1456:, the language used by Hananu and Saleh al-Ali in their address to the League of Nations "undermine" Arab and Turkish nationalist claims that their revolts represented part of the Arab or Turkish national awakenings. Hananu and al-Ali both referred to their revolts as part of a unified national resistance movement, but Watenpaugh states that the nation referred to was an Islamic community rather than the ethnic nationalism that steadily dominated Syrian and Turkish politics and society in the 20th century. Hananu and al-Ali also stressed modernist principles about individual rights, and according to Watenpaugh, Hananu did not view the concepts of modernity, Islam and the Ottoman state to be mutually exclusive. Hananu had opposed many Ottoman policies in the pre-World War I period, but was nonetheless wary of separatism as someone who formed part of the educated Ottoman middle class, while al-Ali sought a return to a "decentralized Ottoman polity dominated by Muslims in which the state would protect his hegemony as a landowning rural chieftain". Hananu and the rebel commanders had a deep attachment to their place in society and viewed French rule as an assault on their status, ambitions and dignity.
208:
196:
184:
173:
93:
1193:. In court, Hananu condemned the "illegal occupation of Syria" and argued that military operations were done under the aegis of Mustafa Kemal. The trial became a rallying point of popular support for Hananu and a led to a significant degree of solidarity among Aleppo's urban elite who collectively supported Hananu's freedom. The trial concluded on 18 March, and Hananu was acquitted after the court decided that he was not a rebel, but rather a soldier who was legally mandated by the Ottoman authorities to engage in warfare against French forces. According to Khoury, the "verdict would have been different ... had Hananu not become a legend in his own time" and if the Franco-Turkish War had not ended.
1281:, where the rebels coordinated with that town's municipality to impose taxes on landowners, livestock owners and farmers to fund their operations. From there, Hananu's administrative territory expanded to other towns and villages, including Kafr Takharim, and the district centers Harim, Jisr al-Shughur and Idlib. The municipal councils of these towns were not replaced, but repurposed to support the financial needs of the rebels and promote their social convictions. Kafr Takharim became the legislative center of rebel territory with a legislative committee in place to collect money and weapons from local sources, and a supreme revolutionary council to oversee judicial matters.
1473:
French from northern Syria and unify Aleppo with its
Anatolian hinterland, but the withdrawal of Turkish support for the rebels in Syria, following agreements with France, caused a deterioration in Syrian-Turkish ties and left the rebels and nationalists of northern Syria feeling betrayed. Disillusionment with Mustafa Kemal's policies regarding Syria made Turkey's remaining Syrian supporters realign their positions closer to Aleppo's Arab nationalists. In the few years after the revolt, Aleppo's elite largely embraced the concept of a united Syrian struggle for independence from French rule. This shift also began a process of strengthening ties with the leaders of Damascus.
130:
2901:
1537:, including Antioch, due to improved security conditions, but commerce between Aleppo and Anatolia largely ceased. Alexandretta was considered by Aleppans to be their port to the Mediterranean Sea and a crucial part of their socio-economic region. It remained part of Syria under French control, but was administered by a semi-autonomous government that was heavily influenced by Turkey. Aleppo's merchants and nationalist politicians feared this autonomy would ultimately lead to its annexation by Turkey and consequently precipitate an economic crisis in Aleppo; Alexandretta was separated from Syria in 1938 and became part of Turkey in the following year.
1465:
553:
1152:, in which many of its inhabitants were killed. Asim Bey was a strongly pro-Ottoman, Arab officer with particularly close connections to the Anatolian insurgency. Hananu believed that the Turks had instructed him to carry out the raids on al-Suqaylabiyah and other villages to tarnish the image of the rebels among the local inhabitants, as part of Turkey's agreements with France to stifle the revolt in northern Syria. Asim's execution may have contributed to the rapid withdrawal of the rebels' Turkish military advisers who were upset with the execution.
818:
39:
1440:, in this case the French, and the defense of the rebels' traditional and sedentary way of life and the prevailing social order from foreign interference. In the early phase of the revolt, Hananu and Barakat acted as representatives of Faisal's Arab government and continued to claim that they had the support of Faisal after the latter was ousted from Syria in July 1920. Despite the collapse of the state they were ostensibly fighting under, the rebels resumed their struggle. In his memoirs, al-Sa'dun stated that the rebels engaged in
1522:
attempt to end the nationalist alliance between Aleppo and
Damascus. The authorities also began appointing former Ottoman administrators who were willing to cooperate with them to senior bureaucratic posts. According to Khoury, "by 1922, the Aleppo bureaucracy had become more unwieldy and inefficient than it had been in the last years" of Ottoman rule. Despite French attempts to completely exclude the nationalists from any administrative role, the overwhelming majority of Aleppo's population supported the nationalists.
