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are largely influenced by lobbying from lobster industry itself). Lobster is another resource that is sometimes considered vulnerable to overharvesting, and many people within the industry itself have been predicting a collapse for years. Nonetheless, the lobster industry has remained relatively unscathed by resource depletion. The state government of Maine establishes certain regulations, but they do not limit the number of licenses themselves. In practice there are many restrictive exclusionary systems that are generated, dictated, and upheld by the community through a series of "traditional fishing rights" that have been locally grandfathered in. One must obtain confirmation to fish from the community to actually be granted access. Once an individual is granted access, they are still only able to access the territories held by that community. Outsiders may be persuaded by threats of violence even. It is impossible to know if the lobster resource would have been sustainably used if there was more regulation, or without the internal regulation, but it is certainly being used sustainably in its current state of affairs. It also seems to be run relatively efficiently. This case study of Maine lobster fisheries reflects how a group was able to restrain access to a resource from outsiders, while regulating the communal use in an effective manner. This has allowed the local communities to reap the benefits of the rewards of their restrain for decades. Essentially, the local lobster fishers collaborate without much government intervention to sustain their common-pool resource.
472:, pollution and inequities, which also apply to knowledge. Then, effective alternatives (community-based, non-private, non-state), in line with those of natural commons (involving social rules, appropriate property rights and management structures), solutions are proposed. Thus, the commons metaphor is applied to social practice around knowledge. It is in this context that the present work proceeds, discussing the creation of depositories of knowledge through the organised, voluntary contributions of scholars (the research community, itself a social common), the problems that such knowledge commons might face (such as free-riding or disappearing assets), and the protection of knowledge commons from enclosure and commodification (in the form of intellectual property legislation, patenting, licensing and overpricing). At this point, it is important to note the nature of knowledge and its complex and multi-layered qualities of non-rivalry and non-excludability. Unlike natural commons – which are both rival and excludable (only one person can use any one item or portion at a time and in so doing they use it up, it is consumed) and characterised by scarcity (they can be replenished but there are limits to this, such that consumption/destruction may overtake production/creation) – knowledge commons are characterised by abundance (they are non-rival and non-excludable and thus, in principle, not scarce, so not impelling competition and compelling governance). This abundance of knowledge commons has been celebrated through alternative models of knowledge production, such as
238:. Community forest programs work by giving local areas a financial stake in nearby woodlands, and thereby increasing the incentive to protect them from overuse. Local institutions regulate harvesting and selling of timber and land, and must use any profit towards community development and preservation of the forests. In twenty years, some locals, especially in the middle hills, have noticed a visible increase in the number of trees, although other places have not seen tangible results, especially where opportunity costs to land are high. Community forestry may also contribute to community development in rural areas – for instance school construction, irrigation and drinking water channel construction, and road construction. Community forestry has proven conducive to democratic practices at grass roots level. Many Nepalese forest user groups generate income from the community forests, although the amount can vary widely among groups and is often invested in the community rather than flowing directly to individual households. Such income is generated from external sources involving the sales of timber from thinned pine plantations such as in the community forest user groups of Sindhu Palchok and Rachma, and internally in Nepal's mid-hills' broad leaf forests from membership fees, penalties and fines on rule-breakers, in addition to the sales of forest products. Some of the most significant benefits are that locals are able to use the products they gather directly in their own homes for subsistence use.
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traditional hierarchical structures of production, allowing for a higher collective benefit and a sustainable management of resources. Non-material resources are digitally reproducible and therefore can be shared at a low cost, contrary to physical resources which are quite limited. Shared resources represent in this context data, information, culture and knowledge which are produced and accessible online. In accordance with the "design global, manufacture local" approach digital commons may link the traditional commons theory with existing physical infrastructures. It further connects with the degrowth communities since transformations in use-value creation by employing new technologies, decoupling society from GDP growth and lower CO2 emissions, are envisioned. Moreover, as a decentralized approach, there is a strong emphasis on inclusion and democratic regulation which has led
Commons as an alternative, emancipatory and emerging form of social organization that goes beyond democratic capitalism. Accordingly, through the cooperation of diverse stakeholders and the equitable distribution of means of production, technological development becomes more accessible and bottom-up projects are fostered in communities.
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in harvesting whiting. Being a part of the cooperative gives them consistent access to the best whiting grounds in the area which allows them to be highly successful, sometimes even dominating regional whiting markets during the winter season. It is a relatively high price to be a member of the collective, which limits entry, while also establishing catching quotas for members. They prevent unlimited entry or access to cap the number of members that are allowed in the club. This is done through a closed membership policy, as well as having control over the docking spaces. This leads to exclude outsiders from entering the regional whiting market. The "quotas" are established based on what they estimate can be sold to the regional markets. It directly contrasts government imposed regulations which are typically considered to be inflexible by the fisherman in the local area. The cooperative on the other hand is considered to be effective and flexible in their sustainable use of the resources in the region.
496:"The common is not to be construed, therefore, as a particular kind of thing, asset or even social process, but as an unstable and malleable social relation between a particular self-defined social group and those aspects of its actually existing or yet-to-be-created social and/or physical environment deemed crucial to its life and livelihood. There is, in effect, a social practice of commoning. This practice produces or establishes a social relation with a common whose uses are either exclusive to a social group or partially or fully open to all and sundry. At the heart of the practice of commoning lies the principle that the relation between the social group and that aspect of the environment being treated as a common shall be both collective and non-commodified-off-limits to the logic of market exchange and market valuations."
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to what is known as a "tragedy of the commons". In the 1930s conservation laws were enacted which prohibited outsiders from trapping in the area, and reinforced locals' customary laws. This led to a restoration of the population and commerce that beavers provided by the 1950s. The experience of the 1920s is not an isolated incident in the community either. Business conflicts among fur trading companies has led to a couple other times of resource overuse, but gradually resource use was restored to a proper balance once local control was restored. This case study reflects how communal resource sharing can be effectively propagated by a community.
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was covered in "non-indigenous" plants. While constructing their homes, the locals decided to do something different: rather than erecting security walls to demarcate and guard their individual property, they would restore the fynbos and wetland ecology and establish a public communal garden. As stated by the locals, the initial plan was to build a "blueprint" for communal gardening that would serve as an example for other abandoned green areas, with the goal of "correcting the imbalances of apartheid" and "beautifying and dignifying".
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that are responsible to their communities. The notion of community is not understood as a "gated community", but as "a quality of relations, a principle of cooperation and responsibility to each other and the earth, the forests, the seas, the animals. In communalizing housework, one of the supporting pillars of human activity, it is imperative that this sphere is "not negated but revolutionized". Communalizing housework also serves to de-naturalize it as women's labour, which has been an important part of the
173:, but over which certain classes of manorial tenants and others held certain rights. By extension, the term "commons" has come to be applied to other resources which a community has rights or access to. The older texts use the word "common" to denote any such right, but more modern usage is to refer to particular rights of common, and to reserve the name "common" for the land over which the rights are exercised. A person who has a right in, or over, common land jointly with another or others is called a
512:, that is, the process of coming together to manage such resources. Commoning thus adds another dimension to the commons, acknowledging the social practices entailed in the process of establishing and governing a commons. These practices entail, for the community of commoners, the creation of a new way of living and acting together, thus involving a collective psychological shift: it also entails a process of subjectivization, where the commoners produce themselves as common subjects.
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rules. In the case of the commons, the community manages and sets the rules of access and use of the resource held in common: the fact of having a commons, then, does not mean that anyone is free to use the resource as they like. Studies by Ostrom and others have shown that managing a resource as a commons often has positive outcomes and avoids the so-called tragedy of the commons, a fact that Hardin overlooked.
3023:– Aalto University Special Interest Group SIG in the Commons (peer-production, co-production, co-governance, co-creation) and Public(s)services. The SIG addresses the relevance of the Commons as a framework to expand the understanding of emerging considerations for the design, provision and maintenance of public services and urban space. Helsinki, Finland.
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been an important source of food and commerce for the area since the fur trade began in 1670. Unfortunately, beavers are an easy target for resource degradation and depletion due to their colonies being easily spotted. Luckily, the area has grandfathered in many traditions, and stewards of the land to safeguard certain territories populations.
