Creole language - Knowledge

518: 34: 195:, argue that pidgins and creoles arise independently under different circumstances, and that a pidgin need not always precede a creole nor a creole evolve from a pidgin. Pidgins, according to Mufwene, emerged in trade colonies among "users who preserved their native vernaculars for their day-to-day interactions". Creoles, meanwhile, developed in settlement colonies in which speakers of a European language, often 777:

little historical exposure to Portuguese for many of these populations, no strong direct evidence for this claim, and with Portuguese leaving almost no trace on the lexicon of most of them, with the similarities in grammar explainable by analogous processes of loss of inflection and grammatical forms not common to European and West African languages. For example,

630:), when the substratum cannot be identified, or when the presence or the survival of substratal evidence is inferred from mere typological analogies. On the other hand, the distinction may be meaningful when the contributions of each parent language to the resulting creole can be shown to be very unequal, in a scientifically meaningful way. In the literature on 533:

dramatically. In fact, some have been standardized, and are used in local schools and universities around the world. At the same time, linguists have begun to come to the realization that creole languages are in no way inferior to other languages. They now use the term "creole" or "creole language" for any language suspected to have undergone

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rivers as well as in neighboring areas such as the Bullom and Sherbro coasts. These settlers intermarried with the local population leading to mixed populations, and, as a result of this intermarriage, an English pidgin was created. This pidgin was learned by slaves in slave depots, who later on took

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in the late nineteenth century and popularized in the late 1950s and early 1960s by Taylor, Whinnom, Thompson, and Stewart. However, this hypothesis is now not widely accepted, since it relies on all creole-speaking slave populations being based on the same Portuguese-based creole, despite no to very

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In addition to the precise mechanism of creole genesis, a more general debate has developed whether creole languages are characterized by different mechanisms than traditional languages (which is McWhorter's 2018 main point) or whether in that regard creole languages develop by the same mechanisms as

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points out that relexification postulates too many improbabilities and that it is unlikely that a language "could be disseminated round the entire tropical zone, to peoples of widely differing language background, and still preserve a virtually complete identity in its grammatical structure wherever

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have all these three features but show none of the sociohistoric traits of creole languages. McWhorter (2011, 2018) disagrees: for instance, he points out that Soninke has "a goodly amount" of inherent (i.e. non-contextual) inflection, that Magoua "retains ample marking of gender, person and number

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The Foreigner Talk (FT) hypothesis argues that a pidgin or creole language forms when native speakers attempt to simplify their language in order to address speakers who do not know their language at all. Because of the similarities found in this type of speech and speech directed to a small child,

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language group. French and English are particularly close, since English, through extensive borrowing, is typologically closer to French than to other Germanic languages. Thus the claimed similarities between creoles may be mere consequences of similar parentage, rather than characteristic features

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events, when the native speakers of a certain source language (the substrate) are somehow compelled to abandon it for another target language (the superstrate). The outcome of such an event is that erstwhile speakers of the substrate will use some version of the superstrate, at least in more formal

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parent of a creole – that is, whether a language should be classified as a "French creole", "Portuguese creole" or "English creole", etc. – often has no definitive answer, and can become the topic of long-lasting controversies, where social prejudices and political considerations may interfere with

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Because of the generally low status of the Creole peoples in the eyes of prior European colonial powers, creole languages have generally been regarded as "degenerate" languages, or at best as rudimentary "dialects" of the politically dominant parent languages. Because of this, the word "creole" was

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McWhorter claims that these three properties characterize any language that was born recently as a pidgin, and states "At this writing, in twenty years I have encountered not a single counterexample" (McWhorter 2018). Nevertheless, the existence of a creole prototype has been disputed by others:

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However, there is dispute over the extent to which the terms "substrate" and "superstrate" are applicable to the genesis or the description of creole languages. The language replacement model may not be appropriate in creole formation contexts, where the emerging language is derived from multiple

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Because of social, political, and academic changes brought on by decolonization in the second half of the 20th century, creole languages have experienced revivals in the past few decades. They are increasingly being used in print and film, and in many cases, their community prestige has improved

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spell out the idea of creole exceptionalism, claiming that creole languages are an instance of nongenetic language change due to language shift with abnormal transmission. Gradualists question the abnormal transmission of languages in a creole setting and argue that the processes which created

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Theories focusing on the substrate, or non-European, languages attribute similarities amongst creoles to the similarities of African substrate languages. These features are often assumed to be transferred from the substrate language to the creole or to be preserved invariant from the substrate

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McWhorter argues that the absence of these three features is predictable in languages that were born recently of a pidgin, since learning them would constitute a distinct challenge to the non-native speaker. Over the course of generations, however, such features would be expected to gradually

111:, traders had to learn to communicate with people around the world, and the quickest way to do this was to develop a pidgin; in turn, full creole languages developed from these pidgins. In addition to creoles that have European languages as their base, there are, for example, creoles based on 1504:

ideologies, rejecting the notion that Creoles can be responsibly defined in terms of specific grammatical characteristics. They discuss the history of linguistics and nineteenth-century work that argues for the consideration of the sociohistorical contexts in which Creole languages emerged.

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Some linguists, such as Derek Bickerton, posit that creoles share more grammatical similarities with each other than with the languages from which they are phylogenetically derived. However, there is no widely accepted theory that would account for those perceived similarities. Moreover, no

962:) learning hypothesis claims that pidgins are primarily the result of the imperfect L2 learning of the dominant lexifier language by the slaves. Research on naturalistic L2 processes has revealed a number of features of "interlanguage systems" that are also seen in pidgins and creoles: 579:

Phylogenetic classification traditionally relies on inheritance of the lexicon, especially of "core" terms, and of the grammar structure. However, in creoles, the core lexicon often has mixed origin, and the grammar is largely original. For these reasons, the issue of which language is

1058:, which usually take years to learn, are omitted; the syntax is kept very simple, usually based on strict word order. In this initial stage, all aspects of the speech – syntax, lexicon, and pronunciation – tend to be quite variable, especially with regard to the speaker's background. 290:

were originally qualifiers used throughout the Spanish and Portuguese colonies to distinguish the members of an ethnic group who were born and raised locally from those who immigrated as adults. They were most commonly applied to nationals of the colonial power, e.g. to distinguish

185:. However, political and academic changes in recent decades have improved the status of creoles, both as living languages and as object of linguistic study. Some creoles have even been granted the status of official or semi-official languages of particular political territories. 1054:) suggests that pidgins need three languages to form, with one (the superstrate) being clearly dominant over the others. The lexicon of a pidgin is usually small and drawn from the vocabularies of its speakers, in varying proportions. Morphological details like word 94:

The precise number of creole languages is not known, particularly as many are poorly attested or documented. About one hundred creole languages have arisen since 1500. These are predominantly based on European languages such as English and French due to the European

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If a pidgin manages to be learned by the children of a community as a native language, it may become fixed and acquire a more complex grammar, with fixed phonology, syntax, morphology, and syntactic embedding. Pidgins can become full languages in only a single

79:, creoles are often characterized by a tendency to systematize their inherited grammar (e.g., by eliminating irregularities or regularizing the conjugation of otherwise irregular verbs). Like any language, creoles are characterized by a consistent system of 839:, the French Atlantic harbors, and the nascent French colonies. Supporters of this hypothesis suggest that the non-Creole French dialects still spoken in many parts of the Americas share mutual descent from this single koiné. These dialects are found in 1616: 1006:

with lexical material from the superstrate language while retaining the native grammatical categories. The problem with this explanation is that the postulated substrate languages differ amongst themselves and with creoles in meaningful ways.

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Building up on this discussion, McWhorter proposed that "the world's simplest grammars are Creole grammars", claiming that every noncreole language's grammar is at least as complex as any creole language's grammar. Gil has replied that

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classification of a particular creole usually is a matter of dispute; especially when the pidgin precursor and its parent tongues (which may have been other creoles or pidgins) have disappeared before they could be documented.

1066:. "Creolization" is this second stage where the pidgin language develops into a fully developed native language. The vocabulary, too, will develop to contain more and more items according to a rationale of lexical enrichment. 325:, etc.) lost the generic meaning and became the proper name of many distinct ethnic groups that developed locally from immigrant communities. Originally, therefore, the term "creole language" meant the speech of any of those 1495:

have argued further that Creole languages are structurally no different from any other language, and that Creole is in fact a sociohistoric concept (and not a linguistic one), encompassing displaced population and slavery.

1298:. Again, McWhorter (2018) disagrees. For instance, he points out that the use of tone in Papiamentu to distinguish participial verb forms from base ones appeared only after extensive contact with native Spanish speakers. 4773: 1129:

The last decades have seen the emergence of some new questions about the nature of creoles: in particular, the question of how complex creoles are and the question of whether creoles are indeed "exceptional" languages.

1193:(re-)appear, and therefore "many creoles would harbor departures from the Prototype identifiable as having happened after the creole was born" (McWhorter 2018). As one example, McWhorter (2013) notes that the creole 1435:, on the other hand, would be less prototypical, given the presence of inflection to mark plural, past, gerund, and participle forms. Objections to the McWhorter-Parkvall hypotheses point out that these typological 207:

version of the original language. These servants and slaves would come to use the creole as an everyday vernacular, rather than merely in situations in which contact with a speaker of the superstrate was necessary.

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coined the term "cafeteria principle" to refer to the practice of arbitrarily attributing features of creoles to the influence of substrate African languages or assorted substandard dialects of European languages.

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models stress the intervention of specific general processes during the transmission of language from generation to generation and from speaker to speaker. The process invoked varies: a general tendency towards

275:. The specific sense of the term was coined in the 16th and 17th century, during the great expansion in European maritime power and trade that led to the establishment of European colonies in other continents. 794:

for the origin of English-based creoles of the West Indies, the domestic origin hypothesis argues that, towards the end of the 16th century, English-speaking traders began to settle in the Gambia and

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points out that FT is often based on the imitation of the incorrect speech of the non-natives, that is the pidgin. Therefore, one may be mistaken in assuming that the former gave rise to the latter.

622:), the influence of the substrate on the official speech is often limited to pronunciation and a modest number of loanwords. The substrate might even disappear altogether without leaving any trace. 657:

It is generally acknowledged that creoles have a simpler grammar and more internal variability than older, more established languages. However, these notions are occasionally challenged. (See also

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of a creole language is largely supplied by the parent languages, particularly that of the most dominant group in the social context of the creole's construction. However, there are often clear

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by children as their native language. These three features distinguish a creole language from a pidgin. Creolistics, or creology, is the study of creole languages and, as such, is a subfield of

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languages without any one of them being imposed as a replacement for any other. The substratum–superstratum distinction becomes awkward when multiple superstrata must be assumed (such as in

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a lack of semantically opaque word formation, that is, a lack of words like "understand" or "make up", the meaning of which is not analyzable in terms of the meanings of their components.

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linguistic capacities to transform the pidgin input into a full-fledged language. The alleged common features of all creoles would then stem from those innate abilities being universal.

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Singler, John Victor (1996), "Theories of creole genesis, sociohistorical considerations, and the evaluation of evidence: The case of Haitian Creole and the Relexification Hypothesis",

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Singler, John Victor (1996), "Theories of creole genesis, sociohistorical considerations, and the evaluation of evidence: The case of Haitian Creole and the Relexification Hypothesis",

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Since creole languages rarely attain official status, the speakers of a fully formed creole may eventually feel compelled to conform their speech to one of the parent languages. This

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As a consequence of colonial European trade patterns, most of the known European-based creole languages arose in coastal areas in the equatorial belt around the world, including the

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Hamilton, A. Cris; Coslett, H. Branch (2008), "Role of inflectional regularity and semantic transparency in reading morphologically complex words: Evidence from acquired dyslexia",

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argues that the number and diversity of African languages and the paucity of a historical record on creole genesis makes determining lexical correspondences a matter of chance.

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a lack of contextual inflection, that is, a lack of inflection that marks only agreement in case or gender (as opposed to inherent inflection that marks tense, mood or number);

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Eckkrammer, Eva (1994), "How to Pave the Way for the Emancipation of a Creole Language. Papiamentu, or What Can a Literature Do for its Language", in Hoogbergen, Wim (ed.),

1408:. In McWhorter's definition, creoleness is a matter of degree, in that prototypical creoles exhibit all of the three traits he proposes to diagnose creoleness: little or no 2205:

Chambers, Douglas B. (2008-12-01). "Slave trade merchants of Spanish New Orleans, 1763–1803: Clarifying the colonial slave trade to Louisiana in Atlantic perspective".

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Linguists now recognize that creole formation is a universal phenomenon, not limited to the European colonial period, and an important aspect of language evolution.

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Hinnenkamp, V. (1984), "Eye-witnessing pidginization: Structural and Sociolinguistic Aspects of German and Turkish Foreigner Talk", in Sebba, M.; Todd, L. (eds.),

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Hancock, Ian F. (1985), "The domestic hypothesis, diffusion and componentiality: An account of Anglophone creole origins", in Pieter Muysken; Norval Smith (eds.),

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Imperfect L2 learning is compatible with other approaches, notably the European dialect origin hypothesis and the universalist models of language transmission.