970:. Despite the mutual suspicion between the nationalists in Aleppo and Turkey, who were leading their respective revolts, both sides agreed that they were confronting a common French enemy. In addition, the Turkish struggle to oust French forces from Anatolia was popularly supported by Syria's inhabitants, and in northern Syria in particular, there were widespread feelings of religious solidarity with the Turks. In the second week of September, Saleh al-Ali announced that he was ready to coordinate with Hananu's rebels.
1160:, in October. In need of funds, Hananu hired local bandits to extort money and supplies from Jabal Zawiya's inhabitants. His main sources of weapons became limited to the towns of Maarrat al-Nu'man and Hama. With the previous blows dealt to the rebels by French forces, the waning support for the revolt by the local inhabitants and the lack of weapons, Hananu's revolt largely dissipated during the spring of 1921, although rebel operations against the French still continued at a reduced pace during this period.
947:
1343:. According to Khoury, the rebels also possessed twelve light machine guns. Following the destruction of the Arab government in July 1920, the Turks became the main arms suppliers of the rebels. The rebels distinguished the Turkish armed movement in Anatolia from the Ottomans, who the rebels viewed negatively, by stressing the role of Turkish general Mustafa Kemal, who was viewed as the quintessential guerrilla leader in the struggle against French occupation.
1084:
Idlib, and according to Khoury, "a reversal seemed possible", as a result of the offensive. However, a French relief column arrived in the area and the French consolidated their hold over the three major towns. The French victories in
December proved to be a decisive setback for Hananu's forces, who withdrew to Jabal Zawiya, a mountainous area south of Idlib. At Jabal Zawiya, Hananu and his commanders re-organized the rebels into more numerous, smaller units.
842:'s Fourth Division, captured Aleppo without resistance. The lack of resistance was criticized by commander al-Sa'dun in his memoirs. In the aftermath of Aleppo's occupation, he organized 750 rebels to oust the French from the city, a plan that did not materialize. The consequent flight of Aleppo's Arab nationalist leaders to the countryside and the French forces' military superiority managed to stymie a potential revolt in the city. On 25 July, French forces
1498:
854:. Following the loss of Aleppo and Damascus, Barakat arranged a meeting of Antiochian rebel leaders in al-Qusayr, in which the attendants were divided between those who advocated either of the following: continuing the revolt, surrendering to the French or approaching the Turks for support. After the meeting, Barakat chose to defect to the French. Afterward, al-Sa'dun and his fighters continued the revolt in Barakat's former area of operations.
154:
142:
636:
1390:
721:, the legislative body of Faisal's state of which Hananu was a member, in preventing French rule. He may also have been encouraged by Rashid al-Tali'a, the Arab government's district governor of Hama, who had been supporting Saleh al-Ali and the Alawite-dominated revolt he was leading against the French in the Syrian coastal mountains. Meanwhile, the Syrian National Congress proclaimed the establishment of the
1449:) close to his people, brave and pious. Arsuzi-Elamir asserts that while religious terminology was used by the rebels, the rebels' "motivation was fundamentally nationalist" and that "religion does not seem to have played a more important role" than nationalist feeling. Moreover, the Islamic solidarity between the Turks and the Syrians did not prevent the withdrawal of Turkish support for the revolt in Syria.
796:. On 18 April, taking advantage of the diversion of French forces to Gaziantep where a major battle between French and Turkish forces was taking place, Hananu decided to attack the French garrison at Harim. With fifty of his irregulars, Hananu stormed the town. As word of his attack spread to nearby villages, his forces subsequently swelled to 400.
611:, and those who joined it felt that the revolt negatively exceeded their expectations because it ultimately ended Ottoman rule, thus breaking the bonds of Islamic unity and initiating the separation of Aleppo from its Anatolian hinterland. There was also resentment in Aleppo, which under Ottoman rule had been the administrative center of the
981:. The latter, who was an Arabized Kurd, Ottoman World War veteran and absentee landlord from Aleppo, met Mustafa Kemal in Gaziantep in the late summer of 1920. During their meeting, an agreement was concluded to launch a propaganda campaign funded by the Turks against the French occupation. The campaign began in Aleppo in December 1920.
835:
against a French invasion, but the recruitment campaign was unsuccessful. On 14 July, Gouraud issued an ultimatum to Faisal to demobilize his makeshift Arab Army and recognize France's mandate over Syria. Later in mid-July, French forces broke Hananu's resistance lines in Jisr al-Shughur, capturing the town on their way to Aleppo.
