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benefits of geophagy such as protection from parasites (4.9%), mineral supplements (19.5%), and helping to metabolize toxic compounds from leaves (12.2%) nonexclusive. From soil analysis, it has been seen that one of the main compounds in the earth consumed by these primates is clay minerals that contains kaolinite, which is commonly used in medications for diarrheal and intestinal problems. Geophagic behaviour plays an important role in nonhuman primates' health. This kind of zoopharmacognosy use differs from one species to another. For example, mountain gorillas from Rwanda tend to ingest clay soil during dry season, when the vegetation changes forcing them to feed on plants that have more toxic compounds, in this case the ingested clay absorbs these toxins providing digestive benefits. This kind of seasonal behavioural adaptation is also seen in the red-handed howler monkeys from the western
Brazilian Amazonia, which also have to adapt to the shift of feeding on leaves that contains more toxic compounds. In other cases, geophagy is used by the Ring-Tailed Lemurs as a preventive and therapeutic behaviour for parasite control and intestinal infection. These benefits from clay ingestion can also be observed among rhesus macaques. In a study that was carried out in the island of Cayo Santiago, it has been observed that the rhesus macaques had intestinal parasites and their health was not affected and they did not have many gastrointestinal effects from these parasites. Data observed shows that this was caused by the consumption of clay soil by this species. On the other hand observations have shown that behavioural geophagy provides mineral supplements, as seen among Cambodia's Colobinae. The study was done at the salt licks in Veun Sai-Siem Pang Conservation Area, a site that is visited by various species of nonhuman primates. More in-depth research needs to be carried out in order to better understand this behavioural adaptation of geophagy among nonhuman primates.
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116:, or termite mounds. It is a behavioural adaptation that occurs in many non-human animals and has been documented in more than 100 primate species. Geophagy in non-human primates is primarily used for protection from parasites, to provide mineral supplements and to help metabolize toxic compounds from leaves. Geophagy also occurs in humans and is most commonly reported among children and pregnant women.
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with the recent findings of consistently high sodium levels in consumed soils, make it highly likely that sodium is the primary driver of avian geophagy among parrots (and possibly other taxa) in the western Amazon Basin. This supplemental nutrients hypothesis is further supported by peak geophagy occurring during the parrots' breeding season.
256:
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Geophagy is a behavioural adaptation seen in 136 species of nonhuman primates from the suborder
Haplorrhini (81%) and Strepsirrhini (19%). The most commonly ingested soils are soils from mounds, soils from tree bases, soils from termite mounds, 'Pong' soils, and forest floor. Studies have shown many
194:
but at one specific layer of soil which runs hundreds of metres horizontally along that bend. The parrots avoid eating the substrate in layers one metre above or below the preferred layer. These parrots regularly eat seeds and unripe fruits containing alkaloids and other toxins that render the seeds
245:
al. show that parrot geophagy in South
America is positively correlated to a significant degree with distance from the ocean. This suggests that overall lack of sodium in the ecosystem, not variation in food toxicity, is a better predictor of the spatial distribution of geophagy. This work, coupled
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food which aid in increasing brain oxygen levels by restricting neck veins) are therapeutically effective decreasing infant mortality, those genetic predispositions and the associated environmental triggers, are likely to be found in the infant as well. Likewise, multigenerationally impoverished
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al. demonstrated that both mineral-deficient and healthy bats visit salt licks at the same rate. Therefore, mineral supplementation is unlikely to be the primary reason for geophagia in bats. Additionally, bat presence at salt licks increases during periods of high energy demand. Voigt
237:. In the Manu River example cited above, the preferred soil bands had much higher levels of sodium than those that were not chosen. Repeated studies have shown that the soils consumed most commonly by parrots in South America have higher sodium contents than those that are not consumed.
259:
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It is unclear which factor is driving avian geophagy. However, evidence is mounting that sodium is the most important driver among parrots in southeastern Peru. Parrots are known to eat toxic foods globally, but geophagy is concentrated in very specific regions. Researchers Lee
155:, the Greek philosopher and physician, was the first to record the use of clay by sick or injured animals in the second century AD. This type of geophagia has been documented in "many species of mammals, birds, reptiles, butterflies and isopods, especially among herbivores".
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made from soil, salt, and vegetable shortening. These biscuits hold minimal nutritional value, but manage to keep the poor alive. However, long-term consumption of the biscuits is reported to cause stomach pains and malnutrition, and is not recommended by doctors.