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Ferguson, C.A. (1971), "Absence of Copula and the Notion of Simplicity: A Study of Normal Speech, Baby Talk, Foreigner Talk and Pidgins", in Hymes, D. (ed.),

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Singler, John Victor (1983), "The influence of African languages on pidgins and creoles", in Kaye, Jonathan; Koopman, H.; Sportiche, D.; et al. (eds.),

1533:, and that current lexicography of Soninke is too elementary for it to be stated with authority that it does not have non-transparent derivation. Meanwhile, 668:

comparisons of creole languages have led to divergent conclusions. Similarities are usually higher among creoles derived from related languages, such as the

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contexts. The substrate may survive as a second language for informal conversation. As demonstrated by the fate of many replaced European languages (such as

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While the simplification of input was supposed to account for creoles' simple grammar, commentators have raised a number of criticisms of this explanation:

1109:, proposed in the 1980s, remains the main universalist theory. Bickerton claims that creoles are inventions of the children growing up on newly founded 138:

shifts. On the other hand, the grammar that has evolved often has new or unique features that differ substantially from those of the parent languages.

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of their parent languages. Because of that prejudice, many of the creoles that arose in the European colonies, having been stigmatized, have become

486:"tree model" for the evolution of languages, and its postulated regularity of sound changes (these critics including the earliest advocates of the 3878:

Seuren, Pieter A.M.; Wekker, Herman C. (1986), "Semantic transparency as a factor in creole genesis", in Muysken, Pieter; Smith, Norval (eds.),

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or merely evidence indicative of a set of recognizable phenomena seen in association with little inherent unity and no underlying single cause.

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Many of the creoles known today arose in the last 500 years, as a result of the worldwide expansion of European maritime power and trade in the

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in turn are more similar to each other (and to varieties of French) than to other European-based creoles. It was observed, in particular, that

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Another factor that may have contributed to the relative neglect of creole languages in linguistics is that they do not fit the 19th-century

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Meijer, Guus; Muysken, Pieter (1977), "On the beginnings of pidgin and creole studies: Schuchardt and Hesseling", in Valdman, Albert (ed.),

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Pidgins are more often used amongst speakers of different substrate languages than between such speakers and those of the lexifier language.

1316:, the language McWhorter uses as a showcase for his theory. The same objections were raised by Wittmann in his 1999 debate with McWhorter. 696:. Moreover, the European languages which gave rise to the creole languages of European colonies all belong to the same subgroup of Western 4450:

Les langues des autres dans la créolisation : théorie et exemplification par le créole d'empreinte wolof à l'île Santiago du Cap Vert

1521:, there is ample non-transparent derivation, and that there is no reason to suppose that this would be absent in close relatives such as 4509:

Mufwene, Salikoko (2000), "Creolization is a social, not a structural, process", in Neumann-Holzschuh, Ingrid; Schneider, Edgar (eds.),

4166:, Revue québécoise de linguistique théorique et appliquée 13, Trois-Rivières: Presses universitaires de Trois-Rivières, pp. 225–43 1050:, rudimentary second languages improvised for use between speakers of two or more non-intelligible native languages. Keith Whinnom (in 915:, in analyzing German Foreigner Talk, claims that it is too inconsistent and unpredictable to provide any model for language learning. 5434: 1560:

critically assesses the proposal that creole languages exist as a homogeneous structural type with shared and/ or peculiar origins.

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Speakers of a creole's lexifier language often fail to understand, without learning the language, the grammar of a pidgin or creole.

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Based on 19th-century intuitions, approaches underlying the imperfect L2 learning hypothesis have been followed up in the works of

177:. Like most non-official and minority languages, creoles have generally been regarded in popular opinion as degenerate variants or 150:, developed by adults for use as a second language, becomes the native and primary language of their children – a process known as 5510: 1932: 717:

There are a variety of theories on the origin of creole languages, all of which attempt to explain the similarities among them.

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Thompson, R.W. (1961), "A note on some possible affinities between the creole dialects of the Old World and those of the New",

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Vennemann, Theo (2003), "Languages in prehistoric Europe north of the Alps", in Bammesberger, Alfred; Vennemann, Theo (eds.),

3720:(2013), "Why noncompositional derivation isn't boring: A second try on the 'other' part of the Creole prototype hypothesis.", 3044:

Bickerton, Derek (1977). "Pidginization and creolization: Language acquisition and language universals". In A. Valdman (ed.).

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are potential creoles but that they are not considered as such by linguists because of a historical bias against such a view.

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distinctions on verbs as well as conjugational classes" and therefore that these languages should not be considered creoles.

4141:"Grammaire comparée des variétés coloniales du français populaire de Paris du 17e siècle et origines du français québécois" 1471:

have adduced evidence as to creole languages which respond unexpectedly to one of McWhorter's three features (for example,

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a lack of functional tone marking, that is, a lack of tone that serves to distinguish lexical items (e.g. Mandarin Chinese

5417: 5170: 5479: 1545:, which qualifies as inflection, and it also retains non-transparent derivation. Michel DeGraff's argument has been that 541: 5464: 6277: 5449: 5215: 4700: 2678:

for a discussion of the controversy surrounding the retaining of substrate grammatical features through relexification.

1853: 5489: 5454: 5439: 5405: 3768:(2000), "Creolization is a social, not a structural, process", in Neumann-Holzschuh, Ingrid; Schneider, Edgar (eds.), 3664:

McWhorter, John H. (1999), "The Afrogenesis Hypothesis of Plantation Creole Origin", in Huber, M; Parkvall, M (eds.),

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According to their external history, four types of creoles have been distinguished: plantation creoles, fort creoles,

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Schneider, Edgar W. (1990), "The cline of creoleness in English-oriented Creoles and semi-creoles of the Caribbean",

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Geeslin, Kimberly L. (2002), "Semantic transparency as a predictor of copula choice in second-language acquisition",

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as a concept, DeGraff and others question the idea that creoles are exceptional in any meaningful way. Additionally,

305:(those born in the Iberian Peninsula, i.e. Spain). However, in Brazil the term was also used to distinguish between 6668: 6037: 5671: 5043: 4317: 3615:

Lefebvre, Claire (2002), "The emergence of productive morphology in creole languages: the case of Haitian Creole",

3227: 1282:) have claimed the existence of creoles that serve as counterexamples to McWhorter's hypothesis – the existence of 601:

are often used when two languages interact. However, the meaning of these terms is reasonably well-defined only in

4758: 4300: 3210: 1885:"Typologizing grammatical complexities, or Why creoles may be paradigmatically simple but syntagmatically average" 5689: 4687: 1746: 4180:

Français d'Amérique: variation, créolisation, normalisation (Actes du colloque, Université d'Avignon, 8-11 Oct.)

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as a typological class; they argue that creoles are structurally no different from any other language, and that

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Some features that distinguish creole languages from noncreoles have been proposed (by Bickerton, for example).

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The lack of progress made in defining creoles in terms of their morphology and syntax has led scholars such as

685: 203:, absorbing certain words and features from the slaves' non-European native languages, resulting in a heavily 6199: 5978: 5274: 4831: 4282:

Bastard Tongues: A Trailblazing Linguist Finds Clues to Our Common Humanity in the World's Lowliest Languages

3443:"Des créolismes dans la distribution des déterminants et des complémenteurs en français québécois basilectal" 1732: 1727: 1707: 1685: 820: 808: 753: 677: 782:

it took root, despite considerable changes in its phonology and virtually complete changes in its lexicon".

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whose language would be far from the standard in the first place, interacted extensively with non-European

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Good, Jeff (2004), "Tone and accent in Saramaccan: Charting a deep split in the phonology of a language",

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Traugott, Elizabeth Closs (1977), "The Development of Pidgin and Creole Studies", in Valdman, Theo (ed.),

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Dillard, J.L. (1970), "Principles in the history of American English: Paradox, virginity, and cafeteria",

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There are a great many grammatical similarities amongst pidgins and creoles despite having very different

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This could explain why creole languages have much in common, while avoiding a monogenetic model. However,

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to be sociohistoric in nature and relative to their colonial origin. Within this theoretical framework, a

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which are not considered creoles. Wittmann and DeGraff come to the conclusion that efforts to conceive a

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and the plantation system of the European colonies have been emphasized as factors by linguists such as

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Feist, Sigmund (1932), "The Origin of the Germanic Languages and the Europeanization of North Europe",

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Singler, John Victor (1988), "The homogeneity of the substrate as a factor in pidgin/creole genesis",

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Singler, John Victor (1988), "The homogeneity of the substrate as a factor in pidgin/creole genesis",

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that develops from the process of different languages simplifying and mixing into a new form (often a

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is a sociohistoric concept – not a linguistic one – encompassing displaced populations and slavery.

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Bailey, Charles J; Maroldt, Karl (1977), "The French lineage of English", in Meisel, Jürgen (ed.),

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Recent investigations about substrates and superstrates, in creoles and other languages, includes

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Parkvall, Mikael (2001), "Creolistics and the quest for Creoleness: A reply to Claire Lefebvre",

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Because of the sociohistoric similarities amongst many (but by no means all) of the creoles, the

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DeCamp, David (1977), "The Development of Pidgin and Creole Studies", in Valdman, Albert (ed.),

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into separate chapters outside this scheme whether or not relexification come into the picture.

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of creoleness". No consensus exists among creolists as to whether the nature of creoleness is

765: 507: 6320: 6241: 2432:. Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology – Department of Linguistics. August 2013. 1965: 6640: 6587: 6502: 6407: 6330: 6092: 6062: 6027: 5934: 5877: 5859: 5146: 5110: 4213:"Contraintes sur la relexification: les limites imposées dans un cadre théorique minimaliste" 5594: 5589: 5584: 3326:

DeGraff, Michel (2005), "Do creole languages constitute an exceptional typological class?",

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Calvet, Louis-Jean. (2006). Toward an Ecology of World Languages. Malden, MA: Polity Press.

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Creolistics investigates the relative creoleness of languages suspected to be creoles, what

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Muysken, Pieter; Law, Paul (2001), "Creole studies: A theoretical linguist's field guide",

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Muysken, Pieter; Law, Paul (2001), "Creole studies: A theoretical linguist's field guide",

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loss of determiners or use of demonstrative pronouns, adjectives or adverbs as determiners;

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Grammatical simplification can be explained by other processes, i.e. the innate grammar of

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Imagining the Creole City: The Rise of Literary Culture in Nineteenth-Century New Orleans

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There is controversy about the extent to which creolization influenced the evolution of

502:). This controversy of the late 19th century profoundly shaped modern approaches to the 6251: 6032: 5634: 5372: 5342: 5100: 5058: 4973: 4916: 4738: 4557: 4477: 4419: 4360: 4332: 4084: 3922: 3653: 3479: 3421: 3399: 3345: 3315: 3270: 3141: 3103: 3099: 2304: 2230: 1884: 1663: 1542: 1480: 1413: 1291: 1113:. Around them, they only heard pidgins spoken, without enough structure to function as 503: 4668: 4415: 3058: 1940: 1350:

today's creole languages are no different from universal patterns of language change.

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invariant verb forms derived from the infinitive or the least marked finite verb form;

544:(AAVE). In the American education system, as well as in the past, the use of the word 6597: 6497: 6220: 6189: 6149: 6097: 5873: 5850: 5837: 5730: 5624: 5352: 5105: 5095: 5053: 5048: 4286: 4263: 4245: 4057: 4035: 3892: 3865: 3601: 3471: 3442: 3428: 3319: 3145: 3065: 3006: 2996: 2308: 2234: 2222: 1982: 1690: 1522: 1518: 1440: 1320: 1259: 1092: 1075: 863:

in other parts of the Americas. Approaches under this hypothesis are compatible with

619: 611: 455: 5362: 4423: 4364: 3483: 3349: 3274: 832: 6537: 6230: 6076: 5974: 5925: 5896: 5846: 5797: 5736: 5367: 5357: 5326: 5289: 5242: 5237: 5195: 4927: 4788: 4577: 4549: 4469: 4411: 4352: 4105: 3991: 3942: 3914: 3840: 3820: 3777: 3765: 3749: 3729: 3706: 3645: 3499: 3463: 3391: 3335: 3307: 3262: 3176: 3133: 3095: 2988: 2296: 2214: 1793: 1784: 1765: 1699: 1648: 1620: 1526: 1514: 1444: 1362: 1324: 1263: 1114: 860: 681: 499: 226: 192: 182: 170: 116: 96: 64: 38: 4631: 4188: 2793: 446:

languages are based on European languages with elements from African and possibly

317:(born in Africa). Over time, the term and its derivatives (Creole, Kréol, Kreyol, 71:), and then that form expanding and elaborating into a full-fledged language with 51:, literally translated is "Lift your foot. Small people are playing here" in 2010. 6607: 6532: 6422: 6402: 6371: 6361: 6356: 6345: 6325: 6292: 6160: 6052: 5938: 5891: 5855: 5841: 5764: 5574: 5469: 5422: 5270: 5246: 5205: 5163: 5151: 5141: 5131: 5126: 5065: 5038: 5033: 5021: 4993: 4988: 4963: 4716: 4704: 4691: 4592: 4280: 4276: 3757: 3678:

The Missing Spanish Creoles: recovering the birth of plantation contact languages

3201: 3164: 3152: 3053: 1900:

Millar, Robert M. (2015). Trask's historical linguistics. Routledge. pp. 305-306.