686:(bands) and launched guerrilla-style attacks against French targets, but they also engaged in banditry and highway robberies. An early attempt to coordinate the various rebel groups took place when one of the leaders of the Antiochian uprising and Alawite notable, Najib al-Arsuzi, developed contacts with rebel leaders from
709:, which were not under Faisal's control. Instead, Faisal opted to support and organize the northern rebels to prevent French advances from the coastal areas to the Syrian interior. The Arab government entrusted two natives of northern Syria, Hananu, a former Ottoman military instructor and a municipal official, and
754:(fighters of a holy struggle), from Kafr Takharim and organized them into four equal-sized units. According to historian Dalal Arsuzi-Elamir, the small size of each unit made them highly mobile and "able to inflict chaos on French troops". Hananu used his family's farm in the regional administrative center of
985:
addition to the rebels' propaganda campaign, anti-French sentiment in Aleppo was growing due to socio-economic factors. These included the disruption of trade routes between Aleppo and its countryside, the hoarding and profiteering of flour and rising unemployment that was partially a result of an influx of
1380:
The French were more successful in persuading large landowners to cease support for the rebels and recruit local militias to protect highways from rebel attacks. The French also ultimately understood that in order to quell the revolt in Syria they needed to offer concessions in
Anatolia and establish
1334:
to the rebels that the
Germans had distributed to the tribes during World War I, weapon stockpiles left behind by Ottoman troops fleeing Syria during the British-Arab offensive in 1918, and raids against French arms warehouses. The rebels' arsenal largely consisted of German Mauser rifles, revolvers,
1155:
The arms flow from
Anatolia ended in June, either due to a direct French diplomatic request or the diversion of arms and fighters to combat the Greek offensive against the Turks in western Anatolia. In any case, the stopping of weapons shipments had a significant impact on both the military aspect of
1147:
According to French intelligence reports, the Turks sent political agents to northern Syria to persuade the inhabitants to drop their armed resistance to the French and embrace French rule, which they claimed would benefit the population. Sometime between April and May, Hananu had Uwaid execute field
443:
At the revolt's peak in 1920, Hananu established a quasi-state in the region between Aleppo and the
Mediterranean. The rebels were dealt major battlefield defeats in December 1920, and following agreements between the French and the Turks, Turkish military support for the rebels largely dissipated by
1181:
inhabitants were arrested or executed, prompting some rebels to ultimately surrender. On 11 or 12 July, Hananu fled to
British-held Transjordan, seeking refuge with nationalists from Syria, to avoid arrest by the French authorities. British intelligence officers arrested Hananu while he was visiting
622:
Several
Aleppan dignitaries supported Emir Faisal and in late October 1918, following the Sharifian army's entry into Aleppo, a branch of the Arab Club was founded in the city. The Arab Club's ideology was a mix of Arab nationalism and Aleppine regionalism. It promoted the concept of Syrian national
1481:
historiography, Hananu became a hero of the Syrian Arab nationalist movement. The Hananu Revolt was a turning point in Aleppo's relationship with the Arab nationalist movement. Under the influence of Hananu, his Arab Club, and other
Aleppine leaders with similar politics, the Muslim elite of Aleppo
1472:
As a result of the Hananu and Alawite revolts, the French authorities discovered pacifying northern Syria was a more difficult task than pacification of the Damascus region. Following the collapse of the Hananu Revolt, some political leaders in Aleppo continued to hope that the Turks would oust the
984:
Although an urban revolt in Aleppo did not take place in the aftermath of the city's occupation by French forces, many of Aleppo's inhabitants engaged in passive resistance against the French and clandestinely provided material aid to Hananu's rebels fighting in the rural areas west of the city. In
957:
With the Arab government in Damascus destroyed and Faisal exiled, Hananu's rebels sought to compensate for the consequent loss of aid from the Arab government. In the period following the Arab defeat, the rebels began appointing administrators in their territory who oversaw the institution of taxes
834:
demanded that Faisal rein in the rebels of northern Syria and end their resistance to the French military advance. Faisal continued to oppose French rule and his government launched a campaign to conscript soldiers from throughout the country in May as part of a last-ditch effort to defend Damascus
725:
in March 1920. France was wary that a popular nationalist movement emanating from Faisal's kingdom could spread to Lebanon and French territories in North Africa, and moved to put an end to Faisal's state. Anti-French resistance manifested at local level as the Committees of National Defense, which
