1159:
1096:
1121:
1286:
1143:
1316:
1215:
1245:
25:
1857:
throughout the country, though the basic isoglosses are almost identical to those revealed by Labov's 1996 telephone survey. Both surveys indicate that, as of the 1990s, approximately 60% of
American English speakers preserved the contrast, while approximately 40% merged the phonemes. Further complicating matters are speakers who merge the phonemes in some contexts but not others, or merge them when the words are spoken unstressed or casually but not when they are stressed.
398:
2196:
923:
903:
874:
832:
796:
767:
738:
702:
660:
624:
595:
566:
530:
508:
472:
443:
414:
1790:
3092:
956:
2166:, though the merger is in evidence as early as the 1830s in both regions of Canada: Ontario and the Maritimes. Fifty years later, the merger "was already more established in Canada" than in its two U.S. places of origin. In Canadian English, further westward spread was completed more quickly than in English of the United States.
1839:
Even without taking into account the mobility of the
American population, the distribution of the merger is still complex; there are pockets of speakers with the merger in areas that lack it, and vice versa. There are areas where the merger has only partially occurred, or is in a state of transition.
1811:
Nowhere is the shift more complex than in North
American English. The presence of the merger and its absence are both found in many different regions of the North American continent, where it has been studied in greatest depth, and in both urban and rural environments. The symbols traditionally used
1856:
exhibited the merger while speakers older than 40 typically did not. The 2003 Harvard
Dialect Survey, in which subjects did not necessarily grow up in the place they identified as the source of their dialect features, indicates that there are speakers of both merging and contrast-preserving accents
2174:
or
Scottish immigrants to North America. In fact, both theories may be true but for different regions. The merger's appearance in western Pennsylvania is better explained as an effect of Scots-Irish settlement, but in eastern New England, and perhaps the American West, as an internal structural
2076:. None of these three phonetic shifts, however, is certain to preserve the contrast for all speakers in these regions. Some speakers in all three regions, particularly younger ones, are beginning to exhibit the merger despite the fact that each region's phonetics should theoretically block it.
49:
1807:. The dark blue dots represent speakers who have completely resisted the merger. The medium blue dots represent speakers with a partial merger (either production or perception but not both), and the yellow dots represent speakers with the merger in transition.
48:
1160:
1097:
1122:
1287:
1144:
1317:
1216:
2649:
1246:
2169:
Two traditional theories of the merger's origins have been longstanding in linguistics: one group of scholars argues for an independent North
American development, while others argue for contact-induced language change via
289:
merger, which spread through North
America in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, has resulted today in a three-way merger in which most Canadian and many U.S. accents have no vowel difference in words like
46:
2179:
considers the issue unresolved. A third theory has been used to explain the merger's appearance specifically in northeastern
Pennsylvania: an influx of Polish- and other Slavic-language speakers whose
2860:
Grama, James; Kennedy, Robert (2019). "2. Dimensions of
Variance and Contrast in the Low Back Merger and the Low-Back-Merger Shift". The Publication of the American Dialect Society. 104, p. 47.
76:
47:
2056:
found in the New York City, Philadelphia and
Baltimore accents, in which the vowel is raised and diphthongized to , or, less commonly, , thus keeping that vowel notably distinct from the
2884:
Herold, Ruth. (1990). "Mechanisms of merger: The implementation and distribution of the low back merger in eastern Pennsylvania". Doctoral dissertation, University of Pennsylvania.
75:
2722:
Thomas, Erik R. (September 2007). "Phonological and Phonetic Characteristics of African American Vernacular English: Phonological and Phonetic Characteristics of AAVE".
2154:
In North America, the first evidence of the merger (or its initial conditions) comes from western Pennsylvania as far back as the data shows. From there, it entered
2024:
In the three American regions above, sociolinguists have studied three phonetic shifts that can explain their resistance to the merger. The first is the fronting of
2687:
Fox, Michael J. (2016). "The Structural Antagonism and Apparent-time Change of the Northern Cities Shift and the Low Back Vowel Merger in Northwestern Wisconsin".
77:
2226:
Outside North America, another dialect featuring the merger is Scottish English, where the merged vowel has a quality around . Like in New England English, the
3143:
2285:. However, there are also speakers who maintain a distinction in length and/or quality. Like in Scottish English, this vowel is not usually merged with
134:
3194:
2301:
2102:
traditionally pronounced , though now often . Early 2000s research has shown that this resistance may continue to be reinforced by the fronting of
39:
2799:
Johnson, Daniel Ezra (2010). "Low Vowels of New England: History and Development". Publication of the American Dialect Society 95 (1): 13–41.
2787:
Johnson, D. E., Durian, D., & Hickey, R. (2017). New England. Listening to the Past: Audio Records of Accents of English, 234.
2130:
vowels. This chain shift is called the "African American Shift". However, there is still evidence of AAVE speakers picking up the
2494:
Dubois, Sylvia; Horvath, Barbara (2004). "Cajun Vernacular English: phonology". In Kortmann, Bernd; Schneider, Edgar W. (eds.).
