere as an
253:
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4927:
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3468:
Schaller, N; Griesser, T; Fischer, A; Stickler, A. and; Brönnimann, S. (2009).
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367:. The magma typically also contains a large amount of dissolved gases, up to 7
242:
187:
4186:
3354:
3242:
Troll, Valentin R.; Emeleus, C. Henry; Donaldson, Colin H. (1 November 2000).
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Ueber die Zusammensetzung der basaltischen Inseln und ueber Erhebungs-Cratere
2768:
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2485: – Volcanic caldera that has been partially filled by a new central cone
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1990:
1946:
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681:, form calderas in a different fashion. The magma feeding these volcanoes is
411:
325:
273:
in 1815), but also during effusive eruptions on the flanks of a volcano (see
262:
112:
3749:
3512:
3499:
Robock, A. (15 February 2002). "PINATUBO ERUPTION: The Climatic Aftermath".
2635:
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2497: – Predictive Qualitative scale for explosiveness of volcanic eruptions
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4041:"The Cauldron-Subsidence of Glen Coe, and the Associated Igneous Phenomena"
3757:
3713:
3520:
3009:
John, D. A. (1 February 2008). "Supervolcanoes and Metallic Ore Deposits".
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Complex of Scotland, the San Juan Mountains of Colorado (formed during the
441:
403:
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43:
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398:. Eruptions of this type can spread ash over vast areas, so that ash flow
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The caldera produced by such eruptions is typically filled in with tuff,
306:
3453:
3243:
2856:
2750:
2643:
638:
27:
Cauldron-like volcanic feature formed by the emptying of a magma chamber
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3605:"Ash-flow tuffs: Their origin, geologic relations, and identification"
3544:
Geology of the Precambrian St. Francois Terrane, Southeastern Missouri
3319:
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670:
512:
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in 1991, may result in significant local destruction and a noticeable
182:
was introduced into the geological vocabulary by the German geologist
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of ejecta. This was the largest known eruption during the ongoing
470:
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Explosive caldera eruptions are produced by a magma chamber whose
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beneath the volcano, sometimes as the result of a large explosive
5049:
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4547:
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3726:
3567:"Geologic map of the Valles caldera, Jemez Mountains, New Mexico"
3156:
2562:
Troll, V. R.; Walter, T. R.; Schmincke, H.-U. (1 February 2002).
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266:
246:
234:
226:
3244:"Caldera formation in the Rum Central Igneous Complex, Scotland"
2843:
Smith, Robert L.; Bailey, Roy A. (1968). "Resurgent Cauldrons".
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was blasted out in eruptions about 27.8 million years ago.
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4076:. Developments in Volcanology. Vol. 10. pp. 313–349.
3919:
3891:. Developments in Volcanology. Vol. 10. pp. 313–349.
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2011:
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Eruptions forming even larger calderas are known, such as the
75:
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4222:
3571:
New Mexico Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources Map Series
2986:. Ne Mexico Geological Society. p. 499 p. Archived from
2371:
2129:
2071:
1784:
1679:
1541:
1362:
1222:
1139:
824:
707:
614:
352:
282:
257:
Topographic map of Cagar Alam Rawa Danau Caldera in Indonesia
195:
160:
63:
4814:
3683:
3416:
3126:
2491: – Volcano with a volcanic explosivity index (VEI) of 8
685:, which is silica poor. As a result, the magma is much less
222:
5124:
4897:
4782:
4696:
4402:
4375:
4355:
4259:
3954:
Philip's World Reference Atlas including Stars and Planets
3671:
3296:
3197:
2959:(2nd ed.). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
2590:
10.1130/0091-7613(2002)030<0135:CCCPOP>2.0.CO;2
2476:
2358:
1922:
1806:
1707:
1504:
786:
755:
715:
711:
429:, where the 5,000 cubic kilometres (1,200 cu mi)
399:
368:
132:
occurred between 1911 and 2018, with a caldera collapse at
78:
2897:"201 Years Ago, This Volcano Caused a Climate Catastrophe"
4747:
4517:
2473: – Landform of more than one related volcanic centre
1440:
170:, meaning "cooking pot". In some texts the English term
87:
4113:
Lipman, P; 1999. "Caldera". In Haraldur Sigurdsson, ed.
3138:
2728:
1512:
Dakantou Caldera (大墈头) (Shanhuyan Village, Taozhu Town,
111:-like hollow that forms shortly after the emptying of a
3564:
2609:
2607:
2499:
Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
566:, were among the first to be thoroughly characterized.
186:
when he published his memoirs of his 1815 visit to the
2950:
2948:
2946:
3375:
3241:
2352:
850:
Io, unusually, is heated by solid flexing due to the
99:
84:
60:
46:'s eruption timeline, an example of caldera formation
2604:
2561:
90:
72:
66:
4074:
Caldera Volcanism: Analysis, Modelling and Response
4039:Clough, C. T.; Maufe, H. B.; Bailey, E. B. (1909).
3889:
Caldera Volcanism: Analysis, Modelling and Response
2943:
2838:
2836:
2834:
2832:
69:
4187:Time-lapse video of Kīlauea caldera collapse, 2018
3962:Publishing House Octopus publishing Group Ltd p. 9
3237:
3235:
3088:
2673:
174:is also used, though in more recent work the term
4038:
3913:
3074:. University of Minnesota, Dultuh. Archived from
3047:. University of Minnesota, Duluth. Archived from
5261:
2829:
2800:
2796:
2794:
2792:
2790:
2788:
2786:
827:, heat is mainly lost by conduction through the
190:, where he first saw the Las Cañadas caldera on
3232:
2980:Dethier, David P.; Kampf, Stephanie K. (2007).
2957:Principles of igneous and metamorphic petrology
277:in 2007) or in a connected fissure system (see
261:A collapse is triggered by the emptying of the
4221:
3382:Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research
624:Satellite photograph of the summit caldera on
340:
4830:
4207:
4166:Collection of references on collapse calderas
3837:
3332:
2954:
2783:
1526:Yiyang Caldera (宜洋) (Shuangxi Town (双溪镇宜洋村),
1519:Ma'anshan Caldera (马鞍山) (Shishan Town (石山镇),
300:
4172:The Caldera of the Tweed Volcano – Australia
3999:
3838:Parfitt, L.; Wilson, L. (19 February 2008).
3649:. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
3603:Ross, Clarence S.; Smith, Robert L. (1961).
3423:Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth
3300:Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth
3177:"What's the Biggest Volcanic Eruption Ever?"
2979:
2955:Philpotts, Anthony R.; Ague, Jay J. (2009).
2679:
889:
697:
4071:
4045:Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society
3886:
3541:
3169:
2842:
4837:
4823:
4214:
4200:
3150:
363:, and therefore does not flow easily like
3833:
3831:
3829:
3827:
3825:
3630:
3620:
3609:U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper
3602:
3452:
3442:
3401:
3223:
3144:
3132:
3107:
2758:
2705:
650:
328:about 2.7 billion years ago. In the
4131:
2869:
2519:Physical Description of the Canary Isles
2201:
2017:
2001:
1989:
1970:
1805:
1646:
1439:
1052:Aniakchak National Monument and Preserve
1034:
1023:
789:is concentrated in two major provinces:
767:is thought to be a caldera, possibly an
654:
637:
619:
546:
252:
221:
213:
38:
4098:Kokelaar, B. P; and Moore, I. D; 2006.