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proposed a definition of digital commons as "information and knowledge resources that are collectively created and owned or shared between or among a community and that tend to be non-exclusive, that is, be (generally freely) available to third parties. Thus, they are oriented to favor use and reuse,
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In 2005, the city re-zoned the
Northern shore of Zeekoevlei – a seasonal lake and wetland area – into smaller parcels of land that were bought by people from Grassy Park who shared experiences of oppression and marginalization during apartheid. After 10 years of being utilised as a landfill, the area
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is a method of collective responsibility and management for irrigation systems in desert areas. In New Mexico, a community-run organization known as
Acequia Associations supervises water in terms of diversion, distribution, utilization, and recycling, in order to reinforce agricultural traditions and
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in, especially, southern
Germany, Austria, and the alpine countries) were kept, in some parts, till the present. Some studies have compared the German and English dealings with the commons between late medieval times and the agrarian reforms of the 18th and 19th centuries. The UK was quite radical in
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The process of commoning the material means of reproduction of human life is most promising in the struggle to "disentangle our livelihoods not only from the world market but also from the war machine and prison system". One of the main aims of the process of commoning is to create "common subjects"
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introduced the concept by a hypothetical example of herders overusing a shared parcel of land on which they are each entitled to let their cows graze, to the detriment of all users of the common land. The same concept has been called the "tragedy of the fishers", when over-fishing could cause stocks
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Urban commons situates citizens as key players rather than public authorities, private markets and technologies. David Harvey (2012) defines the distinction between public spaces and urban commons. He highlights that the former is not to be equated automatically with urban commons. Public spaces and
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The information commons may help protect users of commons. Companies that pollute the environment release information about what they are doing. The
Corporate Toxics Information Project and information like the Toxic 100, a list of the top 100 polluters, helps people know what these corporations are
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Land is organised and managed cooperatively; outside enterprises are not involved in any way. The allotment association recognises lot holders as official members, granting them equal voting rights and shares. In turn, the association represents the land owners in various administrative proceedings.
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In Paris, France, there are over 1,200 free drinkable water fountains distributed throughout the city. The first 100 were donated by
Englishman Sir Richard Wallace (1818–1890) in 1872, called the Wallace fountains, and since then the Parisian water company "Eau du Paris" have put more of them around
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In the 1920s there was a massive influx of non-native trappers in the region due to a new railroad coming to the area, as well as an increase in fur prices at the time. The
Amerindian communities' lost control over these territories for a short time during this period which helped to eventually lead
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The use of "commons" for natural resources has its roots in
European intellectual history, where it referred to shared agricultural fields, grazing lands and forests that were, over a period of several hundred years, enclosed, claimed as private property for private use. In European political texts,
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Netherlands use international waters to conduct abortion. Also, in Italy, Obiezione Respinta movement collaboratively map spaces related to birth control such as pharmacies, consultors, hospitals, etc., through which users share their knowledge and experience of the place and provide access to
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Women have traditionally been at the forefront of struggles for commoning "as primary subjects of reproductive work". This proximity and dependence on communal natural resources has made women the most vulnerable by their privatization, and made them their most staunch defendants. Examples include:
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However, Hardin's (1968) argument has been widely criticized, since he is accused of having mistaken the commons, that is, resources held and managed in common by a community, with open access, that is, resources that are open to everyone but where it is difficult to restrict access or to establish
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The widespread success of the Maine lobster industry is often attributed to the willingness of Maine's lobstermen to uphold and support lobster conservation rules. These rules include harbor territories not recognized by the state, informal trap limits, and laws imposed by the state of Maine (which
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A trawl fishery in the Blight region, located in New York, provides a completely different example of a type of community-based solution to what is sometimes referred to as the dilemma or "tragedy of the commons". The multitude of fishermen in the region make up a fishing cooperative who specialize
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As reproductive rights over unwanted pregnancies have been denied in many countries for many years, several resistance groups used diverse commoning strategies in order to provide women safe and affordable abortion. Care, knowledge, and pills have been made commons against abortion restriction. In
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Because of its immense size, governance is extremely difficult. Currently, the project spans 6-7 ha, potentially even more. Its proximity to a busy road and hundreds of residential homes exacerbates the traffic issue. In addition to the disregard shown by the city administration, the neighbourhood
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Hunting wildlife territories in James Bay, Quebec; located in the northeastern part of Canada, provide an example of resources being effectively shared by a community. There is an extensive heritage of local customaries that are used to effectively regulate beaver hunting in the region. Beaver has
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About 50,000 plants were planted (and "weeds" eradicated) along Bottom Road over the course of four years, drawing bees, birds, dragonflies, and toads in addition to humans through the addition of walkways, benches, and areas for barbecues. Here, management is done by the locals themselves, often
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due to livestock grazing in the regions of
Mongolia, Russia, and China. In Mongolia, where shepherds were permitted to move collectively between seasonal grazing pastures, degradation remained relatively low at approximately 9%. Comparatively, Russia and China, which mandated state-owned pastures
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as it sought to re-brand itself "the environmental guardian of the planet", she argues that it is important to adopt a commons discourse that actively resists this re-branding. Secondly, articulations of the commons, although historically present and multiple have struggled to come together as a
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along with her colleague Charlotte Hess, did succeed in extending the commons debate to knowledge, approaching knowledge as a complex ecosystem that operates as a common – a shared resource that is subject to social dilemmas and political debates. The focus here was on the ready availability of
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resources accessible to all members of a society, including natural materials such as air, water, and a habitable Earth. These resources are held in common even when owned privately or publicly. Commons can also be understood as natural resources that groups of people (communities, user groups)
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for people who have to travel for abortion which is considered illegal in their places of origins, and with New York Abortion Access Fund, they are able to provide them with medical and financial assistance. Underground networks outside medical service establishments are where women's networks
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The majority of allotment land in Stockholm is owned by the local municipality, and leaseholds are set for extended periods of time (up to 25 years). The local allotment association makes the decisions about who gets land rights. Only residents of multifamily homes inside the municipality were
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has proposed a 'sky trust' to fix this tragedic problem in worldwide generic commons. He claims that the sky belongs to all the people, and companies do not have a right to over pollute. It is a type of cap and dividend program. Ultimately the goal would be to make polluting excessively more
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in Barcelona were public spaces that transformed to an urban commons as people protested there to support their political statements. Streets are public spaces that have often become an urban commons by social action and revolutionary protests. Urban commons are operating in the cities in a
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Following the narrative of post-growth, the digital commons can present a model of progress that guide commoners to build counter-power in the economic and political field. Being able to digitally share knowledge and resources through internet platforms is a new capacity that challenges the
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The nine residents and the city's conservation managers signed an agreement that allowed the residents to incorporate the public shoreline area into the rehabilitation project, even though the city had retained the area closest to the shoreline as public property. Meanwhile, the city saw an
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In the Stockholm region, green spaces are predominantly owned and managed in either private or municipal forms, allotment gardens being the most common form. The system provide cultural ecosystem services to lot holders, as well as the offer of vegetables, fruits, and ornamental flowers.
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the common wealth was the totality of the material riches of the world, such as the air, the water, the soil and the seed, all nature's bounty regarded as the inheritance of humanity as a whole, to be shared together. In this context, one may go back further, to the Roman legal category
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unified front. For the latter to happen she argues that a "commoning" or "commons" movement that is effectively able to resist capitalist forms of organizing labour and our livelihoods must look to women to take the lead in organizing the collectivization of our daily lives and the
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It has been said the dissolution of the traditional land commons played a watershed role in landscape development and cooperative land use patterns and property rights. However, as in the British Isles, such changes took place over several centuries as a result of land
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among a group of colleagues, such as in a producers' cooperative. The precision of this distinction is not always maintained. Others conflate open access areas with commons; however, open access areas can be used by anybody while the commons has a defined set of users.
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Allied to this is the "comedy of the commons" concept, where users of the commons are able to develop mechanisms to police their use to maintain, and possibly improve, the state of the commons. This term was coined in an essay by legal scholar, Carol M. Rose, in 1986.
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Basu, Soutrik; Jongerden, Joost; Ruivenkamp, Guido (August 2017). "The emergence of a hybrid mode of knowledge production in the Generation Challenge Programme Rice Research Network (GCP-RRN) in India: Exploring the concept of Commons-Based Peer Production (CBPP)".
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In the post-apartheid metropolis of Cape Town, South Africa, the history of land rights is particularly noticeable since a large number of residents have vivid memories of being forcibly evacuated from their homes or of being assigned to live in specific regions.
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Basu, S (2014). An alternative imagination to study commons: beyond state and beyond scientific establishment. Paper presented at the 2nd International Conference on Knowledge Commons for Sustainable Agricultural Innovations. Maringá, Brazil: Maringá State
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digital forms of knowledge and associated possibilities to store, access and share it as a common. The connection between knowledge and commons may be made through identifying typical problems associated with natural resource commons, such as congestion,
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involving immobile settlements and in some cases privatization by household, had much higher degradation, at around 75% and 33% respectively. A collaborative effort on the part of Mongolians proved much more efficient in preserving grazing land.
