Great Calcite Belt

1621:), but the relative importance of the two has not yet been assessed for coccolithophores in the Southern Ocean. Bottom-up factors directly impact phytoplankton growth, and diatoms and coccolithophores are traditionally discriminated based on their differing requirements for nutrients, turbulence, and light. Based on this, Margalef's mandala predicts a seasonal succession from diatoms to coccolithophores as light levels increase and nutrient levels decline. In situ studies assessing Southern Ocean coccolithophore biogeography have found coccolithophores under various environmental conditions, thus suggesting a wide ecological niche, but all of the mentioned studies have almost exclusively focused on bottom-up controls. 938: 866: 797: 136: 829: 991: 1629: 1573: 619: 813:(at approximately 10 °C) acts as the northern boundary of the GCB and is associated with a sharp increase in PIC southwards. These fronts divide distinct environmental and biogeochemical zones, making the GCB an ideal study area to examine controls on phytoplankton communities in the open ocean. A high PIC concentration observed in the GCB (1 μmol PIC L) compared to the global average (0.2 μmol PIC L) and significant quantities of detached 20: 961:), up to 3.8×10 cells mL in the Indian sector, and up to 5.4×10 cells mL in the Pacific sector of the Southern Ocean with Emiliania huxleyi being the dominant species. However, the contribution of coccolithophores to total Southern Ocean phytoplankton biomass and NPP has not yet been assessed. Locally, elevated coccolithophore abundance in the GCB has been found to turn surface waters into a source of CO 3121: 1792: 680:) alongside the North Atlantic and North Pacific oceans. Knowledge of the impact of interacting environmental influences on phytoplankton distribution in the Southern Ocean is limited. For example, more understanding is needed of how light and iron availability or temperature and pH interact to control phytoplankton 23: 22: 27: 26: 21: 3483:

Leblanc, K.; Arístegui, J.; Armand, L.; Assmy, P.; Beker, B.; Bode, A.; Breton, E.; Cornet, V.; Gibson, J.; Gosselin, M.-P.; Kopczynska, E.; Marshall, H.; Peloquin, J.; Piontkovski, S.; Poulton, A. J.; Quéguiner, B.; Schiebel, R.; Shipe, R.; Stefels, J.; Van Leeuwe, M. A.; Varela, M.; Widdicombe, C.;

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in the Southern Ocean. The greenish area south of the Polar Front shows the extension of the subpolar opal belt where sediments have a significant portion of silicous plankton frustules. Sediments near Antarctica mainly consist of glacial debris in any grain size eroded and delivered by the Antarctic

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In the Southern Ocean, previous studies have shown zooplankton grazing to control total phytoplankton biomass, phytoplankton community composition, and ecosystem structure, suggesting that top-down control might also be an important driver for the relative abundance of coccolithophores and diatoms.

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However, phytoplankton growth rates do not necessarily covary with biomass accumulation rates. Using satellite data from the North Atlantic, Behrenfeld stressed in 2014 the importance of simultaneously considering bottom-up and top-down factors when assessing seasonal phytoplankton biomass dynamics

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Calcifying coccolithophores and silicifying diatoms are globally ubiquitous phytoplankton functional groups. Diatoms are a major contributor to global phytoplankton biomass and annual net primary production. In comparison, coccolithophores contribute less to biomass and to global NPP.

28: 886:

to lower latitudes and depth. Of particular relevance is the competitive interaction between coccolithophores and diatoms, with the former being prevalent along the Great Calcite Belt (40–60°S), while diatoms tend to dominate the regions south of 60°S, as illustrated in the diagram on the right.

75:(CCD) is relatively shallow, meaning that calcite minerals from the shells of marine organisms dissolve at a shallower depth in the water column. This results in a higher concentration of calcium carbonate sediments in the ocean floor, which can be observed in the form of white chalky sediments. 4554:

Le Quéré, Corinne; Buitenhuis, Erik T.; Moriarty, Róisín; Alvain, Séverine; Aumont, Olivier; Bopp, Laurent; Chollet, Sophie; Enright, Clare; Franklin, Daniel J.; Geider, Richard J.; Harrison, Sandy P.; Hirst, Andrew G.; Larsen, Stuart; Legendre, Louis; Platt, Trevor; Prentice, I. Colin; Rivkin,

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for the atmosphere, emphasising the necessity to understand the controls on their abundance in the Southern Ocean in the context of the carbon cycle and climate change. While coccolithophores have been observed to have moved polewards in recent decades, their response to the combined effects of

869:

Coccolithophores and diatoms in the Southern Ocean. Biomass distributions for the four months from December to March. Mean top 50 metres of coccolithophore (left) and diatom (right) carbon biomass (mmol/m) using a regional high-resolution model for the Southern Ocean. Coccolithophore and diatom

957:(PIC, a proxy for coccolithophore abundance) revealed the "Great Calcite Belt", an annually reoccurring circumpolar band of elevated PIC concentrations between 40 and 60°S. In situ observations confirmed coccolithophore abundances of up to 2.4×10 cells mL in the Atlantic sector (blooms on the 93:

Scientists have further interest in the calcite sediments in the belt, which contain valuable information about past climate, ocean currents, ocean chemistry, and marine ecosystems. For example, variations in the CCD depth over time can indicate changes in the amount of carbon dioxide in the

3983:

Balch, W. M.; Drapeau, D. T.; Bowler, B. C.; Lyczskowski, E.; Booth, E. S.; Alley, D. (2011). "The contribution of coccolithophores to the optical and inorganic carbon budgets during the Southern Ocean Gas Exchange Experiment: New evidence in support of the "Great Calcite Belt" hypothesis".

1957:

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Assmy, P.; Smetacek, V.; Montresor, M.; Klaas, C.; Henjes, J.; Strass, V. H.; Arrieta, J. M.; Bathmann, U.; Berg, G. M.; Breitbarth, E.; Cisewski, B.; Friedrichs, L.; Fuchs, N.; Herndl, G. J.; Jansen, S.; Kragefsky, S.; Latasa, M.; Peeken, I.; Rottgers, R.; Scharek, R.; Schuller, S. E.;

4237:

Iglesias-Rodriguez, M. D.; Halloran, P. R.; Rickaby, R. E. M.; Hall, I. R.; Colmenero-Hidalgo, E.; Gittins, J. R.; Green, D. R. H.; Tyrrell, T.; Gibbs, S. J.; von Dassow, P.; Rehm, E.; Armbrust, E. V.; Boessenkool, K. P. (2008). "Phytoplankton Calcification in a High-CO2 World".

25: 4193:

Beaufort, L.; Probert, I.; De Garidel-Thoron, T.; Bendif, E. M.; Ruiz-Pino, D.; Metzl, N.; Goyet, C.; Buchet, N.; Coupel, P.; Grelaud, M.; Rost, B.; Rickaby, R. E. M.; De Vargas, C. (2011). "Sensitivity of coccolithophores to carbonate chemistry and ocean acidification".

4614:

Granĺi, Edna; Granéli, Wilhelm; Rabbani, Mohammed Mozzam; Daugbjerg, Niels; Fransz, George; Roudy, Janine Cuzin; Alder, Viviana A. (1993). "The influence of copepod and krill grazing on the species composition of phytoplankton communities from the Scotia Weddell sea".

785:, and light microscopy restricts accurate identification to cells > 10 μm. In the context of climate change and future ecosystem function, the distribution of biomineralizing phytoplankton is important to define when considering phytoplankton interactions with 966:

future warming and ocean acidification is still subject to debate. As their response will also crucially depend on future phytoplankton community composition and predator–prey interactions, it is essential to assess the controls on their abundance in today's climate.

4487:

Hinz, D.J.; Poulton, A.J.; Nielsdóttir, M.C.; Steigenberger, S.; Korb, R.E.; Achterberg, E.P.; Bibby, T.S. (2012). "Comparative seasonal biogeography of mineralising nannoplankton in the Scotia Sea: Emiliania huxleyi, Fragilariopsis SPP. And Tetraparma pelagica".

2609:

3947:

Wright, Simon W.; Van Den Enden, Rick L.; Pearce, Imojen; Davidson, Andrew T.; Scott, Fiona J.; Westwood, Karen J. (2010). "Phytoplankton community structure and stocks in the Southern Ocean (30–80°E) determined by CHEMTAX analysis of HPLC pigment signatures".

675:

spring and summer in the Southern Ocean. It plays an important role in climate fluctuations, accounting for over 60% of the Southern Ocean area (30–60° S). The region between 30° and 50° S has the highest uptake of anthropogenic carbon dioxide

2982:

Signorini, Sergio R.; Garcia, Virginia M. T.; Piola, Alberto R.; Garcia, Carlos A. E.; Mata, Mauricio M.; McClain, Charles R. (2006). "Seasonal and interannual variability of calcite in the vicinity of the Patagonian shelf break (38°S–52°S)".