455:
The collapse of the Hananu Revolt marked a significant turning point in Aleppo's political configurations. Whereas prior to the revolt, many in Aleppo's political elite were aligned with Turkish national politics, the betrayal that Aleppo's leaders felt at the withdrawal of Turkish support prompted
1289:
were rooted in the rural countryside, but also drew financial support from people in the cities. While the rebels functioned as a traditional rural Syrian autonomous movement wary of centralized authority or foreign intervention into their affairs, they also sought to establish close ties with the
1009:
After the relative lull in fighting that followed the French occupation of Aleppo and Damascus, Hananu's forces resumed their guerrilla campaign in November 1920. By then, Hananu's forces grew to about 5,000 irregulars. Two months prior to the November offensive, the rebellions in the Antioch area
996:
As a result of deteriorating conditions in the city attributed to French governance, the unpopular establishment of martial law, and the propaganda efforts of the rebels and their Turkish backers, many neighborhood leaders in Aleppo decided to recruit men to join Hananu's rebels, while many of the
1284:
Volunteers from the rural villages formed the bulk of the rebels' fighting force and during the course of the revolt, each village typically contained a 30-man reserve unit. However, Hananu's forces also included volunteers from Aleppo city, former Ottoman conscripts, Bedouin tribesmen (including
1095:
and Faisal's brother. Although the support from Emir Abdullah was relatively small in quantity, the French authorities feared it was part of a plot by Abdullah and his British allies to oust the French from Syria. Hananu, meanwhile, was launching frequent hit-and-run operations against the French
1083:
The French column from Hammam managed to capture Harim and Jisr al-Shughur from the rebels after a series of attacks and counterattacks between the two sides in late December. Hananu's rebels and Turkish irregulars launched a broad offensive to regain their positions in Harim, Jisr al-Shughur and
1064:
In the late winter of 1920, Hananu's rebels assaulted French forces in Idlib and according to the British consul in Aleppo, looted the town and killed some of its Christian inhabitants. Hananu's victory at Idlib and the arrival of Turkish military assistance led to a French withdrawal from Idlib.
615:(Province of Aleppo) and was equal to Damascus in political stature, at the political dominance of Damascus under Faisal. While there were several Aleppines who held influential positions in Faisal's Damascus-based government, Faisal's leading political authorities in Aleppo were from Damascus or
1180:
Between the spring and early summer of 1921, the rebels experienced a series of defeats. In July 1921, Hananu's stronghold in Jabal Zawiya was captured by French forces. By this time, French forces proceeded to burn down villages where support for the rebels was high. A number of these villages'
1125:
Despite the treaty with France, Turkish forces in southern Anatolia continued to support Hananu's rebels with arms for a while longer to pressure the French further and gain more leverage in negotiations over territorial concessions. At this point in the revolt, the rebels were in control of the
1121:
via the US and Spanish consuls in Aleppo in which the rebel leaders referred to themselves as commanders of the "general national movement in the region of Western Aleppo" and asserted that Syria sought to remain independent of France, and that the country was part of a broader Islamic community
965:
Hananu and some of his aides traveled to Mar'ash to request support from the Anatolian insurgents and on 7 September, he signed a deal with them in which they recognized him as the representative of the Arab government of Syria and promised military aid. In the course of that month, Hananu began
829:
In April 1920, Hananu coordinated the shipment of Turkish arms to Saleh al-Ali's forces in their revolt against the French in the coastal mountains south of Latakia. Faisal's government aided Hananu's movement financially and logistically via local Arab nationalist intermediaries. French General
1521:
district. The French authorities established a new bureaucratic administration in Aleppo led by four local, pro-French sympathizers and mostly staffed by their family members. After the revolt was stamped out, the French authorities arrested or exiled numerous Arab nationalist politicians in an
1408:
led by al-Bitar and al-Qassam were dominated by Arabs. The localized nature of the revolt reflected the rebels' sense of defending their homeland and community. Despite the eventual organization of the revolt and coordination between rebel commanders for major military decisions, most political
619:. However, French officials incorrectly believed that the rivalry between Aleppo and Damascus would make Aleppo's elite embrace French rule. Instead, according to historian Phillip S. Khoury, Aleppo "vigorously resisted occupation in order that its voice be heard in the new political climate."