2894:
198:dominating the landscape, and then the
14:
5262:
3822:
3498:
3069:
4818:
4195:
2845:Geological Society of America Memoirs
2511:
1350:Los Humeros Caldera (Veracruz-Puebla)
305:Some calderas are known to host rich
5218:
3965:
3846:Fundamentals of Physical Volcanology
3112:. Berlin: Springer. pp. 42–43.
3008:
2504:
209:
123:, the feature is actually a type of
5242:
3798:
3179:. livescience.com. 10 November 2010
2680:Shelly, D.R.; Thelen, W.A. (2019).
2449:, Northern Caucasus Region, Russia)
2385:
335:
24:
4032:
3045:"UMD: Precambrian Research Center"
2669:from the original on 24 July 2018.
2479: – Low-relief volcanic crater
2353:Extraterrestrial volcanic calderas
965:for calderas in the Canary Islands
761:Compton-Belkovich Volcanic Complex
666:Some volcanoes, such as the large
444:. The caldera is surrounded by an
321:, Canada, which formed during the
25:
5306:
4149:
4100:Glencoe caldera volcano, Scotland
4057:10.1144/GSL.JGS.1909.065.01-04.35
2895:Greshko, Michael (8 April 2016).
448:of ash flow tuff (also called an
5241:
5229:
5217:
5206:
5205:
4976:
3403:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2017.09.021
2876:. Berlin: University of Lausanne
1031:, Oregon, formed around 5,680 BC
870:, which keep its orbit slightly
596:Stanley Ambrose proposed that a
56:
3993:
3979:
3948:
3880:
3772:
3720:
3677:
3661:
3639:
3596:
3558:
3535:
3492:
3461:
3410:
3369:
3326:
3290:
3191:
3163:United States Geological Survey
3108:Schmincke, Hans-Ulrich (2003).
3101:
3082:
3063:
3037:
3002:
2973:
2919:
2888:
2823:10.1016/j.earscirev.2004.06.004
1255:Blake River Megacaldera Complex
469:, the San Juan volcanic field,
414:in up to two metres of debris.
359:. Silica-rich magma has a high
2983:Geology of the Jemez Region II
2863:
2722:
2555:
2535:
1400:Pululahua Geobotanical Reserve
13:
1:
4844:
4082:10.1016/S1871-644X(07)00008-3
3897:10.1016/S1871-644X(07)00008-3
3706:10.1016/s0047-2484(03)00105-2
3070:Morton, Ron (18 March 2001).
2528:
1586:(Kagoshima Prefecture, Japan)
1249:Mount Skukum Volcanic Complex
1219:Bennett Lake Volcanic Complex
862:with neighboring large moons
529:Saint Francois Mountain Range
4022:10.1016/j.lithos.2012.09.007
3942:10.1016/j.icarus.2015.02.024
3840:"Volcanism on Other Planets"
3542:Kisvarsanyi, Eva B. (1981).
2686:Geophysical Research Letters
2447:Kabardino-Balkarian Republic
1954:Kabardino-Balkarian Republic
1895:(hosts Kurile Lake caldera,
726:. None of these worlds have
139:
7:
4134:"Calderas and their origin"
3632:2027/ucbk.ark:/28722/h26b1t
2464:
743:
477:, and many other calderas.
341:Explosive caldera eruptions
10:
5311:
4800:
3686:Journal of Human Evolution
2495:Volcanic Explosivity Index
893:
843:
812:
778:
747:
646:, Van Lake, Eastern Turkey
573:
554:
344:
301:Mineralization in calderas
127:, as it is formed through
29:
5201:
5143:
4985:
4974:
4852:
4796:
4715:
4677:
4596:
4501:
4453:
4331:
4300:
4242:
4233:
4161:List of Caldera Volcanoes
4132:Williams, Howell (1941).
4115:Encyclopedia of Volcanoes
3784:Earthobservatory.nasa.gov
3474:VJSCHR. Natf. Ges. Zürich
3355:10.1007/s00445-016-1000-0
3031:10.2113/GSELEMENTS.4.1.22
2548:Dictionary.com Unabridged
2048:Bakuriani/Didveli Caldera
1672:(Manila Bay, Philippines)
1447:, El Salvador crater lake
1373:Cordillera Nevada Caldera
1080:Crater Lake National Park
890:List of volcanic calderas
785:The volcanic activity of
698:Extraterrestrial calderas
551:Valle Caldera, New Mexico
542:
383:with the very hot gases.
281:in 2014–2015). If enough
4880:Cryptovolcanic structure
3811:Global Volcanism Program
2932:Global Volcanism Program
2517:Leopold von Buch's book
1424:Sierra Negra (Galápagos)
808:
642:Oblique aerial photo of
613:habitation continued in
293:which are also known as
32:Caldera (disambiguation)
5161:Eruptions by death toll
3816:Smithsonian Institution
3750:10.1126/science.1141564
3513:10.1126/science.1069903
3335:Bulletin of Volcanology
3248:Bulletin of Volcanology
2937:Smithsonian Institution
2927:"Piton de la Fournaise"
2636:10.1126/science.aaf8988
1291:Arenas crater caldera,
774:
580:Toba catastrophe theory
569:
461:such as is seen at the
330:San Juan volcanic field
3647:"Stanley Ambrose page"
3611:. Professional Paper.
2521:was published in 1825.
2210:
2162:Lagoa das Sete Cidades
2037:
2015:
1999:
1987:
1818:
1810:Caldera of the island
1655:
1528:Pingnan County, Fujian
1448:
1318:La primavera Caldera (
1301:Laguna Verde caldera,
1229:Mount Pleasant Caldera
1043:
1032:
663:
651:Non-explosive calderas
647:
635:
552:
258:
250:
219:
164:
153:
47:
5275:Depressions (geology)
4156:USGS page on calderas
3268:10.1007/s004450000099
3091:J. Res. US Geol. Surv
2870:von Buch, L. (1820).
2803:Earth-Science Reviews
2416:Caldera de Taburiente
2226:Kapenga (New Zealand)
2205:
2021:
2005:
1993:
1974:
1809:
1650:
1443:
1343:Los Azufres Caldera (
1332:Las Cumbres Caldera (
1239:Sturgeon Lake Caldera
1168:Medicine Lake Volcano
1038:
1027:
844:Further information:
839:
813:Further information:
779:Further information:
750:Volcanism on the Moon
748:Further information:
658:
641:
623:
602:population bottleneck
586:dense-rock equivalent
550:
345:Further information:
315:Sturgeon Lake Caldera
275:Piton de la Fournaise
256:
245:formed the island of
225:
217:
200:Caldera de Taburiente
42:
4803:Geographical feature
4639:Volcanic crater lake
3852:Blackwell Publishing
3444:10.1002/2014JB011502
3306:(B12): 24593–24609.
2907:on 26 September 2019
2707:10.1029/2019GL085636
2267:Moku‘āweoweo Caldera
1980:aerial spinning view
1736:(Sumatra, Indonesia)
1700:(Luzon, Philippines)
1694:(Luzon, Philippines)
1688:(Luzon, Philippines)
1538:Kagoshima Prefecture
1203:Silverthrone Caldera
1136:Henry's Fork Caldera
819:Because there is no
765:far side of the Moon
617:after the eruption.
535:(erupted during the
406:. For example, when
319:northwestern Ontario
30:For other uses, see
4014:2012Litho.155..272C
3934:2015Icar..253..115C
3806:"Fernandina: Photo"
3742:2007Sci...317..114P
3698:2003JHumE..45..227G
3583:2011AGUFM.V13C2606G
3507:(5558): 1242–1244.