1755: 1703: 1694: 1668: 1602: 1464: 1309: 1271: 1103: 959: 930: 868: 828: 812: 773: 651: 631: 615: 568: 495: 443: 27: 4157:"La forme phonologique comparée du parler magoua de la région de Trois-Rivières" 3523:

Givón, Talmy (1979), "Prolegomena to any sane creology", in Hancock, Ian (ed.),

799:

it to the West Indies and formed one component of the emerging English creoles.

688:

and English whereas they are generally postnominal in French creoles and in the

634:, "superstrate" usually means European and "substrate" non-European or African. 248: 239: 6634: 6602: 6557: 6552: 6522: 6507: 6471: 6386: 6144: 6006: 5929: 5915: 5905: 5900: 5887: 5619: 5459: 5444: 5393: 5347: 5316: 4854: 4797: 4612: 4588: 4457: 4116: 4071:

Whinnom, Keith (1965), "The origin of the European-based creoles and pidgins",

3987: 3717: 3694: 3673: 3633: 2675: 2588: 1797: 1788: 1769: 1751: 1638: 1546: 1538: 1534: 1448: 1428: 1405: 1401: 1397: 1332: 1328: 1267: 1251: 1141: 999: 894:

suggest that four different processes are involved in creating Foreigner Talk:

761: 643: 606: 545: 521: 463: 326: 294: 120: 76: 33: 6179: 4224:

13, Trois-Rivières: Presses universitaires de Trois-Rivières, pp. 245–280

4206:. The Linguist List. Eastern Michigan University & Wayne State University. 3467: 3137: 2300: 2218: 1431:, exhibiting all three traits, as "the most creole of creoles". A creole like 75:, all within a fairly brief period. While the concept is similar to that of a 6657: 6492: 6351: 6303: 6297: 6246: 6194: 6184: 6173: 5810: 5200: 4953: 4874: 4844: 4460:(1998), "Identifying the creole prototype: Vindicating a typological class", 4301:"On the origin of creoles: A Cartesian critique of Neo-Darwinian linguistics" 4212: 4182:, Avignon: Université d'Avignon, Centre d'études canadiennes, pp. 229–48 4172: 4120: 3636:(1998), "Identifying the creole prototype: Vindicating a typological class", 3211:"On the origin of creoles: A Cartesian critique of Neo-Darwinian linguistics" 3010: 2226: 1653: 1003: 689: 571:

creoles, and creolized pidgins. By the very nature of a creole language, the

483: 459: 401: 322: 104: 4697: 4600:

Actes du Colloque de la Société Internationale de Linguistique Fonctionnelle

4581: 4150:, Trois-Rivières: Presses universitaires de Trois-Rivières, pp. 281–334 4109: 3946: 3824: 3733: 1860: 721:

outline a fourfold classification of explanations regarding creole genesis:

517: 6572: 6567: 6433: 6381: 5629: 5496: 5474: 5090: 5011: 4902: 4888: 4140: 4096:

Winford, D (1997), "Creole Formation in the Context of Contact Languages",

3844: 3710: 3475: 3180: 1590: 1423:. In McWhorter's view, less prototypical creoles depart somewhat from this 1382: 1194: 1099: 824: 795: 598: 534: 451: 437: 151: 72: 4684: 4356: 3503: 3311: 3266: 2979:

Ansaldo, U.; Matthews, S. (2007), "Deconstructing creole: The rationale",

475:

generally used by linguists in opposition to "language", rather than as a

6376: 5569: 5520: 5501: 5427: 5379: 4839: 4678: 2992: 1501: 1110: 756:

and creoles hypothesizes that all Atlantic creoles derived from a single

701: 550:

to refer to AAVE mirrors the historical negative connotation of the word

537:, terms that now imply no geographic restrictions nor ethnic prejudices. 511: 421: 405: 374: 88: 4336: 4173:"Les créolismes syntaxiques du français magoua parlé aux Trois-Rivières" 4156: 3340: 3155:(1988), "Creole languages and the bioprogram", in Newmeyer, F.J. (ed.), 3107: 6582: 6517: 6397: 6366: 5821: 5769: 4978: 4673: 4200:

Wittmann, Henri (2001). "CreoList debate, parts I-VI, appendixes 1-9".

4089:

Language, Thought, and Reality: Selected Writings of Benjamin Lee Whorf

3626:Économie des Changements Phonétiques: traité de phonologie diachronique 1580: 1530: 1484: 1456: 1436: 1432: 1409: 1313: 1295: 1063: 1055: 864: 816: 627: 433: 396:

Many of those creoles are now extinct, but others still survive in the

386: 108: 42: 5070: 4561: 4481: 3926: 3657: 3403: 2430:"Creole and pidgin language structure in cross-linguistic perspective" 1213:

in Sranan) and whose meaning is not analyzable; for instance the pair

1201:

relationship with Dutch, has borrowed some Dutch verbs containing the

946:

Another problem with the FT explanation is its potential circularity.

6427: 6215: 6107: 6066: 6057: 5909: 5816: 5230: 3666:

Spreading the Word: The Issue of Diffusion among the Atlantic Creoles

3449:, Université d'Avignon: Centre d'études canadiennes, pp. 217–228 1643: 1452: 1424: 1198: 1096: 885: 852: 572: 476: 458:

and possibly other Asian languages. There are, however, creoles like

429: 425: 413: 397: 382: 370: 362: 358: 1019:

For a representative debate on this issue, see the contributions to

844: 454:

Creole languages are based on European languages with elements from

318: 6612: 6417: 6340: 6282: 6235: 6102: 5743: 5251: 5210: 4742: 4553: 4473: 4260:

Syntactic Developments in Sranan: Creolization as a gradual process

3918: 3649: 3594:

La Teoría del substrato y los dialectos hispano-romances y gascones

3395: 3357: 2608:; cf. the article on Quebec French and the History of Quebec French 1508: 1085: 923: 760:, via a West African Pidgin Portuguese of the seventeenth century, 672:, than among broader groups that include also creoles based on non- 378: 338: 204: 135: 4748: 3960:, Washington, D.C.: Center for Applied Linguistics, pp. 34–53 3853:

The Pidginization Process: A Model for Second Language Acquisition

1513:

On the other hand, McWhorter points out that in languages such as

19:"ISO 639:crp" redirects here. But that language code incorporates 6448: 6166: 6118: 5220: 4881: 3956:(1962), "Creole languages in the Caribbean", in F.A. Rice (ed.), 1598: 848: 525: 390: 235: 178: 131: 127: 80: 46: 6577: 6204: 5962: 5881: 4827: 4793: 3697:(2011), "Tying up loose ends: the creole prototype after all", 3167:(1991), "On the Supposed 'Gradualness' of Creole Development", 3114:

Bickerton, Derek (1984), "The language bioprogram hypothesis",

1571: 1118: 1047: 840: 409: 342: 155: 147: 112: 68: 20: 4389:

Gil, David (2001), "Creoles, Complexity and Riau Indonesian",

3510:

Gil, David (2001), "Creoles, Complexity and Riau Indonesian",

1388: 166:

grammatical feature has been shown to be specific to creoles.

6592: 6562: 6487: 6266: 5864: 5225: 4909: 4753: 4721: 4664:

Association of Portuguese and Spanish Lexically-based Creoles

4658: 3567:

Papers from the York Creole Conference, September 24–27, 1983

2287:

Williams, Robert L. (2016-07-25). "The Ebonics Controversy".

1737: 836: 811:

are the foremost candidates to being the outcome of "normal"

366: 350: 200: 4642:"Lexical diffusion and the glottogenetics of creole French." 3427:, Trois-Rivières: Presses universitaires de Trois-Rivières, 2927: 1817:"Multilingualism and language contact | Languages In Danger" 1144:

has proposed the following list of features as defining the

747: 4663: 3447:

Français d'Amérique: variation, créolisation, normalisation

694:

exported to what is now Quebec in the 17th and 18th century

354: 4733: 3998:(first ed.), Berkeley: University of California Press 2587:

There are some similarities in this line of thinking with

1041: 992: 299:(people born in the colonies from Spanish ancestors) from 91:. Someone who engages in this study is called a creolist. 16:

Stable natural languages that have developed from a pidgin

4343:

DeGraff, Michel (2003), "Against Creole Exceptionalism",

4222:, Revue québécoise de linguistique théorique et appliquée 4203:

Lexical diffusion and the glottogenetics of creole French

1459:

in any scientifically meaningful way have failed so far.

346: 311:(blacks born in Brazil from African slave ancestors) and 4373:

Born Out of Resistance. On Caribbean Cultural Creativity

4240:

Arends, Jacques; Muysken, Pieter; Smith, Norval (1995),

3048:. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. pp. 49–69. 3026:

Arends, Jacques; Muysken, Pieter; Smith, Norval (1995),

2867: 4694:

at the Online Dictionary of Language Terminology (ODLT)

4025:(fourth ed.), Blackwell Publishing, pp. 57–86 4007:, Bloomington: Indiana University Press, pp. 70–98 3996:

Language Contact, Creolization, and Genetic Linguistics

3744:, Bloomington: Indiana University Press, pp. 21–45 3017:

Ansaldo, Umberto; Matthews, Stephen; Lim, Lisa (2007),

2915: 982:

fixed single word order with no inversion in questions;

972:

placement of a negative particle in preverbal position;

700:

and have highly convergent grammars; to the point that

4739:

Groupe d'études et de recherches en espace créolophone

4722:

Atlas of Pidgin and Creole Language Structures (APiCS)

4620:

Proceedings of the International Congress of Linguists

2972:

Pidginization and Creolization as Language Acquisition

742: 4749:

Associação Brasileira de Estudos Crioulos e Similares

4632:"Prototype as a typological yardstick to creoleness." 4613:"Le français de Paris dans le français des Amériques" 4593:"Les réactions en chaîne en morphologie diachronique" 4533:

Out of Africa: African influences in Atlantic Creoles

4050:

Spanish Contact Vernaculars in the Philippine Islands

3804:

Out of Africa: African influences in Atlantic Creoles

2879: 2512:

DeGraff, Michael (2001). "On the origin of creoles".

1566:

groups creole genesis theories into four categories:

1095:

driven by universal process, or a general process of

802: 466:

that are derived solely from non-European languages.