777:. Currently, few studies incorporate small biomineralizing phytoplankton to species level. Rather, the focus has often been on the larger and noncalcifying species in the Southern Ocean due to sample preservation issues (i.e., acidified 1898:

Sarmiento, J. L.; Slater, R.; Barber, R.; Bopp, L.; Doney, S. C.; Hirst, A. C.; Kleypas, J.; Matear, R.; Mikolajewicz, U.; Monfray, P.; Soldatov, V.; Spall, S. A.; Stouffer, R. (2004). "Response of ocean ecosystems to climate warming".

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Sailley, S.F.; Vogt, M.; Doney, S.C.; Aita, M.N.; Bopp, L.; Buitenhuis, E.T.; Hashioka, T.; Lima, I.; Le Quéré, C.; Yamanaka, Y. (2013). "Comparing food web structures and dynamics across a suite of global marine ecosystem models".

110:

groups, coccolithophores and diatoms, in the dynamic frontal systems characteristic of this region provides an ideal setting to study environmental influences on the distribution of different species within these taxonomic groups.

4383:

Dutkiewicz, Stephanie; Morris, J. Jeffrey; Follows, Michael J.; Scott, Jeffery; Levitan, Orly; Dyhrman, Sonya T.; Berman-Frank, Ilana (2015). "Impact of ocean acidification on the structure of future phytoplankton communities".

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O'Brien, C. J.; Peloquin, J. A.; Vogt, M.; Heinle, M.; Gruber, N.; Ajani, P.; Andruleit, H.; Arístegui, J.; Beaufort, L.; Estrada, M.; Karentz, D.; Kopczyńska, E.; Lee, R.; Poulton, A. J.; Pritchard, T.; Widdicombe, C. (2013).

3018:

Painter, Stuart C.; Poulton, Alex J.; Allen, John T.; Pidcock, Rosalind; Balch, William M. (2010). "The COPAS'08 expedition to the Patagonian Shelf: Physical and environmental conditions during the 2008 coccolithophore bloom".

1683:

Anderson, Robert F.; Sachs, Julian P.; Fleisher, Martin Q.; Allen, Katherine A.; Yu, Jimin; Koutavas, Athanasios; Jaccard, Samuel L. (2019). "Deep‐Sea Oxygen Depletion and Ocean Carbon Sequestration During the Last Ice Age".

3830:

Iglesias-Rodriguez, M. Debora; Armstrong, Robert; Feely, Richard; Hood, Raleigh; Kleypas, Joan; Milliman, John D.; Sabine, Christopher; Sarmiento, Jorge (2002). "Progress made in study of ocean's calcium carbonate budget".

2359:

Balch, William M.; Bates, Nicholas R.; Lam, Phoebe J.; Twining, Benjamin S.; Rosengard, Sarah Z.; Bowler, Bruce C.; Drapeau, Dave T.; Garley, Rebecca; Lubelczyk, Laura C.; Mitchell, Catherine; Rauschenberg, Sara (2016).

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plankton and their export need to be acknowledged. The two dominant biomineralizing phytoplankton groups in the GCB are coccolithophores and diatoms. Coccolithophores are generally found north of the polar front, though

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But the role of zooplankton grazing in current Earth system models is not well considered, and the impact of different grazing formulations on phytoplankton biogeography and diversity is subject to ongoing research.

4347:

Schlüter, Lothar; Lohbeck, Kai T.; Gutowska, Magdalena A.; Gröger, Joachim P.; Riebesell, Ulf; Reusch, Thorsten B. H. (2014). "Adaptation of a globally important coccolithophore to ocean warming and acidification".

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Poulton, Alex J.; Mark Moore, C.; Seeyave, Sophie; Lucas, Mike I.; Fielding, Sophie; Ward, Peter (2007). "Phytoplankton community composition around the Crozet Plateau, with emphasis on diatoms and Phaeocystis".

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Baines, Stephen B.; Twining, Benjamin S.; Brzezinski, Mark A.; Nelson, David M.; Fisher, Nicholas S. (2010). "Causes and biogeochemical implications of regional differences in silicification of marine diatoms".

804:

The Great Calcite Belt spans the major Southern Ocean circumpolar fronts: the Subantarctic front, the polar front, the Southern Antarctic Circumpolar Current front, and occasionally the southern boundary of the

3323:

Laufkötter, Charlotte; Vogt, Meike; Gruber, Nicolas; Aumont, Olivier; Bopp, Laurent; Doney, Scott C.; Dunne, John P.; Hauck, Judith; John, Jasmin G.; Lima, Ivan D.; Seferian, Roland; Völker, Christoph (2016).