3435:2015JGRB..120.2627T
3394:2017JVGR..347..296G
3347:2016BVol...78...10C
3312:1995JGR...10024593B
3260:2000BVol...62..301T
3216:2013Geosp...9..864B
3135:, pp. 155–157.
3078:on 2 November 2003.
3072:"Caldera volcanoes"
3023:2008Eleme...4...22J
2901:National Geographic
2857:10.1130/MEM116-p613
2815:2005ESRv...69....1C
2751:10.1038/nature10706
2743:2012Natur.482...77D
2698:2019GeoRL..4614395S
2692:(24): 14395–14403.
2582:2002Geo....30..135T
2263:Maroa (New Zealand)
2206:Satellite photo of
2179:Caldeira do Faial (
1994:Aerial view of the
1927:Kamchatka Peninsula
1897:Kamchatka Peninsula
1887:Kamchatka Peninsula
1877:Kamchatka Peninsula
1867:Kamchatka Peninsula
1857:Kamchatka Peninsula
1847:Kamchatka Peninsula
1827:Kamchatka Peninsula
1614:Kanagawa Prefecture
1578:Kumamoto Prefecture
1265:New Senator Caldera
1190:Yellowstone Caldera
1146:Island Park Caldera
491:drop in temperature
408:Yellowstone Caldera
233:, on the island of
5290:Volcanic landforms
5156:Lists of volcanoes
4943:Subglacial volcano
4918:Pyroclastic shield
3786:. 23 December 2013
3225:10.1130/GES00902.1
2990:on 17 October 2015
2223:(Papua New Guinea)
2215:Cerberean Cauldron
2211:
2187:Caldeirão do Corvo
2038:
2016:
2000:
1988:
1933:Zavaritski Caldera
1819:
1670:Corregidor Caldera
1656:
1638:Changbai Mountains
1516:, Zhejiang, China)
1449:
1445:Coatepeque Caldera
1221:(British Columbia/
1215:(British Columbia)
1044:
1033:
1002:Catamarca Province
815:Volcanism on Venus
664:
648:
636:
553:
504:At some points in
423:San Juan Mountains
373:confining pressure
347:Explosive eruption
259:
251:
220:
48:
5257:
5256:
5010:Basaltic andesite
4948:Submarine volcano
4812:
4811:
4723:Artificial island
4629:Submarine volcano
4538:Continental shelf
4505:coastal landforms
4301:Continental plain
4236:List of landforms
4091:978-0-444-53165-0
3906:978-0-444-53165-0
3865:978-0-632-05443-5
3736:(5834): 114–116.
3728:Super-Eruption".
3674:, 3 February 2000
3320:10.1029/95JB01690
2630:(6296): aaf8988.
2505:Explanatory notes
2457:Batangas Province
2333:Cirque de Salazie
2102:Phlegraean Fields
2023:Caldeira do Faial
2008:Phlegraean Fields
1943:Yankicha/Ushishir
1913:Tao-Rusyr Caldera
1893:Pauzhetka caldera
1812:Yankicha/Ushishir
1594:Aomori Prefecture
1566:(Hokkaido, Japan)
1560:(Hokkaido, Japan)
1419:Galápagos Islands
1415:Fernandina Island
1353:Mazahua Caldera (
1325:Amealco Caldera (
1307:Narino Department
1297:Caldas Department
1162:McDermitt Caldera
1116:La Garita Caldera
1062:Cochetopa Caldera
989:Caldera del Atuel
907:Ngorongoro Crater
896:Category:Calderas
860:orbital resonance
781:Volcanism on Mars
722:, a satellite of
692:Fernandina Island
677:on the island of
626:Fernandina Island
604:. More recently,
419:La Garita Caldera
396:pyroclastic flows
267:volcanic eruption
210:Caldera formation
117:volcanic eruption
16:(Redirected from
5302:
5295:Volcanic craters
5245:
5244:
5233:
5221:
5220:
5209:
5208:
5166:Decade Volcanoes
5144:Lists and groups
5135:Pyroclastic flow
5130:Pyroclastic fall
4980:
4913:Pyroclastic cone
4839:
4832:
4825:
4816:
4815:
4758:Land reclamation
4654:Volcanic plateau
4216:
4209:
4202:
4193:
4192:
4145:
4095:
4068:
4026:
4025:
3997:
3991:
3990:
3983:
3977:
3976:
3975:. 15 March 2022.
3969:
3963:
3952:
3946:
3945:
3917:
3911:
3910:
3884:
3878:
3877:
3849:
3835:
3820:
3819:
3802:
3796:
3795:
3793:
3791:
3776:
3770:
3769:
3724:
3718:
3717:
3681:
3675:
3665:
3659:
3658:
3656:
3654:
3643:
3637:
3636:
3634:
3624:
3600:
3594:
3593:
3591:
3589:
3562:
3556:
3555:
3539:
3533:
3532:
3496:
3490:
3489:
3487:
3485:
3465:
3459:
3458:
3456:
3446:
3429:(4): 2627–2647.
3414:
3408:
3407:
3405:
3373:
3367:
3366:
3330:
3324:
3323:
3294:
3288:
3287:
3239:
3230:
3229:
3227:
3195:
3189:
3188:
3186:
3184:
3173:
3167:
3166:
3154:
3148:
3142:
3136:
3130:
3124:
3123:
3105:
3099:
3098:
3086:
3080:
3079:
3067:
3061:
3060:
3058:
3056:
3041:
3035:
3034:
3006:
3000:
2999:
2997:
2995:
2977:
2971:
2970:
2952:
2941:
2940:
2923:
2917:
2916:
2914:
2912:
2903:. Archived from
2892:
2886:
2885:
2883:
2881:
2867:
2861:
2860:
2840:
2827:
2826:
2798:
2781:
2780:
2762:
2726:
2720:
2719:
2709:
2677:
2671:
2670:
2668:
2621:
2611:
2602:
2601:
2559:
2553:
2552:
2539:
2522:
2515:
2500:
2445:Chegem Caldera (
2395:Guaichane-Mamuta
2386:Erosion calderas
2341:Cirque de Cilaos
2329:Cirque de Mafate
2312:Deception Island
2042:Banská Štiavnica
2027:Caldeira Volcano
1952:Chegem Caldera (
1843:Karymsky Caldera
1795:Nemrut (volcano)
1604:Akita Prefecture
1523:, Hainan, China)
1378:Laguna del Maule
1273:(Ontario/Quebec)
1207:British Columbia
1156:Newberry Volcano
1042:-caldera, Alaska
993:Mendoza Province
833:shield volcanoes
737:Tvashtar Paterae
668:shield volcanoes
610:Henry Harpending
431:Fish Canyon Tuff
336:Types of caldera
313:calderas is the
184:Leopold von Buch
103:
97:
96:
93:
92:
89:
86:
81:
80:
77:
74:
71:
68:
65:
62:
21:
5310:
5309:
5305:
5304:
5303:
5301:
5300:
5299:
5260:
5259:
5258:
5253:
5197:
5139:
5105:Tephriphonolite
4981:
4972:
4968:Harmonic tremor
4870:Complex volcano
4848:
4843:
4813:
4808:
4805:
4792:
4728:Artificial reef
4711:
4673:
4649:Volcanic island
4634:Volcanic crater
4592:
4588:Volcanic island
4568:Mid-ocean ridge
4504:
4497:
4449:
4327:
4296:
4238:
4229:
4220:
4152:
4092:
4051:(1–4): 611–78.