4648:, Eastern Michigan University|Wayne State University 4434:, vol. 2, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 4189:"Prototype as a typological yardstick to creoleness" 3578:, vol. 1, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 3159:, vol. 2, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 2891: 2839: 2794:"Prototype as a Typological Yardstick to Creoleness" 158:-creole life cycle was studied by American linguist 4384:, Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University Press 2903: 2501:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 3. 1148:, that is, any language born recently of a pidgin: 3420: 3057: 3025: 3016: 2654: 2442: 2321: 1563: 1557: 1229: 1214: 1208: 891: 718: 260:('to breed' or 'to raise'), all coming from Latin 103:that arose at that time. With the improvements in 4262:, Nijmegen: Katholieke Universiteit ti Nijmegen, 4021:Wardhaugh, Ronald (2002), "Pidgins and Creoles", 3891:, vol. 2, Dordrecht: Foris, pp. 65–77, 6655: 4734:Groupe Européen de Recherches en Langues Créoles 4210: 3551:, New York: American Elsevier Publishing Company 3419:Fournier, Robert; Wittmann, Henri, eds. (1995), 3418: 3358:"Creole Exceptionalism and Accidents of History" 2605: 2262: 2260: 1981:. New York: Oxford Linguistics. pp. 68–69. 1549:retains non-transparent derivation from French. 1439:of creoleness can be found in languages such as 768:" of Western Africa that were the source of the 312: 306: 285: 251: 4146:, in Fournier, Robert; Wittmann, Henri (eds.), 3986: 3754:Africanisms in Afro-American Language Varieties 3453: 2978: 2822: 2662: 2111: 2109: 2086: 2084: 1933:"Creole – Language Information & Resources" 1346: 878: 4441:The Genesis of the Creole Languages of Surinam 3355: 1619:. Oxford Research Encyclopedias: Linguistics. 1497: 1171: 1156: 469: 4774: 4644:CreoList debate, parts I-VI, appendixes 1–9. 3880:Substrata Versus Universals in Creole Genesis 3739: 3558:Substrata Versus Universals in Creole Genesis 3362:Sargasso: Creolistics and Caribbean Languages 3078:Bickerton, Derek (1983), "Creole Languages", 3034: 2485: 2257: 2251: 1679: 1002:: the substrate language replaces the native 785: 300: 292: 279: 242: 83:, possess large stable vocabularies, and are 4511:Degrees of Restructuring in Creole Languages 3877: 3770:Degrees of restructuring in creole languages 2650: 2332: 2330: 2106: 2081: 1979:The Emergence of Pidgin and Creole Languages 998:language in the creole through a process of 588: 229: 4710:Society for Pidgin & Creole Linguistics 4513:, Amsterdam: John Benjamins, pp. 65–84 4032:Languages in Contact: Findings and Problems 3969:, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press 3772:, Amsterdam: John Benjamins, pp. 65–84 3585:Pidginization and Creolization of Languages 3412:Pidginization and Creolization of Languages 2072: 2070: 1577:Theories focusing on the non-European input 1202: 772:. This theory was originally formulated by 650:characterized by large-scale variation and 261: 4781: 4767: 4211:Wittmann, Henri; Fournier, Robert (1996), 4062:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 3788: 3680:, Berkeley: University of California Press 3606:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 3564: 3186: 2759: 2090: 1837:"The study of pidgin and creole languages" 1468: 1279: 1069: 947: 912: 872: 562: 332: 4029: 4020: 4016:, Heidelberg: C. Winter, pp. 319–332 4011: 3889:Current Approaches to African Linguistics 3830: 3716: 3693: 3684: 3672: 3668:, London: University of Westminster Press 3663: 3632: 3591: 3549:External History of the Romance Languages 3356:DeGraff, Michel; Walicek, Don E. (2005). 3339: 3328:Revue Française de Linguistique Appliquée 3301: 3204:: Indiana University Press, pp. 3–20 3163: 3151: 3127: 3113: 3077: 3052: 3043: 2933: 2921: 2885: 2873: 2834: 2781: 2770: 2748: 2744: 2740: 2728: 2716: 2712: 2708: 2704: 2700: 2687: 2629: 2575: 2496: 2389: 2385: 2336: 2327: 2246: 2244: 2131: 2129: 2127: 2125: 2123: 2040: 2024: 2001: 1854:"Language varieties: Pidgins and creoles" 1374: 1035: 1008: 985:reduced or absent nominal plural marking. 778: 748:Monogenetic theory of pidgins and creoles 739:any other languages (e.g. DeGraff 2001). 4199: 4186: 4170: 4154: 4138: 4115: 4002: 3973: 3850: 3810: 3801: 3623: 3614: 3440: 3409: 2969: 2953: 2949: 2945: 2897: 2845: 2646: 2642: 2618: 2601: 2553: 2462: 2458: 2454: 2417: 2393: 2286: 2266: 2204: 2147: 2145: 2143: 2101: 2067: 2051: 1529:has what all linguists would analyze as 1525:itself. Moreover, he also observes that 1492: 1396:is at the heart of the controversy with 1185:) or to encode grammatical features; and 1024: 953: 516: 32: 4443:, Amsterdam: Universiteit van Amsterdam 4095: 4070: 4047: 3952: 3932: 3904: 3886: 3784:, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 3776: 3764: 3748: 3560:, Amsterdam: Benjamins, pp. 71–102 3555: 3489: 3414:, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 3368: 3325: 3283:"Against Creole Exceptionalism (redux)" 3280: 3245: 3225: 3208: 2909: 2862: 2858: 2810: 2658: 2564: 2542: 2538: 2511: 2405: 2401: 2369: 2358: 2347: 2115: 2062: 2036: 1614: 1552: 1488: 1427:. Along these lines, McWhorter defines 1358: 1197:, which has existed for centuries in a 1042:Gradualist and developmental hypotheses 1020: 1012: 993:Theories focusing on non-European input 791: 731:Gradualist and developmental hypotheses 728:Theories focusing on non-European input 6656: 4570:Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages 4502:Langues en Contact – Pidgins – Creoles 4098:Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages 3964: 3935:Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages 3882:, Amsterdam: Benjamins, pp. 57–70 3862:Contact Languages: Pidgins and Creoles 3813:Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages 3722:Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages 3195: 3169:Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages 3037:Langues en Contact – Pidgins – Creoles 2527: 2241: 2135: 2120: 1976: 1509:"Creole", a genuine linguistic concept 831:, more specifically on a 17th-century 26:For the computer markup language, see 6469: 5960: 4813: 4762: 4083: 3958:Study of the Role of Second Languages 3859: 3582: 3522: 3381: 2474: 2381: 2151: 2140: 1964:, ed. Anne E. Baker, Kees Hengeveld, 1625:10.1093/acrefore/9780199384655.013.68 1051: 146:A creole is believed to arise when a 5884:Kundoku (Chinese and Japanese-based) 4635:The Creolist Archives Papers On-Line 4242:Pidgins and Creoles: An introduction 4233: 4193:The Creolist Archives Papers On-Line 3573: 3543: 3531: 3028:Pidgins and creoles: An introduction 2397: 2192: 2013: 1046:One class of creoles might start as 48:Lévé pié aw / Ni ti moun ka joué la! 6470: 5772:(with Dutch and Spanish influences) 4439:Hunter Smith, Norval Selby (1987), 4023:An Introduction to Sociolinguistics 3509: 2162: 2076: 1500:discuss creolistics in relation to 1460: 1255: 1133: 743:Theories focusing on European input 725:Theories focusing on European input 542:African-American Vernacular English 13: 6639:Languages between parentheses are 3100:10.1038/scientificamerican0783-116 2655:Arends, Muysken & Smith (1995) 1608: 1564:Arends, Muysken & Smith (1995) 1558:Ansaldo, Matthews & Lim (2007) 1117:; and the children used their own 892:Arends, Muysken & Smith (1995) 803:European dialect origin hypothesis 719:Arends, Muysken & Smith (1995) 14: 6680: 4754:Society for Caribbean Linguistics 4652: 4492:, Oxford: Oxford University Press 3782:The Ecology of Language Evolution 3689:, Oxford: Oxford University Press 3371:Florida Foreign Language Reporter 3157:Linguistics: The Cambridge survey 3116:The Behavioral and Brain Sciences 2443:Arends, Muysken & Smith (1995 2322:Arends, Muysken & Smith (1995 1775:Portuguese-based creole languages 1463:comes to the same conclusion for 1389:"Creole", a sociohistoric concept 1302: 1124: 712: 646:process typically brings about a 637: 557: 6038:Liberian Interior Pidgin English 5672:Indo-Portuguese Creole of Bombay 5044:Leeward Caribbean Creole English 4318:"Relexification: A reevaluation" 3228:"Relexification: A reevaluation" 3039:, Tübingen: Narr, pp. 21–53 2970:Anderson, Roger W., ed. (1983), 524:in use at car rental counter in 5778:(English and Portuguese based) 5690:Daman and Diu Portuguese Creole 5080:(English and Portuguese based) 4121:"Le joual, c'est-tu un créole?" 4034:, New York: Mouton Publishers, 4014:Languages in Prehistoric Europe 3592:Jungemann, Fréderic H. (1955), 3248:"Against Creole Exceptionalism" 2981:Typological Studies in Language 2962: 2939: 2851: 2827: 2816: 2804: 2786: 2775: 2764: 2753: 2733: 2721: 2693: 2681: 2668: 2635: 2623: 2611: 2594: 2581: 2569: 2558: 2547: 2532: 2520: 2505: 2490: 2479: 2468: 2448: 2436: 2422: 2411: 2374: 2363: 2352: 2341: 2315: 2280: 2271: 2198: 2186: 2156: 2095: 2056: 2045: 2030: 2018: 2007: 1995: 1970: 1747:Japanese-based creole languages 1615:Muysken, Pieter (9 June 2016). 