1993:

Sabine, C. L.; Feely, R. A.; Gruber, N.; Key, R. M.; Lee, K.; Bullister, J. L.; Wanninkhof, R.; Wong, C. S.; Wallace, D. W.; Tilbrook, B.; Millero, F. J.; Peng, T. H.; Kozyr, A.; Ono, T.; Rios, A. F. (2004).

902:, lead to changes in phytoplankton community composition and consequently ecosystem structure and function. Some of these changes are already observable today and may have cascading effects on global 2460:

Mohan, Rahul; Mergulhao, Lina P.; Guptha, M.V.S.; Rajakumar, A.; Thamban, M.; Anilkumar, N.; Sudhakar, M.; Ravindra, Rasik (2008). "Ecology of coccolithophores in the Indian sector of the Southern Ocean".

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Vallina, S.M.; Ward, B.A.; Dutkiewicz, S.; Follows, M.J. (2014). "Maximal feeding with active prey-switching: A kill-the-winner functional response and its effect on global diversity and biogeography".

2496:

Holligan, P.M.; Charalampopoulou, A.; Hutson, R. (2010). "Seasonal distributions of the coccolithophore, Emiliania huxleyi, and of particulate inorganic carbon in surface waters of the Scotia Sea".

2885:

Tsuchiya, Mizuki; Talley, Lynne D.; McCartney, Michael S. (1994). "Water-mass distributions in the western South Atlantic; A section from South Georgia Island (54S) northward across the equator".

24: 4063:

Saavedra-Pellitero, Mariem; Baumann, Karl-Heinz; Flores, José-Abel; Gersonde, Rainer (2014). "Biogeographic distribution of living coccolithophores in the Pacific sector of the Southern Ocean".

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Tortell, Philippe D.; Payne, Christopher D.; Li, Yingyu; Trimborn, Scarlett; Rost, Björn; Smith, Walker O.; Riesselman, Christina; Dunbar, Robert B.; Sedwick, Pete; Ditullio, Giacomo R. (2008).

684:. Hence, if model parameterizations are to improve to provide accurate predictions of biogeochemical change, a multivariate understanding of the full suite of environmental drivers is required. 1758:

Smith, Helen E. K.; Poulton, Alex J.; Garley, Rebecca; Hopkins, Jason; Lubelczyk, Laura C.; Drapeau, Dave T.; Rauschenberg, Sara; Twining, Ben S.; Bates, Nicholas R.; Balch, William M. (2017).

3858:

Swan, Chantal M.; Vogt, Meike; Gruber, Nicolas; Laufkoetter, Charlotte (2016). "A global seasonal surface ocean climatology of phytoplankton types based on CHEMTAX analysis of HPLC pigments".

3729:"Diagnosing the contribution of phytoplankton functional groups to the production and export of particulate organic carbon, CaCO3, and opal from global nutrient and alkalinity distributions" 4839:

Prowe, A.E. Friederike; Pahlow, Markus; Dutkiewicz, Stephanie; Follows, Michael; Oschlies, Andreas (2012). "Top-down control of marine phytoplankton diversity in a global ecosystem model".

98:

and fish that are adapted to the unique conditions found in this part of the ocean. The Great Calcite Belt is a region of elevated summertime upper ocean calcite concentration derived from

2577:

Froneman, P.W.; McQuaid, C.D.; Perissinotto, R. (1995). "Biogeographic structure of the microphytoplankton assemblages of the south Atlantic and Southern Ocean during austral summer".

3606:

Buitenhuis, E. T.; Vogt, M.; Moriarty, R.; Bednaršek, N.; Doney, S. C.; Leblanc, K.; Le Quéré, C.; Luo, Y.-W.; O'Brien, C.; O'Brien, T.; Peloquin, J.; Schiebel, R.; Swan, C. (2013).

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and the succession of different phytoplankton types owing to the spatially and temporally varying relative importance of the physical–biogeochemical and the biological environment.

941:

Potential seasonal progression occurring in the Great Calcite Belt, allowing coccolithophores to develop after the main diatom bloom. Note phytoplankton images are not to scale.

68:

out of calcium carbonate. When these organisms die, their shells sink to the bottom of the ocean, and over time, they accumulate to form a thick layer of calcite sediment.

4101:

Beaugrand, Gregory; McQuatters-Gollop, Abigail; Edwards, Martin; Goberville, Eric (2013). "Long-term responses of North Atlantic calcifying plankton to climate change".