965:
499:
1860:
Speakers with the merger in northeastern New England still maintain a phonemic distinction between a fronted and unrounded
2079:
515:
3085:
2048:
to lower into the phonetic environment of without any merger taking place. The second situation is the raising of the
537:
3127:
3059:
2352:
586:
3089:
758:
2162:). In the mid-19th century, the merger also independently began in eastern New England, possibly influencing the
1795:
823:
602:
557:
357:
228:
116:
2207:
2412:
1257:
774:
729:
615:
1982:
According to Labov, Ash, and Boberg, the merger in North America is most strongly resisted in three regions:
787:
573:
434:
3189:
1867:
1279:
1136:
894:
745:
631:
3164:
3160:
2980:
Eberhardt, Maeve (2008), "The Low-Back Merger in the Steel City: African American English in Pittsburgh",
2289:
2282:
2254:
2246:
2073:
2069:
2061:
2053:
2045:
2033:
2025:
1928:
1924:
1920:
1916:
1873:
1861:
1829:
1825:
1776:
1763:
1750:
1737:
1724:
1711:
1698:
1685:
1672:
1659:
1646:
1633:
1620:
1607:
1594:
1581:
1568:
1555:
1542:
1529:
1516:
1503:
1490:
1477:
1464:
1451:
1438:
1425:
1411:
1402:
1394:
1390:
343:
339:
327:
312:
308:
301:
294:
244:
240:
236:
232:
130:
126:
3009:
1362:
1265:
1152:
1089:
803:
450:
405:
3170:
3051:
The Atlas of North American English: Phonetics, Phonology, and Sound Change: a Multimedia Reference Tool
1836:
values may vary, as does the phonetic value of the merged vowel in the regions where the merger occurs.
3119:
2143:
2037:
1114:
960:
955:
865:
463:
2960:
Baranowski, Maciej (2013), "Ethnicity and Sound Change: African American English in Charleston, SC",
1877:
1865:
1368:
1360:
1333:
1307:
1303:
1277:
1238:
1236:
1206:
1150:
1134:
1112:
1104:
1087:
914:
651:
421:
2922:
2403:
Hickey, Raymond (2004). "Irish English: Phonology". In Kortmann, Bernd; Schneider, Edgar W. (eds.).
2235:
2180:
2139:
2013:
1224:
881:
693:
479:
248:
2846:
The permeability of dialect boundaries: A case study of the region surrounding Erie, Pennsylvania
1879:
1370:
1309:
1208:
930:
843:
667:
3001:
3024:
1987:
1170:
709:
320:
112:
3033:
2171:
1884:), because in northeastern New England (unlike in Canada and the Western United States), the
68:
2822:"Written sources of Canadian English: phonetic reconstruction and the low-back vowel merger"
2533:
1337:
8:
1378:
1198:
970:
169:
3148:
3076:, Vol. 2: The British Isles (pp. i–xx, 279–466), Cambridge University Press,
2845:
3158:
3153:
3026:
Variation in African American English: The Great Migration and Regional Differentiation
2969:
2705:
2583:
2481:
Language attitudes in Pittsburgh: 'Pittsburghese' vs. standard English. Master's thesis
2338:
2163:
1994:
1183:
3123:
3055:
2735:
2669:
2408:
2348:
2342:
680:
3077:
2989:
2973:
2800:
2731:
2661:
1821:
1297:
1177:
1083:
490:
319:
participates in a separate phenomenon in most North American English dialects: the
275:
267:
263:
3109:
3049:
3037:
1261:
1221:), and Northern New England generally, but traditionally not Southern New England
1020:
814:
548:
271:
2650:"On the status of low back vowels in Kentucky English: More evidence of merger"
2373:
2270:
2176:
2065:
1356:
1130:
720:
259:
2993:
2665:
3183:
3081:
3069:
3045:
2673:
2009:
1841:
1799:, the green dots represent speakers who have completely merged the vowels of
1253:
1202:
1108:
379:
212:
that is lost as a result of this sound change. The phonemes involved in the
2429:
2155:
2005:
1793:
On this map of English-speaking North America, based on data from the 2006
209:
165:
2704:
Haddican, Bill; Johnson, Daniel Ezra; Newman, Michael; Kim, Faith (2016).
3176:, which discusses the "short-o" configuration of various American accents
2109:
978:
391:
374:
2368:
2195:
1915:
Labov et al. also reveal that, for about 15% of respondents, a specific
2894:
Jane Stuart-Smith (2004). Bernd Kortmann and Edgar W. Schneider (ed.).
1947:
are not. In this case, a distinct vowel shift (which overlaps with the
856:
384:
224:
221:
100:
3115:
2804:
2001:
1052:
642:
2940:
2848:". University of Pennsylvania; dissertations available from ProQuest
2688:
2273:, possibly due to contact with Scottish English. In particular, the
1789:
2821:
2146:, South Carolina, Florida and Georgia, and in parts of California.
1849:
1833:
949:
173:
122:
1900:
merger. Thus, although northeastern New Englanders pronounce both
3144:
Map of the cot–caught merger from the 2003 Harvard Dialect Survey
2159:
1853:
1024:
331:
2000:
The "Northeast Corridor" along the Atlantic coast, ranging from
34:
Examples of a merged and an unmerged speaker of American English
3149:
Map of the cot–caught merger from Labov's 1996 telephone survey
2496:
A Handbook of Varieties of English: A Multimedia Reference Tool
2017:
1845:
3154:
Description of the cot–caught merger in the Phonological Atlas
2923:"The Vowels of Delhi English: Three studies in sociophonetics"
1064:
992:
361:
1844:(using telephone surveys) in the 1990s, younger speakers in
2245:. Therefore, speakers still retain the distinction between
2553:
2072:
being pronounced as upgliding , keeping it distinct from
1993:
The "Inland North", encompassing the eastern and central
2962:
University of Pennsylvania Working Papers in Linguistics
2703:
2771:
2769:
2706:"The Diffusion of the Low Back Merger in New York City"
1079:
Some English of the British Isles, outside of England:
2896:
A Handbook of Varieties of English Volume 1: Phonology
2754:
1955:
merger for all speakers who have indeed completed the
2742:
2337:
1133:
including in conservative mid Ulster English towards
2902:
2766:
2064:. The third situation occurs in the South, in which
121:. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see
2462:
2460:
2458:
2386:
2384:
2319:
2893:
2502:
3181:
2455:
2381:
2302:Phonological history of English open back vowels
2028:found in the Inland North; speakers advance the
135:IPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters
2498:. New York: Mouton de Gruyter. pp. 409–10.