873:imperfect language transmission 400:, the north and east coasts of 256:, all descending from the verb 6643:of the language on their left. 6278:Kyakhta Russian–Chinese Pidgin 5992:American Indian Pidgin English 4178:, in Brasseur, Patrice (ed.), 2606:Fournier & Wittmann (1995) 1955: 1925: 1912: 1903: 1894: 1877: 1846: 1829: 1809: 1780:Spanish-based creole languages 1723:English-based creole languages 1713:Chinese-based creole languages 1368: 686:English-based creole languages 1: 6200:Broome Pearling Lugger Pidgin 5171:San Andrés–Providencia Creole 4416:10.1016/S0024-3841(03)00062-7 4218:, in Fournier, Robert (ed.), 4162:, in Fournier, Robert (ed.), 4005:Pidgin and Creole Linguistics 3760:: University of Georgia Press 3742:Pidgin and Creole Linguistics 3445:, in Patrice Brasseur (ed.), 3198:Pidgin and Creole Linguistics 2823:Ansaldo & Matthews (2007) 2663:Hamilton & Coslett (2008) 2600:Wittmann (1983, 1995, 2001), 2165:"Pidgin and Creole Languages" 1803: 1733:German-based creole languages 1728:French-based creole languages 1686:Arabic-based creole languages 1541:, retains some indication of 1400:and Mikael Parkvall opposing 1347:Thomason & Kaufman (1988) 1258:argue that languages such as 754:monogenetic theory of pidgins 678:French-based creole languages 6288:Labrador Inuit Pidgin French 5708:Sri Lankan Portuguese Creole 4727: 4659:International Magazine Kreol 4375:, Utrecht: Isor-Publications 4087:(1956), John Carroll (ed.), 3967:Languages in the West Indies 3587:, Cambridge University Press 3569:, York Papers in Linguistics 3539:, Ithaca: Cornell University 1761:Malay-based creole languages 1718:Dutch-based creole languages 1498:DeGraff & Walicek (2005) 1172: 1157: 884:it is also sometimes called 879:Foreigner talk and baby talk 648:post-creole speech continuum 498:, the forerunners of modern 428:), Island Countries such as 216: 7: 6315:Mediterranean Lingua Franca 6113:West African Pidgin English 6073:Port Jackson Pidgin English 5961: 5678:Cannanore Portuguese Creole 4969:West African Pidgin English 4814: 4698:Louisiana Creole Dictionary 4488:McWhorter, John H. (2005), 3855:, Rowley, MA: Newbury House 3685:McWhorter, John H. (2005), 3537:Pidgin and Creole Languages 3046:Pidgin and creole languages 2974:, Rowley, MA: Newbury House 2591:domestic origin hypothesis. 2486:Bailey & Maroldt (1977) 2289:Journal of Black Psychology 2252:Meijer & Muysken (1977) 1632: 1517:, essentially a dialect of 1312:has a simpler grammar than 758:Mediterranean Lingua Franca 603:second language acquisition 470:Social and political status 141: 10: 6685: 6310:Maritime Polynesian Pidgin 6210:Cameroonian Pidgin English 6043:Micronesian Pidgin English 5997:Cameroonian Pidgin English 4030:Weinreich, Uriel (1979) , 3851:Schumann, John H. (1978), 3525:Readings in Creole Studies 2651:Seuren & Wekker (1986) 1922:. Oxford University Press. 1680:Creoles by parent language 1353:Given these objections to 1107:language bioprogram theory 1073: 1023:; for a more recent view, 975:use of adverbs to express 934:language bioprogram theory 786:Domestic origin hypothesis 704:joined them into a single 211: 25: 18: 6625: 6478: 6465: 6127: 6083:Queensland Kanaka English 5987:Aboriginal Pidgin English 5973: 5969: 5956: 5830: 5796: 5757: 5716: 5665:Bengali Portuguese Creole 5654: 5647: 5612: 5554: 5547: 5534: 5392: 5336:Indian and Pacific Oceans 5335: 5282: 5269: 5188: 5119: 5004: 4946: 4939: 4926: 4853: 4826: 4822: 4809: 4637:, Stockholms Universitet. 4531:Parkvall, Mikael (2000), 4148:Le Français des Amériques 3802:Parkvall, Mikael (2000), 3624:Martinet, André (1964) , 3468:10.1080/13554790802368679 3441:Fournier, Robert (1998), 3423:Le Français des Amériques 3138:10.1017/S0140525X00044149 2301:10.1177/00957984970233002 2219:10.1080/14788810802445024 1918:McWhorter, J. H. (2005). 1597:The authors also confine 1570:Theories focusing on the 1335:to question the value of 706:Standard Average European 684:are mostly prenominal in 589:Substrate and superstrate 418:Australian Kriol language 175:European colonial empires 173:, which led to extensive 6483:Arabic-Javanese of Klego 6444:Yokohama Pidgin Japanese 6262:Kiautschou Pidgin German 6257:Inuktitut-English Pidgin 6135:Algonquian–Basque pidgin 6088:Samoan Plantation Pidgin 5703:Korlai Portuguese Creole 5684:Cochin Portuguese Creole 5435:Eastern Indonesian Malay 5017:Grenadian Creole English 4802:list of creole languages 4640:Wittmann, Henri (2001). 4630:Wittmann, Henri (1999). 4611:Wittmann, Henri (1998), 4316:DeGraff, Michel (2002), 4299:DeGraff, Michel (2001), 4258:Arends, Jacques (1989), 4244:, Amsterdam: Benjamins, 4195:, Stockholms Universitet 4187:Wittmann, Henri (1999), 4171:Wittmann, Henri (1998), 4155:Wittmann, Henri (1996), 4139:Wittmann, Henri (1995), 3965:Taylor, Douglas (1977), 3281:DeGraff, Michel (2004), 3246:DeGraff, Michel (2003), 3226:DeGraff, Michel (2002), 3209:DeGraff, Michel (2001), 2760:Muysken & Law (2001) 2497:McWhorter, John (2018). 2091:Muysken & Law (2001) 1674:Nicaraguan Sign Language 1659:List of creole languages 1469:Muysken & Law (2001) 1280:Muysken & Law (2001) 1278:Others (see overview in 904:Telegraphic condensation 764:in the so-called "slave 191:Other scholars, such as 77:mixed or hybrid language 6669:Linguistics terminology 6508:Cypriot Maronite-Arabic 6439:West Greenlandic Pidgin 6393:Roquetas Pidgin Spanish 6155:Basque–Icelandic pidgin 6058:Papua New Guinea Pidgin 6023:Japanese Pidgin English 6018:Japanese Bamboo English 6013:Hawaiian Pidgin English 5725:Bidau Creole Portuguese 5300:Grenadian Creole French 5295:Dominican Creole French 5176:Turks and Caicos Creole 4984:Ghanaian Pidgin English 4582:10.1075/jpcl.11.2.02sin 4325:Linguistic Anthropology 4110:10.1075/jpcl.12.1.06win 4048:Whinnom, Keith (1956), 3976:Creole Language Studies 3947:10.1075/jpcl.11.2.02sin 3825:10.1075/jpcl.16.1.07par 3734:10.1075/jpcl.28.1.08mcw 3235:Linguistic Anthropology 3187:Bloomfield, L. (1933), 2169:Humanities.uchicago.edu 1473:inflectional morphology 1284:inflectional morphology 1230: 1215: 1209: 1070:Universalist approaches 734:Universalist approaches 674:Indo-European languages 585:scientific discussion. 563:Historic classification 333:Geographic distribution 47: 6543:Língua Geral Amazônica 6002:Chinese Pidgin English 5322:Karipúna French Creole 5312:French Guianese Creole 5137:Jamaican Maroon Creole 4535:, London: Battlebridge 4220:Mélanges linguistiques 4164:Mélanges linguistiques 4091:, Cambridge: MIT Press 3845:10.1075/eww.11.1.07sch 3806:, London: Battlebridge 3711:10.1075/dia.28.1.04mcw 3617:Yearbook of Morphology 3191:, New York: Henry Holt 3181:10.1075/jpcl.6.1.03bic 3030:, Amsterdam: Benjamins 3021:, Amsterdam: Benjamins 1203: 676:(like Nubi or Sango). 529: 508:historical linguistics 353:, and along Southeast 313: 307: 302:españoles peninsulares 301: 293: 286: 280: 262: 252: 243: 230: 52: 6588:Para-Romani languages 6548:Língua Geral Paulista 6503:Cauque Mayan language 6413:Tây Bồi Pidgin French 6408:Taimyr Pidgin Russian 6331:Namibian Black German 6093:Solomon Islands Pijin 6063:Papuan Pidgin English 6028:Korean Bamboo English 5878:Yilan Creole Japanese 5511:Malaccan Creole Malay 5147:Bocas del Toro Creole 5111:Virgin Islands Creole 4626:, Amsterdam: Elsevier 4448:Lang, Jürgen (2009), 4380:Fertel, Rien (2014), 4357:10.1353/lan.2003.0114 3583:Hymes, D. H. (1971), 3504:10.1515/ling.2002.019 3312:10.1353/lan.2004.0178 3267:10.1353/lan.2003.0114 3064:, Karoma Publishers, 3019:Deconstructing Creole 1977:Siegel, Jeff (2008). 1074:Further information: 954:Imperfect L2 learning 520: 36: 6336:Ndyuka-Tiriyó Pidgin 6273:Kwoma-Manambu Pidgin 6140:Arafundi-Enga Pidgin 6115:(multiple varieties) 6048:Nauru Pidgin English 5869:Andaman Creole Hindi 5604:Guinea-Bissau Creole 5485:North Moluccan Malay 5257:Torres Strait Creole 5159:Miskito Coast Creole 5027:Afro-Seminole Creole 3860:Sebba, Mark (1997), 2993:10.1075/tsl.73.02ans 1742:Andaman Creole Hindi 1708:Bishnupriya Manipuri 1553:Additional resources 1477:Berbice Creole Dutch 1288:Berbice Dutch Creole 1032:Atlantic slave trade 770:Atlantic slave trade 607:language replacement 448:Amerindian languages 101:Atlantic slave trade 6664:Pidgins and creoles 6242:Français Tirailleur 6226:Eskimo Trade Jargon 6103:Thai Pidgin English 5581:Barlavento Creoles 5562:Cape Verdean Creole 5305:Saint Lucian Creole 4432:Pidgins and Creoles 4430:Holm, John (1989), 4391:Linguistic Typology 4305:Linguistic Typology 3954:Stewart, William A. 3576:Pidgins and Creoles 3574:Holm, John (1988), 3512:Linguistic Typology 3341:10.3917/rfla.101.24 3215:Linguistic Typology 3092:1983SciAm.249a.116B 3080:Scientific American 2936:, pp. 35, 369. 2674:See the article on 2514:Linguistic Typology 2163:Mufwene, Salikoko. 670:languages of Europe 659:language complexity 197:indentured servants 23:as well as creoles. 6252:International Sign 6033:Kru Pidgin English 5635:Principense Creole 5595:São Vicente Creole 5590:São Nicolau Creole 5585:Santo Antão Creole 5566:Sotavento Creoles 5373:Seychellois Creole 5343:Bourbonnais Creole 5101:Trinidadian Creole 5059:Saint Kitts Creole 4974:Cameroonian Pidgin 4917:Skepi Dutch Creole 4715:2020-10-11 at the 4703:2019-09-29 at the 4690:2019-09-24 at the 4669:Language Varieties 4520:Glot International 4458:McWhorter, John H. 3833:English World-Wide 3791:Glot International 3718:McWhorter, John H. 3695:McWhorter, John H. 3674:McWhorter, John H. 3634:McWhorter, John H. 2952:as interpreted by 2617:See, for example, 2277:Holm (1988, 1989) 1664:Macaronic language 1617:"Creole Languages" 1543:grammatical gender 1537:, as described by 1290:, for example, or 958:The imperfect L2 ( 875:in koiné genesis. 