637:, minerals that are critical for developing fetuses which can cause metallic, soil, or chewing ice cravings in pregnant women. To the extent that these cravings, and subsequent mineral consumption (as well as in the case of cravings for ice, or other cold neck
754:
Fack, Vinciane; Shanee, Sam; Vercauteren
Drubbel, Régine; Vercauteren, Martine; Meunier, Hélène (May 2020). "Geophagy in the yellow-tailed woolly monkey (Lagothrix flavicauda) at La Esperanza, Peru: site characterization and soil composition".
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villages or other homogenous socioeconomic closed genetic communities are more likely to have rewarded gene expression of soil or clay consumption cravings, by increasing the likelihood of survival through multiple pregnancies for both sexes.
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de Souza, Luciane L.; Ferrari, Stephen F.; da Costa, Marcondes L.; Kern, Dirse C. (2002). "Geophagy as a
Correlate of Folivory in Red-Handed Howler Monkeys (Alouatta belzebul) from Eastern Brazilian Amazonia".
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as part of the transatlantic slave trade. Slaves who practised geophagia were nicknamed "clay-eaters" because they were known to consume clay, as well as spices, ash, chalk, grass, plaster, paint, and starch.
433:'s fables tells about a geophage being cheated by a sugar seller who leaves him alone with a weight made of clay and then waits until the man eats enough of it, thus reducing the amount of sugar he will get.
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can be problematic among people who eat soils on a regular basis. Gestational geophagia (geophagia in pregnancy) has been associated with various homeostatic disruptions and oxidative damage in rats.
258:
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Lee, Alan T. K.; Kumar, Sunil; Brightsmith, Donald J.; Marsden, Stuart J. (June 2010). "Parrot claylick distribution in South
America: do patterns of 'where' help answer the question 'why'?".
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sites, and are thereby rendered safe. Their preferred soils have a much higher cation-exchange capacity than the adjacent, rejected layers of soils because they are rich in the minerals
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The preference for certain types of clay or soil can lead to unusual feeding behaviour. For example, Peruvian Amazon rainforest parrots congregate not just at one particular bend of the
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Clay minerals have been reported to have beneficial microbiological effects, such as protecting the stomach against toxins, parasites, and pathogens. Humans are not able to synthesize
2012:"Clay Ingestion During Pregnancy Among Black African Women in a North London Borough: Understanding Cultural Meanings, Integrating Indigenous and Biomedical Knowledge Systems"
195:
and fruits bitter and even lethal. Because many of these chemicals become positively charged in the acidic stomach, they bind to clay minerals which have negatively charged
617:(cobalamin), so geophagia may be a behavioral adaption to obtain it from bacteria in the soil. Mineral content in soils may vary by region, but many contain high levels of
333:
al. concluded that the primary purpose for bat presence at salt licks is for detoxification purposes, compensating for the increased consumption of toxic fruit and seeds.
448:
wrote about slaves eating soil in
Zanzibar, and it is also thought that large numbers of slaves brought with them soil-eating practices when they were trafficked to the
399:
Geophagia is nearly universal around the world in tribal and traditional rural societies (although apparently it has not been documented in Japan or Korea). In the
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There is debate over whether geophagia in bats is primarily for nutritional supplementation or detoxification. It is known that some species of bats regularly visit
1854:
125:
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Symes, C. T.; Hughes, J. C.; Mack, A. L.; Marsden, S. J. (January 2006). "Geophagy in birds of Crater
Mountain Wildlife Management Area, Papua New Guinea".
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Several different rocks of clay-like material being sold at a local market in Kabwe, Zambia. These are usually purchased and consumed by pregnant women.
2418:"Gestational Geophagia Affects Nephrocardiac Integrity, ATP-Driven Proton Pumps, the Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System, and F2-Isoprostane Status"
1242:
Brightsmith, Donald J.; Taylor, John; Phillips, Timothy D. (2008-11-01). "The Roles of Soil
Characteristics and Toxin Adsorption in Avian Geophagy".
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tests of these soils and many others from southeastern Peru indicate that they also release nutritionally important quantities of minerals such as
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Young, Sera L.; Miller, Joshua D. (February 2019). "Medicine
Beneath Your Feet: A Biocultural Examination of the Risks and Benefits of Geophagy".
960:
1312:
Brightsmith, D. J.; Hobson, E. A.; Martinez, G. (2018). "Food availability and breeding season as predictors of geophagy in Amazonian parrots".
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Knezevich, Mary (1998). "Geophagy as a therapeutic mediator of endoparasitism in a free-ranging group of rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta)".