1832:⟩, respectively, although their precise
1075:merger is completed in the following dialects:
3044:
2635:
2618:
2606:
2600:
2559:
2508:
2466:
2427:
338:vowel, transcribed together variously thus as
3054:. Berlin ; New York: Walter de Gruyter.
2631:
2629:
2627:
2493:
2815:
2813:
2344:A Pronouncing Dictionary of American English
1931:(or other consonants) is in effect, so that
172:where speakers do not distinguish the vowel
2942:The Phonology of Indian English I: Overview
2347:. Springfield, Mass.: G. & C. Merriam.
1963:merger) is taking place, identified as the
1840:For example, based on research directed by
2959:
2795:
2793:
2760:
2624:
2430:"Accents of English from Around the World"
2428:Heggarty, Paul; et al., eds. (2013).
2277:vowel may be lengthened to merge with the
2979:
2819:
2810:
2748:
1784:
2082:accents have traditionally resisted the
1990:", somewhat excluding Texas and Florida.
1788:
247:(except in regions that do not have the
3195:Splits and mergers in English phonology
3048:; Ash, Sharon; Boberg, Charles (2006).
2920:
2790:
2483:. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh.
2421:
3182:
3107:
2999:
2874:. Cambridge: Cambridge. pp. 199?.
2869:
2721:
2571:
2487:
2478:
2402:
2269:The merger is also quite prevalent in
1812:to transcribe the vowels in the words
3068:
3022:
2938:
2908:
2775:
2647:
2520:
2472:
2449:
2407:. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 90–94.
2390:
2325:
16:Sound change in some English dialects
3159:Map of the cot–caught merger before
2648:Irons, Terry Lynn (April 25, 2007).
2190:
2183:failed to maintain the distinction.
1149:and in Ulster Scots English towards
353:
125:. For the distinction between ,
2686:
2080:African American Vernacular English
2016:. However, the merger is common in
227:, are typically represented in the
13:
3101:
2405:A Handbook of Varieties of English
1007:and the vowel sound in words like
99:Problems playing these files? See
23:
14:
3206:
3137:
3108:Barber, Charles Laurence (1997).
2112:of vowels to the raising of the
2020:and further northern New England.
1872:) and a back and usually rounded
929:
913:
893:
880:
864:
842:
822:
802:
786:
773:
757:
744:
728:
708:
692:
679:
666:
650:
630:
614:
601:
585:
572:
556:
536:
514:
498:
478:
462:
449:
433:
420:
404:
258:). The merger is typical of most
3023:Jones, Taylor (1 January 2020).
2736:10.1111/j.1749-818X.2007.00029.x
2724:Language and Linguistics Compass
2194:
1997:(on the U.S. side of the border)
954:
921:
901:
872:
830:
794:
765:
736:
700:
658:
622:
593:
564:
528:
506:
470:
441:
412:
396:
281:An additional vowel merger, the
73:
44:
3173:Atlas of North American English
2953:
2932:
2914:
2887:
2878:
2863:
2854:
2838:
2781:
2715:
2697:
2690:New Ways of Analyzing Variation
2680:
2641:
2612:
2576:
2565:
2526:
2514:
2175:development. Canadian linguist
1796:Atlas of North American English
1414:⟩ for the merged vowel)
229:International Phonetic Alphabet
117:International Phonetic Alphabet
2872:The English language in Canada
2636:Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006)
2619:Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006)
2607:Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006)
2560:Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006)
2509:Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006)
2467:Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006)
2443:
2396:
2361:
2331:
1385:Examples of homophonous pairs
1063:, for example, become perfect
1:
2898:. De Gruyter. pp. 53–54.
2654:Language Variation and Change
2312:
2036:as far as the cardinal (the
1977:
326:, in which this vowel before
2234:merger occurred without the
1892:merger occurred without the
7:
3000:Gordon, Matthew J. (2005),
2341:; Thomas A. Knott (1949) .
2295:
2292:in General Indian English.
2186:
1266:Western New England English
349:
208:, etc.) is an example of a
10:
3211:
3120:Edinburgh University Press
2850:. AAI3405374. pp. 254-255.
2820:Dollinger, Stefan (2010).
2038:open front unrounded vowel
1406:(written au, aw, al, ough)
2994:10.1215/00031283-2008-021
2921:Domange, Raphaël (2023).
2844:Evanini, Keelan (2009). "
2666:10.1017/S0954394507070056
2432:. University of Edinburgh
2374:Dictionary.com Unabridged
2149:
1304:Standard Canadian English
855:
813:
719:
641:
547:
489:
390:
383:
378:
373:
270:dialects as well as some
239:or, in North America, as
3082:10.1017/CBO9780511611759
2945:. University of Münster.
2870:Boberg, Charles (2010).
2307:
2264:
1258:Upper Midwestern English
1225:Western American English
1171:English of North America
1205:, particularly towards
113:phonetic transcriptions
2939:Fuchs, Robert (2015).
2479:Gagnon, C. L. (1999).