530: 504:comparative method 349:along the west of 295:españoles criollos 270:to produce, create 53: 6651: 6650: 6635:extinct languages 6621: 6620: 6498:Cappadocian Greek 6461: 6460: 6457: 6456: 6221:Duvle-Wano Pidgin 6190:Broken Oghibbeway 6150:Barikanchi Pidgin 6098:Solombala-English 5952: 5951: 5948: 5947: 5792: 5791: 5753: 5752: 5643: 5642: 5625:Annobonese Creole 5388: 5387: 5353:Chagossian Creole 5265: 5264: 5216:Melanesian Pidgin 5184: 5183: 5120:Western Caribbean 5106:Vincentian Creole 5096:Tobagonian Creole 5054:Montserrat Creole 5049:Anguillian Creole 5005:Eastern Caribbean 4685:Creole definition 4646:The Linguist List 4292:978-0-8090-2816-0 4041:978-90-279-2689-0 3992:Kaufman, Terrence 3778:Mufwene, Salikoko 3766:Mufwene, Salikoko 3750:Mufwene, Salikoko 3060:Roots of Language 3002:978-90-272-2985-4 2813:, Wittmann (2001) 2499:The Creole Debate 1988:978-0-19-921666-6 1363:Romance languages 1361:argues that some 1321:Robert Chaudenson 1254:(1999) and David 1115:natural languages 1093:language learning 1076:Universal grammar 948:Bloomfield (1933) 913:Hinnenkamp (1984) 835:French extant in 813:linguistic change 690:variety of French 682:definite articles 654:in the language. 221:The English term 6676: 6467: 6466: 6269:(Swahili pidgin) 6231:Ewondo Populaire 6077:Australian Kriol 5971: 5970: 5958: 5957: 5737:Mardijker Creole 5652: 5651: 5552: 5551: 5545: 5544: 5526:Sri Lankan Malay 5368:Rodriguan Creole 5358:Mauritian Creole 5327:Louisiana Creole 5290:Antillean Creole 5280: 5279: 5238:Ngatikese Creole 5196:Australian Kriol 4944: 4943: 4937: 4936: 4824: 4823: 4811: 4810: 4783: 4776: 4769: 4760: 4759: 4627: 4617: 4607: 4597: 4584: 4564: 4536: 4527: 4514: 4505: 4504:, Tübingen: Narr 4493: 4484: 4453: 4452:, Tübingen: Narr 4444: 4435: 4426: 4398: 4385: 4376: 4367: 4339: 4322: 4312: 4295: 4277:Bickerton, Derek 4272: 4254: 4226: 4217: 4207: 4196: 4183: 4177: 4167: 4161: 4151: 4145: 4135: 4125: 4112: 4092: 4080: 4067: 4061: 4053: 4044: 4026: 4017: 4008: 3999: 3983: 3970: 3961: 3949: 3929: 3901: 3883: 3874: 3856: 3847: 3827: 3807: 3798: 3785: 3773: 3761: 3745: 3736: 3713: 3690: 3681: 3669: 3660: 3629: 3628:, Berne: Francke 3620: 3611: 3605: 3597: 3588: 3579: 3570: 3561: 3552: 3540: 3528: 3519: 3506: 3486: 3450: 3437: 3426: 3415: 3406: 3378: 3365: 3352: 3343: 3322: 3305: 3287: 3277: 3252: 3242: 3232: 3222: 3205: 3192: 3183: 3165:Bickerton, Derek 3160: 3153:Bickerton, Derek 3148: 3131: 3110: 3074: 3063: 3054:Bickerton, Derek 3049: 3040: 3031: 3022: 3013: 2975: 2957: 2943: 2937: 2934:McWhorter (2005) 2931: 2925: 2922:McWhorter (2005) 2919: 2913: 2907: 2901: 2895: 2889: 2886:McWhorter (2000) 2883: 2877: 2874:McWhorter (1998) 2871: 2865: 2855: 2849: 2843: 2837: 2835:McWhorter (1998) 2831: 2825: 2820: 2814: 2808: 2802: 2801: 2790: 2784: 2782:McWhorter (2005) 2779: 2773: 2771:McWhorter (1998) 2768: 2762: 2757: 2751: 2749:McWhorter (2018) 2745:McWhorter (2005) 2741:McWhorter (1998) 2737: 2731: 2729:Bickerton (1983) 2725: 2719: 2717:Bickerton (1991) 2713:Bickerton (1988) 2709:Bickerton (1984) 2705:Bickerton (1983) 2701:Bickerton (1981) 2697: 2691: 2685: 2679: 2672: 2666: 2639: 2633: 2627: 2621: 2615: 2609: 2598: 2592: 2585: 2579: 2573: 2567: 2562: 2556: 2551: 2545: 2536: 2530: 2524: 2518: 2517: 2509: 2503: 2502: 2494: 2488: 2483: 2477: 2472: 2466: 2452: 2446: 2440: 2434: 2433: 2426: 2420: 2415: 2409: 2390:Jungemann (1955) 2386:Weinreich (1979) 2378: 2372: 2367: 2361: 2356: 2350: 2345: 2339: 2337:Weinreich (1979) 2334: 2325: 2319: 2313: 2312: 2284: 2278: 2275: 2269: 2264: 2255: 2248: 2239: 2238: 2207:Atlantic Studies 2202: 2196: 2190: 2184: 2183: 2181: 2180: 2171:. Archived from 2160: 2154: 2149: 2138: 2133: 2118: 2113: 2104: 2099: 2093: 2088: 2079: 2074: 2065: 2060: 2054: 2049: 2043: 2041:Wardhaugh (2002) 2039::138); cited in 2034: 2028: 2022: 2016: 2011: 2005: 1999: 1993: 1992: 1974: 1968: 1959: 1953: 1952: 1950: 1948: 1943:on June 20, 2017 1939:. Archived from 1929: 1923: 1916: 1910: 1907: 1901: 1898: 1892: 1891: 1889: 1881: 1875: 1874: 1872: 1871: 1865: 1859:. Archived from 1858: 1850: 1844: 1843: 1841: 1833: 1827: 1826: 1824: 1823: 1813: 1649:Language contact 1628: 1375:Schneider (1990) 1325:Salikoko Mufwene 1242: 1239: 1236: 1233: 1227: 1224: 1221: 1218: 1212: 1206: 1184: 1181: 1178: 1175: 1169: 1166: 1163: 1160: 1146:creole prototype 1134:Creole prototype 1036:McWhorter (1999) 1009:Bickerton (1981) 857:Saint-Barthélemy 825:phylogenetically 779:Bickerton (1977) 709:of all creoles. 664:Phylogenetic or 632:Atlantic Creoles 500:sociolinguistics 492:Johannes Schmidt 316: 314:negros africanos 310: 304: 298: 289: 283: 274: 271: 268: 265: 255: 246: 233: 193:Salikoko Mufwene 171:Age of Discovery 97:Age of Discovery 65:natural language 50: 41:traffic sign in 39:Antillean Creole 6684: 6683: 6679: 6678: 6677: 6675: 6674: 6673: 6654: 6653: 6652: 6647: 6646: 6617: 6474: 6472:Mixed languages 6453: 6423:Te Parau Tinito 6403:Settler Swahili 6372:Pidgin Ngarluma 6362:Pidgin Hawaiian 6357:Pidgin Delaware 6346:Nigerian Pidgin 6326:Mobilian Jargon 6293:Loucheux Jargon 6161:Bimbashi Arabic 6128:Other languages 6123: 6065:(distinct from 6053:Nigerian Pidgin 5965: 5944: 5831:Other languages 5826: 5788: 5765:Macanese Patois 5749: 5712: 5656:Indo-Portuguese 5639: 5608: 5575:Santiago Creole 5530: 5470:Larantuka Malay 5384: 5331: 5261: 5206:Hawaiian Pidgin 5180: 5164:Rama Cay Creole 5152:Limonese Creole 5142:Jamaican Patois 5132:Belizean Creole 5127:Bahamian Creole 5115: 5034:Guyanese Creole 5000: 4994:Nigerian Pidgin 4989:Liberian Kreyol 4922: 4849: 4818: 4805: 4798:mixed languages 4787: 4730: 4717:Wayback Machine 4705:Wayback Machine 4692:Wayback Machine 4674:Creole language 4655: 4615: 4610: 4595: 4589:Wittmann, Henri 4587: 4567: 4539: 4530: 4517: 4508: 4496: 4490:Defining Creole 4487: 4456: 4447: 4438: 4429: 4401: 4388: 4379: 4370: 4342: 4320: 4315: 4298: 4293: 4275: 4270: 4257: 4252: 4239: 4236: 4234:Further reading 4231: 4215: 4175: 4159: 4143: 4128:La Linguistique 4123: 4117:Wittmann, Henri 4085:Whorf, Benjamin 4055: 4054: 4042: 3988:Thomason, Sarah 3899: 3872: 3687:Defining Creole 3599: 3598: 3545:Hall, Robert A. 3533:Hall, Robert A. 3527:, pp. 3–35 3435: 3303:10.1.1.693.2511 3285: 3250: 3230: 3129:10.1.1.908.5328 3072: 3003: 2965: 2960: 2954:Parkvall (2000) 2950:Wittmann (1998) 2946:Wittmann (1996) 2944: 2940: 2932: 2928: 2920: 2916: 2908: 2904: 2898:Wittmann (1999) 2896: 2892: 2884: 2880: 2872: 2868: 2856: 2852: 2846:Parkvall (2001) 2844: 2840: 2832: 2828: 2821: 2817: 2809: 2805: 2792: 2791: 2787: 2780: 2776: 2769: 2765: 2758: 2754: 2738: 2734: 2726: 2722: 2698: 2694: 2688:Wardhaugh (2002 2686: 2682: 2673: 2669: 2647:Anderson (1983) 2643:Schumann (1978) 2640: 2636: 2630:Wardhaugh (2002 2628: 2624: 2619:Ferguson (1971) 2616: 2612: 2602:Fournier (1998) 2599: 2595: 2586: 2582: 2576:Bickerton (1977 2574: 2570: 2563: 2559: 2554:Thompson (1961) 2552: 2548: 2537: 2533: 2525: 2521: 2510: 2506: 2495: 2491: 2484: 2480: 2473: 2469: 2463:Wittmann (1998) 2459:Wittmann (1995) 2455:Fournier (1998) 2453: 2449: 2441: 2437: 2428: 2427: 2423: 2418:Parkvall (2000) 2416: 2412: 2394:Martinet (1964) 2379: 2375: 2368: 2364: 2357: 2353: 2346: 2342: 2335: 2328: 2320: 2316: 2285: 2281: 2276: 2272: 2267:Traugott (1977) 2265: 2258: 2249: 2242: 2203: 2199: 2191: 2187: 2178: 2176: 2161: 2157: 2150: 2141: 2134: 2121: 2114: 2107: 2102:Lefebvre (2002) 2100: 2096: 2089: 2082: 2075: 2068: 2061: 2057: 2052:Wittmann (1999) 2050: 2046: 2035: 2031: 2025:Bickerton (1983 2023: 2019: 2012: 2008: 2002:Wardhaugh (2002 2000: 1996: 1989: 1975: 1971: 1960: 1956: 1946: 1944: 1937:www.alsintl.com 1931: 1930: 1926: 1920:Defining creole 1917: 1913: 1908: 1904: 1899: 1895: 1887: 1883: 1882: 1878: 1869: 1867: 1863: 1856: 1852: 1851: 1847: 1839: 1835: 1834: 1830: 1821: 1819: 1815: 1814: 1810: 1806: 1682: 1669:Nation language 1635: 1611: 1609:Further reading 1603:mixed languages 1555: 1511: 1493:Wittmann (2001) 1465:Riau Indonesian 1412:, little or no 1391: 1371: 1310:Riau Indonesian 1305: 1272:Riau Indonesian 1240: 1237: 1234: 1225: 1222: 1219: 1182: 1179: 1176: 1167: 1164: 1161: 1136: 1127: 1078: 1072: 1044: 1025:Parkvall (2000) 995: 960:second language 956: 881: 805: 788: 774:Hugo Schuchardt 750: 745: 715: 652:hypercorrection 640: 591: 565: 560: 496:Hugo Schuchardt 472: 444:Atlantic Creole 335: 308:negros crioulos 272: 269: 266: 219: 214: 144: 73:native speakers 57:creole language 31: 28:Creole (markup) 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 6682: 6672: 6671: 6666: 6649: 6648: 6645: 6644: 6637: 6627: 6626: 6623: 6622: 6619: 6618: 6616: 6615: 6610: 6605: 6600: 6595: 6590: 6585: 6580: 6575: 6570: 6565: 6560: 6558:Makassar Malay 6555: 6553:Light Warlpiri 6550: 6545: 6540: 6535: 6530: 6528:Gurindji Kriol 6525: 6520: 6515: 6510: 6505: 6500: 6495: 6490: 6485: 6479: 6476: 6475: 6463: 6462: 6459: 6458: 6455: 6454: 6452: 6451: 6446: 6441: 6436: 6431: 6425: 6420: 6415: 6410: 6405: 6400: 6395: 6390: 6384: 6379: 6374: 6369: 6364: 6359: 6354: 6349: 6343: 6338: 6333: 6328: 6323: 6318: 6312: 6307: 6300: 6295: 6290: 6285: 6280: 6275: 6270: 6264: 6259: 6254: 6249: 6244: 6239: 6233: 6228: 6223: 6218: 6213: 6207: 6202: 6197: 6192: 6187: 6182: 6177: 6170: 6164: 6157: 6152: 6147: 6145:Bamboo English 6142: 6137: 6131: 6129: 6125: 6124: 6122: 6121: 6116: 6110: 6105: 6100: 6095: 6090: 6085: 6080: 6075:(ancestral to 6070: 6060: 6055: 6050: 6045: 6040: 6035: 6030: 6025: 6020: 6015: 6010: 6007:Butler English 6004: 5999: 5994: 5989: 5983: 5981: 5967: 5966: 5954: 5953: 5950: 5949: 5946: 5945: 5943: 5942: 5932: 5930:Vedda language 5923: 5916:Pretoria Sotho 5913: 5906:Oorlams Creole 5903: 5894: 5885: 5871: 5862: 5853: 5844: 5834: 5832: 5828: 5827: 5825: 5824: 5819: 5814: 5806: 5804: 5794: 5793: 5790: 5789: 5787: 5786: 5785: 5784: 5773: 5767: 5761: 5759: 5755: 5754: 5751: 5750: 5748: 5747: 5740: 5733: 5728: 5720: 5718: 5717:Southeast Asia 5714: 5713: 5711: 5710: 5705: 5700: 5699: 5698: 5695: 5687: 5680: 5675: 5668: 5660: 5658: 5649: 5645: 5644: 5641: 5640: 5638: 5637: 5632: 5627: 5622: 5620:Angolar Creole 5616: 5614: 5613:Gulf of Guinea 5610: 5609: 5607: 5606: 5601: 5600: 5599: 5598: 5597: 5592: 5587: 5579: 5578: 5577: 5572: 5558: 5556: 5549: 5542: 