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Brightsmith, Donald J.; Muñoz-Najar, Romina Aramburú (2004-12-01). "Avian Geophagy and Soil Characteristics in Southeastern Peru".
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Krishnamani, R.; Mahaney, William C. (2000-05-01). "Geophagy among primates: adaptive significance and ecological consequences".
513:. Consumption is greatest among women, especially to cure nausea during pregnancy, in spite of the possible dangerous levels of
1383:
Krishnamani, R.; Mahaney, William C. (May 2000). "Geophagy among primates: adaptive significance and ecological consequences".
1426:
Klein N, Fröhlich F, Krief S (2008). "Geophagy: soil consumption enhances the bioactivities of plants eaten by chimpanzees".
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936:
1149:"Parrots Take it with a Grain of Salt: Available Sodium Content May Drive Collpa (Clay Lick) Selection in Southeastern Peru"
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183:. Analysis of soils consumed by wild birds show that they often prefer soils with high clay content, usually with the
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1781:"Rumi's Masnavi - when those looks have drawn thee after me, then thou wilt know that I am not inattentive to thee"
411:, an island of Greece, and the use of the soils from this island was noted until the 14th century. The textbook of
1482:"Geophagy among nonhuman primates: A systematic review of current knowledge and suggestions for future directions"
800:"Geophagy among nonhuman primates: A systematic review of current knowledge and suggestions for future directions"
1878:
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Emmons, Louise H.; Stark, Nellie M. (1979-01-01). "Elemental Composition of a Natural Mineral Lick in Amazonia".
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163:
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123:– the craving and purposive consumption of non-food items – and is classified as an eating disorder in the
2100:
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The existence of geophagy among Native Americans was noted by early explorers in the Americas, including
2131:
137:
remains unknown, geophagy has many potential adaptive health benefits as well as negative consequences.
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2539:
2260:
Henry JM, Cring FD (2012). "Geophagy An Anthropological Perspective". In Brevik EC, Burgess LC (eds.).
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A five-year-old girl in Peru with a desire to eat earth (geophagia). Wood engraving by E. Riou, 1860s.
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129:(DSM) if not socially or culturally appropriate. Sometimes geophagy is a consequence of carrying a
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There are obvious health risks in the consumption of soil that is contaminated by animal or human
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is eaten as a snack or light meal. It consists of pure clay, without any mixture of ingredients.
437:
2162:
1147:
Powell, Luke L.; Powell, Thomas U.; Powell, George V. N.; Brightsmith, Donald J. (2009-05-01).
441:
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Evidence for the likely origin of geophagy was found in the remains of early humans in Africa:
501:), is eaten for pleasure or to suppress hunger. Kaolin for human consumption is sold at most
366:& Root-Bernstein, 2000). Here, a calcium-rich white clay was found alongside the bones of
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1836:
Le Français en Afrique: Revue du Réseau des Observatoires du Français Contemporain en Afrique
1613:
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Pebsworth, Paula A.; Huffman, Michael A.; Lambert, Joanna E.; Young, Sera L. (January 2019).
798:
Pebsworth, Paula A.; Huffman, Michael A.; Lambert, Joanna E.; Young, Sera L. (January 2019).
522:
363:
1971:"Environmental Geochemistry of Geophagic Materials from Free State Province in South Africa"
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Brooker, Simon J.; Bundy, Donald A.P. (2014). "Soil-transmitted Helminths (Geohelminths)".
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1982:
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Craving earth : understanding pica : the urge to eat clay, starch, ice, and chalk
279:
1350:
Abrahams PW (2013). "Geophagy and the Involuntary Ingestion of Soil". In Selinus O (ed.).
687:, a variety of clays chosen and used for medicinal purposes, including through consumption
8:
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Cook, A.; Ljung, K.; Watkins, R. (2011). "Human Health and the State of the Pedosphere".
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1667:"Nutrition or Detoxification: Why Bats Visit Mineral Licks of the Amazonian Rainforest"
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The oldest evidence of geophagy practised by humans comes from the prehistoric site at
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211:. The preferred soils surpass the pure mineral kaolinate and surpass or approach pure
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There are several hypotheses about the importance of geophagia in bats and primates.
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444:, who said that a tribe called the Otomacs ate large amounts of soil. In Africa,
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120:
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is also associated with soil ingestion, as well as health risks associated with
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in the soil that has been eaten by a woman shows up as white on this plain X-ray
2986:
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1748:
768:
684:
668:
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108:), is the intentional practice of eating earth or soil-like substances such as
2199:
1969:
Ekosse, Georges-Ivo E.; Ngole-Jeme, Veronica M.; Diko, Makia L. (2017-05-25).