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the city, this give people living Paris and tourists all around the world access to free drinkable fresh water in Paris. Since then, many other countries like Spain, Brazil, Italy or Portugal have put these fountains on a lower scale.
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While the original work on the tragedy of the commons concept suggested that all commons were doomed to failure, they remain important in the modern world. Work by later economists has found many examples of successful commons, and
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Urban commons present the opportunity for the citizens to gain power upon the management of the urban resources and reframe city-life costs based on their use value and maintenance costs, rather than the market-driven value.
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of the article "The Tragedy of the Commons", that the term gained relevance. Hardin introduced this tragedy as a social dilemma, and aimed at exposing the inevitability of failure that he saw in the commons.
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The Drama of the Commons By Committee on the Human Dimensions of Global Change, National Research Council, Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education, Board on Environmental Change and Society
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doing away with and enclosing former commons, while southwestern Germany (and the alpine countries as e.g. Switzerland) had the most advanced commons structures, and were more inclined to keep them. The
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preserve water as a common resource for future generations. The Congreso de las Acequias has since 1990s, is a statewide federation that represents several hundred acequia systems in New Mexico.
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manage for individual and collective benefit. Characteristically, this involves a variety of informal norms and values (social practice) employed for a governance mechanism. Commons can also be
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rather than to exchange as a commodity. Additionally, the community of people building them can intervene in the governing of their interaction processes and of their shared resources."
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articulates a feminist perspective of the commons in her essay "Feminism and the Politics of the Commons". Since the language around the commons has been largely appropriated by the
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oversee the abortion and assist each other physically or emotionally by sharing the knowledge of herbalism or home abortion. These underground groups operate under codenames like
449:, urban farms on the rooftops and cultural spaces. More recently participatory studies of commons and infrastructures under the conditions of the financial crisis have emerged.
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Linebaugh, Peter, and Marcus Rediker. (2000). The Many-Headed Hydra: Sailors, Slaves, Commoners, and the Hidden History of the Revolutionary Atlantic (Boston: Beacon Press)
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Basu, S (2016). Knowledge production, Agriculture and Commons: The case of Generation Challenge Programme. (PhD Thesis). Netherlands: Wageningen University. Retrieved from
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Based on a research project by the Environmental and Cultural Conservation in Inner Asia (ECCIA) from 1992 to 1995, satellite images were used to compare the amount of
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Bowers, Chet. (2012). The Way Forward: Educational Reforms that Focus on the Cultural Commons and the Linguistic Roots of the Ecological Crisis. Eco-Justice Press.
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permitted to sign contracts, signifying a commitment to the original goals of allotments, which were to enhance the health of city dwellers in outdoor settings.
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has deteriorated as a result of people setting up barbecues at random and cars driving around freely, both of which have been linked to criminal activity.
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Kostakis, Vasilis and Bauwens, Michel. (2014). Network Society and Future Scenarios for a Collaborative Economy. (Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan). (
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Newfont, Kathyn. (2012). Blue Ridge Commons: Environmental Activism and Forest History in Western North Carolina (The University of Georgia Press)
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of governing a resource not by state or market but by a community of users that self-governs the resource through institutions that it creates.
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Eynaud, Philippe; Juan, Maïté; Mourey, Damien (2018). "Participatory Art as a Social Practice of Commoning to Reinvent the Right to the City".
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The Digital Library of the Commons defines "commons" as "a general term for shared resources in which each stakeholder has an equal interest".
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have stated; "Prior to the publication of Hardin's article on the tragedy of the commons (1968), titles containing the words 'the commons', '
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sphere. These commons include literature, music, arts, design, film, video, television, radio, information, software and sites of heritage.
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Kennedy, Kennedy. (2008). Diggers, Levellers, and Agrarian Capitalism: Radical Political Thought in 17th Century England (Lexington Books)
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Bresnihan, P. et Byrne, M. (2015). Escape into the city: Everyday practices of communing and the production of urban space in Dublin.
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by a contributor community in the form of encyclopedic knowledge that can be freely accessed by anyone without a central authority.
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Bowers, Chet. (2006). Revitalizing the Commons: Cultural and Educational Sites of Resistance and Affirmation. Lexington Books.
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Neeson, J. M. (1996). Commoners: Common Right, Enclosure and Social Change in England, 1700–1820 (Cambridge University Press)
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Price, Richard, ed. (1979). Maroon Societies: Rebel Slave Communities in the Americas (The Johns Hopkins University Press)
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The end of the commons as a watershed' The Age of Ecology, Joachim Radkau, John Wiley & Sons, 3 April 2014, p. 15 ff
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Linebaugh, Peter. (2008). The Magna Carta Manifesto: Liberties and Commons for All (University of California Press)
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to plummet. Forster's pamphlet was little known, and it wasn't until 1968, with the publication by the ecologist
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Colding, Johan; Barthel, Stephan; Bendt, Pim; Snep, Robbert; van der Knaap, Wim; Ernstson, Henrik (2013-10-01).
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for analysing situations where they operate successfully. For example, Ostrom found that grazing commons in the
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Rowe, Jonathan. (2013). Our Common Wealth: The Hidden Economy That Makes Everything Else Work (Berrett-Koehler)
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Hill, Christopher. (1984). The World Turned Upside Down: Radical Ideas During the English Revolution (Penguin)
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Hill, Christopher. (2006). Winstanley 'The Law of Freedom' and other Writings (Cambridge University Press)
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Governance of online creation communities: Provision of infrastructure for the building of digital commons
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in the Wiki-Commons is avoided by community control by individual authors within the Knowledge community.
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took an intermediate position. However, the UK and the former dominions have till today a large amount of
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Mitchel, John Hanson. (1998). Trespassing: An Inquiry into the Private Ownership of Land (Perseus Books)
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Harvey, Neil. (1998). The Chiapas Rebellion: The Struggle for Land and Democracy (Duke University Press)
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De Angelis, Massimo (2010-08-17). "The Production of Commons and the "Explosion" of the Middle Class".
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Simon, Martin. (2014). Your Money or Your Life: time for both. Social Commons. (Freedom Favours)
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Rexroth, Kenneth. (1974). Communalism: From Its Origins to the Twentieth Century (Seabury Press)
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This article is about the term "commons" in political economics. For the Wikimedia project, see
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3310:
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1955:
https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/id/2e3f561d-b1f5-4e7c-8da3-ccab0f00501d/UWP-033-REVISED.pdf
1933:
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2908:
Hyde, Lewis. (2010). Common as Air: Revolution, Art and Ownership (Farrar, Straus and Giroux)
2773:
Azzellini, Dario (2018). "Labour as a Commons: The Example of Worker-Recuperated Companies".
2119:
974:
959:
866:
690:
536:
2921:
Leaming, Hugo P. (1995). Hidden Americans: Maroons of Virginia and the Carolinas (Routledge)
441:
318:
opportunity to restore the fynbos and provided labour and plants for clearing and planting.
5701:
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1505:
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Vergleichende Studien zum Spätmittelalter bis zu den Agrarreformen des 18./19. Jahrhunderts
437:
386:
112:
97:
1855:"Avoiding Tragedy in the Wiki-Commons", by Andrew George, 12 Va. J.L. & Tech. 8 (2007)
8:
5696:
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1293:
853:
768:
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with assistance from the local government, through paid employees and voluntary labour.
5706:
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5053:
4958:
4713:
4598:
4352:
3998:
3322:
3119:
2890:
Fourier, Charles. (1996). The Theory of the Four Movements (Cambridge University Press)
2879:
2790:
2633:"The abortion underground: Groups quietly help women who have to travel to access care"
2292:
2052:
2002:
1839:
1813:
1656:"Local Control and Management of Our Water Commons: Stories of Rising to the Challenge"
1539:
1467:
1072:
953:
820:
789:
737:
370:
186:
2858:
Dellenbaugh, et al. (2015). Urban Commons: Moving beyond State and Market. Birkhäuser.