1855:

Sarmiento, Jorge L.; Hughes, Tertia M. C.; Stouffer, Ronald J.; Manabe, Syukuro (1998). "Simulated response of the ocean carbon cycle to anthropogenic climate warming".

4926:

Grobe, H., Diekmann, B., Hillenbrand, C.-D.(2009). The memory of the Polar Oceans, In: Hempel, G. (ed) Biology of Polar Oceans, hdl:10013/epic.33599.d001, pdf 0.4 MB.

953:. Diatoms dominate the phytoplankton community in the Southern Ocean, but coccolithophores have received increasing attention in recent years. Satellite imagery of 4738:

Hashioka, T.; Vogt, M.; Yamanaka, Y.; Le Quéré, C.; Buitenhuis, E. T.; Aita, M. N.; Alvain, S.; Bopp, L.; Hirata, T.; Lima, I.; Sailley, S.; Doney, S. C. (2013).

3383:

Sarmiento, J. L.; Gruber, N.; Brzezinski, M. A.; Dunne, J. P. (2004). "High-latitude controls of thermocline nutrients and low latitude biological productivity".

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in the Southern Ocean: (1) calcareous ooze/mud, (2, 3) biosiliceous/mud, (4) coarse lithogenic sediments, (5, 6) lithogenic sand/mud

4695:

Smetacek, Victor; Assmy, Philipp; Henjes, Joachim (2004). "The role of grazing in structuring Southern Ocean pelagic ecosystems and biogeochemical cycles".

2191:

Boyd, P.W.; Newton, P.P. (1999). "Does planktonic community structure determine downward particulate organic carbon flux in different oceanic provinces?".

2836:

Poulton, Alex J.; Painter, Stuart C.; Young, Jeremy R.; Bates, Nicholas R.; Bowler, Bruce; Drapeau, Dave; Lyczsckowski, Emily; Balch, William M. (2013).

1604: 918:, the ratio of calcifying and noncalcifying phytoplankton is crucial due to the counteracting effects of calcification and photosynthesis on seawater pCO 602: 3908:"Distribution of planktonic biogenic carbonate organisms in the Southern Ocean south of Australia: A baseline for ocean acidification impact assessment" 906:

and oceanic carbon uptake. Changes in Southern Ocean (SO) biogeography are especially critical due to the importance of the Southern Ocean in fuelling

3657:

Sarthou, Géraldine; Timmermans, Klaas R.; Blain, Stéphane; Tréguer, Paul (2005). "Growth physiology and fate of diatoms in the ocean: A review".

1335: 4021:"Calcification morphotypes of the coccolithophorid Emiliania huxleyi in the Southern Ocean: Changes in 2001 to 2006 compared to historical data" 3768:

Moore, J. Keith; Doney, Scott C.; Lindsay, Keith (2004). "Upper ocean ecosystem dynamics and iron cycling in a global three-dimensional model".

2533:"Calcification morphotypes of the coccolithophorid Emiliania huxleyi in the Southern Ocean: Changes in 2001 to 2006 compared to historical data" 832:

Four phytoplankton species identified as characterizing the significantly different community structures along the Great Calcite Belt: (a)

2912:

Orsi, Alejandro H.; Whitworth, Thomas; Nowlin, Worth D. (1995). "On the meridional extent and fronts of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current".

4650:

De Baar, Hein J. W.; et al. (2005). "Synthesis of iron fertilization experiments: From the Iron Age in the Age of Enlightenment".

1556: 650: 2779:"Thick-shelled, grazer-protected diatoms decouple ocean carbon and silicon cycles in the iron-limited Antarctic Circumpolar Current" 4436:

Charalampopoulou, Anastasia; Poulton, Alex J.; Bakker, Dorothee C. E.; Lucas, Mike I.; Stinchcombe, Mark C.; Tyrrell, Toby (2016).

2140:

Charalampopoulou, Anastasia; Poulton, Alex J.; Bakker, Dorothee C. E.; Lucas, Mike I.; Stinchcombe, Mark C.; Tyrrell, Toby (2016).

1597: 94:

atmosphere and the ocean's ability to absorb it. The belt is also home to a diverse range of contemporary marine life, including

2231:"Spring development of phytoplankton biomass and composition in major water masses of the Atlantic sector of the Southern Ocean" 1617:

Coccolithophore biomass is controlled by a combination of bottom-up (physical–biogeochemical environment) and top-down factors (

714: 82:. Calcite is a form of carbon that is removed from the atmosphere and stored in the ocean, which helps to reduce the amount of 2692: 2641:

Langer, Gerald; Geisen, Markus; Baumann, Karl-Heinz; Kläs, Jessica; Riebesell, Ulf; Thoms, Silke; Young, Jeremy R. (2006).