1593:
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913:
672:
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351:
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Diamond JM (1999). "Evolutionary biology. Dirty eating for healthy living".
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to the unborn child. Another example of geophagia was reported in Mangaung,
3016:
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2781:
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2592:
2453:
2329:"Microbiological and health related perspectives of geophagia: an overview"
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is also widely used as a digestive aid and as the base for some medicines.
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2176:"Evaluation of the medicinal use of clay minerals as antibacterial agents"
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415:(460–377 BCE) mentions geophagia, and the famous medical textbook titled
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10.1002/(sici)1098-2345(1998)44:1<71::aid-ajp6>3.0.co;2-u
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287:
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2488:. Vol. 2. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. pp. 120–121.
1636:"Preliminary observations of geophagy amongst Cambodia's Colobinae"
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Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders : DSM-5
440:, who in 1587 reported a tribe in Brazil using it in suicide, and
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931:(5th ed.). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Association.
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618:
514:
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230:
225:
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Wiley, Andrea S. (2003). "Geophagy". In Katz, Solomon H. (ed.).
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Henry J, Kwong AM (2003). "Why is geophagy treated like dirt?".
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Voigt CC, Capps KA, Dechmann DK, Michener RH, Kunz TH (2008).
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Many species of South American parrots have been observed at
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2303:"Eating dirt can be good for the belly, researchers find"
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University of Chicago Press Journals, ed. (4 June 2011).
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clay shortly before or after consuming plants including
2068:
1634:
Rawson, Benjamin M.; Bach, Luu Tuong (September 2011).
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in Cameroon and is often flavoured with spices such as
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Agomuo, EN; Amadi, PU; Adumekwe, C (22 January 2019).
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1070:
898:(Pbk. ed.). New York: Columbia University Press.
429:(14–37 CE) seems to link anaemia to geophagia. One of
2326:
529:, where the practice was geochemically investigated.
403:, several writers noted the phenomenon of geophagia.
126:
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
91:
43:
28:
1968:
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2150:
2010:Madziva, Cathrine; Chinouya, Martha Judith (2020).
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to increase mineral consumption. However, Voigt et
215:in their capacity to bind quinine and tannic acid.
85:
40:
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847:
2069:Schmidt, Benno; Ayer, Ara, eds. (22 March 2009).
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16:Practice of eating earth or soil-like substrates
2071:"Dirt Poor Haitians Eat Mud Cookies To Survive"
2009:
1345:
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1339:
1337:
1335:
407:is said to have noted the ingestion of soil on
151:Geophagia is widespread in the animal kingdom.
2173:
385:Geophagy and the Involuntary Ingestion of Soil
2524:
2471:Cooper, D. W. (2000). "Clay Eating Parrots".
2470:
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2227:
2149:Ampo, Snack Made By Soil. Do You Believe It?
1792:
1790:
286:, have been observed to consume soil rich in
2349:
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2327:Bisi-Johnson MA, Obi CL, Ekosse GE (2010).
1895:
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959:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
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586:is available worldwide as a digestive aid;
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711:Tropical Medicine and International Health
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1486:American Journal of Physical Anthropology
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804:American Journal of Physical Anthropology
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707:"Geophagia: a vestige of paleonutrition?"
456:
2234:Lallanilla, Marc, ed. (3 October 2005).
1889:
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1737:Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine
1733:"Geophagia: the history of earth-eating"
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535:
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302:
253:
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2236:"Eating Dirt: It Might Be Good for You"
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1879:"The people who can't stop eating dirt"
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342:Anthropological and historical evidence
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187:clay families being well represented.
179:have been observed ingesting clays in
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2352:Manson's Tropical Infectious Diseases
2097:"Poor Haitians Resort to Eating Dirt"
1964:
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1852:"Balengou : autour des mines."
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13:
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2393:10.1016/B978-0-444-52272-6.00158-6
2360:10.1016/B978-0-7020-5101-2.00056-X
1959:
1938:
1833:"Le lexique français du Gabon: K."
1221:10.1111/j.1744-7429.2004.tb00348.x
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1137:
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832:
724:10.1046/j.1365-3156.1997.d01-359.x
307:Five Japanese macaques eating soil
14:
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2143:
1643:Vietnamese Journal of Primatology
884:
2702:
2486:Encyclopedia of Food and Culture
2333:African Journal of Biotechnology
1831:Karine Boucher, Suzanne Lafage.