4035:
4033:Further reading
4030:
4029:
3998:
3994:
3985:
3984:
3980:
3971:
3970:
3966:
3953:
3949:
3918:
3914:
3907:
3885:
3881:
3866:
3836:
3823:
3804:
3803:
3799:
3789:
3787:
3778:
3777:
3773:
3725:
3721:
3682:
3678:
3666:
3662:
3652:
3650:
3645:
3644:
3640:
3601:
3597:
3587:
3585:
3563:
3559:
3540:
3536:
3497:
3493:
3483:
3481:
3466:
3462:
3415:
3411:
3374:
3370:
3331:
3327:
3295:
3291:
3240:
3233:
3196:
3192:
3182:
3180:
3175:
3174:
3170:
3155:
3151:
3143:
3139:
3131:
3127:
3120:
3106:
3102:
3087:
3083:
3068:
3064:
3054:
3052:
3051:on 4 March 2016
3043:
3042:
3038:
3007:
3003:
2993:
2991:
2978:
2974:
2967:
2953:
2944:
2925:
2924:
2920:
2910:
2908:
2893:
2889:
2879:
2877:
2868:
2864:
2841:
2830:
2799:
2784:
2737:(7383): 77–80.
2727:
2723:
2678:
2674:
2666:
2619:
2612:
2605:
2560:
2556:
2541:
2540:
2536:
2531:
2526:
2525:
2516:
2512:
2507:
2498:
2471:Complex volcano
2467:
2431:New South Wales
2388:
2355:
2299:Reporoa caldera
2146:Scafell Caldera
2122:which contains
1781:Southwest Asia
1770:Tengger Caldera
1660:Apolaki Caldera
1645:Southeast Asia
1634:Baekdu Mountain
1458:Lake Coatepeque
1293:Nevado del Ruiz
1277:Noranda Caldera
1048:Mount Aniakchak
980:Aguas Calientes
898:
892:
848:
846:Volcanism on Io
842:
821:plate tectonics
817:
811:
783:
777:
752:
746:
728:plate tectonics
700:
653:
598:volcanic winter
582:
574:Main articles:
572:
559:
545:
527:epochs) or the
506:geological time
388:eruption column
349:
343:
338:
303:
212:
142:
101:
83:
59:
55:
35:
28:
23:
22:
18:Caldera volcano
15:
12:
11:
5:
5308:
5298:
5297:
5292:
5287:
5282:
5277:
5272:
5255:
5254:
5252:
5251:
5239:
5227:
5215:
5202:
5199:
5198:
5196:
5195:
5194:
5193:
5188:
5181:Volcanic field
5178:
5173:
5168:
5163:
5158:
5153:
5147:
5145:
5141:
5140:
5138:
5137:
5132:
5127:
5122:
5117:
5112:
5110:Trachyandesite
5107:
5102:
5097:
5092:
5087:
5082:
5077:
5072:
5067:
5062:
5057:
5052:
5047:
5042:
5037:
5032:
5027:
5022:
5017:
5012:
5007:
5002:
4997:
4991:
4989:
4987:Volcanic rocks
4983:
4982:
4975:
4973:
4971:
4970:
4965:
4960:
4955:
4950:
4945:
4940:
4935:
4930:
4928:Shield volcano
4925:
4920:
4915:
4910:
4908:Parasitic cone
4905:
4900:
4895:
4890:
4887:
4882:
4877:
4872:
4867:
4862:
4856:
4854:
4850:
4849:
4842:
4841:
4834:
4827:
4819:
4810:
4809:
4807:
4806:
4797:
4794:
4793:
4791:
4790:
4785:
4780:
4775:
4770:
4765:
4760:
4755:
4750:
4745:
4740:
4735:
4730:
4725:
4719:
4717:
4713:
4712:
4710:
4709:
4704:
4699:
4694:
4689:
4683:
4681:
4675:
4674:
4672:
4671:
4666:
4661:
4656:
4651:
4646:
4641:
4636:
4631:
4626:
4621:
4616:
4611:
4606:
4600:
4598:
4594:
4593:
4591:
4590:
4585:
4580:
4575:
4573:Oceanic trench
4570:
4565:
4560:
4555:
4550:
4545:
4540:
4535:
4530:
4525:
4520:
4515:
4509:
4507:
4499:
4498:
4496:
4495:
4490:
4485:
4480:
4475:
4470:
4465:
4459:
4457:
4451:
4450:
4448:
4447:
4442:
4437:
4432:
4427:
4426:
4425:
4420:
4410:
4405:
4400:
4395:
4390:
4385:
4384:
4383:
4373:
4368:
4363:
4358:
4353:
4348:
4343:
4337:
4335:
4329:
4328:
4326:
4325:
4320:
4315:
4310:
4304:
4302:
4298:
4297:
4295:
4294:
4289:
4284:
4279:
4274:
4273:
4272:
4262:
4257:
4252:
4246:
4244:
4240:
4239:
4234:
4231:
4230:
4219:
4218:
4211:
4204:
4196:
4190:
4189:
4184:
4182:Supervolcanoes
4179:
4174:
4169:
4163:
4158:
4151:
4150:External links
4148:
4147:
4146:
4129:
4119:Academic Press
4111:
4096:
4090:
4069:
4034:
4031:
4028:
4027:
3992:
3978:
3964:
3947:
3912:
3905:
3879:
3864:
3850:. Malden, MA:
3821:
3797:
3771:
3719:
3692:(3): 227–230.
3676:
3668:Supervolcanoes
3660:
3638:
3595:
3557:
3534:
3491:
3460:
3409:
3368:
3325:
3289:
3254:(4): 301–317.
3231:
3210:(4): 864–950.
3190:
3168:
3149:
3147:, p. 157.
3145:Schmincke 2003
3137:
3133:Schmincke 2003
3125:
3118:
3100:
3081:
3062:
3036:
3001:
2972:
2965:
2942:
2918:
2887:
2862:
2828:
2782:
2721:
2672:
2603:
2554:
2551:(Online). n.d.