2485:
5753:
5678:
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5021:
4868:
4818:
4754:
4708:
4594:
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2721:
2414:
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2314:
2265:
2255:
2216:
2212:
1965:
1843:
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1531:
1471:
1419:
1395:
1311:
1198:
1188:
906:
802:
625:
458:
170:
20:
2106:
2056:
2006:
1786:
1716:
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1231:
126:, applied to things common to all to be used and enjoyed by everyone, as opposed to
5628:
5587:
5570:
5457:
5355:
4887:
4791:
4675:
4558:
4533:
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4273:
4200:
3968:
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3585:
3525:
3278:
3164:
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3139:
3109:
2871:
2815:
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2713:
2208:
2177:
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2044:
1994:
1831:
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1523:
1459:
1342:
1301:
1272:
1262:
1156:
1116:
1077:
1047:
1020:
989:
984:
925:
416:
278:
202:
108:
2980:
Shantz, Jeff. (2013). Commonist Tendencies: Mutual Aid Beyond Communism. (Punctum)
2048:
1998:
1463:
1217:
428:
goods in the city make a commons when part of the citizens take political action.
5645:
5611:
5497:
5477:
5387:
5036:
5002:
4936:
4733:
4718:
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3833:
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3558:
3459:
3159:
3144:
3020:
2093:
2020:
https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12657/47378/1/9783839454244.pdf
1527:
1389:
1294:"Resilient Commoning: The Reproduction of the Basque Commons in the Longue Durée"
1082:
1052:
825:
759:
732:
675:
670:
635:
615:
429:
409:
2031:
Kostakis, Vasilis; Latoufis, Kostas; Liarokapis, Minas; Bauwens, Michel (2018).
1981:
Kostakis, Vasilis; Latoufis, Kostas; Liarokapis, Minas; Bauwens, Michel (2018).
5686:
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5462:
5447:
5442:
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5009:
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4563:
4090:
3916:
3687:
3670:
3607:
3580:
3563:
3252:
3185:
3149:
3129:
2971:
Proudhon, Pierre-Joseph. (1994). What is Property? (Cambridge University Press)
2893:
1025:
1010:
829:
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727:
695:
660:
645:
630:
605:
541:
469:
166:
85:
2875:
2757:
2269:
2252:
Revolution at point zero : housework, reproduction, and feminist struggle
1915:
5747:
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5487:
5377:
5334:
5115:
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4878:
4828:
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3702:
3379:
3359:
3300:
3217:
3114:
2999:
2943:
2939:
2786:
2717:
2486:"The Comedy of the Commons: Commerce, Custom, and Inherently Public Property"
2438:
2220:
1794:
1631:"Community Forestry Programs in Nepal and their Effects on Poorer Households"
1426:
1315:
1202:
910:
900:
710:
705:
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575:
464:
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382:
93:
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have been run successfully for many hundreds of years by the farmers there.
5452:
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4929:
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3449:
3352:
3337:
3180:
1535:
870:
842:
640:
485:
122:
46:
45:
Sheep grazing on common pasture, a stereotypical environmental commons, at
4210:
2377:
Governing the Commons: The Evolution of Institutions for Collective Action
1182:
1002:– Account of historical and present common land use, mainly British Isles.
5548:
5492:
5314:
5292:
5287:
5154:
5031:
4997:
4985:
4873:
4796:
4330:
4225:
3946:
3746:
3631:
3520:
3495:
3483:
3464:
3347:
3327:
3237:
3134:
2443:
The Zero Marginal Cost Society: The Internet of Things, the Collaborative
1835:
1067:
1015:
999:
979:
721:
579:
343:
162:
152:
81:
31:
3048:
2864:
Voluntas: International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit Organizations
1587:
Capturing the Commons: Devising Institutions to Manage the Maine Lobster
5655:
5472:
5430:
5372:
5341:
4980:
4912:
4850:
4823:
4786:
4372:
4245:
4039:
3926:
3543:
3124:
2296:
1306:
1057:
763:
700:
665:
583:
190:
80:
The term "commons" derives from the traditional English legal term for
2896:. (2001). Free-Born John: A Biography of John Lilburne (Phoenix Press)
2588:
2309:
Samuel Bowles: Microeconomics: Behavior, Institutions, and Evolution,
1277:
1184:
Rebel cities : from the right to the city to the urban revolution
795:
5538:
5420:
5228:
5223:
5201:
5090:
5083:
4902:
4897:
4804:
4781:
3940:
3741:
3692:
3675:
3613:
3595:
3369:
3283:
2930:
Lummis, Douglas. (1997). Radical Democracy (Cornell University Press)
2820:
2803:
2413:. Washington D.C: Corporation for Enterprise Development. p. 1.
1347:
1330:
1329:
Basu, Soutrik; Jongerden, Joost; Ruivenkamp, Guido (March 17, 2017).
1161:
1144:
1005:
715:
680:
620:
554:
378:
339:
4644:
3006:
1267:
1250:
1143:
Basu, Soutrik; Jongerden, Joost; Ruivenkamp, Guido (17 March 2017).
819:
New York, U.S., the group Haven Coalition volunteer provide pre and
100:', or 'common property' were very rare in the academic literature."
5665:
5233:
5159:
5100:
5095:
5043:
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4924:
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3828:
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3332:
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994:
445:
complementary way with the state and the market. Some examples are
335:
35:
2682:
1818:
5329:
5324:
5270:
5176:
5105:
4948:
4749:
3781:
3575:
3568:
3433:
2994:
IASC - The International Association for the Study of the Commons
2030:
1980:
1394:. Cambridge University Press. p. 90, ff in the German text.
848:
785:
260:
57:
3042:
2613:"New York Abortion Access Fund | Connecting Rights to Resources"
2107:
Rebel cities: from the right to the city to the urban revolution
1771:"Urban green commons: Insights on urban common property systems"
1741:
5382:
5347:
5171:
5127:
4975:
4773:
3756:
3708:
3477:
2993:
2096:. (2017). Mountain View: Shareable. Retrieved December 28, 2017
920:
895:
565:
expensive than cleaning what is being put into the atmosphere.
61:
3013:
2829:
143:
The examples below illustrate types of environmental commons.
5415:
5255:
5181:
4968:
3845:
3441:
3032:
2283:
Lloyd, William Forster (1833). "Two Lectures on Population".
2145:
880:
104:
193:
which often is used for community or conservation purposes.
5360:
5216:
5211:
5191:
5065:
5016:
4860:
3059:
3054:
3026:
2965:
Patel, Raj. (2010). The Value of Nothing (Portobello Books)
891:
500:
Some authors distinguish between the resources shared (the
2236:"Commoning: a different way of living and acting together"
1494:"Revisiting the Commons: Local Lessons, Global Challenges"
272:
5319:
4963:
3818:
2612:
774:
3895:
The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State
130:, applied to public property managed by the government.
2801:
2162:
1768:
1742:"Wallace Fountains of Paris - Home - Wallace Fountains"
1328:
1142:
2071:
What makes urban commons different from other commons?
1043:
International Association for the Study of the Commons
1570:
Berkes, F. et al. 1989. The Benefits of the Commons.
1391:
Nature and Power: A Global History of the Environment
2853:
Infrastructural gap: Commons, State and Anthropology
2133:
Infrastructural Gap: Commons, State and Anthropology
1976:
1974:
1950:
1948:
1764:
1762:
1440:"State Policy and Pasture Degradation in Inner Asia"
836:
329:
1251:"Traditions and Trends in the Study of the Commons"
342:is an example of the production and maintenance of
304:
254:
1966:https://policyreview.info/concepts/digital-commons
1414:Hartmut Zückert, "Allmende und Allmendaufhebung".
828:in Chicago or Renata in Arizona. Some groups like
2329:Hardin, G. (1968). "The tragedy of the commons".
1971:
1945:
1759:
859:
287:
5745:
4120:
2861:
2802:Basu, S.; Jongerden, J.; Ruivenkamp, G. (2017).
2233:Euler, J. & Gauditz, L. (23 February 2017).
334:Today, the commons are also understood within a
1248:
1215:Classical theory based on Elinor Ostrom's book
1910:Fuster Morell, M. (2010, p. 5). Dissertation:
4660:
4106:
3075:
2374:
2122:" (personal communication, November 9, 2016)
1249:Laerhoven, Frank Van; Ostrom, Elinor (2007).
813:
229:
2659:"Inside the top-secret abortion underground"
2370:
2368:
2087:Sharing Cities: activating the Urban Commons
1138:
1136:
808:
236:decentralize government control over forests
72:
2464:"Remembering Elinor Ostrom, Nobel Laureate"
1916:http://www.onlinecreation.info/?page_id=338
1653:
1034:" – essay on the open source economic model
242:Beaver Hunting in James Bay, Quebec, Canada
220:
66:
4667:
4653:
4113:
4099:
3082:
3068:
2712:(1 ed.). Cambridge University Press.