1760:"The influence of environmental variability on the biogeography of coccolithophores and diatoms in the Great Calcite Belt" 765:) are generally more abundant south of the polar front. High abundances of nanoplankton (coccolithophores, small diatoms, 3434:

Frölicher, Thomas L.; Sarmiento, Jorge L.; Paynter, David J.; Dunne, John P.; Krasting, John P.; Winton, Michael (2015).

825: across the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific oceans and completing Antarctic circumnavigation via the Drake Passage. 1816:"Calcium carbonate measurements in the surface global ocean based on Moderate-Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer data" 4289:

Riebesell, Ulf; Zondervan, Ingrid; Rost, Björn; Tortell, Philippe D.; Zeebe, Richard E.; Morel, François M. M. (2000).

3326:"Projected decreases in future marine export production: The role of the carbon flux through the upper ocean ecosystem" 1590: 705:

sp. However, since the identification of the Great Calcite Belt (GCB) as a consistent feature and the recognition of

4019:

Cubillos, JC; Wright, SW; Nash, G.; De Salas, MF; Griffiths, B.; Tilbrook, B.; Poisson, A.; Hallegraeff, GM (2007).

2531:

Cubillos, JC; Wright, SW; Nash, G.; De Salas, MF; Griffiths, B.; Tilbrook, B.; Poisson, A.; Hallegraeff, GM (2007).

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coccoliths (in concentrations > 20,000 coccoliths mL) both characterize the GCB. The GCB is clearly observed in

4909:

Diekmann, B. (2007). Sedimentary patterns in the late Quaternary Southern Ocean, Deep-Sea Res. II, 54, 2350-2366,

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marking a strong divide between different size fractions. North of the polar front, small diatom species, such as

2838:"The 2008Emiliania huxleyibloom along the Patagonian Shelf: Ecology, biogeochemistry, and cellular calcification" 4942: 2421:"A rising tide lifts all phytoplankton: Growth response of other phytoplankton taxa in diatom-dominated blooms" 1618: 643: 4555:

Richard B.; Sailley, Sévrine; Sathyendranath, Shubha; Stephens, Nick; Vogt, Meike; Vallina, Sergio M. (2016).

3820:

O'Brien, C. J. (2015) "Global-scale distributions of marine haptophyte phytoplankton", PhD thesis, ETH Zürich.

1658: 1467: 1462: 1295: 1096: 806: 506: 4438:"Environmental drivers of coccolithophore abundance and calcification across Drake Passage (Southern Ocean)" 2947:

Belkin, Igor M.; Gordon, Arnold L. (1996). "Southern Ocean fronts from the Greenwich meridian to Tasmania".

2315:

Boyd, Philip W. (2002). "Environmental Factors Controlling Phytoplankton Processes in the Southern Ocean1".

2142:"Environmental drivers of coccolithophore abundance and calcification across Drake Passage (Southern Ocean)" 90:. Recent studies suggest the belt sequesters something between 15 and 30 million tonnes of carbon per year. 954: 937: 664: 546: 3182:

Winter, Amos; Henderiks, Jorijntje; Beaufort, Luc; Rickaby, Rosalind E. M.; Brown, Christopher W. (2014).

1290: 761: 235: 4557:"Role of zooplankton dynamics for Southern Ocean phytoplankton biomass and global biogeochemical cycles" 3906:

Trull, Thomas W.; Passmore, Abraham; Davies, Diana M.; Smit, Tim; Berry, Kate; Tilbrook, Bronte (2018).

870:

biomass observations from the top 50 metres are indicated by coloured dots. (Note difference in scales.)

135: 60:

surrounding Antarctica. The calcite in the Great Calcite Belt is formed by tiny marine organisms called

4418:

Margalef, R. (1978) "Life-forms of phytoplankton as survival alternatives in an unstable environment",

1577: 1524: 949:

However, coccolithophores are the major phytoplanktonic calcifier. thereby significantly impacting the

865: 597: 329: 204: 72: 345: 2362:"Factors regulating the Great Calcite Belt in the Southern Ocean and its biogeochemical significance" 1518: 1177: 907: 636: 561: 334: 3140:"Diatom Phenology in the Southern Ocean: Mean Patterns, Trends and the Role of Climate Oscillations" 1064: 910:

at lower latitudes through the lateral export of nutrients and in taking up anthropogenic CO

3215:

Cermeno, P.; Dutkiewicz, S.; Harris, R. P.; Follows, M.; Schofield, O.; Falkowski, P. G. (2008).