5532: 5531: 5529: 5528: 5523: 5518: 5513: 5508: 5507: 5506: 5505: 5504: 5494: 5493: 5492: 5482: 5477: 5472: 5467: 5462: 5457: 5452: 5447: 5445:Ambonese Malay 5442: 5432: 5431: 5430: 5420: 5418:Balinese Malay 5415: 5414: 5413: 5402: 5400: 5390: 5389: 5386: 5385: 5383: 5382: 5377: 5376: 5375: 5370: 5365: 5363:Réunion Creole 5360: 5355: 5350: 5348:Agalega Creole 5339: 5337: 5333: 5332: 5330: 5329: 5324: 5319: 5317:Haitian Creole 5314: 5309: 5308: 5307: 5302: 5297: 5286: 5284: 5277: 5267: 5266: 5263: 5262: 5260: 5259: 5254: 5249: 5240: 5235: 5234: 5233: 5228: 5223: 5213: 5208: 5203: 5198: 5192: 5190: 5186: 5185: 5182: 5181: 5179: 5178: 5173: 5168: 5167: 5166: 5156: 5155: 5154: 5149: 5139: 5134: 5129: 5123: 5121: 5117: 5116: 5114: 5113: 5108: 5103: 5098: 5093: 5088: 5087: 5086: 5075: 5074: 5073: 5063: 5062: 5061: 5056: 5051: 5041: 5036: 5031: 5030: 5029: 5019: 5014: 5008: 5006: 5002: 5001: 4999: 4998: 4997: 4996: 4991: 4986: 4981: 4976: 4966: 4961: 4960: 4959: 4950: 4948: 4941: 4934: 4924: 4923: 4921: 4920: 4913: 4906: 4899: 4898: 4897: 4885: 4878: 4871: 4863: 4861: 4851: 4850: 4848: 4847: 4842: 4836: 4834: 4820: 4819: 4807: 4806: 4786: 4785: 4778: 4771: 4763: 4757: 4756: 4751: 4746: 4741:in libraries ( 4736: 4729: 4726: 4725: 4724: 4719: 4707: 4695: 4682: 4671: 4666: 4661: 4654: 4653:External links 4651: 4650: 4649: 4638: 4628: 4608: 4585: 4576:(2): 185–230, 4565: 4554:10.2307/414784 4537: 4528: 4515: 4506: 4498:Meisel, Jürgen 4494: 4485: 4474:10.2307/417003 4468:(4): 788–818, 4454: 4445: 4436: 4427: 4410:(5): 575–619, 4399: 4386: 4377: 4368: 4351:(2): 391–410, 4340: 4331:(4): 321–414, 4313: 4311:(2–3): 213–310 4296: 4291: 4273: 4268: 4255: 4250: 4235: 4232: 4230: 4229: 4208: 4197: 4184: 4168: 4152: 4136: 4113: 4104:(1): 131–151, 4093: 4081: 4068: 4045: 4040: 4027: 4018: 4009: 4000: 3984: 3971: 3962: 3950: 3941:(2): 185–230, 3930: 3919:10.2307/414784 3902: 3897: 3884: 3875: 3870: 3857: 3848: 3828: 3819:(1): 147–151, 3808: 3799: 3786: 3774: 3762: 3752:, ed. (1993), 3746: 3737: 3728:(1): 167–179, 3714: 3691: 3682: 3670: 3661: 3650:10.2307/417003 3644:(4): 788–818, 3630: 3621: 3612: 3589: 3580: 3571: 3562: 3553: 3541: 3529: 3520: 3507: 3498:(2): 439–468, 3487: 3462:(4): 347–368, 3451: 3438: 3433: 3416: 3407: 3396:10.2307/408831 3390:(4): 245–254, 3379: 3366: 3353: 3323: 3296:(4): 834–839, 3278: 3261:(2): 391–410, 3243: 3223: 3221:(2–3): 213–310 3206: 3193: 3184: 3161: 3149: 3122:(2): 173–188, 3111: 3086:(8): 116–122, 3075: 3070: 3050: 3041: 3032: 3023: 3014: 3001: 2976: 2966: 2964: 2961: 2959: 2958: 2938: 2926: 2914: 2910:DeGraff (2003) 2902: 2890: 2878: 2876:, p. 809. 2866: 2863:DeGraff (2005) 2859:DeGraff (2003) 2850: 2838: 2826: 2815: 2811:Mufwene (2000) 2803: 2798:www.nou-la.org 2785: 2774: 2763: 2752: 2732: 2720: 2692: 2680: 2676:relexification 2667: 2659:Geeslin (2002) 2634: 2622: 2610: 2593: 2580: 2568: 2565:Stewart (1962) 2557: 2546: 2543:Whinnom (1965) 2539:Whinnom (1956) 2531: 2519: 2504: 2489: 2478: 2467: 2447: 2435: 2421: 2410: 2406:Singler (1988) 2402:Singler (1983) 2373: 2370:Singler (1996) 2362: 2359:Singler (1988) 2351: 2348:Mufwene (1993) 2340: 2326: 2314: 2295:(3): 208–214. 2279: 2270: 2256: 2240: 2213:(3): 335–346. 2197: 2185: 2155: 2139: 2119: 2116:DeGraff (2003) 2105: 2094: 2080: 2066: 2063:Mufwene (2000) 2055: 2044: 2029: 2017: 2006: 1994: 1987: 1969: 1954: 1924: 1911: 1902: 1893: 1876: 1845: 1828: 1807: 1805: 1802: 1801: 1800: 1798:Kutchi-Swahili 1791: 1782: 1777: 1772: 1763: 1758: 1749: 1744: 1735: 1730: 1725: 1720: 1715: 1710: 1697: 1688: 1681: 1678: 1677: 1676: 1671: 1666: 1661: 1656: 1651: 1646: 1641: 1639:Criollo people 1634: 1631: 1630: 1629: 1610: 1607: 1595: 1594: 1588: 1578: 1575: 1554: 1551: 1547:Haitian Creole 1539:Henri Wittmann 1510: 1507: 1489:Mufwene (2000) 1455:for measuring 1429:Haitian Creole 1406:Michel DeGraff 1402:Henri Wittmann 1398:John McWhorter 1390: 1387: 1370: 1367: 1359:Mufwene (2002) 1333:Henri Wittmann 1329:Michel DeGraff 1304: 1303:Exceptionalism 1301: 1300: 1299: 1276: 1252:Henri Wittmann 1190: 1189: 1186: 1153: 1142:John McWhorter 1135: 1132: 1126: 1125:Recent studies 1123: 1071: 1068: 1043: 1040: 1021:Mufwene (1993) 1013:Dillard (1970) 1000:relexification 994: 991: 987: 986: 983: 980: 973: 970: 967: 955: 952: 944: 943: 940: 937: 927: 909: 908: 905: 902: 899: 880: 877: 871:and models of 851:communities), 823:is a language 809:French creoles 804: 801: 792:Hancock (1985) 787: 784: 749: 746: 744: 741: 736: 735: 732: 729: 726: 714: 713:Creole genesis 711: 644:decreolization 639: 638:Decreolization 636: 590: 587: 564: 561: 559: 558:Classification 556: 528:, U.S. in 2014 522:Haitian Creole 471: 468: 334: 331: 327:creole peoples 218: 215: 213: 210: 205:basilectalized 162:in the 1960s. 143: 140: 63:, is a stable 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6681: 6670: 6667: 6665: 6662: 6661: 6659: 6642: 6638: 6636: 6632: 6629: 6628: 6624: 6614: 6611: 6609: 6606: 6604: 6601: 6599: 6596: 6594: 6591: 6589: 6586: 6584: 6581: 6579: 6576: 6574: 6571: 6569: 6566: 6564: 6561: 6559: 6556: 6554: 6551: 6549: 6546: 6544: 6541: 6539: 6536: 6534: 6531: 6529: 6526: 6524: 6521: 6519: 6516: 6514: 6511: 6509: 6506: 6504: 6501: 6499: 6496: 6494: 6493:Bonin English 6491: 6489: 6486: 6484: 6481: 6480: 6477: 6473: 6468: 6464: 6450: 6447: 6445: 6442: 6440: 6437: 6435: 6432: 6429: 6426: 6424: 6421: 6419: 6416: 6414: 6411: 6409: 6406: 6404: 6401: 6399: 6396: 6394: 6391: 6388: 6385: 6383: 6380: 6378: 6375: 6373: 6370: 6368: 6365: 6363: 6360: 6358: 6355: 6353: 6352:Nootka Jargon 6350: 6347: 6344: 6342: 6339: 6337: 6334: 6332: 6329: 6327: 6324: 6322: 6321:Mekeo pidgins 6319: 6316: 6313: 6311: 6308: 6306: 6305: 6304:Maridi Arabic 6301: 6299: 6298:Madras Bashai 6296: 6294: 6291: 6289: 6286: 6284: 6281: 6279: 6276: 6274: 6271: 6268: 6265: 6263: 6260: 6258: 6255: 6253: 6250: 6248: 6247:Haflong Hindi 6245: 6243: 6240: 6238:(Pidgin Zulu) 6237: 6234: 6232: 6229: 6227: 6224: 6222: 6219: 6217: 6214: 6211: 6208: 6206: 6203: 6201: 6198: 6196: 6195:Broken Slavey 6193: 6191: 6188: 6186: 6185:Bozal Spanish 6183: 6181: 6178: 6176: 6175: 6174:Bongor Arabic 6171: 6168: 6165: 6163: 6162: 6158: 6156: 6153: 6151: 6148: 6146: 6143: 6141: 6138: 6136: 6133: 6132: 6130: 6126: 6120: 6117: 6114: 6111: 6109: 6106: 6104: 6101: 6099: 6096: 6094: 6091: 6089: 6086: 6084: 6081: 6078: 6074: 6071: 6068: 6064: 6061: 6059: 6056: 6054: 6051: 6049: 6046: 6044: 6041: 6039: 6036: 6034: 6031: 6029: 6026: 6024: 6021: 6019: 6016: 6014: 6011: 6008: 6005: 6003: 6000: 5998: 5995: 5993: 5990: 5988: 5985: 5984: 5982: 5980: 5976: 5972: 5968: 5964: 5959: 5955: 5940: 5936: 5933: 5931: 5927: 5924: 5921: 5917: 5914: 5911: 5907: 5904: 5902: 5898: 5895: 5893: 5889: 5886: 5883: 5879: 5875: 5872: 5870: 5866: 5863: 5861: 5857: 5854: 5852: 5848: 5845: 5843: 5839: 5836: 5835: 5833: 5829: 5823: 5820: 5818: 5815: 5813: 5812: 5811:Bozal Spanish 5808: 5807: 5805: 5803: 5799: 5795: 5783: 5780: 5779: 5777: 5774: 5771: 5768: 5766: 5763: 5762: 5760: 5756: 5746: 5745: 5741: 5739: 5738: 5734: 5732: 5729: 5727: 5726: 5722: 5721: 5719: 5715: 5709: 5706: 5704: 5701: 5696: 5693: 5692: 5691: 5688: 5686: 5685: 5681: 5679: 5676: 5674: 5673: 5669: 5667: 5666: 5662: 5661: 5659: 5657: 5653: 5650: 5646: 5636: 5633: 5631: 5628: 5626: 5623: 5621: 5618: 5617: 5615: 5611: 5605: 5602: 5596: 5593: 5591: 5588: 5586: 5583: 5582: 5580: 5576: 5573: 5571: 5568: 5567: 5565: 5564: 5563: 5560: 5559: 5557: 5553: 5550: 5546: 5543: 5541: 5537: 5533: 5527: 5524: 5522: 5519: 5517: 5514: 5512: 5509: 5503: 5500: 5499: 5498: 5495: 5491: 5488: 5487: 5486: 5483: 5481: 5480:Maumere Malay 5478: 5476: 5473: 5471: 5468: 5466: 5463: 5461: 5458: 5456: 5453: 5451: 5448: 5446: 5443: 5441: 5438: 5437: 5436: 5433: 5429: 5426: 5425: 5424: 5421: 5419: 5416: 5412: 5409: 5408: 5407: 5404: 5403: 5401: 5399: 5395: 5391: 5381: 5378: 5374: 5371: 5369: 5366: 5364: 5361: 5359: 5356: 5354: 5351: 5349: 5346: 5345: 5344: 5341: 5340: 5338: 5334: 5328: 5325: 5323: 5320: 5318: 5315: 5313: 5310: 5306: 5303: 5301: 5298: 5296: 5293: 5292: 5291: 5288: 5287: 5285: 5281: 5278: 5276: 5272: 5268: 5258: 5255: 5253: 5250: 5248: 5244: 5241: 5239: 5236: 5232: 5229: 5227: 5224: 5222: 5219: 5218: 5217: 5214: 5212: 5209: 5207: 5204: 5202: 5201:Bonin English 5199: 5197: 5194: 5193: 5191: 5187: 5177: 5174: 5172: 5169: 5165: 5162: 5161: 5160: 5157: 5153: 5150: 5148: 5145: 5144: 5143: 5140: 5138: 5135: 5133: 5130: 5128: 5125: 5124: 5122: 5118: 5112: 5109: 5107: 5104: 5102: 5099: 5097: 5094: 5092: 5089: 5085: 5082: 5081: 5079: 5076: 5072: 5069: 5068: 5067: 5064: 5060: 5057: 5055: 5052: 5050: 5047: 5046: 5045: 5042: 5040: 5037: 5035: 5032: 5028: 5025: 5024: 5023: 5020: 5018: 5015: 5013: 5010: 5009: 5007: 5003: 4995: 4992: 4990: 4987: 4985: 4982: 4980: 4977: 4975: 4972: 4971: 4970: 4967: 4965: 4962: 4957: 4956: 4955: 4952: 4951: 4949: 4945: 4942: 4938: 4935: 4933: 4929: 4925: 4919: 4918: 4914: 4912: 4911: 4907: 4905: 4904: 4900: 4896: 4893: 4892: 4891: 4890: 4886: 4884: 4883: 4879: 4877: 4876: 4875:Negerhollands 4872: 4870: 4869: 4865: 4864: 4862: 4860: 4856: 4852: 4846: 4843: 4841: 4838: 4837: 4835: 4833: 4829: 4825: 4821: 4817: 4812: 4808: 4803: 4799: 4795: 4791: 4784: 4779: 4777: 4772: 4770: 4765: 4764: 4761: 4755: 4752: 4750: 4747: 4744: 4740: 4737: 4735: 4732: 4731: 4723: 4720: 4718: 4714: 4711: 4708: 4706: 4702: 4699: 4696: 4693: 4689: 4686: 4683: 4681: 4680: 4675: 4672: 4670: 4667: 4665: 4662: 4660: 4657: 4656: 4647: 4643: 4639: 4636: 4633: 4629: 4625: 4621: 4614: 4609: 4605: 4601: 4594: 4590: 4586: 4583: 4579: 4575: 4571: 4566: 4563: 4559: 4555: 4551: 4547: 4543: 4538: 4534: 4529: 4525: 4521: 4516: 4512: 