1269:
headed by Najib Uwaid (headquarters in Kafr Takharim), Jabal Zawiya headed by Mustafa Haj Husayn and Jabal Sahyun (al-Haffah area) headed by Umar al-Bitar. Hananu, the overall leader of the revolt, and the regional commanders discussed major military decisions, typically involving a particular
1200:
persisted in Aleppo's countryside. Al-Sa'dun and Uwaid opted to continue the armed struggle, fleeing to the coastal mountains and from there to Turkey in December 1921. From the frontier area with Syria, they staged hit-and-run attacks against French forces. With 100 of his fighters, al-Sa'dun
1188:
After six months of incarceration, Hananu was subsequently put on trial on 15 March 1922, with the charges against him including murder, organizing rebel bands, engaging in brigandage and the destruction of public property and infrastructure. He was defended by the Aleppine Christian attorney,
1360:
were to inflict as much damage as they could on French forces and make clear their "determination to resist", according to Arsuzi. The rebels utilized the familiar, mountainous terrain where they operated against the French forces, and typically launched guerrilla operations at night to avoid
579:
led by Faisal and those who sought political autonomy for Aleppo and its hinterland within the Ottoman state. A number of factors distinguished the attitudes of Aleppo's elite and populace from those of Damascus. For one, the economic well-being of Aleppo's inhabitants was dependent on open,
1373:, found to be generally ineffective against small mobile rebel units. Instead, he believed the optimal way to defeat the rebels was to recruit local militias who would share the two main strengths of the rebels: knowledge of the terrain and high mobility. However, the Syrian
1144:. In May, French troops commanded by General Goubeau pursued Mawali and Sbaa Bedouin rebels after they launched several attacks against the highway between Homs and Hama. The Mawali surrendered after French aerial bombardments against their encampments in Qatara on 21 May.
627:, the president of Aleppo Vilayet's presidential council, Rashid al-Tali'a, governor of Aleppo Vilayet, Najib Bani Zadih, a wealthy Aleppine merchant, Abd al-Rahman al-Kayyali, an Aleppine physician and Shaykh Mas'ud al-Kawakibi, one of the city's leading Muslim scholars.
1293:
Besides military expertise, formal military language and style was important to rebel commanders as they sought to instill in their soldiers the "spirit, self-image and shape of an army", according to historian Nadine Méouchy. During meetings of the rebel leadership, the
729:
Hananu gained the backing of Aleppo's Committee of National Defense, which consisted of numerous educated professionals, wealthy merchants and Muslim religious leaders. The committee provided him with arms and funds, and helped promote his armed campaign among the city's
1444:
as an individual responsibility, instead of a duty delegated to them by a state. In his view, the individual rebel was required to behave virtuously in his personal life and with expertise and courage on the battlefield. Moreover, he had to strive to be a popular hero
424:, and both al-Ali and Hananu jointly referred to their revolts as part of the "general national movement of Western Aleppo". Despite early rebel victories, guerrilla operations ceased after the French occupation of Aleppo city in July 1920 and the dissolution of the
1490:, was "created out of the defeat of the armed revolts of the 1920s". The National Bloc advocated diplomatic means to combat French rule and was the principal opposition movement against the French authorities until Syria's independence in 1946. Hananu served as the
997:
city's landowners and merchants donated funds to the rebel cause. The presence of 5,000 French Senegalese troops prevented an urban revolt that specifically targeted French forces, but in numerous incidents, Muslims from Aleppo's lower-income neighborhoods, such as
799:
Hananu and Rashid al-Tali'a cooperated with Barakat in an attempt to unify northern Syria's rebel groups into a single resistance movement against the French, in allegiance with Faisal's government in Damascus. Hananu also formed an alliance with the semi-nomadic
716:
Initially, Hananu logistically supported the guerrilla operations of Barakat against the French in the Antioch region. He later decided to organize a rebellion in Aleppo and its countryside. Hananu was motivated to act by what he saw as the ineffectiveness of the
1065:
Hananu's principal lieutenant commander in the Idlib operations was Tahir al-Kayyali, who also served as president of the Arab Club of Aleppo and Aleppo's Committee of National Defense. In early December, the French general of the 2nd Division in Aleppo,
1476:
Hananu's leadership of the revolt gained him wide popularity in Syria. Referring to Hananu, Khoury wrote "No name was more familiar to children growing up in Syria in the twenties and thirties; stories of his heroics were standard bedtime fare." In
928:
from Jableh in early 1920, to be a part of al-Bitar's unit, but the two commanders operated in different sectors. Al-Bitar's unit had been active in Jabal Sahyun since early 1919 soon after French forces landed in Latakia. Al-Qassam left Syria to
726:
began springing up in Aleppo and its hinterland. The committees were founded by members of the local elite, many of whom were sympathetic to Ottoman rule, but the committees quickly became fueled by populist agitation against French colonialism.
1381:
cooperation with the Turks, whose financial, military and moral support was critical to the rebels. When truces were reached with the Turks, the French redeployed large numbers of troops from the Anatolian front to suppress the rebels in Syria.