2533:
2532:
2530:
2527:
2524:
2523:
2509:
2508:
2506:
2503:
2502:
2501:
2492:
2486:
2480:
2474:
2466:
2463:
2462:
2461:
2460:
2459:
2455:(Philippines)
2450:
2440:
2439:
2438:
2421:
2420:
2419:
2410:
2409:
2408:
2398:
2387:
2384:
2383:
2382:
2381:
2380:
2369:
2368:
2367:
2354:
2351:
2350:
2349:
2348:
2347:
2321:
2320:
2319:
2314:
2304:
2303:
2302:
2296:
2286:
2280:
2274:
2264:
2261:
2255:
2249:
2243:
2237:
2227:
2224:
2218:
2196:
2195:
2194:
2184:
2177:
2159:
2153:
2143:
2137:
2127:
2124:Mount Vesuvius
2117:
2111:
2108:Lake Bracciano
2105:
2099:
2093:
2087:
2081:
2075:
2069:
2063:
2057:
2051:
2045:
1965:
1964:
1963:
1962:
1961:
1958:North Caucasus
1950:
1940:
1930:
1920:
1910:
1900:
1890:
1880:
1870:
1860:
1850:
1840:
1830:
1800:
1799:
1798:
1792:
1779:
1778:
1777:
1767:
1757:
1747:
1737:
1731:
1721:
1711:
1701:
1698:Irosin Caldera
1695:
1692:Laguna Caldera
1689:
1683:
1682:, Philippines)
1676:Mount Pinatubo
1673:
1667:
1666:, Philippines)
1652:Mount Pinatubo
1643:
1642:
1641:
1636:, North Korea/
1627:
1626:, South Korea)
1617:
1607:
1597:
1587:
1581:
1567:
1561:
1555:
1545:
1531:
1524:
1517:
1502:
1501:
1500:
1499:
1498:
1489:
1488:
1487:
1482:
1477:
1472:
1470:Lake Amatitlán
1462:
1461:
1460:
1455:
1434:
1433:
1432:
1426:
1421:
1412:
1407:
1402:
1392:
1391:
1390:
1385:
1383:Pacana Caldera
1380:
1375:
1370:
1360:
1359:
1358:
1351:
1348:
1341:
1330:
1323:
1311:
1310:
1309:
1299:
1284:
1283:
1282:
1281:
1280:
1274:
1271:Misema Caldera
1268:
1252:
1246:
1236:
1226:
1216:
1210:
1195:
1194:
1193:
1187:
1180:Valles Caldera
1177:
1171:
1165:
1159:
1153:
1143:
1133:
1123:
1113:
1103:
1093:
1087:
1069:
1059:
1018:
1017:
1016:
1014:Pastos Grandes
1006:
1005:
1004:
995:
986:
984:Salta Province
969:
968:
967:
958:
952:
946:
940:
934:
931:Mount Longonot
928:
922:
921:(Uganda/Kenya)
916:
915:Crater (Kenya)
910:
891:
888:
841:
838:
810:
807:
776:
773:
745:
742:
699:
696:
652:
649:
644:Nemrut Caldera
594:anthropologist
571:
568:
564:Bandelier Tuff
557:Valles Caldera
555:Main article:
544:
541:
487:Mount Pinatubo
463:Valles Caldera
458:resurgent dome
450:ash flow sheet
342:
339:
337:
334:
302:
299:
243:resurgent dome
211:
208:
188:Canary Islands
141:
138:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5307:
5296:
5293:
5291:
5288:
5286:
5283:
5281:
5280:Igneous rocks
5278:
5276:
5273:
5271:
5268:
5267:
5265:
5250:
5249:
5240:
5238:
5237:
5232:
5228:
5226:
5225:
5216:
5214:
5213:
5204:
5203:
5200:
5192:
5189:
5187:
5184:
5183:
5182:
5179:
5177:
5176:Volcanic belt
5174:
5172:
5169:
5167:
5164:
5162:
5159:
5157:
5154:
5152:
5149:
5148:
5146:
5142:
5136:
5133:
5131:
5128:
5126:
5123:
5121:
5118:
5116:
5113:
5111:
5108:
5106:
5103:
5101:
5098:
5096:
5093:
5091:
5088:
5086:
5083:
5081:
5080:Phonotephrite
5078:
5076:
5073:
5071:
5068:
5066:
5063:
5061:
5058:
5056:
5053:
5051:
5048:
5046:
5043:
5041:
5038:
5036:
5033:
5031:
5028:
5026:
5023:
5021:
5018:
5016:
5013:
5011:
5008:
5006:
5003:
5001:
4998:
4996:
4993:
4992:
4990:
4988:
4984:
4979:
4969:
4966:
4964:
4963:Volcanic cone
4961:
4959:
4956:
4954:
4951:
4949:
4946:
4944:
4941:
4939:
4938:Stratovolcano
4936:
4934:
4933:Somma volcano
4931:
4929:
4926:
4924:
4923:Rootless cone
4921:
4919:
4916:
4914:
4911:
4909:
4906:
4904:
4901:
4899:
4896:
4894:
4891:
4888:
4886:
4883:
4881:
4878:
4876:
4873:
4871:
4868:
4866:
4863:
4861:
4858:
4857:
4855:
4851:
4847:
4840:
4835:
4833:
4828:
4826:
4821:
4820:
4817:
4804:
4799:
4798:
4795:
4789:
4786:
4784:
4781:
4779:
4776:
4774:
4771:
4769:
4766:
4764:
4761:
4759:
4756:
4754:
4751:
4749:
4746:
4744:
4741:
4739:
4736:
4734:
4731:
4729:
4726:
4724:
4721:
4720:
4718:
4714:
4708:
4705:
4703:
4700:
4698:
4695:
4693:
4690:
4688:
4685:
4684:
4682:
4680:
4676:
4670:
4667:
4665:
4662:
4660:
4659:Volcanic plug
4657:
4655:
4652:
4650:
4647:
4645:
4642:
4640:
4637:
4635:
4632:
4630:
4627:
4625:
4622:
4620:
4617:
4615:
4612:
4610:
4607:
4605:
4602:
4601:
4599:
4595:
4589:
4586:
4584:
4581:
4579:
4576:
4574:
4571:
4569:
4566:
4564:
4561:
4559:
4556:
4554:
4551:
4549:
4546:
4544:
4541:
4539:
4536:
4534:
4531:
4529:
4526:
4524:
4521:
4519:
4516:
4514:
4511:
4510:
4508:
4506:
4500:
4494:
4493:Tunnel valley
4491:
4489:
4486:
4484:
4481:
4479:
4476:
4474:
4471:
4469:
4466:
4464:
4461:
4460:
4458:
4456:
4452:
4446:
4443:
4441:
4438:
4436:
4433:
4431:
4428:
4424:
4421:
4419:
4416:
4415:
4414:
4411:
4409:
4406:
4404:
4401:
4399:
4396:
4394:
4391:
4389:
4386:
4382:
4379:
4378:
4377:
4374:
4372:
4369:
4367:
4364:
4362:
4359:
4357:
4354:
4352:
4349:
4347:
4344:
4342:
4339:
4338:
4336:
4334:
4330:
4324:
4321:
4319:
4316:
4314:
4311:
4309:
4306:
4305:
4303:
4299:
4293:
4290:
4288:
4285:
4283:
4280:
4278:
4275:
4271:
4268:
4267:
4266:
4263:
4261:
4258:
4256:
4253:
4251:
4248:
4247:
4245:
4241:
4237:
4232:
4228:
4224:
4217:
4212:
4210:
4205:
4203:
4198:
4197:
4194:
4188:
4185:
4183:
4180:
4178:
4175:
4173:
4170:
4167:
4164:
4162:
4159:
4157:
4154:
4153:
4143:
4139:
4135:
4130:
4128:
4127:0-12-643140-X
4124:
4120:
4116:
4112:
4109:
4108:9780852725252
4105:
4101:
4097:
4093:
4087:
4083:
4079:
4075:
4070:
4066:
4062:
4058:
4054:
4050:
4046:
4042:
4037:
4036:
4023:
4019:
4015:
4011:
4007:
4003:
3996:
3988:
3982:
3974:
3973:"Diky Greben"
3968:
3961:
3960:0-7537-0310-6
3957:
3951:
3943:
3939:
3935:
3931:
3927:
3923:
3916:
3908:
3902:
3898:
3894:
3890:
3883:
3875:
3871:
3867:
3861:
3857:
3853:
3848:
3847:
3841:
3834:
3832:
3830:
3828:
3826:
3817:
3813:
3812:
3807:
3801:
3785:
3781:
3775:
3767:
3763:
3759:
3755:
3751:
3747:
3743:
3739:
3735:
3731:
3723:
3715:
3711:
3707:
3703:
3699:
3695:
3691:
3687:
3680:
3673:
3669:
3664:
3648:
3642:
3633:
3628:
3623:
3622:10.3133/pp366
3618:
3614:
3610:
3606:
3599:
3584:
3580:
3576:
3572:
3568:
3561:
3553:
3549:
3545:
3538:
3530:
3526:
3522:
3518:
3514:
3510:
3506:
3502:
3495:
3479:
3475:
3471:
3464:
3455:
3450:
3445:
3440:
3436:
3432:
3428:
3424:
3420:
3413:
3404:
3399:
3395:
3391:
3387:
3383:
3379:
3372:
3364:
3360:
3356:
3352:
3348:
3344:
3340:
3336:
3329:
3321:
3317:
3313:
3309:
3305:
3301:
3293:
3285:
3281:
3277:
3273:
3269:
3265:
3261:
3257:
3253:
3249:
3245:
3238:
3236:
3226:
3221:
3217:
3213:
3209:
3205:
3201:
3194:
3178:
3172:
3164:
3160:
3153:
3146:
3141:
3134:
3129:
3121:
3119:9783540436508
3115:
3111:
3104:
3096:
3092:
3085:
3077:
3073:
3066:
3050:
3046:
3040:
3032:
3028:
3024:
3020:
3016:
3012:
3005:
2989:
2985:
2984:
2976:
2968:
2966:9780521880060
2962:
2958:
2951:
2949:
2947:
2938:
2934:
2933:
2928:
2922:
2906:
2902:
2898:
2891:
2875:
2874:
2866:
2858:
2854:
2850:
2846:
2839:
2837:
2835:
2833:
2824:
2820:
2816:
2812:
2809:(1–2): 1–26.