1299:10.1111/j.1600-0587.2009.05878.x
1264:10.1111/j.1744-7429.2008.00429.x
1174:10.1111/j.1744-7429.2009.00514.x
1085:10.1111/j.1469-7998.2005.00002.x
75:
24:
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2343:
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2264:. CRC Press. pp. 179–198.
2253:
2174:Williams LB, Haydel SE (2010).
2167:
2130:Ampo, Camilan dari Tanah Liat.
2088:
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2003:
1946:"Why Kenyan women crave stones"
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1825:
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1538:American Journal of Primatology
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552:, poor people are known to eat
2161:Think twice before you say ew
1354:. Springer. pp. 433–454.
1064:
967:
920:
791:
747:
698:
533:is also eaten in west Africa.
372:(the immediate predecessor of
300:properties in the laboratory.
1:
1861:(Balengou: around the mines)
1352:Essentials of Medical Geology
691:
119:Human geophagia is a form of
1731:Woywodt, A; Kiss, A (2002).
1692:10.1371/journal.pone.0002011
1360:10.1007/978-94-007-4375-5_18
7:
1582:Journal of Chemical Ecology
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10:
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1749:10.1177/014107680209500313
769:10.1007/s10329-020-00802-9
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2546:
2200:10.1080/00206811003679737
1448:10.1007/s00114-007-0333-0
996:10.1007/s42860-018-0004-6
927:DSM-5 Task Force (2013).
336:
177:sulphur-crested cockatoos
2137:August 31, 2014, at the
158:
3030:Antipredator adaptation
2354:. pp. 766–794.e4.
2029:10.3389/fsoc.2020.00020
1594:10.1023/A:1019928529879
976:Clays and Clay Minerals
894:Young, Sera L. (2011).
438:Gabriel Soares de Sousa
315:
2262:Soils and Human Health
2163:2013 Flavor Boulevard
2016:Frontiers in Sociology
1914:10.3201/eid0908.ad0908
1857:March 4, 2012, at the
1397:10.1006/anbe.1999.1376
862:10.1006/anbe.1999.1376
667:poses a further risk.
610:
545:
466:
457:Contemporary practices
442:Alexander von Humboldt
396:
389:
354:on the border between
308:
271:
168:
3076:Cultural anthropology
2435:10.3390/medsci7020013
1996:10.1515/geo-2017-0009
605:
539:
477:, sometimes known as
464:
394:
348:
322:mineral or salt licks
306:
262:
166:
145:Further information:
2387:. pp. 108–115.
1902:Emerging Infect. Dis
1896:Callahan GN (2003).
705:Ziegler, J. (1997).
280:Kibale National Park
268:Propithecus candidus
167:Parrots eating earth
3045:Carnivorous protist
2899:Intraguild predator
2192:2010IGRv...52..745W
2107:on 14 February 2010
2101:National Geographic
1987:2017OGeo....9....9E
1865:. 12 January 2010.
1683:2008PLoSO...3.2011V
1440:2008NW.....95..325K
1428:Naturwissenschaften
1256:2008Biotr..40..766B
1213:2004Biotr..36..534B
1165:2009Biotr..41..279P
1115:1979Biotr..11..311E
1034:1999Natur.400..120D
988:2019CCM....67...81Y
661:helminth infections
523:Free State Province
293:Trichilia rubescens
3040:Carnivorous fungus
2690:Sexual cannibalism
2675:Animal cannibalism
2540:Feeding behaviours
2095:Jonathan M. Katz.
1850:Franklin Kamtche.
1499:10.1002/ajpa.23724
1073:Journal of Zoology
817:10.1002/ajpa.23724
611:
546:
467:
397:
309:
296:, which possesses
272:
250:Non-human Primates
169:
131:hookworm infection
3058:
3057:
3035:Carnivorous plant
2911:Aquatic predation
2698:
2697:
2680:Human cannibalism
2270:10.1201/b13683-12
1811:10.1080/713840222
1369:978-94-007-4374-8
1326:10.1111/ibi.12515
938:978-0-89042-554-1
649:; in particular,
499:Equatorial Guinea
446:David Livingstone
260:
69:), also known as
3098:
3086:Eating behaviors
2904:Pursuit predator
2706:
2685:Self-cannibalism
2553:
2552:
2533:
2526:
2519:
2510:
2509:
2489:
2480:
2473:Parrots Magazine
2458:
2457:
2447:
2437:
2422:Medical Sciences
2413:
2407:
2406:
2380:
2374:
2373:
2347:
2341:
2340:
2324:
2315:
2314:
2312:
2310:
2298:
2292:
2291:
2257:
2251:
2250:
2248:
2246:
2231:
2222:
2221:
2211:
2171:
2165:
2159:
2153:
2147:
2141:
2129:
2125:
2116:
2115:
2113:
2112:
2103:. Archived from
2092:
2086:
2085:
2083:
2081:
2066:
2060:
2059:
2049:
2031:
2007:
2001:
2000:
1998:
1975:Open Geosciences
1966:
1957:
1956:
1954:
1953:
1942:
1936:
1935:
1925:
1893:
1887:
1886:
1875:
1869:
1868:
1848:
1839:
1829:
1823:
1822:
1799:Deviant Behavior
1794:
1785:
1784:
1777:
1771:
1770:
1760:
1728:
1715:
1714:
1704:
1694:
1662:
1651:
1650:
1640:
1631:
1622:
1621:
1588:(8): 1613–1621.