1205:
assaulted a postal convoy in al-Darakiya, a village between Darkush and Antioch. In 1923, rebel commander Aqil al-Saqati and ten of his fighters launched numerous attacks against the French, including an assault against a government building in
1018:. Hananu's rebels sabotaged telegraph lines and railroads, captured and disarmed French troops, and disrupted French military movements into Aleppo city. The repeated destruction of railroad and telegraph lines between Aleppo, Alexandretta and
1533:(Qal'at Rum) and Urfa (al-Ruha). These sanjaks became part of Turkey following the October 1921 treaty with France. Aleppans opposed the Turkish annexation. The Franco-Turkish treaty allowed for a resumption of commerce between Aleppo and the
464:, Aleppo's Anatolian hinterland, the major market for its goods and the supplier of its food and raw materials, was ceded to Turkey. This effectively severed commercial relations between Aleppo and Anatolia, harming the former's economy.
993:. The latter led to soaring prices for bread and subsequent food riots and famine in some of the city's neighborhoods. The French authorities also declared martial law, restricting travel and speech, further frustrating the inhabitants.
1329:
The rebels had multiple sources for arms, but did not possess heavy weaponry, with the exception of two artillery pieces. Sources for weapons included the Turkish forces in southern Anatolia, Bedouin tribes who either sold or smuggled
1135:
defeated Hananu's rebels in a number of confrontations during this period. By April, the French had over 20,000 troops in southern Anatolia and northern Syria, with over 5,000 troops in Aleppo, 4,500 in the Idlib district, 1,000 in
804:
tribesmen of the Aleppo region. Following the battle at Harim, Hananu, with the assistance of Aleppo's Committee of National Defense, had collected up to 2,000 gold pounds in funds, and 1,700 rifles for the 680 men in his
792:. It also was related to Barakat's revolt in Antioch, which was captured and held by Arab guerrillas for a week starting on 13 March 1920. The French Air Force bombarded Antioch for 17 days until the rebels withdrew to
1213:
The insurgency in northwestern Syria continued and between December 1925 and August 1926, al-Sa'dun's fighters launched several attacks against French forces and military installments. These attacks coincided with the
1104:
Hananu continued to receive arms and funds from Anatolia in early 1921, including a shipment in March consisting of 30 machine guns and 20 horse-loads of ammunition, which came after a larger weapons shipment via
444:
the spring of 1921. French forces overran Hananu's last stronghold in Jabal Zawiya in July. Hananu was tried by the French Mandatory authorities and was ultimately acquitted. A low-level insurgency led by
1404:, but were ethnically heterogeneous. Hananu himself was a Kurd as were field commanders Najib Uwaid and Abdullah ibn Umar, while Umar al-Bitar was an Arab and field commander Sha'ban Agha was a Turk. The
901:(250 fighters) around Kafr Takharim in Harim District. Al-Sa'dun's area of operations were centered in Jabal Qusayr, but extended as far north as al-Amuq, as far south as Jisr al-Shughur, as far east as
1130:
near Idlib in April, but they faltered. By order of the French Mandate's High Commissioner, Henri Gouraud, the French reinforced their military presence in the greater Aleppo region in April, and their
1025:
By the end of November, the rebels gained control of the towns of Harim and Jisr al-Shughur and the villages of their districts. They then prepared for offensives to capture the towns and districts of
1014:, a village north of Harim, by 600 rebels in September. Gouraud stated in a report on 21 September that the rebels were in full control of Antakya, the road between the latter city and Aleppo and the
857:
Hananu meanwhile left Aleppo, which had served as his urban base, and went to the village of Baruda to regroup and continue the revolt, rallying support around his leadership from the active
701:
in December 1919 as part of agreements with France over dividing control of the Ottomans' predominantly Arab territories (later, in April 1920, France was given a mandate over Syria at the
1169:
1126:
villages of the Harim, Antioch, Jisr al-Shughur, Idlib and Maarrat al-Nu'man districts, but not the towns themselves. The French and Hananu entered into negotiations in the village of
1010:
and the Syrian coastal mountains had also resumed after temporarily tapering off in May 1920. Armed action by Hananu's allies included an assault against the police station of
1156:
the rebellion and morale, as Hananu and the revolt's backers in Aleppo felt abandoned by the Turks, who later concluded a final peace arrangement with France, known as the
1298:
of the host leader assumed military formation by lining up along the road of the host village and saluting the visiting commanders. The rebels referred to themselves as
241:
1066:
188:
456:
most of them to embrace and pursue a shared destiny with the rest of Syria. Many were also influenced by Hananu's support for Syrian unity and strengthening ties with
1080:
at Hammam. In mid-December, the French launched a counterattack on Idlib and burned down the city. Afterward, General de Lamothe assembled a second column at Idlib.
1377:
conscripted by the French military could not defeat the rebels because they were too small numerically, and not entirely reliable in battles against fellow locals.