1808:
1785:North American English
1027:; therefore the pairs
110:This article contains
28:
2040:), thus allowing the
1939:are homophonous, but
1828:⟩ and ⟨
1792:
1340:, towards (with the
1186:, towards (with the
1176:Certain varieties of
991:The shift causes the
27:
3111:Early modern English
3002:"The Midwest Accent"
1908:as , they pronounce
1338:Newfoundland English
995:sound in words like
153:, also known as the
3190:Dialects of English
2541:Videoweb.nie.edu.sg
2534:"Singapore English"
2142:, Pennsylvania, in
2108:, linked through a
1410:IPA (using ⟨
1386:
1379:Singaporean English
1199:New England English
170:dialects of English
3171:Chapter 13 of the
3074:Accents of English
3006:American Varieties
2206:. You can help by
2164:Canadian Maritimes
1995:Great Lakes region
1809:
1398:(written a, o, ol)
1384:
1184:Pittsburgh English
40:Non-merged speaker
29:
2761:Baranowski (2013)
2224:
2223:
1782:
1781:
989:
988:
940:
939:
78:
50:
3202:
3166:
3162:
3133:
3114:(2nd ed.).
3097:
3096:
3095:
3065:
3041:
3031:
3019:
3018:
3016:
2996:
2976:
2947:
2946:
2936:
2930:
2929:
2927:
2918:
2912:
2906:
2900:
2899:
2891:
2885:
2882:
2876:
2875:
2867:
2861:
2858:
2852:
2842:
2836:
2835:
2833:
2832:
2817:
2808:
2805:10.1215/-95-1-13
2797:
2788:
2785:
2779:
2773:
2764:
2758:
2752:
2749:Eberhardt (2008)
2746:
2740:
2739:
2719:
2713:
2712:
2710:
2701:
2695:
2694:
2684:
2678:
2677:
2645:
2639:
2633:
2622:
2621:, pp. 56–65
2616:
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2198:
2191:
2129:
2128:
2123:
2122:
2117:
2116:
2107:
2106:
2101:
2100:
2096:pronounced and
2095:
2094:
2075:
2071:
2063:
2059:
2055:
2051:
2047:
2043:
2035:
2031:
2027:
1930:
1926:
1922:
1918:
1883:
1875:
1871:
1863:
1831:
1827:
1822:American English
1778:
1765:
1752:
1739:
1726:
1713:
1700:
1687:
1674:
1661:
1648:
1635:
1622:
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1404:
1396:
1392:
1387:
1383:
1374:
1366:
1321:
1320:
1319:
1313:
1298:Canadian English
1291:
1290:
1289:
1283:
1276:merger) towards
1250:
1249:
1248:
1242:
1235:merger) towards
1220:
1219:
1218:
1212:
1178:American English
1164:
1163:
1162:
1156:
1148:
1147:
1146:
1140:
1126:
1125:
1124:
1118:
1107:and traditional
1101:
1100:
1099:
1093:
1084:Scottish English
982:
958:
934:
933:
925:
924:
918:
917:
905:
904:
898:
897:
885:
884:
876:
875:
869:
868:
847:
846:
834:
833:
827:
826:
807:
806:
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314:
310:
307:
303:
300:
296:
293:
268:Scottish English
246:
242:
238:
234:
168:present in some
157:
132:
128:
80:
79:
52:
51:
26:
3210:
3209:
3205:
3204:
3203:
3201:
3200:
3199:
3180:
3179:
3140:
3130:
3104:
3102:Further reading
3093:
3062:
3029:
3014:
3012:
2982:American Speech
2956:
2951:
2950:
2937:
2933:
2925:
2919:
2915:
2907:
2903:
2892:
2888:
2883:
2879:
2868:
2864:
2859:
2855:
2843:
2839:
2830:
2828:
2818:
2811:
2798:
2791:
2786:
2782:
2774:
2767:
2759:
2755:
2747:
2743:
2720:
2716:
2708:
2702:
2698:
2685:
2681:
2646:
2642:
2634:
2625:
2617:
2613:
2605:
2601:
2592:
2590:
2582:
2581:
2577:
2570:
2566:
2558:
2554:
2545:
2543:
2536:
2532:
2531:
2527:
2519:
2515:
2507:
2503:
2492:
2488:
2477:
2473:
2469:, pp. 60–1
2465:
2456:
2448:
2444:
2435:
2433:
2426:
2422:
2415:
2401:
2397:
2389:
2382:
2377:(Online). 2023.
2367:
2366:
2362:
2355:
2339:Kenyon, John S.