4507: 4503: 4499: 4495: 4491: 4486: 4483: 4479: 4475: 4471: 4467: 4463: 4459: 4455: 4451: 4446: 4442: 4437: 4433: 4428: 4425: 4421: 4417: 4413: 4409: 4405: 4400: 4396: 4392: 4387: 4383: 4378: 4374: 4369: 4366: 4362: 4358: 4354: 4350: 4346: 4341: 4338: 4334: 4330: 4326: 4319: 4314: 4310: 4306: 4302: 4297: 4294: 4288: 4285:, Macmillan, 4284: 4283: 4278: 4274: 4271: 4269:90-900268-3-5 4265: 4261: 4256: 4253: 4251:90-272-5236-X 4247: 4243: 4238: 4237: 4228: 4225: 4221: 4214: 4209: 4205: 4204: 4198: 4194: 4190: 4185: 4181: 4174: 4169: 4165: 4158: 4153: 4149: 4142: 4137: 4133: 4129: 4122: 4118: 4114: 4111: 4107: 4103: 4099: 4094: 4090: 4086: 4082: 4078: 4074: 4069: 4065: 4059: 4051: 4046: 4043: 4037: 4033: 4028: 4024: 4019: 4015: 4010: 4006: 4001: 3997: 3993: 3989: 3985: 3981: 3977: 3972: 3968: 3963: 3959: 3955: 3951: 3948: 3944: 3940: 3936: 3931: 3928: 3924: 3920: 3916: 3912: 3908: 3903: 3900: 3898:90-70176-95-5 3894: 3890: 3885: 3881: 3876: 3873: 3871:0-333-63024-6 3867: 3864:, MacMillan, 3863: 3858: 3854: 3849: 3846: 3842: 3839:(1): 79–113, 3838: 3834: 3829: 3826: 3822: 3818: 3814: 3809: 3805: 3800: 3796: 3792: 3787: 3783: 3779: 3775: 3771: 3767: 3763: 3759: 3755: 3751: 3747: 3743: 3738: 3735: 3731: 3727: 3723: 3719: 3715: 3712: 3708: 3705:(1): 82–117, 3704: 3700: 3696: 3692: 3688: 3683: 3679: 3675: 3671: 3667: 3662: 3659: 3655: 3651: 3647: 3643: 3639: 3635: 3631: 3627: 3622: 3618: 3613: 3609: 3603: 3595: 3590: 3586: 3581: 3577: 3572: 3568: 3563: 3559: 3554: 3550: 3546: 3542: 3538: 3534: 3530: 3526: 3521: 3517: 3513: 3508: 3505: 3501: 3497: 3493: 3488: 3485: 3481: 3477: 3473: 3469: 3465: 3461: 3457: 3452: 3448: 3444: 3439: 3436: 3434:2-9802307-2-3 3430: 3425: 3424: 3417: 3413: 3408: 3405: 3401: 3397: 3393: 3389: 3385: 3380: 3376: 3372: 3367: 3363: 3359: 3354: 3351: 3347: 3342: 3337: 3333: 3329: 3324: 3321: 3317: 3313: 3309: 3304: 3299: 3295: 3291: 3284: 3279: 3276: 3272: 3268: 3264: 3260: 3256: 3249: 3244: 3240: 3236: 3229: 3224: 3220: 3216: 3212: 3207: 3203: 3199: 3194: 3190: 3185: 3182: 3178: 3174: 3170: 3166: 3162: 3158: 3154: 3150: 3147: 3143: 3139: 3135: 3130: 3125: 3121: 3117: 3112: 3109: 3105: 3101: 3097: 3093: 3089: 3085: 3081: 3076: 3073: 3071:0-89720-044-6 3067: 3062: 3061: 3055: 3051: 3047: 3042: 3038: 3033: 3029: 3024: 3020: 3015: 3012: 3008: 3004: 2998: 2994: 2990: 2986: 2982: 2977: 2973: 2968: 2967: 2955: 2951: 2947: 2942: 2935: 2930: 2924:, p. 16. 2923: 2918: 2911: 2906: 2899: 2894: 2887: 2882: 2875: 2870: 2864: 2860: 2854: 2847: 2842: 2836: 2830: 2824: 2819: 2812: 2807: 2799: 2795: 2789: 2783: 2778: 2772: 2767: 2761: 2756: 2750: 2746: 2742: 2736: 2730: 2724: 2718: 2714: 2710: 2706: 2702: 2696: 2689: 2684: 2677: 2671: 2664: 2660: 2656: 2652: 2648: 2644: 2638: 2631: 2626: 2620: 2614: 2607: 2603: 2597: 2590: 2584: 2577: 2572: 2566: 2561: 2555: 2550: 2544: 2540: 2535: 2529: 2528:Taylor (1977) 2523: 2515: 2508: 2500: 2493: 2487: 2482: 2476: 2471: 2464: 2460: 2456: 2451: 2444: 2439: 2431: 2425: 2419: 2414: 2407: 2403: 2399: 2395: 2391: 2387: 2383: 2377: 2371: 2366: 2360: 2355: 2349: 2344: 2338: 2333: 2331: 2323: 2318: 2310: 2306: 2302: 2298: 2294: 2290: 2283: 2274: 2268: 2263: 2261: 2253: 2247: 2245: 2236: 2232: 2228: 2224: 2220: 2216: 2212: 2208: 2201: 2194: 2189: 2175:on 2013-06-03 2174: 2170: 2166: 2159: 2153: 2148: 2146: 2144: 2137: 2136:DeCamp (1977) 2132: 2130: 2128: 2126: 2124: 2117: 2112: 2110: 2103: 2098: 2092: 2087: 2085: 2078: 2073: 2071: 2064: 2059: 2053: 2048: 2042: 2038: 2037:Winford (1997 2033: 2026: 2021: 2015: 2010: 2003: 1998: 1990: 1984: 1980: 1973: 1967: 1963: 1958: 1942: 1938: 1934: 1928: 1921: 1915: 1906: 1897: 1886: 1880: 1866:on 2018-07-12 1862: 1855: 1849: 1838: 1832: 1818: 1812: 1808: 1799: 1795: 1792: 1790: 1786: 1783: 1781: 1778: 1776: 1773: 1771: 1767: 1764: 1762: 1759: 1757: 1753: 1750: 1748: 1745: 1743: 1739: 1736: 1734: 1731: 1729: 1726: 1724: 1721: 1719: 1716: 1714: 1711: 1709: 1705: 1701: 1698: 1696: 1692: 1689: 1687: 1684: 1683: 1675: 1672: 1670: 1667: 1665: 1662: 1660: 1657: 1655: 1654:Lingua franca 1652: 1650: 1647: 1645: 1642: 1640: 1637: 1636: 1626: 1622: 1618: 1613: 1612: 1606: 1604: 1600: 1592: 1589: 1586: 1585:developmental 1582: 1579: 1576: 1573: 1569: 1568: 1567: 1565: 1561: 1559: 1550: 1548: 1544: 1540: 1536: 1535:Magoua French 1532: 1528: 1524: 1520: 1516: 1506: 1503: 1499: 1494: 1490: 1486: 1482: 1478: 1474: 1470: 1466: 1462: 1458: 1454: 1450: 1449:Magoua French 1446: 1442: 1438: 1434: 1430: 1426: 1422: 1419: 1415: 1411: 1407: 1403: 1399: 1395: 1386: 1384: 1380: 1376: 1366: 1364: 1360: 1356: 1351: 1348: 1344: 1342: 1338: 1334: 1330: 1326: 1322: 1317: 1315: 1311: 1297: 1293: 1289: 1285: 1281: 1277: 1273: 1269: 1268:Magoua French 1265: 1261: 1257: 1253: 1250: 1249: 1248: 1244: 1232: 1217: 1211: 1205: 1200: 1196: 1187: 1174: 1159: 1154: 1151: 1150: 1149: 1147: 1143: 1139: 1131: 1122: 1120: 1116: 1112: 1108: 1105: 1101: 1098: 1094: 1090: 1087: 1082: 1077: 1067: 1065: 1059: 1057: 1053: 1049: 1039: 1037: 1033: 1028: 1026: 1022: 1017: 1014: 1010: 1005: 1004:lexical items 1001: 990: 984: 981: 978: 974: 971: 968: 965: 964: 963: 961: 951: 949: 941: 938: 935: 932: 928: 925: 921: 920: 919: 916: 914: 906: 903: 900: 898:Accommodation 897: 896: 895: 893: 889: 887: 876: 874: 870: 866: 862: 858: 854: 850: 846: 842: 838: 834: 830: 826: 822: 821:French creole 818: 814: 810: 800: 797: 793: 783: 780: 775: 771: 767: 763: 759: 755: 740: 733: 730: 727: 724: 723: 722: 720: 710: 707: 703: 699: 698:Indo-European 695: 691: 687: 683: 679: 675: 671: 667: 662: 660: 655: 653: 649: 645: 635: 633: 629: 623: 621: 617: 613: 608: 604: 600: 596: 586: 583: 577: 574: 570: 555: 553: 549: 548: 543: 538: 536: 527: 523: 519: 515: 513: 509: 505: 501: 497: 493: 489: 485: 484:neogrammarian 480: 478: 467: 465: 461: 457: 453: 449: 445: 441: 439: 435: 431: 427: 423: 419: 415: 411: 407: 403: 402:South America 399: 394: 392: 388: 384: 380: 376: 372: 368: 364: 360: 356: 352: 348: 344: 340: 330: 328: 324: 320: 315: 309: 303: 297: 296: 288: 282: 276: 264: 259: 254: 250: 245: 241: 237: 232: 228: 224: 209: 206: 202: 198: 194: 189: 186: 184: 180: 176: 172: 167: 163: 161: 157: 153: 149: 139: 137: 133: 129: 124: 122: 118: 114: 110: 106: 105:ship-building 102: 98: 92: 90: 86: 82: 78: 74: 70: 66: 62: 58: 49: 45:sign stating 44: 40: 35: 29: 22: 6630: 6573:Mednyj Aleut 6568:Media Lengua 6434:Turku Arabic 6382:Pidgin Wolof 6302: 6172: 6159: 5920:Sotho–Tswana 5860:Unserdeutsch 5809: 5742: 5735: 5723: 5682: 5670: 5663: 5630:Forro Creole 5555:Upper Guinea 5497:Papuan Malay 5475:Manado Malay 5465:Kupang Malay 5283:The Americas 5091:Sranan Tongo 5012:Bajan Creole 4915: 4908: 4903:Mohawk Dutch 4901: 4894: 4889:Jersey Dutch 4887: 4880: 4873: 4866: 4815: 4789: 4677: 4645: 4634: 4623: 4619: 4603: 4599: 4573: 4569: 4548:(1): 27–51, 4545: 4541: 4532: 4523: 4519: 4510: 4501: 4489: 4465: 4461: 4449: 4440: 4431: 4407: 4403: 4394: 4390: 4381: 4372: 4348: 4344: 4328: 4324: 4308: 4304: 4281: 4259: 4241: 4227: 4223: 4219: 4202: 4192: 4179: 4163: 4147: 4131: 4127: 4101: 4097: 4088: 4076: 4072: 4049: 4031: 4022: 4013: 4004: 3995: 3979: 3975: 3966: 3957: 3938: 3934: 3913:(1): 27–51, 3910: 3906: 3888: 3879: 3861: 3852: 3836: 3832: 3816: 3812: 3803: 3794: 3790: 3781: 3769: 3753: 3741: 3725: 3721: 3702: 3698: 3686: 3677: 3665: 3641: 3637: 3625: 3616: 3593: 3584: 3575: 3566: 3557: 3548: 3536: 3524: 3515: 3511: 3495: 3491: 3459: 3455: 3446: 3422: 3411: 3387: 3383: 3374: 3370: 3364:. 2004–2005. 3361: 3334:(1): 11–24, 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Retrieved 1811: 1596: 1591:Universalist 1562: 1556: 1512: 1393: 1392: 1383:prototypical 1372: 1354: 1352: 1345: 1340: 1336: 1318: 1306: 1245: 1191: 1145: 1140: 1137: 1128: 1100:organization 1089:transparency 1081:Universalist 1079: 1060: 1052:Hymes (1971) 1045: 1029: 1018: 996: 988: 957: 945: 917: 910: 890: 882: 806: 796:Sierra Leone 790:Proposed by 789: 751: 737: 716: 663: 656: 641: 624: 592: 581: 578: 573:phylogenetic 566: 551: 546: 539: 535:creolization 531: 481: 473: 452:Indian Ocean 442: 438:Indian Ocean 395: 336: 277: 257: 240:Spanish term 222: 220: 190: 187: 168: 164: 152:nativization 145: 125: 93: 60: 59:, or simply 56: 54: 6430:(creolized) 6389:(creolized) 6377:Pidgin Onin 6348:(creolized) 6212:(creolized) 6180:Borgarmålet 6169:(creolized) 5570:Fogo Creole 5521:Sabah Malay 5502:Serui Malay 5450:Banda Malay 5428:Cocos Malay 5380:Tayo Creole 4895:Negro Dutch 4840:Juba Arabic 4679:Answers.com 4052:, Hong Kong 3699:Diachronica 3492:Linguistics 3202:Bloomington 2526:such as in 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1437:parameters 1433:Palenquero 1421:derivation 1410:inflection 1394:Creoleness 1314:Saramaccan 1296:Papiamentu 1256:Gil (2001) 1064:generation 926:languages. 865:gradualism 817:creoleness 815:and their 762:relexified 628:Papiamento 593:The terms 488:wave model 434:Seychelles 387:Seychelles 341:, western 278:The terms 249:Portuguese 109:navigation 43:Guadeloupe 6641:varieties 6633:indicate 6428:Tok Pisin 6216:Cocoliche 6108:Tok Pisin 6067:Tok Pisin 5910:Afrikaans 5817:Chavacano 5411:Peranakan 5231:Tok Pisin 4728:In French 4397:: 325–371 3982:: 107–113 3518:: 325–371 3456:Neurocase 3320:143265334 3298:CiteSeerX 3175:: 25–58, 3146:144264276 3124:CiteSeerX 3011:0167-7373 2589:Hancock's 2309:145764278 2235:159786747 2227:1478-8810 2027::116–122) 1644:Diglossia 1453:yardstick 1425:prototype 1199:diglossic 1097:discourse 901:Imitation 886:baby talk 853:Louisiana 827:based on 766:factories 692:that was 595:substrate 477:qualifier 430:Mauritius 426:Chavacano 414:Australia 398:Caribbean 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