233:
1270:
guerrilla campaign or arms procurement, together. At times they also consulted with Ozdemir Bey, commander of Turkish irregulars fighting the French in Anatolia.
296:
1361:
detection. However, at times when the rebels could not avoid direct confrontation with French forces, they maintained fighting order similar to a regular army.
43:
Northwestern Syria, where the Hananu Revolt was based. The revolt was divided into four military zones: Jabal Qusayr, Jabal Sahyun, Jabal Zawiya and Jabal Harim
924:
also formed part of the revolt. The French military authorities considered al-Qassam's group, which relocated its headquarters to the Jabal Sahyun village of
838:
In late July, the French escalated their push into Syria's major inland cities. On 23 July, French troops led by General Fernand Goubeau, commander of the
1254:
began forming in the countryside between Aleppo and Anatolia in 1919 to counter French advances, but Hananu gradually consolidated them into his network.
2788:
Méouchy, Nadine (2014). "Chapitre 3 – Les temps et les territoires de la révolte du Nord (1919-1921)". In David, Jean-Claude; Boissière, Thierry (eds.).
1369:
Militarily, the French utilized large column formations against the rebels, a tactic which the French chief-of-staff of the Army of the Levant, General
1201:
entered Jabal Zawiya in the summer of 1922 to punish those who defected from the rebels or residents who switched allegiance. On 26 August, al-Sa'dun's
237:
3192:
2830:
245:
212:
1261:
native to the particular zone. The four zones were the following: Jabal Qusayr (Antioch area) headed by Sheikh Yusuf al-Sa'dun (headquarters in
448:
persisted, with the last major military engagement with French forces occurring on 8 August 1926. The latter occurred during the countrywide
221:
1218:
that started in the south of the country and spread to central and northern Syrian cities. Among the major engagements between al-Sa'dun's '
413:. The rebels were led by rural leaders and mostly engaged in guerrilla attacks against French forces or the sabotage of key infrastructure.
2493:
1290:
Arab nationalist movement and, until the Arab Army's defeat at Maysalun, with representatives of the Arab government based in the cities.
1001:, violently assaulted members of the city's large Christian minority because they were viewed as being associated with French interests.
289:
520:
over the region. The prospect of French rule was opposed by Syria's inhabitants. French forces landed in the northern coastal city of
1428:
The rebels of the Hananu Revolt were motivated by three principal factors: defense of the homeland, which the rebels referred to as
591:
Furthermore, the political elite of Aleppo, which was considerably more ethnically and religiously diverse than the almost entirely
2900:
670:
on its governmental headquarters with the French flag. The revolts continued in the city's countryside, namely in the vicinity of
428:, the revolt's key backer. Hananu's forces renewed the revolt in November 1920 after securing substantial military aid from the
3182:
953:
in 1921. Hananu established an alliance with Mustafa Kemal, who supplied Hananu's forces with arms, funds and military advisers
282:
588:; southwestern Anatolia was the principal market for Aleppo's goods and the principal supplier of its food and raw materials.
3202:
2823:
1314:, which referred to the military and had negative connotations due to its association with conscription and repression. Each
1117:, the southern Anatolian region north of Aleppo, in March. That month, Hananu and Saleh al-Ali issued a joint letter to the
595:
Muslim-populated Damascus, was culturally closer to Turkish-Ottoman society, and numerous members of Aleppo's elite were of
3017:
1893:
3207:
3187:
560:, an Ottoman province of which Aleppo was the administrative capital. The province's territory was later divided between
1096:
left flank in the area between Urfa and Antioch in an effort to support the Turks at the main battlefront in Gaziantep.
385:) was an insurgency against French military forces in northern Syria, mainly concentrated in the western countryside of
3172:
2839:
2799:
2770:
2749:
2728:
2707:
2665:
2646:
2625:
2604:
2583:
2562:
2541:
2506:
2482:
1903:
1409:
decisions and military operations were local initiatives. As such, al-Sa'dun referred to the revolt in the plural as
705:). This left Faisal's rudimentary state vulnerable to French occupation. The French demanded that Faisal rein in the
3167:
3162:
2816:
3127:
1022:
by Hananu and Saleh al-Ali's rebels placed the rebels in a position to take full control of northwestern Syria.
1057:, who declared his support for Hananu, began guerrilla actions against French forces in the general vicinity of
2853:
2686:
1045:
and the areas of al-Qusayr and Antioch. At around the same time, Kurdish tribal forces countered the French at
966:
receiving significant financial and military support, and military advisers, from the remnants of the Ottoman
3011:
650:
and were welcomed by the city's Arab inhabitants. In late November, French troops landed on the coast of the
525:
1501:
Nationalist leaders in Syria in the late 1920s. Hananu is seated first from the right at the top row, while
2492:
Arsuzi-Elamir, Dalal (2010). "The Uprisings in Antakya 1918–1926". In Peter Sluglett; Stefan Weber (eds.).