2336:
2332:
2324:
2320:
2315:
2310:
2298:
2286:
2278:
2274:
2267:
2258:
2250:
2220:
2214:
2211:
2204:needs expansion
2189:
2181:learner English
2152:
2126:
2125:
2120:
2119:
2114:
2113:
2104:
2103:
2098:
2097:
2092:
2091:
2057:
2049:
2041:
2029:
1980:
1927:but not before
1787:
1315:
1314:
1285:
1284:
1262:Chicano English
1244:
1243:
1214:
1213:
1158:
1157:
1142:
1141:
1120:
1119:
1095:
1094:
1051:become perfect
980:
979:unrounded
975:
945:
936:
935:
928:
926:
922:
919:
912:
907:
906:
902:
899:
892:
887:
886:
879:
877:
873:
870:
863:
849:
848:
841:
836:
835:
831:
828:
821:
809:
808:
801:
799:
795:
792:
785:
780:
779:
772:
770:
766:
763:
756:
751:
750:
743:
741:
737:
734:
727:
715:
714:
707:
705:
701:
698:
691:
686:
685:
678:
673:
672:
665:
663:
659:
656:
649:
637:
636:
629:
627:
623:
620:
613:
608:
607:
600:
598:
594:
591:
584:
579:
578:
571:
569:
565:
562:
555:
543:
542:
535:
533:
529:
521:
520:
513:
511:
507:
504:
497:
485:
484:
477:
475:
471:
468:
461:
456:
455:
448:
446:
442:
439:
432:
427:
426:
419:
417:
413:
410:
403:
397:
352:
335:
321:
316:
305:
298:
291:
162:low back merger
155:
140:
139:
138:
106:
105:
97:
95:
94:
93:
92:
81:
74:
71:
65:
64:
63:
53:
45:
42:
36:
30:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3208:
3198:
3197:
3192:
3178:
3177:
3168:
3156:
3151:
3146:
3139:
3138:External links
3136:
3135:
3134:
3128:
3103:
3100:
3099:
3098:
3070:Wells, John C.
3066:
3060:
3046:Labov, William
3042:
3020:
2997:
2988:(3): 284–311,
2977:
2955:
2952:
2949:
2948:
2931:
2913:
2911:, p. 399.
2901:
2886:
2877:
2862:
2853:
2837:
2809:
2789:
2780:
2778:, p. 165.
2765:
2753:
2741:
2730:(5): 450–475.
2714:
2696:
2679:
2660:(2): 137–180.
2640:
2623:
2611:
2599:
2588:Ling.upenn.edu
2575:
2564:
2552:
2525:
2513:
2501:
2486:
2471:
2454:
2442:
2420:
2413:
2395:
2380:
2360:
2353:
2330:
2328:, p. 479.
2317:
2316:
2314:
2311:
2309:
2306:
2305:
2304:
2297:
2294:
2271:Indian English
2266:
2263:
2222:
2221:
2201:
2199:
2188:
2185:
2177:Charles Boberg
2151:
2148:
2124:, and perhaps
2066:vowel breaking
2022:
2021:
1998:
1991:
1979:
1976:
1923:merger before
1876:(phonetically
1864:(phonetically
1786:
1783:
1780:
1779:
1774:
1771:
1767:
1766:
1761:
1758:
1754:
1753:
1748:
1745:
1741:
1740:
1735:
1732:
1728:
1727:
1722:
1719:
1715:
1714:
1709:
1706:
1702:
1701:
1696:
1693:
1689:
1688:
1683:
1680:
1676:
1675:
1670:
1667:
1663:
1662:
1657:
1654:
1650:
1649:
1644:
1641:
1637:
1636:
1631:
1628:
1624:
1623:
1618:
1615:
1611:
1610:
1605:
1602:
1598:
1597:
1592:
1589:
1585:
1584:
1579:
1576:
1572:
1571:
1566:
1563:
1559:
1558:
1553:
1550:
1546:
1545:
1540:
1537:
1533:
1532:
1527:
1524:
1520:
1519:
1514:
1511:
1507:
1506:
1501:
1498:
1494:
1493:
1488:
1485:
1481:
1480:
1475:
1472:
1468:
1467:
1462:
1459:
1455:
1454:
1449:
1446:
1442:
1441:
1436:
1433:
1429:
1428:
1423:
1420:
1416:
1415:
1408:
1400:
1382:
1381:
1375:
1357:Indian English
1353:
1352:
1351:
1350:
1349:
1331:
1294:
1293:
1292:
1251:
1222:
1195:
1167:
1166:
1165:
1131:Ulster English
1129:Some northern
1127:
1102:
1023:into a single
987:
986:
974:
973:
968:
963:
952:
946:
942:
941:
938:
937:
927:
920:
911:
910:
908:
900:
891:
890:
888:
878:
871:
862:
861:
859:
853:
852:
850:
840:
839:
837:
829:
820:
819:
817:
811:
810:
800:
793:
784:
783:
781:
771:
764:
755:
754:
752:
742:
735:
726:
725:
723:
717:
716:
706:
699:
690:
689:
687:
677:
676:
674:
664:
657:
648:
647:
645:
639:
638:
628:
621:
612:
611:
609:
599:
592:
583:
582:
580:
570:
563:
554:
553:
551:
545:
544:
534:
527:
526:
524:
522:
512:
505:
496:
495:
493:
487:
486:
476:
469:
460:
459:
457:
447:
440:
431:
430:
428:
418:
411:
402:
401:
394:
388:
387:
382:
377:
372:
365:
364:
351:
348:
176:in words like
133:⟩, see
109:
108:
107:
96:
82:
72:
69:Merged speaker
67:
66:
54:
43:
38:
37:
32:
31:
22:
21:
20:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3207:
3196:
3193:
3191:
3188:
3187:
3185:
3175:
3174:
3169:
3167:
3157:
3155:
3152:
3150:
3147:
3145:
3142:
3141:
3131:
3129:0-7486-0835-4
3125:
3121:
3117:
3113:
3112:
3106:
3105:
3091:
3087:
3083:
3079:
3075:
3071:
3067:
3063:
3061:3-11-016746-8
3057:
3053:
3052:
3047:
3043:
3039:
3035:
3028:
3027:
3021:
3011:
3007:
3003:
2998:
2995:
2991:
2987:
2983:
2978:
2975:
2971:
2967:
2963:
2958:
2957:
2944:
2943:
2935:
2924:
2917:
2910:
2905:
2897:
2890:
2881:
2873:
2866:
2857:
2851:
2847:
2841:
2827:
2823:
2816:
2814:
2806:
2802:
2796:
2794:
2784:
2777:
2772:
2770:
2762:
2757:
2750:
2745:
2737:
2733:
2729:
2725:
2718:
2707:
2700:
2692:
2691:
2683:
2675:
2671:
2667:
2663:
2659:
2655:
2651:
2644:
2637:
2632:
2630:
2628:
2620:
2615:
2609:, p. 217
2608:
2603:
2589:
2585:
2579:
2573:
2572:Gordon (2005)
2568:
2562:, p. 122
2561:
2556:
2542:
2535:
2529:
2523:, p. 626
2522:
2517:
2511:, p. 218
2510:
2505:
2497:
2490:
2482:
2475:
2468:
2463:
2461:
2459:
2452:, p. 438
2451:
2446:
2431:
2424:
2416:
2410:
2406:
2399:
2392:
2387:
2385:
2376:
2375:
2370:
2364:
2356:
2354:0-87779-047-7
2350:
2346:
2345:
2340:
2334:
2327:
2322:
2318:
2303:
2300:
2299:
2293:
2272:
2262:
2244:
2242:
2238:
2233:
2229:
2218:
2215:December 2016
2209:
2205:
2202:This section
2200:
2197:
2193:
2192:
2184:
2182:
2178:
2173:
2167:
2165:
2161:
2158:(what is now
2157:
2147:
2145:
2141:
2137:
2133:
2111:
2090:merger, with
2089:
2085:
2081:
2077:
2067:
2039:
2019:
2015:
2011:
2010:New York City
2007:
2003:
1999:
1996:
1992:
1989:
1985:
1984:
1983:
1975:
1973:
1971:
1967:
1962:
1958:
1954:
1950:
1946:
1942:
1938:
1934:
1913:
1911:
1907:
1903:
1899:
1895:
1891:
1887:
1881:
1869:
1858:
1855:
1851:
1847:
1843:
1842:William Labov
1837:
1835:
1823:
1820:as spoken in
1819:
1815:
1806:
1802:
1798:
1797:
1791:
1775:
1772:
1769:
1768:
1762:
1759:
1756:
1755:
1749:
1746:
1743:
1742:
1736:
1733:
1730:
1729:
1723:
1720:
1717:
1716:
1710:
1707:
1704:
1703:
1697:
1694:
1691:
1690:
1684:
1681:
1678:
1677:
1671:
1668:
1665:
1664:
1658:
1655:
1652:
1651:
1645:
1642:
1639:
1638:
1632:
1629:
1626:
1625:
1619:
1616:
1613:
1612:
1606:
1603:
1600:
1599:
1593:
1590:
1587:
1586:
1580:
1577:
1574:
1573:
1567:
1564:
1561:
1560:
1554:
1551:
1548:
1547:
1541:
1538:
1535:
1534:
1528:
1525:
1522:
1521:
1515:
1512:
1509:
1508:
1502:
1499:
1496:
1495:
1489:
1486:
1483:
1482:
1476:
1473:
1470:
1469:
1463:
1460:
1457:
1456:
1450:
1447:
1444:
1443:
1437:
1434:
1431:
1430:
1424:
1421:
1418:
1417:
1409:
1407:
1401:
1399:
1389:
1388:
1380:
1376:
1372:
1364:
1358:
1354:
1347:
1343:
1339:
1335:
1332:
1329:
1325:
1318:
1311:
1305:
1302:
1301:
1300:, including:
1299:
1295:
1288:
1281:
1275:
1271:
1267:
1263:
1259:
1255:
1254:Cajun English
1252:
1247:
1240:
1234:
1230:
1226:
1223:
1217:
1210:
1204:
1201:towards (in
1200:
1196:
1193:
1189:
1185:
1182:
1181:
1180:, including:
1179:
1175:
1174:
1172:
1168:
1161:
1154:
1145:
1138:
1132:
1128:
1123:
1116:
1110:
1109:Irish English
1106:
1103:
1098:
1091:
1085:
1081:
1080:
1078:
1077:
1076:
1074:
1070:
1066:
1062:
1058:
1054:
1050:
1046:
1042:
1038:
1034:
1030:
1026:
1022:
1018:
1014:
1010:
1006:
1002:
998:
994:
985:
984:
983: rounded
972:
969:
967:
964:
962:
957:
953:
951:
948:
947:
944:
943:
932:
916:
909:
896:
889:
883:
867:
860:
858:
854:
851:
845:
838:
825:
818:
816:
812:
805:
789:
782:
776:
760:
753:
747:
731:
724:
722:
718:
711:
695:
688:
682:
675:
669:
653:
646:
644:
640:
633:
617:
610:
604:
588:
581:
575:
559:
552:
550:
546:
539:
525:
523:
517:
501:
494:
492:
488:
481:
465:
458:
452:
436:
429:
423:
407:
395:
393:
389:
386:
381:
376:
371:
370:
367:
366:
363:
359:
356:
355:
347:
333:
325:
288:
284:
279:
277:
273:
269:
265:
261:
257:
255:
251:
230:
226:
223:
219:
215:
211:
207:
203:
199:
195:
191:
187:
183:
179:
175:
171:
167:
163:
159:
152:
150:
146:
136:
124:
120:
118:
114:
104:
102:
90:
86:
70:
62:
58:
41:
35:
19:
3172:
3110:
3090:0-52128540-2
3073:
3050:
3025:
3013:, retrieved
3005:
2985:
2981:
2965:
2961:
2954:Bibliography
2941:
2934:
2916:
2909:Wells (1982)
2904:
2895:
2889:
2880:
2871:
2865:
2856:
2849:
2840:
2829:. Retrieved
2826:Academia.edu
2825:
2783:
2776:Jones (2020)
2756:
2744:
2727:
2723:
2717:
2699:
2689:
2682:
2657:
2653:
2643:
2614:
2602:
2591:. Retrieved
2587:
2578:
2567:
2555:
2544:. Retrieved
2540:
2528:
2516:
2504:
2495:
2489:
2480:
2474:
2445:
2434:. Retrieved
2423:
2404:
2398:
2372:
2363:
2343:
2333:
2326:Wells (1982)
2321:
2268:
2240:
2236:
2231:
2227:
2225:
2212:
2208:adding to it
2203:
2168:
2156:Upper Canada
2153:
2135:
2131:
2087:
2083:
2078:
2023:
2006:Philadelphia
1981:
1969:
1965:
1964:
1960:
1956:
1952:
1948:
1944:
1940:
1936:
1932:
1914:
1909:
1905:
1901:
1897:
1893:
1889:
1885:
1859:
1838:
1824:are ⟨
1817:
1813:
1810:
1804:
1800:
1794:
1405:
1397:
1345:
1341:
1327:
1323:
1273:
1269:
1232:
1228:
1191:
1187:
1169:Much of the
1072:
1068:
1060:
1056:
1048:
1044:
1040:
1036:
1032:
1028:
1016:
1012:
1008:
1004:
1000:
996:
990:
976:
332:phonemicized
286:
282:
280:
276:U.S. English
253:
249:
220:merger, the
217:
213:
210:minimal pair
205:
201:
197:
193:
192:(along with
189:
185:
181:
177:
166:sound change
161:
154:
148:
144:
143:
141:
129:and ⟨
111:
98:
88:
84:
60:
56:
33:
18:
2968:(2): 1–10,
2393:, p. ?
2259:LOT–THOUGHT
2172:Scots-Irish
2110:chain shift
2068:results in
1296:Nearly all
1264:, and some
322:NORTH–FORCE
311:. However,
225:back vowels
156:LOT–THOUGHT
3184:Categories
3038:2423437304
3032:(Thesis).
3015:August 29,
2831:2016-03-19
2638:, chpt. 11
2593:2016-12-12
2546:2016-12-12
2521:Wells 1982
2450:Wells 1982
2436:2016-12-12
2414:3110175320
2391:Wells 1982
2313:References
2144:Charleston
2140:Pittsburgh
2138:merger in
2014:Providence
1978:Resistance
1852:, and the
1322:(with the
1268:(with the
1227:(with the
1111:, towards
1086:, towards
1053:homophones
966:full chart
491:Near-close
278:dialects.
101:media help
3116:Edinburgh
2674:1469-8021
2002:Baltimore
1334:Maritimer
815:Near-open
549:Close-mid
59:and for
3072:(1982),
3034:ProQuest
2807:. p. 40.
2296:See also
2187:Scotland
1850:Nebraska
1834:phonetic
1595:ˈhɒlə(r)
1530:ˈkɒlə(r)
1359:towards
1306:towards
1197:Much of
977:Legend:
971:template
950:IPA help
721:Open-mid
350:Overview
264:Canadian
174:phonemes
127:/ /
123:Help:IPA
2974:2034660
2584:"Map 1"
2279:THOUGHT
2160:Ontario
2099:THOUGHT
2050:THOUGHT
2042:THOUGHT
1854:Dakotas
1708:wrought
1630:naughty
1604:haughty
1348:merger)
1330:merger)
1194:merger)
1025:phoneme
981:•
380:Central
334:as the
330:can be
306:THOUGHT
180:versus
164:, is a
115:in the
3126:
3094:
3088:
3058:
3036:
2972:
2672:
2411:
2351:
2281:vowel
2243:merger
2241:bother
2237:father
2232:caught
2150:Origin
2136:caught
2088:caught
2060:vowel
2052:vowel
2044:vowel
2032:vowel
2018:Boston
1972:merger
1961:caught
1953:caught
1945:caught
1906:caught
1898:bother
1894:father
1890:caught
1846:Kansas
1818:caught
1805:caught
1760:taught
1734:sought
1695:pawned
1656:nought
1643:gnawed
1627:knotty
1617:nought
1601:hottie
1591:hauler
1588:holler
1565:fawned
1539:caught
1526:caller
1523:collar
1487:clawed
1448:bought
1426:ˈbɒbəl
1422:bauble
1419:bobble
1346:bother
1342:father
1328:bother
1324:father
1274:bother
1270:father
1233:bother
1229:father
1203:Boston
1192:bother
1188:father
1073:caught
1067:. The
1065:rhymes
1055:, and
1049:gnawed
1033:caught
1013:gnawed
1009:caught
959:
362:Vowels
324:merger
315:as in
304:, and
287:bother
283:father
266:, and
260:Indian
256:merger
254:bother
250:father
218:caught
206:pawned
198:bought
190:caught
182:caught
158:merger
151:merger
149:caught
131:
89:caught
61:caught
3030:(PDF)
2970:S2CID
2926:(PDF)
2709:(PDF)
2537:(PDF)
2369:"ore"
2308:Notes
2265:India
2121:DRESS
1988:South
1986:The "
1912:as .