1300: 1172: 582: 551: 228: 4138:"Multidecadal increase in North Atlantic coccolithophores and the potential role of rising CO2" 1489: 1314: 895: 556: 429: 4136:

Rivero-Calle, S.; Gnanadesikan, A.; Del Castillo, C. E.; Balch, W. M.; Guikema, S. D. (2015).

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The ocean is changing at an unprecedented rate as a consequence of increasing anthropogenic CO

3069:

Nissen, Cara; Vogt, Meike; Münnich, Matthias; Gruber, Nicolas; Haumann, F. Alexander (2018).

1052: 790: 3692:

Gregg, Watson W.; Casey, Nancy W. (2007). "Modeling coccolithophores in the global oceans".

4884: 4848: 4751: 4740:"Phytoplankton competition during the spring bloom in four plankton functional type models" 4704: 4659: 4568: 4528: 4493: 4449: 4393: 4357: 4305: 4247: 4149: 4110: 4072: 4032: 3993: 3957: 3919: 3867: 3777: 3740: 3701: 3666: 3619: 3557: 3497: 3447: 3392: 3337: 3287: 3228: 3151: 3082: 3028: 2992: 2956: 2921: 2849: 2790: 2750: 2704: 2657: 2615: 2544: 2505: 2470: 2432: 2373: 2328: 2286: 2245: 2200: 2153: 2109: 2068: 2010: 1967: 1908: 1864: 1827: 1771: 1693: 1084: 903: 778: 486: 250: 8: 3436:"Dominance of the Southern Ocean in Anthropogenic Carbon and Heat Uptake in CMIP5 Models" 2643:"Species-specific responses of calcifying algae to changing seawater carbonate chemistry" 1006: 950: 899: 796: 786: 692: 570: 491: 409: 4888: 4852: 4755: 4708: 4663: 4572: 4532: 4497: 4453: 4397: 4361: 4309: 4251: 4153: 4114: 4076: 4036: 3997: 3961: 3923: 3871: 3781: 3744: 3705: 3670: 3623: 3561: 3501: 3451: 3396: 3341: 3291: 3232: 3155: 3086: 3032: 2996: 2960: 2925: 2853: 2794: 2754: 2708: 2661: 2619: 2548: 2509: 2474: 2436: 2377: 2290: 2249: 2204: 2157: 2113: 2098:"Mapping phytoplankton iron utilization: Insights into Southern Ocean supply mechanisms" 2072: 2014: 1971: 1912: 1868: 1831: 1775: 1697: 4821: 4779: 4720: 4632: 4596: 4329: 4271: 4219: 4175: 3803: 3585: 3525: 3465: 3416: 3365: 3305: 3251: 3216: 3110: 2867: 2813: 2778: 2722: 2673: 2401: 2332: 2034: 1934: 1880: 1727: 1539: 1529: 1380: 1263: 1256: 1167: 1016: 575: 393: 2257: 2212: 4724: 4321: 4275: 4263: 4211: 4179: 4167: 3469: 3408: 3309: 3256: 3114: 2933: 2871: 2818: 2642: 2026: 1814:

Balch, W. M.; Gordon, Howard R.; Bowler, B. C.; Drapeau, D. T.; Booth, E. S. (2005).