2522:"Feminism and the Politics of the Commons"
2190:
535:, originated in the 18th century. In 1833
2819:
2772:
2479:
2477:
2432:
2430:
2365:
1817:
1810:Crowdsourcing, Attention and Productivity
1517:
1346:
1305:
1276:
1266:
1160:
1133:
833:information that is difficult to obtain.
796:"Feminist Reconstructions" of the Commons
520:
479:
138:
2656:
2554:Feminism and the Politics of the Commons
2519:
2249:
1807:
754:
415:
404:
40:
2705:
2548:
2546:
2544:
2542:
2349:"The Tragedy of the Commons, Revisited"
1717:"The iconic Wallace fountains in Paris"
1613:"Community Forestry in India and Nepal"
1583:
273:Free drinkable water fountains in Paris
196:
161:the common was an integral part of the
88:in an influential 1968 article called "
5746:
2474:
2427:
2408:
2346:
1866:"Corporate Toxics Information Project"
1714:
1491:
1437:
1387:
1383:
1381:
1180:
775:Women and the struggle for the Commons
180:In middle Europe, commons (relatively
5764:Environmental social science concepts
4674:
4648:
4094:
3063:
2282:
1926:
1610:
1566:
1564:
1562:
1560:
1291:
1114:
568:
531:A commons failure theory, now called
3037:Economics and the Commons Conference
3007:International Journal of the Commons
2808:International Journal of the Commons
2539:
2483:
1871:Political Economy Research Institute
1692:"¡Viva la Acequia! | On the Commons"
1388:Radkau, Joachim (11 February 2008).
1335:International Journal of the Commons
1255:International Journal of the Commons
1176:
1174:
1172:
1149:International Journal of the Commons
1110:
1108:
593:
515:
452:
146:
1611:Mehta, Trupti Ambrish (June 2002).
1590:. University Press of New England.
1378:
1355:
788:(money commons) and collectivizing
165:, and was thus legally part of the
13:
2737:
2436:
2393:
1557:
359:
234:In the late 1980s, Nepal chose to
14:
5775:
2987:
2285:Population and Development Review
1927:Berry, David (21 February 2005).
1169:
1121:The Commons Social Change Library
1105:
939:Movement for Justice en el Barrio
837:Historical land commons movements
330:Cultural and intellectual commons
103:Some texts make a distinction in
5728:
5727:
4604:
4603:
4593:
4209:
4062:
4061:
2706:Heiberg, Marianne (1989-09-07).
2353:Scientific American Blog Network
2213:10.1111/j.1467-8330.2010.00783.x
1361:
1232:"Digital Library Of The Commons"
877:Bhumi Uchhed Pratirodh Committee
396:
377:Examples of digital commons are
305:Urban green commons in Cape Town
255:Irrigation systems of New Mexico
4378:Science, technology and society
2709:The Making of the Basque Nation
2699:
2675:
2650:
2625:
2605:
2581:
2563:
2513:
2504:
2456:
2402:
2340:
2323:
2303:
2276:
2243:
2227:
2184:
2156:
2138:
2125:
2112:
2099:
2080:
2069:Dellenbaugh-Losse, M. (2017). "
2063:
2024:
2013:
1959:
1920:
1904:
1888:
1882:
1858:
1849:
1801:
1787:10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2013.05.006
1734:
1708:
1684:
1647:
1623:
1604:
1577:
1485:
1431:
1408:
1187:. New York: Verso. p. 73.
3627:Right of way (property access)
2379:. Cambridge University Press.
2178:10.1016/j.geoforum.2017.06.008
1808:Huberman, Bernardo A. (2008),
1322:
1285:
1242:
1224:
1209:
886:Electronic Frontier Foundation
860:Contemporary commons movements
784:, credit associations such as
288:Allotment gardens in Stockholm
92:". As Frank van Laerhoven and
1:
3049:The Commons Transition Primer
2077:. Retrieved December 28, 2017
2049:10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.09.077
2037:Journal of Cleaner Production
1999:10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.09.077
1987:Journal of Cleaner Production
1464:10.1126/science.281.5380.1147
1099:
474:Commons-based peer production
4693:Pollution / quality
4122:Environmental social science
3089:
3043:The Commons Strategies Group
3014:Infrastructuring the Commons
2952:. Harvard University Press.
2763:Resources in other libraries
2439:"10 – Comedy of the Commons"
1874:. PERI-Umass. Archived from
1528:10.1126/science.284.5412.278
67:defined as a social practice
7:
4161:Environmental communication
3933:Two Treatises of Government
3033:The Peer to Peer Foundation
1775:Global Environmental Change
1292:Olsen, Jonah (2024-07-09).
1115:Smith, E. T. (2024-01-23).
967:
366:Digital commons (economics)
210:Trawl Fisheries of New York
10:
5780:
4146:Environmental anthropology
3000:Foundation for common land
2560:. Retrieved April 25, 2020
2490:Faculty Scholarship Series
2311:Princeton University Press
1088:Tyranny of small decisions
1038:Tragedy of the anticommons
933:Landless Workers' Movement
917:Homeless Workers' Movement
814:Abortion and Birth Control
524:
456:
412:in Athens as urban commons
363:
356:doing to the environment.
276:
258:
230:Community forests in Nepal
150:
90:The Tragedy of the Commons
29:
18:
5723:
5664:
5529:
5522:
5403:
5264:Types / location
5263:
5254:
5064:
4859:
4772:
4742:
4691:
4682:
4589:
4438:
4218:
4207:
4128:
4057:
3854:
3656:
3536:
3429:
3422:
3271:
3228:
3173:
3097:
2876:10.1007/s11266-018-0006-y
2758:Resources in your library
2558:The Wealth of the Commons
2526:The Wealth of the Commons
2250:Federici, Silvia (2012).
809:Feminist Commons Movement
423:in Cairo as urban commons
73:Definition and modern use
4176:Environmental psychology
3985:The Great Transformation
3343:Labor theory of property
2787:10.1177/0896920516661856
2718:10.1017/cbo9780511558023
2131:Dalakoglou, D. (2016). "
1715:Pierre (9 August 2018).
1093:The Goose and the Common
943:United States of America
221:Lobster fishery of Maine
30:Not to be confused with
25:Commons (disambiguation)
4181:Environmental sociology
4156:Environmental economics
4136:Ecological anthropology
3554:Forest-dwelling (India)
3516:restraint on alienation
3296:Common good (economics)
2571:"Caliban and the Witch"
2484:Rose, Carol M. (1986).
1663:www.ourwatercommons.org
1654:Davidson-Harden, Adam.
1584:Acheson, James (2004).
1492:Ostrom, Elinor (1999).
1063:Public good (economics)
782:subsistence agriculture
182:small-scale agriculture
133:
4171:Environmental politics
3993:Pierre-Joseph Proudhon
3767:Primitive accumulation
3622:Right of way (transit)
3407:Tragedy of the commons
3289:fictitious commodities
2851:Dalakoglou, Dimitris "
2552:Federici, S. (2012). "
2409:Barnes, Peter (2000).
2375:Elinor Ostrom (2015).
1934:Free Software Magazine
1438:Sneath, David (1998).
1181:Harvey, David (2012).
1117:"Practising Commoning"
948:Narmada Bachao Andolan
533:tragedy of the commons
527:Tragedy of the commons
521:Tragedy of the commons
498:
488:have adopted the term
480:Commoning as a process
424:
413:
350:Tragedy of the commons
139:Environmental resource
49:
23:. For other uses, see
4266:Ecological humanities
4166:Environmental history
4046:The Wealth of Nations
4026:Jean-Jacques Rousseau
4018:The Ethics of Liberty
2520:Federici, S. (2012).
2254:. Between the Lines.
2120:The city as a commons
960:Cosmopolitan localism
867:Abahlali baseMjondolo
755:Feminist perspectives
691:William Forster Lloyd
537:William Forster Lloyd
494:
419:
408:
98:common pool resources
44:
5639:remnant natural area
5276:storage and recovery
4942:habitat conservation
4760:Deforestation (REDD)
4358:Integrated geography
4236:Behavioral geography
4141:Ecological economics
3909:Progress and Poverty
3243:Common-pool resource
2848:(1), pp. 36–54.
2683:"Obiezione Respinta"
2657:Liss-Schultz, Nina.
2105:Harvey, D. (2013). "
1941:on 15 December 2009.
1891:"Justice in the Air"
1836:10.2139/ssrn.1266996
1746:wallacefountains.org
1696:www.onthecommons.org
1236:dlc.dlib.indiana.edu
508:who governs it, and
502:common-pool resource
438:Maidan Nezalezhnosti
387:open-source hardware
197:Mongolian grasslands
113:collective ownership
5593:Earth Overshoot Day
5167:Marine conservation
5148:non-timber products
4629:Research institutes
4151:Environmental crime
4032:The Social Contract
3720:population transfer
3637:prior-appropriation
3316:homestead principle
2347:Frischmann, Brett.