1576:
1570:
1569:
1533:
1520:
1519:
1501:
1492:(S67): 164–194.
1477:
1468:
1467:
1423:
1417:
1416:
1385:Animal Behaviour
1380:
1374:
1373:
1347:
1330:
1329:
1309:
1303:
1302:
1282:
1276:
1275:
1239:
1233:
1232:
1196:
1187:
1186:
1176:
1144:
1135:
1134:
1098:
1089:
1088:
1068:
1062:
1061:
1017:
1008:
1007:
971:
965:
964:
958:
950:
924:
918:
917:
891:
882:
881:
850:Animal Behaviour
845:
830:
829:
819:
810:(S67): 164–194.
795:
789:
788:
751:
745:
744:
726:
702:
639:vasoconstricting
598:Impact on health
427:Cornelius Celsus
426:
387:
383:Peter Abrahams,
332:
327:
261:
244:
181:Papua New Guinea
147:Zoopharmacognosy
133:. Although its
107:
106:
103:
102:
99:
96:
93:
90:
87:
84:
81:
68:
67:
64:
63:
58:
57:
52:
51:
48:
45:
42:
39:
36:
33:
30:
3106:
3105:
3101:
3100:
3099:
3097:
3096:
3095:
3091:Pica (disorder)
3061:
3060:
3059:
3054:
3021:
3012:Surplus killing
2884:Ambush predator
2867:
2791:
2770:
2707:
2694:
2663:
2627:
2542:
2537:
2496:
2467:
2465:Further reading
2462:
2461:
2414:
2410:
2403:
2381:
2377:
2370:
2348:
2344:
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2318:
2308:
2306:
2299:
2295:
2280:
2258:
2254:
2244:
2242:
2232:
2225:
2186:(7/8): 745–70.
2172:
2168:
2160:
2156:
2148:
2144:
2139:Wayback Machine
2128:(in Indonesian)
2127:
2126:
2119:
2110:
2108:
2093:
2089:
2079:
2077:
2075:Huffington Post
2067:
2063:
2008:
2004:
1967:
1960:
1951:
1949:
1944:
1943:
1939:
1894:
1890:
1885:. 16 June 2016.
1877:
1876:
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1866:
1859:Wayback Machine
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1197:
1190:
1145:
1138:
1123:10.2307/2387925
1099:
1092:
1069:
1065:
1028:(6740): 120–1.
1018:
1011:
972:
968:
952:
951:
939:
925:
921:
906:
892:
885:
846:
833:
796:
792:
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748:
703:
699:
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681:
600:
572:a food made of
459:
424:
388:
382:
344:
339:
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325:
318:
254:
252:
242:
197:cation-exchange
161:
149:
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78:
74:
60:
54:
27:
23:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3104:
3094:
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3083:
3078:
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3055:
3053:
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3047:
3042:
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3026:
3023:
3022:
3020:
3019:
3014:
3009:
3004:
2999:
2994:
2989:
2987:Hypercarnivore
2984:
2983:
2982:
2981:
2980:
2970:
2963:Cattle feeding
2960:
2955:
2954:
2953:
2948:
2946:Feeding frenzy
2943:
2938:
2933:
2931:Suction feeder
2928:
2923:
2918:
2908:
2907:
2906:
2901:
2896:
2891:
2886:
2875:
2873:
2869:
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2865:
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2855:
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2845:
2840:
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2830:
2825:
2820:
2815:
2810:
2805:
2799:
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2793:
2792:
2790:
2789:
2784:
2778:
2776:
2772:
2771:
2769:
2768:
2763:
2758:
2753:
2748:
2743:
2741:Seed predation
2738:
2733:
2728:
2723:
2717:
2715:
2709:
2708:
2701:
2699:
2696:
2695:
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2669:
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2661:
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2641:
2635:
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2629:
2628:
2626:
2625:
2620:
2615:
2610:
2605:
2600:
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2590:
2585:
2580:
2575:
2570:
2565:
2559:
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2521:
2513:
2507:
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2495:
2494:External links
2492:
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2463:
2460:
2459:
2408:
2401:
2375:
2368:
2342:
2339:(36): 5784–91.