1882:]
1878:[
1870:]
1866:[
1751:ˈstɒk
1747:stalk
1744:stock
1721:sawed
1699:ˈpɒnd
1682:pawed
1634:ˈnɒti
1608:ˈhɒti
1569:ˈfɒnd
1513:cawed
1500:caulk
1491:ˈklɒd
1478:ˈtʃɒk
1474:chalk
1471:chock
1465:ˈbɒks
1461:balks
1439:ˈbɒdi
1435:bawdy
1377:Some
1373:]
1369:[
1365:]
1361:[
1355:Much
1312:]
1308:[
1282:]
1278:[
1241:]
1237:[
1211:]
1207:[
1155:]
1151:[
1139:]
1135:[
1117:]
1113:[
1105:Broad
1092:]
1088:[
1082:Most
1057:shock
1041:stalk
1037:stock
1021:merge
1017:stalk
1005:stock
993:vowel
961:audio
392:Close
375:Front
344:/oʊr/
317:NORTH
272:Irish
119:(IPA)
91:alike
3163:and
3124:ISBN
3086:ISBN
3056:ISBN
3017:2010
2670:ISSN
2409:ISBN
2349:ISBN
2290:/ɑː/
2287:PALM
2283:/ɒː/
2253:and
2251:PALM
2115:TRAP
1970:dawn
1943:and
1937:dawn
1935:and
1910:cart
1904:and
1816:and
1803:and
1777:ˈwɒk
1773:walk
1764:ˈtɒt
1738:ˈsɒt
1725:ˈsɒd
1712:ˈrɒt
1692:pond
1686:ˈpɒd
1669:awed
1660:ˈnɒt
1647:ˈnɒd
1621:ˈnɒt
1614:knot
1582:ˈhɒk
1578:hawk
1575:hock
1562:fond
1556:ˈdɒn
1552:dawn
1543:ˈkɒt
1517:ˈkɒd
1504:ˈkɒk
1497:cock
1484:clod
1452:ˈbɒt
1432:body
1336:and
1061:talk
1059:and
1047:and
1039:and
1031:and
1015:and
1003:and
857:Open
385:Back
340:/or/
336:GOAT
313:/ɔr/
292:PALM
274:and
243:and
235:and
204:and
202:pond
196:and
188:and
142:The
87:and
83:for
55:for
3165:/t/
3161:/n/
3078:doi
3010:PBS
2990:doi
2801:doi
2732:doi
2662:doi
2275:LOT
2257:in
2255:/ɔ/
2249:in
2247:/a/
2228:cot
2210:.
2132:cot
2127:KIT
2105:LOT
2093:LOT
2084:cot
2074:/ɑ/
2070:/ɔ/
2062:/ɑ/
2058:LOT
2054:/ɔ/
2046:/ɔ/
2034:/ɑ/
2030:LOT
2026:/ɑ/
2012:to
2008:to
2004:to
1966:Don
1957:cot
1949:cot
1941:cot
1933:Don
1929:/t/
1925:/n/
1921:/ɔ/
1917:/ɑ/
1902:cot
1886:cot
1874:/ɔ/
1862:/ɑ/
1814:cot
1801:cot
1770:wok
1757:tot
1731:sot
1718:sod
1705:rot
1679:pod
1673:ˈɒd
1666:odd
1653:not
1640:nod
1549:don
1536:cot
1510:cod
1458:box
1445:bot
1403:/ɔ/
1395:/ɒ/
1393:or
1391:/ɑ/
1367:or
1069:cot
1045:nod
1029:cot
1019:to
1001:nod
997:cot
643:Mid
358:IPA
342:or
328:/r/
309:/ɔ/
302:/ɒ/
299:LOT
295:/ɑ/
245:/ɔ/
241:/ɑ/
237:/ɔ/
233:/ɒ/
231:as
222:low
214:cot
194:bot
186:Cot
178:cot
160:or
145:cot
85:cot
57:cot
3186::
3122:.
3118::
3084:,
3008:,
3004:,
2986:83
2984:,
2966:19
2964:,
2824:.
2812:^
2792:^
2768:^
2726:.
2668:.
2658:19
2656:.
2652:.
2626:^
2586:.
2539:.
2457:^
2383:^
2371:.
2261:.
2118:,
1974:.
1848:,
1260:,
1256:,
1173::
1043:,
1035:,
1011:,
999:,
710:o̞
694:ɤ̞
668:ø̞
652:e̞
360::
346:.
297:,
262:,
200:,
184:.
3132:.
3080::
3064:.
3040:.
2992::
2928:.
2834:.
2803::
2763:.
2751:.
2738:.
2734::
2728:1
2711:.
2693:.
2676:.
2664::
2596:.
2549:.
2439:.
2417:.
2357:.
2239:–
2230:–
2217:)
2213:(
2134:–
2086:–
1968:–
1959:–
1951:–
1919:–
1896:–
1888:–
1880:ɒ
1868:ä
1830:ɔ
1826:ɑ
1412:ɒ
1371:ɒ
1363:ɔ
1344:–
1326:–
1310:ɒ
1280:ä
1272:–
1239:ɑ
1231:–
1209:ɒ
1190:–
1153:ɔ
1137:ä
1115:a
1090:ɔ
1071:–
931:ɒ
915:ɑ
895:ä
882:ɶ
866:a
844:ɐ
824:æ
804:ɔ
788:ʌ
775:ɞ
759:ɜ
746:œ
730:ɛ
681:ə
632:o
616:ɤ
603:ɵ
587:ɘ
574:ø
558:e
538:ʊ
516:ʏ
500:ɪ
480:u
464:ɯ
451:ʉ
435:ɨ
422:y
406:i
285:–
252:–
216:–
147:–
137:.
103:.
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