2313:, pp. 27–29 (2004)
2205:2010Antip..42..954D
1828:2008arXiv0809.3030H
1510:1999Sci...284..278.
1456:1998Sci...281.1147S
1450:(5380): 1147–1148.
769:means of production
447:community gardening
111:of the commons and
5578:Ecosystem services
4701:Ambient standards
4599:Environment portal
4353:Industrial ecology
4012:Murray N. Rothbard
3323:Free-rider problem
3019:2013-05-26 at the
2775:Critical Sociology
2687:Obiezione Respinta
2337:(3859), 1243-1248.
2135:". City vol. 6 (2)
2092:2017-12-29 at the
1574:, vol. 340: 91–93.
1427:review (in German)
1307:10.1111/anti.13077
1073:Reproductive labor
1032:The Magic Cauldron
975:Citizen's dividend
954:Take Back the Land
821:post abortion care
790:reproductive labor
738:Gerrard Winstanley
569:Successful commons
442:Plaza de Catalunya
425:
414:
371:Mayo Fuster Morell
187:Lower Rhine region
50:
5741:
5740:
5719:
5718:
5518:
5517:
5197:genetic resources
5133:genetic resources
4768:
4767:
4676:Natural resources
4642:
4641:
4481:Green criminology
4241:Community studies
4196:Political ecology
4088:
4087:
3999:What Is Property?
3792:human trafficking
3777:Regulatory taking
3652:
3651:
3397:Right to property
2744:Library resources
2727:978-0-521-36103-3
2589:"Haven Coalition"
2420:978-1-883187-32-3
2261:978-1-77113-494-1
1504:(5412): 278–282.
1424:978-3-8282-0226-9
1401:978-0-521-85129-9
1194:978-1-84467-882-2
909:primarily in the
907:Geolibertarianism
803:feminist struggle
626:George Caffentzis
594:Notable theorists
516:Economic theories
484:Scholars such as
459:Knowledge commons
453:Knowledge commons
440:in Kyiv, and the
171:lord of the manor
147:European land use
21:Wikimedia Commons
5771:
5731:
5730:
5682:
5629:Natural heritage
5588:overexploitation
5527:
5526:
5261:
5260:
5207:herbal medicines
5187:FAO Plant Treaty
4727:
4704:
4689:
4688:
4669:
4662:
4655:
4646:
4645:
4607:
4606:
4597:
4529:natural resource
4213:
4201:Regional science
4115:
4108:
4101:
4092:
4091:
4065:
4064:
3969:John Stuart Mill
3889:Friedrich Engels
3870:Frédéric Bastiat
3863:
3715:Forced migration
3683:Collectivization
3427:
3426:
3306:First possession
3279:Bundle of rights
3084:
3077:
3070:
3061:
3060:
2887:
2825:
2823:
2821:10.18352/ijc.673
2798:
2781:(4–5): 763–776.
2732:
2731:
2703:
2697:
2696:
2694:
2693:
2679:
2673:
2672:
2670:
2669:
2654:
2648:
2647:
2645:
2644:
2639:. September 2019
2629:
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2511:
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2502:
2501:
2499:
2497:
2481:
2472:
2471:
2460:
2454:
2453:
2451:
2449:
2437:Rifkin, Jeremy.
2434:
2425:
2424:
2406:
2400:
2397:
2391:
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2372:
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2362:
2360:
2359:
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2188:
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2142:
2136:
2129:
2123:
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2110:
2109:". London: Verso
2103:
2097:
2084:
2078:
2067:
2061:
2060:
2028:
2022:
2017:
2011:
2010:
1978:
1969:
1963:
1957:
1952:
1943:
1942:
1937:. Archived from
1924:
1918:
1908:
1902:
1901:
1895:
1886:
1880:
1879:
1862:
1856:
1853:
1847:
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1805:
1799:
1798:
1781:(5): 1039–1051.
1766:
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1727:
1712:
1706:
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1688:
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1679:
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1671:
1665:. Archived from
1660:
1651:
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1627:
1621:
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1581:
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1498:Science Magazine
1489:
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1444:Science Magazine
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1162:10.18352/ijc.673
1140:
1131:
1130:
1128:
1127:
1112:
1078:Social ownership
1048:Municipalization
1021:Homo reciprocans
990:Creative Commons
985:Common ownership
962:or cosmolocalism
926:The Land is Ours
854:Kett's Rebellion
843:The Carlist Wars
720:John Platt (see
686:Vasilis Kostakis
279:Wallace fountain
203:land degradation
159:medieval England
109:common ownership
16:Shared resources
5779:
5778:
5774:
5773:
5772:
5770:
5769:
5768:
5744:
5743:
5742:
5737:
5715:
5680:
5660:
5646:Systems ecology
5612:Natural capital
5514:
5399:
5388:reclaimed water
5250:
5212:UPOV Convention
5060:
4855:
4764:
4738:
4734:Ozone depletion
4725:
4702:
4678:
4673:
4643:
4638:
4585:
4434:
4405:Systems ecology
4389:Sustainability
4383:science studies
4368:Rural sociology
4214:
4205:
4191:Human geography
4124:
4119:
4089:
4084:
4053:
3857:
3856:
3850:
3800:husband-selling
3737:Illegal logging
3732:Illegal fishing
3661:
3648:
3559:Freedom to roam
3532:
3445:(agrarian land)
3418:
3375:Property rights
3267:
3224:
3186:Estate (landed)
3169:
3093:
3088:
3021:Wayback Machine
2990:
2769:
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2767:
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2738:Further reading
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2593:Haven Coalition
2587:
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2575:www.akpress.org
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2144:
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2126:
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2113:
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2100:
2094:Wayback Machine
2085:
2081:
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2064:
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2018:
2014:
1979:
1972:
1964:
1960:
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1546:
1519:10.1.1.510.4369
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1474:
1436:
1432:
1413:
1409:
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1386:
1379:
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1195:
1179:
1170:
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1125:
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1106:
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1097:
1083:State ownership
1053:Nationalization
970:
965:
862:
839:
826:Jane Collective
816:
811:
798:
777:
760:Silvia Federici
757:
752:
733:Kenneth Rexroth
676:Peter Linebaugh
671:Lawrence Lessig
636:Silvia Federici
616:Murray Bookchin
596:
571:
529:
523:
518:
482:
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455:
430:Syntagma Square
410:Syntagma Square
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360:Digital commons
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39:
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5759:Public commons
5756:
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5681:(perpetuation)
5676:
5670:
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5643:
5642:
5641:
5634:Nature reserve
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5152:
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5145:
5140:
5135:
5125:
5124:
5123:
5118:
5113:
5111:climate change
5103:
5098:
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5079:Bioprospecting
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4724:Clean Air Act
4716:
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4680:
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4402:
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4350:
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4343:
4338:
4333:
4323:
4322:
4321:
4316:
4311:
4306:
4301:
4296:
4291:
4285:Environmental
4283:
4282:
4281:
4276:
4268:
4263:
4262:
4261:
4256:
4248:
4243:
4238:
4233:
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4220:
4216:
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4206:
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4203:
4198:
4193:
4188:
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4173:
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4138:
4132:
4130:
4126:
4125:
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4117:
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4085:
4083:
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4037:
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4023:
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4009:
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3989:
3988:
3976:
3971:
3966:
3965:
3964:
3952:
3951:
3950:
3938:
3937:
3936:
3924:
3919:
3917:Garrett Hardin
3914:
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3690:
3688:Eminent domain
3685:
3680:
3679:
3678:
3671:Bioprospecting
3667:
3665:
3663:redistribution
3654:
3653:
3650:
3649:
3647:
3646:
3645:
3644:
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3415:
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3404:
3399:
3394:
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3392:
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3372:
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3365:Natural rights
3362:
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3325:
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3057:
3052:
3046:
3040:
3030:
3027:On the Commons
3024:
3011:
3003:
2997:
2989:
2988:External links
2986:
2985:
2984:
2981:
2978:
2975:
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2940:Negri, Antonio
2937:
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2906:
2903:
2900:
2897:
2894:Gregg, Pauline
2891:
2888:
2870:(4): 621–636.
2859:
2856:
2855:". City 20(6).
2849:
2842:
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2836:
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2814:(1): 144–170.
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2411:Pie in the Sky
2401:
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2385:
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2291:(3): 473–496.