2316:
2305:. ScienceDaily
2293:
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2252:
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2166:
2154:
2142:
2117:
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2002:
1958:
1937:
1908:(8): 1016–21.
1888:
1870:
1840:
1824:
1786:
1772:
1716:
1652:
1623:
1571:
1521:
1469:
1418:
1391:(5): 899–915.
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1320:(1): 101–111.
1304:
1293:(3): 503–513.
1277:
1250:(6): 766–774.
1234:
1207:(4): 534–543.
1188:
1159:(3): 279–282.
1136:
1109:(4): 311–313.
1090:
1063:
1009:
966:
937:
919:
904:
883:
856:(5): 899–915.
831:
790:
763:(3): 507–518.
746:
717:(7): 609–611.
696:
695:
693:
690:
689:
688:
685:Medicinal clay
680:
677:
669:Lead poisoning
653:eggs, such as
599:
596:
584:Bentonite clay
544:being prepared
531:Calabash chalk
458:
455:
380:
364:Root-Bernstein
343:
340:
338:
335:
317:
314:
270:) eating earth
251:
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3027:
3024:
3018:
3015:
3013:
3010:
3008:
3005:
3003:
3000:
2998:
2997:Mesocarnivore
2995:
2993:
2992:Hypocarnivore
2990:
2988:
2985:
2979:
2976:
2975:
2974:
2971:
2969:
2966:
2965:
2964:
2961:
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2951:Filter feeder
2949:
2947:
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2942:
2941:Bottom feeder
2939:
2937:
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2927:
2924:
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2917:
2914:
2913:
2912:
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2892:
2890:
2889:Apex predator
2887:
2885:
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2880:
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2861:
2859:
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2705:
2691:
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2672:
2670:
2668:cannibalistic
2666:
2660:
2657:
2655:
2654:Breastfeeding
2652:
2650:
2649:Placentophagy
2647:
2645:
2642:
2640:
2637:
2636:
2634:
2630:
2624:
2621:
2619:
2616:
2614:
2611:
2609:
2606:
2604:
2601:
2599:
2596:
2594:
2591:
2589:
2586:
2584:
2581:
2579:
2576:
2574:
2571:
2569:
2568:Egg predation
2566:
2564:
2561:
2560:
2558:
2554:
2551:
2549:
2545:
2541:
2534:
2529:
2527:
2522:
2520:
2515:
2514:
2511:
2505:
2501:
2500:"Eating Dirt"
2498:
2497:
2487:
2482:
2478:
2474:
2469:
2468:
2455:
2451:
2446:
2441:
2436:
2431:
2427:
2423:
2419:
2412:
2404:
2402:9780444522726
2398:
2394:
2390:
2386:
2379:
2371:
2369:9780702051012
2365:
2361:
2357:
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2346:
2338:
2334:
2330:
2323:
2321:
2304:
2297:
2289:
2285:
2281:
2279:9781439844540
2275:
2271:
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2263:
2256:
2241:
2237:
2230:
2228:
2219:
2215:
2210:
2205:
2201:
2197:
2193:
2189:
2185:
2181:
2177:
2170:
2164:
2158:
2152:
2146:
2140:
2136:
2133:
2124:
2122:
2106:
2102:
2098:
2091:
2076:
2072:
2065:
2057:
2053:
2048:
2043:
2039:
2035:
2030:
2025:
2021:
2017:
2013:
2006:
1997:
1992:
1988:
1984:
1980:
1976:
1972:
1965:
1963:
1947:
1941:
1933:
1929:
1924:
1919:
1915:
1911:
1907:
1903:
1899:
1898:"Eating dirt"
1892:
1884:
1880:
1874:
1864:
1860:
1856:
1853:
1847:
1845:
1837:
1834:
1828:
1820:
1816:
1812:
1808:
1805:(4): 353–71.
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1434:(4): 325–31.