1731: 1719: 1663: 1544: 1454: 1123: 1057: 982: 834: 818: 810: 724: 718: 623: 516: 297: 223: 53: 4825: 4807: 4783: 4636: 4600: 4290: 3589: 3420: 3369: 2726: 2677: 2405: 2336: 1938: 4910: 4892: 4856: 4811: 4803: 4769: 4759: 4712: 4675: 4667: 4624: 4586: 4576: 4536: 4501: 4467: 4457: 4401: 4365: 4333: 4313: 4291:"Reduced calcification of marine plankton in response to increased atmospheric CO2" 4255: 4223: 4203: 4157: 4118: 4084: 4080: 4040: 4001: 3965: 3927: 3883: 3875: 3840: 3807: 3793: 3785: 3748: 3709: 3674: 3637: 3627: 3575: 3565: 3529: 3515: 3505: 3455: 3400: 3355: 3345: 3295: 3246: 3236: 3195: 3159: 3100: 3090: 3036: 3000: 2964: 2929: 2894: 2857: 2808: 2798: 2758: 2712: 2665: 2623: 2586: 2552: 2513: 2482: 2478: 2440: 2391: 2381: 2324: 2294: 2253: 2230: 2208: 2171: 2161: 2117: 2076: 2038: 2018: 1975: 1924: 1916: 1884: 1872: 1835: 1779: 1709: 1701: 1504: 1494: 1474: 1091: 1011: 958: 852: 822: 770: 745: 218: 177: 2517: 1995: 145: 4896: 4860: 3678: 2057:"Environmental control of open-ocean phytoplankton groups: Now and in the future" 1645: 1633: 1370: 1246: 1160: 1128: 927: 879: 541: 439: 398: 388: 281: 99: 61: 3546:"Global marine plankton functional type biomass distributions: Coccolithophores" 3486:"A global diatom database – abundance, biovolume and biomass in the world ocean" 672: 4914: 4591: 4505: 3969: 3888: 3713: 3580: 3360: 3275: 3125: 3105: 2627: 2590: 2298: 1796: 1512: 1375: 1362: 1216: 1189: 1184: 846: 840: 501: 481: 449: 354: 286: 196: 182: 95: 87: 83: 57: 33: 4774: 4716: 3879: 3727:

Jin, X.; Gruber, N.; Dunne, J. P.; Sarmiento, J. L.; Armstrong, R. A. (2006).

3642: 3520: 3460: 3435: 3040: 2229:

Bathmann, U.V.; Scharek, R.; Klaas, C.; Dubischar, C.D.; Smetacek, V. (1997).

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The diagram on the left shows the spatial distribution of different types of

1534: 1479: 1319: 1282: 1145: 1103: 1074: 1069: 931: 883: 828: 751: 733: 688: 668: 454: 308: 240: 153: 107: 65: 48:(GCB) refers to a region of the ocean where there are high concentrations of 4764: 4739: 4581: 4556: 4462: 4437: 4259: 4162: 4137: 3632: 3607: 3570: 3545: 3510: 3485: 3350: 3325: 3241: 3200: 3183: 3095: 3070: 2803: 2166: 2141: 2022: 1784: 1759: 4325: 4267: 4215: 4171: 4100: 3412: 3260: 2822: 2030: 1549: 1226: 1221: 1203: 1021: 915: 875: 756: 710: 706: 681: 496: 444: 434: 374: 270: 245: 172: 167: 79: 3932: 3907: 2055:

Boyd, Philip W.; Strzepek, Robert; Fu, Feixue; Hutchins, David A. (2010).

4671: 4540: 4519:

Behrenfeld, Michael J. (2014). "Climate-mediated dance of the plankton".

4405: 4369: 4135: 4122: 4005: 3844: 3789: 3753: 3728: 3300: 3276:"Decreased calcification in the Southern Ocean over the satellite record" 3004: 2862: 2837: 2762: 2717: 2669: 2445: 2420: 2386: 2361: 2122: 2097: 1979: 1920: 1840: 1815: 1705: 1628: 1499: 1484: 1427: 1341: 1108: 1040: 766: 740: 701: 592: 587: 536: 476: 468: 379: 158: 4207: 3404: 3071:"Factors controlling coccolithophore biogeography in the Southern Ocean" 990: 4628: 4472: 4062: 2176: 1714: 1079: 774: 729: 302: 213: 71:

The Great Calcite Belt occurs in areas of the Southern ocean where the

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spp., tend to dominate numerically, whereas large diatoms with higher

78:

The Great Calcite Belt plays a significant role regulating the global

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Boyd, P. W.; Arrigo, K. R.; Strzepek, R.; Van Dijken, G. L. (2012).

36:. The belt appears during the southern hemisphere summer as a light 4486: 3217:"The role of nutricline depth in regulating the ocean carbon cycle" 2608: 1410: 1400: 1135: 1118: 318: 127: 4435: 2139: 1876: 3946: 3124:

Material was copied from this source, which is available under a

1795:

Material was copied from this source, which is available under a

1405: 1330: 1251: 1140: 1026: 782: 49: 4553: 3605: 1434: 696: 313: 275: 103: 3433: 3382: 3214: 3181: 2495: 4613: 4346: 4288: 3982: 3656: 3542: 3184:"Poleward expansion of the coccolithophore Emiliania huxleyi" 3120: 2739: 2459: 2275: 2228: 1956: 1854: 1791: 1150: 4873: 4838: 4737: 4382: 2095: 3482: 3138:

Soppa, Mariana; Völker, Christoph; Bracher, Astrid (2016).

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