2275:
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2199:(4): 954–977.
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2023:
2012:
1970:
1958:
1944:
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1903:
1900:. PERI- Umass.
1889:Ash, Michael.
1881:
1878:on 2011-07-25.
1857:
1848:
1800:
1758:
1733:
1721:French Moments
1707:
1683:
1672:on 3 June 2016
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1208:
1193:
1168:
1132:
1103:
1101:
1098:
1096:
1095:
1090:
1085:
1080:
1075:
1070:
1065:
1060:
1055:
1050:
1045:
1040:
1035:
1028:
1026:Network effect
1023:
1018:
1013:
1011:Global commons
1008:
1003:
997:
992:
987:
982:
977:
971:
969:
966:
964:
963:
957:
951:
945:
936:
929:
923:
913:
904:
898:
888:
883:
873:
863:
861:
858:
857:
856:
851:
845:
838:
835:
830:Women on Waves
815:
812:
810:
807:
797:
794:
776:
773:
756:
753:
751:
750:
748:Michel Bauwens
745:
740:
735:
730:
728:Joachim Radkau
725:
718:
713:
708:
703:
698:
696:William Morris
693:
688:
683:
678:
673:
668:
663:
661:Silke Helfrich
658:
653:
648:
646:Garrett Hardin
643:
638:
633:
631:Barry Commoner
628:
623:
618:
613:
608:
606:Yochai Benkler
603:
597:
595:
592:
570:
567:
542:Garrett Hardin
525:Main article:
522:
519:
517:
514:
481:
478:
470:overharvesting
457:Main article:
454:
451:
398:
395:
364:Main article:
361:
358:
331:
328:
306:
303:
289:
286:
277:Main article:
274:
271:
259:Main article:
256:
253:
231:
228:
222:
219:
198:
195:
167:estate in land
157:Originally in
151:Main article:
148:
145:
140:
137:
135:
132:
86:Garrett Hardin
74:
71:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5776:
5765:
5762:
5760:
5757:
5755:
5752:
5751:
5749:
5734:
5726:
5725:
5722:
5712:
5711:Non-renewable
5708:
5705:
5703:
5700:
5698:
5695:
5693:
5690:
5688:
5685:
5683:
5677:
5675:
5672:
5671:
5669:
5667:
5663:
5657:
5654:
5652:
5651:Urban ecology
5649:
5647:
5644:
5640:
5637:
5636:
5635:
5632:
5630:
5627:
5623:
5620:
5618:
5615:
5614:
5613:
5610:
5606:
5603:
5602:
5601:
5598:
5594:
5591:
5589:
5586:
5585:
5584:
5581:
5579:
5576:
5572:
5569:
5567:
5564:
5563:
5562:
5559:
5555:
5552:
5550:
5547:
5545:
5542:
5540:
5537:
5536:
5535:
5532:
5531:
5528:
5525:
5521:
5509:
5506:
5504:
5501:
5500:
5499:
5496:
5494:
5491:
5489:
5486:
5484:
5483:Privatization
5481:
5479:
5476:
5474:
5471:
5469:
5466:
5464:
5461:
5459:
5456:
5454:
5451:
5449:
5446:
5444:
5441:
5437:
5434:
5433:
5432:
5429:
5427:
5424:
5422:
5419:
5417:
5414:
5412:
5409:
5408:
5406:
5402:
5396:
5393:
5389:
5386:
5385:
5384:
5381:
5379:
5378:Surface water
5376:
5374:
5371:
5367:
5364:
5363:
5362:
5359:
5357:
5354:
5350:
5349:
5345:
5344:
5343:
5340:
5336:
5333:
5331:
5328:
5326:
5323:
5322:
5321:
5318:
5316:
5313:
5309:
5306:
5304:
5301:
5299:
5296:
5295:
5294:
5291:
5289:
5286:
5284:
5281:
5277:
5274:
5273:
5272:
5269:
5268:
5266:
5262:
5259:
5257:
5253:
5245:
5242:
5240:
5237:
5236:
5235:
5232:
5230:
5227:
5225:
5222:
5218:
5215:
5213:
5210:
5208:
5205:
5203:
5200:
5198:
5195:
5193:
5190:
5188:
5185:
5184:
5183:
5180:
5178:
5175:
5173:
5170:
5168:
5165:
5161:
5158:
5157:
5156:
5153:
5149:
5146:
5144:
5141:
5139:
5136:
5134:
5131:
5130:
5129:
5126:
5122:
5119:
5117:
5114:
5112:
5109:
5108:
5107:
5104:
5102:
5099:
5097:
5094:
5092:
5089:
5085:
5082:
5081:
5080:
5077:
5075:
5072:
5071:
5069:
5067:
5063:
5055:
5052:
5050:
5047:
5046:
5045:
5042:
5038:
5035:
5033:
5030:
5028:
5025:
5023:
5020:
5019:
5018:
5015:
5011:
5008:
5004:
5001:
4999:
4996:
4995:
4994:
4991:
4987:
4984:
4982:
4979:
4978:
4977:
4974:
4970:
4967:
4966:
4965:
4962:
4960:
4957:
4955:
4952:
4951:
4950:
4947:
4943:
4940:
4939:
4938:
4935:
4931:
4928:
4927:
4926:
4923:
4919:
4916:
4914:
4911:
4909:
4906:
4904:
4901:
4900:
4899:
4896:
4894:
4891:
4889:
4886:
4880:
4879:peak farmland
4877:
4876:
4875:
4872:
4871:
4870:
4867:
4866:
4864:
4862:
4858:
4852:
4849:
4845:
4842:
4840:
4837:
4836:
4835:
4832:
4830:
4827:
4825:
4822:
4820:
4817:
4814:
4810:
4806:
4802:
4798:
4795:
4793:
4790:
4788:
4785:
4783:
4780:
4779:
4777:
4775:
4771:
4761:
4758:
4756:
4753:
4751:
4748:
4747:
4745:
4741:
4735:
4732:
4728:
4722:
4721:
4720:
4717:
4715:
4712:
4710:
4707:
4705:
4699:
4698:
4696:
4694:
4690:
4687:
4685:
4681:
4677:
4670:
4665:
4663:
4658:
4656:
4651:
4650:
4647:
4635:
4632:
4630:
4627:
4625:
4622:
4620:
4617:
4615:
4612:
4610:
4602:
4600:
4596:
4592:
4591:
4588:
4580:
4579:environmental
4577:
4575:
4572:
4571:
4569:
4565:
4562:
4560:
4557:
4555:
4552:
4550:
4547:
4545:
4544:environmental
4542:
4541:
4539:
4535:
4532:
4530:
4527:
4525:
4522:
4520:
4517:
4515:
4514:environmental
4512:
4511:
4509:
4505:
4502:
4500:
4497:
4495:
4492:
4490:
4489:environmental
4487:
4486:
4484:
4482:
4479:
4475:
4474:environmental
4472:
4470:
4467:
4466:
4464:
4462:
4461:Ecopsychology
4459:
4455:
4452:
4450:
4447:
4446:
4445:Architecture
4444:
4443:
4441:
4437:
4429:
4426:
4424:
4421:
4419:
4416:
4414:
4411:
4410:
4408:
4406:
4403:
4399:
4396:
4394:
4391:
4390:
4388:
4384:
4381:
4380:
4379:
4376:
4374:
4371:
4369:
4366:
4364:
4361:
4359:
4356:
4354:
4351:
4349:
4346:
4342:
4339:
4337:
4334:
4332:
4329:
4328:
4327:
4324:
4320:
4317:
4315:
4312:
4310:
4307:
4305:
4302:
4300:
4297:
4295:
4292:
4290:
4287:
4286:
4284:
4280:
4277:
4275:
4272:
4271:
4269:
4267:
4264:
4260:
4259:environmental
4257:
4255:
4252:
4251:
4249:
4247:
4244:
4242:
4239:
4237:
4234:
4232:
4231:Anthrozoology
4229:
4227:
4224:
4223:
4221:
4217:
4212:
4202:
4199:
4197:
4194:
4192:
4189:
4187:
4186:Human ecology
4184:
4182:
4179:
4177:
4174:
4172:
4169:
4167:
4164:
4162:
4159:
4157:
4154:
4152:
4149:
4147:
4144:
4142:
4139:
4137:
4134:
4133:
4131:
4127:
4123:
4116:
4111:
4109:
4104:
4102:
4097:
4096:
4093:
4079:
4076:
4075:
4074:
4071:
4069:
4066:Categories:
4060:
4059:
4056:
4048:
4047:
4043:
4042:
4041:
4038:
4034:
4033:
4029:
4028:
4027:
4024:
4020:
4019:
4015:
4014:
4013:
4010:
4008:
4007:David Ricardo
4005:
4001:
4000:
3996:
3995:
3994:
3991:
3987:
3986:
3982:
3981:
3980:
3977:
3975:
3974:Elinor Ostrom
3972:
3970:
3967:
3963:
3962:
3958:
3957:
3956:
3953:
3949:
3948:
3944:
3943:
3942:
3939:
3935:
3934:
3930:
3929:
3928:
3925:
3923:
3920:
3918:
3915:
3911:
3910:
3906:
3905:
3904:
3901:
3897:
3896:
3892:
3891:
3890:
3887:
3885:
3882:
3878:
3877:
3873:
3872:
3871:
3868:
3867:
3865:
3861:
3853:
3847:
3844:
3840:
3837:
3835:
3832:
3830:
3827:
3825:
3822:
3821:
3820:
3817:
3813:
3810:
3806:
3803:
3801:
3798:
3797:
3795:
3793:
3790:
3788:
3785:
3784:
3783:
3780:
3778:
3775:
3773:
3772:Privatization
3770:
3768:
3765:
3763:
3760:
3758:
3755:
3753:
3752:Legal plunder
3750:
3748:
3745:
3743:
3740:
3738:
3735:
3733:
3730:
3726:
3723:
3721:
3718:
3717:
3716:
3713:
3711:
3710:
3706:
3704:
3703:Expropriation
3701:
3699:
3696:
3694:
3691:
3689:
3686:
3684:
3681:
3677:
3674:
3673:
3672:
3669:
3668:
3666:
3664:
3659:
3655:
3643:
3640:
3638:
3635:
3634:
3633:
3630:
3628:
3625:
3623:
3620:
3616:
3615:
3611:
3610:
3609:
3606:
3604:
3601:
3597:
3594:
3592:
3589:
3587:
3584:
3583:
3582:
3579:
3577:
3574:
3570:
3567:
3566:
3565:
3562:
3560:
3557:
3555:
3552:
3550:
3547:
3545:
3542:
3541:
3539:
3535:
3527:
3524:
3522:
3519:
3517:
3514:
3512:
3509:
3507:
3504:
3503:
3502:
3499:
3497:
3494:
3490:
3487:
3486:
3485:
3482:
3480:
3479:
3475:
3473:
3470:
3466:
3463:
3461:
3458:
3456:
3453:
3452:
3451:
3448:
3446:
3444:
3440:
3438:
3437:(watercourse)
3436:
3432:
3431:
3428:
3425:
3421:
3413:
3410:
3409:
3408:
3405:
3403:
3400:
3398:
3395:
3391:
3388:
3386:
3383:
3381:
3380:primogeniture
3378:
3377:
3376:
3373:
3371:
3368:
3366:
3363:
3361:
3360:Legal plunder
3358:
3354:
3351:
3350:
3349:
3346:
3344:
3341:
3339:
3336:
3334:
3331:
3329:
3326:
3324:
3321:
3317:
3314:
3312:
3311:appropriation
3309:
3308:
3307:
3304:
3302:
3301:Excludability
3299:
3297:
3294:
3290:
3287:
3286:
3285:
3282:
3280:
3277:
3276:
3274:
3270:
3264:
3261:
3259:
3256:
3254:
3251:
3249:
3246:
3244:
3241:
3239:
3236:
3235:
3233:
3231:
3227:
3219:
3216:
3215:
3214:
3211:
3209:
3206:
3202:
3199:
3198:
3197:
3194:
3192:
3189:
3187:
3184:
3182:
3179:
3178:
3176:
3172:
3166:
3163:
3161:
3158:
3156:
3153:
3151:
3148:
3146:
3143:
3141:
3138:
3136:
3133:
3131:
3128:
3126:
3123:
3121:
3118:
3116:
3113:
3111:
3108:
3106:
3103:
3102:
3100:
3096:
3092:
3085:
3080:
3078:
3073:
3071:
3066:
3065:
3062:
3056:
3053:
3050:
3047:
3044:
3041:
3038:
3034:
3031:
3028:
3025:
3022:
3018:
3015:
3012:
3009:
3008:
3004:
3001:
2998:
2995:
2992:
2991:
2982:
2979:
2976:
2973:
2970:
2967:
2964:
2961:
2959:
2955:
2951:
2950:
2945:
2944:Michael Hardt
2941:
2938:
2935:
2932:
2929:
2926:
2923:
2920:
2917:
2913:
2910:
2907:
2904:
2901:
2898:
2895:
2892:
2889:
2885:
2881:
2877:
2873:
2869:
2865:
2860:
2857:
2854:
2850:
2847:
2843:
2840:
2837:
2833:
2830:
2827:
2822:
2817:
2813:
2809:
2805:
2800:
2796:
2792:
2788:
2784:
2780:
2776:
2771:
2770:
2764:
2761:
2759:
2756:
2755:
2750:
2745:
2729:
2723:
2719:
2715:
2711:
2710:
2702:
2688:
2684:
2678:
2664:
2660:
2653:
2638:
2634:
2628:
2614:
2608:
2594:
2590:
2584:
2576:
2572:
2566:
2559:
2555:
2549:
2547:
2545:
2543:
2527:
2523:
2516:
2507:
2491:
2487:
2480:
2478:
2469:
2465:
2459:
2444:
2440:
2433:
2431:
2422:
2416:
2412:
2405:
2396:
2388:
2386:9781107569782
2382:
2378:
2371:
2369:
2354:
2350:
2343:
2336:
2332:
2326:
2320:
2319:0-691-09163-3
2316:
2312:
2306:
2298:
2294:
2290:
2286:
2279:
2271:
2267:
2263:
2257:
2253:
2246:
2240:Degrowth.info
2239:
2237:
2230:
2222:
2218:
2214:
2210:
2206:
2202:
2198:
2194:
2187:
2179:
2175:
2171:
2167:
2159:
2151:
2147:
2146:"infra-demos"
2141:
2134:
2128:
2121:
2115:
2108:
2102:
2095:
2091:
2088:
2083:
2076:
2072:
2066:
2058:
2054:
2050:
2046:
2043:: 1684–1693.
2042:
2038:
2034:
2027:
2021:
2016:
2008:
2004:
2000:
1996:
1993:: 1684–1693.
1992:
1988:
1984:
1977:
1975:
1967:
1962:
1956:
1951:
1949:
1940:
1936:
1935:
1930:
1929:"The commons"
1923:
1917:
1913:
1907:
1899:
1892:
1885:
1877:
1873:
1872:
1867:
1861:
1852:
1845:
1841:
1837:
1833:
1829:
1825:
1820:
1815:
1811:
1804:
1796:
1792:
1788:
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1776:
1772:
1765:
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1747:
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1737:
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1711:
1697:
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1650:
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1618:
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1607:
1599:
1597:9781584653936
1593:
1589:
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1573:
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1545:
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1529:
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1200:
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1186:
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1024:
1022:
1019:
1017:
1014:
1012:
1009:
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5308:remediation
5293:Groundwater
4888:Degradation
4510:Management
4454:sustainable
4226:Agroecology
3947:Das Kapital
3834:progressive
3824:inheritance
3747:Land reform
3521:real estate
3496:Land tenure
3484:Inheritance
3412:anticommons
3348:Law of rent
3328:Game theory
3258:Information
3238:Common land
3135:Cooperative
2846:Antipode 47
2835:University.
2172:: 107–116.
2150:infra-demos
1635:www.fao.org
1068:Public land
1016:Game theory
1000:Common land
980:Common good
722:Social trap
580:Nobel prize
432:in Athens,
153:Common land
128:res publica
82:common land
32:common land
5748:Categories
5697:Extraction
5656:Wilderness
5617:accounting
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4078:by country
4040:Adam Smith
3927:John Locke
3591:indigenous
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3506:alienation
3201:indigenous
3191:Intangible
3105:Collective
2958:0674060288
2946:. (2009).
2692:2020-04-29
2668:2020-04-29
2643:2020-04-29
2618:2020-04-29
2598:2020-04-29
2448:2 February
2358:2020-04-28
2270:1129596584
1701:2020-12-19
1640:2020-12-19
1364:"Commoner"
1278:10535/3137
1155:(1): 144.
1126:2024-02-20
1100:References
1058:Patentleft
764:World Bank
701:Fred Moten
666:Lewis Hyde
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560:Economist
436:in Cairo,
389:projects.
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681:Karl Linn
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555:enclosure
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506:community
490:commoning
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379:Knowledge
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