2808:
2804:
2797:
2795:
2793:
2791:
2789:
2787:
2778:
2774:
2770:
2766:
2761:
2756:
2752:
2748:
2744:
2740:
2736:
2732:
2725:
2717:
2713:
2708:
2703:
2699:
2695:
2691:
2687:
2683:
2676:
2665:
2661:
2657:
2653:
2649:
2645:
2641:
2637:
2633:
2629:
2625:
2618:
2610:
2608:
2599:
2595:
2591:
2587:
2583:
2579:
2576:(2): 135–38.
2575:
2571:
2570:
2565:
2558:
2550:
2549:
2544:
2538:
2534:
2520:
2514:
2510:
2496:
2493:
2490:
2487:
2484:
2483:Somma volcano
2481:
2478:
2475:
2472:
2469:
2468:
2458:
2454:
2451:
2448:
2444:
2443:
2441:
2436:
2432:
2428:
2425:
2424:
2422:
2417:
2414:
2413:
2411:
2406:
2402:
2399:
2396:
2393:
2392:
2390:
2389:
2378:
2375:
2374:
2373:
2370:
2365:
2362:
2361:
2360:
2357:
2356:
2346:
2342:
2338:
2337:Enclos Fouqué
2334:
2330:
2327:
2326:
2325:
2322:
2318:
2315:
2313:
2310:
2309:
2308:
2305:
2301:(New Zealand)
2300:
2297:
2294:
2293:Easter Island
2290:
2287:
2284:
2283:Prospect Hill
2281:
2278:
2277:Mount Warning
2275:
2272:
2268:
2265:
2262:
2260:(New Zealand)
2259:
2256:
2254:(New Zealand)
2253:
2250:
2248:(New Zealand)
2247:
2246:Lake Okataina
2244:
2242:(New Zealand)
2241:
2238:
2235:
2231:
2228:
2225:
2222:
2219:
2216:
2213:
2212:
2209:
2204:
2200:
2197:
2192:
2188:
2185:
2182:
2178:
2175:
2171:
2167:
2163:
2160:
2157:
2154:
2151:
2150:Lake District
2147:
2144:
2141:
2138:
2135:
2131:
2128:
2125:
2121:
2118:
2115:
2112:
2109:
2106:
2103:
2100:
2097:
2094:
2091:
2088:
2085:
2082:
2079:
2076:
2073:
2070:
2067:
2064:
2061:
2058:
2055:
2052:
2049:
2046:
2043:
2040:
2039:
2036:
2032:
2028:
2024:
2020:
2013:
2009:
2004:
1997:
1992:
1985:
1981:
1978:
1973:
1969:
1966:
1959:
1955:
1951:
1948:
1947:Kuril Islands
1944:
1941:
1938:
1937:Kuril Islands
1934:
1931:
1928:
1924:
1921:
1918:
1917:Kuril Islands
1914:
1911:
1908:
1907:Kuril Islands
1904:
1901:
1898:
1894:
1891:
1888:
1884:
1881:
1878:
1874:
1871:
1868:
1864:
1861:
1858:
1854:
1851:
1848:
1844:
1841:
1838:
1837:Kuril Islands
1834:
1831:
1828:
1824:
1823:Akademia Nauk
1821:
1820:
1817:
1816:Kuril Islands
1813:
1808:
1804:
1801:
1796:
1793:
1790:
1786:
1783:
1782:
1780:
1775:
1771:
1768:
1765:
1761:
1760:Mount Tambora
1758:
1755:
1751:
1750:Mount Tondano
1748:
1745:
1741:
1740:Mount Rinjani
1738:
1735:
1732:
1729:
1725:
1724:Lake Maninjau
1722:
1719:
1715:
1712:
1709:
1705:
1702:
1699:
1696:
1693:
1690:
1687:
1684:
1681:
1677:
1674:
1671:
1668:
1665:
1661:
1658:
1657:
1654:, Philippines
1653:
1649:
1644:
1639:
1635:
1631:
1628:
1625:
1621:
1618:
1615:
1611:
1608:
1605:
1601:
1598:
1595:
1591:
1588:
1585:
1584:Kikai Caldera
1582:
1579:
1575:
1571:
1568:
1565:
1562:
1559:
1556:
1553:
1549:
1546:
1543:
1539:
1535:
1532:
1529:
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1522:
1518:
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1511:
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1508:
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1503:
1496:
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1492:
1490:
1486:
1483:
1481:
1478:
1476:
1473:
1471:
1468:
1467:
1466:
1463:
1459:
1456:
1454:
1453:Lake Ilopango
1451:
1450:
1446:
1442:
1438:
1435:
1430:
1427:
1425:
1422:
1420:
1416:
1413:
1411:
1408:
1406:
1403:
1401:
1398:
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1389:
1386:
1384:
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1379:
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1374:
1371:
1369:
1366:
1365:
1364:
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1356:
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1349:
1346:
1342:
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1335:
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1324:
1321:
1317:
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1304:
1300:
1298:
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1290:
1289:
1288:
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1272:
1269:
1266:
1263:
1262:
1260:
1256:
1253:
1250:
1247:
1244:
1240:
1237:
1234:
1233:New Brunswick
1230:
1227:
1224:
1220:
1217:
1214:
1211:
1208:
1204:
1201:
1200:
1199:
1196:
1191:
1188:
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1178:
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1169:
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1157:
1154:
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1141:
1137:
1134:
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1127:
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1117:
1114:
1111:
1107:
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1101:
1097:
1094:
1091:
1088:
1085:
1081:
1077:
1073:
1070:
1067:
1063:
1060:
1057:
1053:
1049:
1046:
1045:
1041:
1037:
1030:
1026:
1022:
1021:United States
1019:
1015:
1012:
1011:
1010:
1007:
1003:
999:
996:
994:
990:
987:
985:
981:
978:
977:
976:
973:
972:
970:
966:
962:
959:
956:
953:
950:
949:Nabro Volcano
947:
944:
941:
938:
935:
932:
929:
926:
923:
920:
917:
914:
911:
908:
905:
904:
903:
900:
899:
897:
887:
885:
884:
879:
878:
873:
869:
865:
861:
857:
854:influence of
853:
847:
837:
834:
830:
826:
822:
816:
806:
804:
800:
796:
792:
788:
782:
772:
770:
766:
762:
757:
751:
741:
738:
733:
729:
725:
721:
717:
713:
709:
705:
695:
693:
688:
684:
680:
676:
672:
669:
661:
657:
645:
640:
634:
631:
627:
622:
618:
616:
611:
607:
603:
599:
595:
591:
587:
581:
577:
567:
565:
558:
549:
540:
538:
534:
530:
526:
522:
518:
514:
511:
507:
502:
500:
496:
492:
488:
484:
478:
476:
472:
468:
464:
460:
459:
453:
451:
447:
446:outflow sheet
443:
442:igneous rocks
439:
434:
432:
428:
424:
420:
415:
413:
412:North America
409:
405:
404:flood basalts
401:
397:
393:
389:
384:
382:
378:
374:
370:
366:
362:
358:
354:
348:
333:
331:
327:
324:
320:
316:
312:
308:
298:
296:
292:
288:
284:
280:
276:
272:
268:
264:
263:magma chamber
255:
248:
244:
240:
236:
232:
228:
224:
216:
207:
205:
201:
197:
194:, with Mount
193:
189:
185:
181:
177:
173:
169:
168:
167:
162:
158:
157:
156:
151:
147:
137:
135:
130:
126:
122:
118:
114:
113:magma chamber
110:
107:) is a large
106:
105:
95:
53:
45:
41:
37:
33:
19:
5246:
5234:
5222:
5210:
5171:Volcanic arc
5115:Trachybasalt
4953:Supervolcano
4885:Fissure vent
4859:
4644:Volcanic dam
4603:
4341:Alluvial fan
4141:
4137:
4114:
4099:
4073:
4048:
4044:
4005:
4001:
3995:
3981:
3967:
3950:
3925:
3921:
3915:
3888:
3882:
3845:
3809:
3800:
3788:. Retrieved
3783:
3774:
3733:
3729:
3722:
3689:
3685:
3679:
3663:
3651:. Retrieved
3641:
3612:
3608:
3598:
3586:. Retrieved
3574:
3570:
3560:
3543:
3537:
3504:
3500:
3494:
3482:. Retrieved
3477:
3473:
3463:
3454:11573/779666
3426:
3422:
3412:
3385:
3381:
3371:
3338:
3334:
3328:
3303:
3299:
3292:
3251:
3247:
3207:
3203:
3193:
3181:. Retrieved
3171:
3152:
3140:
3128:
3109:
3103:
3094:
3090:
3084:
3076:the original
3065:
3053:. Retrieved
3049:the original
3039:
3014:
3010:
3004:
2992:. Retrieved
2988:the original
2982:
2975:
2956:
2930:
2921:
2909:. Retrieved
2905:the original
2900:
2890:
2878:. Retrieved
2872:
2865:
2848:
2844:
2806:
2802:
2734:
2730:
2724:
2689:
2685:
2675:
2644:10447/227125
2627:
2623:
2573:
2567:
2557:
2546:
2537:
2518:
2513:
2489:Supervolcano
2453:Taal volcano
2437:, Australia)
2427:Tweed Valley
2401:Mount Tehama
2364:Olympus Mons
2324:Indian Ocean
2317:Kemp Caldera
2273:(Hawaii, US)
2252:Lake Rotorua
2240:Lake Ohakuri
2114:Lake Bolsena
2031:Faial Island
2022:
2006:View of the
1903:Lvinaya Past
1776:, Indonesia)
1766:, Indonesia)
1756:, Indonesia)
1746:, Indonesia)
1730:, Indonesia)
1720:, Indonesia)
1718:Sunda Strait
1710:, Indonesia)
1686:Taal Volcano
1534:Aira Caldera
1475:Lake Atitlán
1355:Mexico State
1213:Mount Edziza
1170:(California)
1090:Mount Katmai
1076:Mount Mazama
964:
960:
927:(Cape Verde)
881:
875:
849:
818:
803:Olympus Mons
784:
753:
704:Solar System
701:
665:
583:
560:
503:
497:eruption in
479:
456:
454:
449:
445:
440:, and other
435:
416:
385:
377:volcanic ash
350:
307:ore deposits
304:
260:
179:
175:
171:
163:
152:
145:
143:
51:
49:
44:Mount Mazama
36:
5248:WikiProject
5191:polygenetic
5186:monogenetic
5065:Nephelinite
5020:Blairmorite
4995:Agglomerate
4903:Mud volcano
4875:Cryovolcano
4865:Cinder cone
4503:Oceanic and
4243:Mountainous
4008:: 272–288.
3928:: 115–129.
3854:. pp.
3484:29 December
3388:: 296–311.
2911:2 September
2880:28 December
2851:: 613–662.
2285:(Australia)
2279:(Australia)
2217:(Australia)
2193:, Portugal)
2183:, Portugal)
2176:, Portugal)
2156:Laacher See
2130:Las Cañadas
2120:Mount Somma
2084:Bárðarbunga
1996:Laacher See
1883:Kurile Lake
1664:Benham Rise
1630:Heaven Lake
1620:Mount Halla
1570:Aso Caldera
1497:(Nicaragua)
1437:El Salvador
1174:Mount Okmok
1126:Long Valley
1072:Crater Lake
1029:Crater Lake
919:Mount Elgon
829:lithosphere
633:archipelago
537:Proterozoic
485:in 1883 or
475:Yellowstone
471:Cerro Galán
355:is rich in
311:mineralized
279:Bárðarbunga
148:comes from
5264:Categories
5090:Rhyodacite
5040:Ignimbrite
5015:Benmoreite
4801:See also:
4716:Artificial
4624:Lava field
4543:Coral reef
4371:Floodplain
4168:(43 pages)
4144:: 239–346.
3183:1 February
3097:: 405–409.
2994:6 November
2760:10220/7536
2529:References
2435:Queensland
2405:California
2307:Antarctica
2258:Lake Taupō
2208:Lake Taupō
2174:the Azores
2170:São Miguel
2152:, England)
2142:(Scotland)
2044:(Slovakia)
1853:Karymshina
1509:East Asia
1388:Sollipulli
1261:/Ontario)
1184:New Mexico
1130:California
945:(Ethiopia)
939:(Tanzania)
937:Mount Meru
925:Mount Fogo
909:(Tanzania)
894:See also:
660:Sollipulli
606:Lynn Jorde
590:Quaternary
379:and other
323:Neoarchean
295:ring dikes
291:intrusions
129:subsidence
5285:Volcanism
5075:Phonolite
5060:Leucitite
5045:Komatiite
4893:Lava dome
4889:Lava cone
4846:Volcanoes
4778:Reservoir
4669:Wall rock
4619:Lava dome
4578:Peninsula
4488:Ice field
4445:Waterfall
4308:Ice sheet
4287:Tableland
4227:landforms
4065:129342758
3874:173243845
3552:256041399
3529:140578928
3363:130061015
3341:(2): 10.
3284:128985944
3276:1432-0819
3204:Geosphere
3110:Volcanism
3017:(1): 22.
2769:0028-0836
2716:214287960
2660:206650214
2598:0091-7613
2543:"caldera"
2391:Americas
2377:Maat Mons
2271:Mauna Loa
2158:(Germany)
2098:(Iceland)
2092:(Iceland)
2086:(Iceland)
2080:(Iceland)
2078:Grímsvötn
2074:(Iceland)
2060:Santorini
2056:(Georgia)
2050:(Georgia)
1998:, Germany
1984:Santorini
1791:, Turkey)
1734:Lake Toba
1574:Mount Aso
1465:Guatemala
1345:Michoacán
1327:Querétaro
1305:volcano,
1295:volcano,
1192:(Wyoming)
1106:Mauna Loa
1040:Aniakchak
975:Argentina
971:Americas
957:(Eritrea)
951:(Eritrea)
883:Voyager 2
877:Voyager 1
872:eccentric
858:and Io's
799:hot spots
771:caldera.