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1112:
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1104:
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1095:
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1074:
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1042:10.1038/22014
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962:
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940:
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905:9780231146081
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673:zinc exposure
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401:ancient world
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21:
3081:Ethnobiology
3017:Trophallaxis
2921:Pivot feeder
2916:Lunge feeder
2894:Egg predator
2827:
2782:Phagocytosis
2632:reproductive
2603:Myrmecophagy
2593:Molluscivore
2485:
2476:
2472:
2425:
2421:
2411:
2384:
2378:
2351:
2345:
2336:
2332:
2307:. Retrieved
2296:
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2243:. Retrieved
2239:
2183:
2180:Int Geol Rev
2179:
2169:
2157:
2151:hubpages.com
2145:
2132:indosiar.com
2109:. Retrieved
2105:the original
2090:
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2074:
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2019:
2015:
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1948:. 2008-09-18
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562:Central Java
559:
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527:South Africa
507:black pepper
494:
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435:
416:
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384:
375:Homo sapiens
373:
369:Homo habilis
367:
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298:antimalarial
291:
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264:Silky sifaka
239:
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118:
70:
19:
18:
2838:Planktivore
2823:Detritivore
2818:Coprophagia
2808:Bacterivore
2803:Microbivory
2787:Myzocytosis
2746:Nectarivore
2736:Graminivore
2583:Lepidophagy
2578:Insectivore
2573:Hematophagy
1867:(in French)
1649:(5): 41–46.
615:vitamin B12
592:Attapulgite
542:mud cookies
418:De Medicina
413:Hippocrates
276:Chimpanzees
3065:Categories
3002:Parasitism
2936:Bait balls
2926:Ram feeder
2858:Plastivore
2853:Lithotroph
2843:Saprophagy
2766:Osteophagy
2756:Palynivore
2713:Herbivores
2644:Paedophagy
2618:Spongivore
2608:Ophiophagy
2548:Carnivores
2111:2015-03-21
1952:2019-03-16
1244:Biotropica
1201:Biotropica
1153:Biotropica
1103:Biotropica
692:References
495:calabachop
421:edited by
192:Manu River
173:clay licks
3007:Scavenger
2879:Predation
2848:Xenophagy
2828:Geophagia
2813:Fungivore
2761:Xylophagy
2751:Mellivory
2731:Frugivore
2726:Florivore
2623:Vermivore
2613:Piscivore
2598:Mucophagy
2588:Man-eater
2428:(2): 13.
2288:239518574
2038:2297-7775
1819:144401343
1618:733005062
1287:Ecography
1004:132319907
955:cite book
947:830807378
914:806349461
785:211253699
627:magnesium
570:Indonesia
566:East Java
554:bonbon tè
475:kaolinite
450:New World
288:kaolinite
213:bentonite
20:Geophagia
3071:Ethology
2958:Browsing
2833:Omnivore
2775:Cellular
2721:Folivore
2454:30678242
2309:9 August
2245:9 August
2240:ABC News
2218:20640226
2135:Archived
2080:9 August
2056:33869429
1981:(1): 9.
1932:12971372
1883:BBC News
1855:Archived
1767:11872770
1711:18431492
1671:PLOS ONE
1614:ProQuest
1602:12371813
1566:29283286
1516:54568458
1508:30508222
1456:18188538
1413:43702331
1405:10860518
1272:83706377
1229:85655222
1183:86506489
1050:10408435
878:43702331
870:10860518
826:30508222
777:32095910
757:Primates
741:71822543
679:See also
651:helminth
540:Haitian
511:cardamom
487:Cameroon
381:—
360:Tanzania
220:In vitro
201:smectite
185:smectite
135:etiology
71:geophagy
2973:Grazing
2872:Methods
2659:Weaning
2639:Oophagy
2563:Avivore
2502:at the
2445:6409520
2209:2904249
2188:Bibcode
2047:8022624
1983:Bibcode
1923:3020602
1863:Le Jour
1838:. 2000.
1758:1279487
1702:2292638
1679:Bibcode
1610:1025743
1558:9444324
1464:3181001
1436:Bibcode
1252:Bibcode
1209:Bibcode
1161:Bibcode
1131:2387925
1111:Bibcode
1058:4404459
1030:Bibcode
984:Bibcode
733:9270727
665:Tetanus
656:Ascaris
619:calcium
576:called
515:arsenic
503:markets
231:calcium
226:in vivo
141:Animals
2978:Forage
2968:Fodder
2796:Others
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588:kaolin
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491:calaba
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1815:S2CID
1639:(PDF)
1606:S2CID
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1460:S2CID
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1268:S2CID
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1179:S2CID
1127:JSTOR
1054:S2CID
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647:feces
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