675:Mauna Loa
630:Galápagos
576:Lake Toba
517:Oligocene
499:Indonesia
495:Lake Toba
467:Lake Toba
361:viscosity
239:Indonesia
231:Lake Toba
229:image of
144:The term
140:Etymology
5270:Calderas
5212:Category
5120:Trachyte
5095:Rhyolite
5070:Obsidian
5000:Andesite
4738:Building
4702:Sandhill
4692:Dry lake
4597:Volcanic
4583:Seamount
4265:Mountain
3790:20 March
3766:20380351
3758:17615356
3714:14580592
3653:20 March
3521:11847326
3055:20 March
3011:Elements
2777:22297973
2664:Archived
2652:27418515
2465:See also
2423:Oceania
2295:, Chile)
2289:Rano Kau
2221:Dakataua
2140:Glen Coe
2136:, Spain)
2134:Tenerife
2068:(Greece)
2062:(Greece)
1986:, Greece
1833:Golovnin
1797:(Turkey)
1754:Sulawesi
1714:Krakatoa
1640:, China)
1616:, Japan)
1606:, Japan)
1596:, Japan)
1580:, Japan)
1554:, Japan)
1552:Hokkaido
1548:Kussharo
1530:, China)
1485:Barahona
1410:Quilotoa
1405:Cuicocha
1334:Veracruz
1287:Colombia
1279:(Quebec)
1267:(Quebec)
1176:(Alaska)
1164:(Oregon)
1158:(Oregon)
1148:(Idaho,
1120:Colorado
1092:(Alaska)
1066:Colorado
955:Mallahle
943:Erta Ale
913:Menengai
868:Ganymede
769:ash-flow
744:The Moon
533:Missouri
525:Pliocene
483:Krakatoa
438:rhyolite
427:Colorado
287:fracture
204:La Palma
192:Tenerife
176:cauldron
172:cauldron
166:caldaria
125:sinkhole
109:cauldron
104:-ə, kal-
5224:Commons
5151:Hotspot
5050:Lapilli
5035:Felsite
4860:Caldera
4679:Aeolian
4664:Volcano
4604:Caldera
4558:Isthmus
4548:Estuary
4528:Channel
4483:Glacier
4455:Glacial
4393:Meander
4361:Channel
4333:Fluvial
4277:Plateau
4010:Bibcode
3930:Bibcode
3738:Bibcode
3730:Science
3694:Bibcode
3579:Bibcode
3501:Science
3480:: 31–40
3431:Bibcode
3390:Bibcode
3343:Bibcode
3308:Bibcode
3256:Bibcode
3212:Bibcode
3019:Bibcode
2939:. 2019.
2811:Bibcode
2739:Bibcode
2694:Bibcode
2624:Science
2578:Bibcode
2569:Geology
2418:(Spain)
2412:Europe
2397:(Chile)
2379:caldera
2366:caldera
2345:Réunion
2230:Kilauea
2199:Oceania
2126:(Italy)
2116:(Italy)
2110:(Italy)
2104:(Italy)
2066:Nisyros
2054:Samsari
2025:on the
2014:, Italy
1873:Ksudach
1863:Khangar
1764:Sumbawa
1728:Sumatra
1624:Jeju-do
1558:Kuttara
1521:Xiuying
1431:Caldera
1429:Chacana
1395:Ecuador
1368:Chaitén
1320:Jalisco
1303:Azufral
1251:(Yukon)
1243:Ontario
1150:Wyoming
1096:Kīlauea
1009:Bolivia
933:(Kenya)
856:Jupiter
795:Elysium
791:Tharsis
763:on the
732:hotspot
724:Jupiter
687:viscous
671:Kīlauea
628:in the
521:Miocene
421:in the
392:entrain
271:Tambora
247:Samosir
235:Sumatra
227:Landsat
180:caldera
155:caldera
150:Spanish
146:caldera
134:Kīlauea
52:caldera
5236:Portal
5100:Tephra
5085:Pumice
5055:Latite
5030:Dacite
5025:Cinder
5005:Basalt
4958:Tossol
4788:Tunnel
4773:Quarry
4768:Polder
4733:Bridge
4707:Tundra
4687:Desert
4609:Geyser
4563:Lagoon
4553:Island
4468:Cirque
4440:Valley
4430:Strait
4408:Rapids
4381:island
4351:Canyon
4323:Tundra
4318:Steppe
4292:Valley
4125:
4106:
4088:
4063:
4002:Lithos
3958:
3922:Icarus
3903:
3872:
3862:
3858:–212.
3764:
3756:
3712:
3588:18 May
3550:
3527:
3519:
3361:
3282:
3274:
3116:
2963:
2775:
2767:
2731:Nature
2714:
2658:
2650:
2596:
2339:, and
2234:Hawaii
2166:Furnas
2164:&
2096:Krafla
2035:Azores
2012:Naples
1968:Europe
1803:Russia
1789:Mardin
1744:Lombok
1610:Hakone
1600:Tazawa
1590:Towada
1514:Linhai
1495:Masaya
1491:Other
1338:Puebla
1314:Mexico
1259:Quebec
1198:Canada
1110:Hawaii
1100:Hawaii
1084:Oregon
1056:Alaska
963:Europe
902:Africa
864:Europa
718:, and
714:, the
683:basalt
679:Hawaii
543:Valles
539:eon).
523:, and
510:Eocene
381:tephra
365:basalt
357:silica
159:, and
121:crater
4853:Types
4763:Levee
4753:Ditch
4743:Canal
4614:Guyot
4533:Coast
4513:Atoll
4478:Fjord
4473:Esker
4463:Arête
4435:Swamp
4423:mouth
4418:delta
4413:River
4398:Oasis
4388:Levee
4366:Cliff
4346:Beach
4313:Plain
4282:Ridge
4270:range
4250:Butte
4223:Earth
4061:S2CID
3762:S2CID
3525:S2CID
3359:S2CID
3280:S2CID
2712:S2CID
2667:(PDF)
2656:S2CID
2620:(PDF)
2442:Asia
2407:, US)
2372:Venus
2236:, US)
2191:Corvo
2181:Faial
2090:Katla
2072:Askja
2010:near
1982:over
1785:Derik
1704:Batur
1680:Luzon
1564:Mashū
1542:Japan
1363:Chile
1223:Yukon
1140:Idaho
998:Galán
852:tidal
825:Venus
809:Venus
708:Venus
615:India
400:tuffs
353:magma
283:magma
269:(see
196:Teide
161:Latin
115:in a
100:kawl-
5125:Tuff
4898:Maar
4783:Road
4697:Dune
4523:Cape
4403:Pond
4376:Lake
4356:Cave
4260:Hill
4255:Flat
4123:ISBN
4104:ISBN
4086:ISBN
3956:ISBN
3901:ISBN
3870:OCLC
3860:ISBN
3792:2014
3780:"EO"
3754:PMID
3710:PMID
3672:BBC2
3655:2014
3590:2020
3548:OCLC
3517:PMID
3486:2020
3272:ISSN
3185:2014
3114:ISBN
3057:2014
2996:2015
2961:ISBN
2913:2020
2882:2020
2773:PMID
2765:ISSN
2648:PMID
2594:ISSN
2477:Maar
2359:Mars
1923:Uzon
1774:Java
1708:Bali
1505:Asia
1480:Xela
961:See
880:and
866:and
793:and
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