967:
825:
passing through the Old City of Aleppo nearly two months after its occupation by French forces in July 1920
713:, a notable from Alexandretta, with expanding and organizing the local uprisings into a full-blown revolt.
1071:
933:
sometime after the Battle of Maysalun to avoid capture by the French who issued a warrant for his arrest.
1273:
At the height of the revolt, Hananu effectively created a quasi-independent state between Aleppo and the
746:, who he armed with hand-held bombs and rifles. With al-Shaghuri's assistance, Hananu later expanded his
3177:
2984:
2979:
2930:
2794:(in French). Presses de l'Ifpo: Publications de l’Institut français du Proche-Orient. pp. 80–104.
1370:
843:
338:
200:
3005:
3111:
3076:
1038:
718:
623:
unity, and served as a political support base for Emir Faisal. Among the Arab Club's founders were
1464:
974:
950:
433:
3137:
2967:
1157:
1148:
commander Mustafa Asim Bey for his involvement in an attack against the mostly Christian town of
831:
822:
667:
517:
461:
390:
177:
102:
2762:
Being Modern in the Middle East: Revolution, Nationalism, Colonialism, and the Arab Middle Class
2512:
2947:
2915:
2885:
1534:
1506:
1453:
1092:
529:
417:
323:
158:
2760:
2739:
2697:
2676:
2636:
2615:
2594:
2552:
2472:
1176:
defended Hananu in court in March 1922 and succeeded in having Hananu acquitted of all charges
1087:
In early 1921, using al-Shallash as an intermediary, Hananu began receiving support from Emir
3197:
2531:
1483:
1226:
at the end of April 1926. The last major confrontation was at Jabal Qusayr on 8 August 1926.
735:
722:
607:
descent. Because of these factors, many in Aleppo's political class did not support the 1916
513:
473:
425:
134:
97:
2656:
Méouchy, Nadine (2010). "The Military and the Mujahidin in Action". In Leibau, Heike (ed.).
389:, in 1920–1921. Support for the revolt was driven by opposition to the establishment of the
3086:
1396:
was the rebel commander of Jabal Sahyun, one of the four rebel military zones of the revolt
1110:
1088:
1030:
921:
694:
678:. The local uprisings spread from the Antioch region to Aleppo's countryside as far as the
651:
604:
361:
249:
861:
in the western Aleppo countryside. The revolt subsequently expanded to include four other
8:
3096:
3061:
2962:
2942:
1257:
The revolt was ultimately organized into four principal military zones, each headed by a
1215:
1054:
978:
930:
702:
449:
1529:(districts) that had been part of Aleppo Vilayet, such as Mar'ash, Gaziantep ('Ayntab),
1196:
Although Hananu's revolt was largely suppressed, a low-level insurgency involving small
2972:
2952:
2925:
2868:
2658:
The World in World Wars: Experiences, Perceptions and Perspectives from Africa and Asia
1132:
1077:
851:
839:
817:
777:
698:
445:
429:
356:
333:
229:
107:
958:
to support the revolt, monthly salaries for the fighters and supply services for the '
3132:
3066:
2957:
2920:
2875:
2863:
2795:
2766:
2745:
2724:
2703:
2682:
2661:
2642:
2621:
2600:
2579:
2558:
2537:
2502:
2478:
1899:
1274:
1118:
990:
986:
847:
738:'s Second Division. On orders from the Arab government in Damascus, Hananu formed an
351:
306:
30:
1306:), meaning "soldiers of revolt", which represented a more noble image than the term
552:
3091:
3081:
3056:
1518:
1250:(commander), who was often a local notable or the head of a major clan. Individual
1190:
1173:
671:
576:
493:
1482:
gradually embraced Arab nationalism. Hananu later became a founding member of the
870:
789:
675:
402:
38:
2890:
2858:
2718:
2573:
2495:
Syria and Bilad Al-Sham Under Ottoman Rule: Essays in Honour of Abdul Karim Rafeq
1514:
1266:
1149:
687:
572:
398:
146:
2617:
Divided Loyalties: Nationalism and Mass Politics in Syria at the Close of Empire
1865:
Schleifer, S. Abdullah (1978). "The Life and Thought of 'Izz-id-Din al-Qassam".
1525:
As a result of the Franco-Syrian War, Turkey annexed the southwestern Anatolian
3051:
2699:
Occupying Syria Under the French Mandate: Insurgency, Space and State Formation
1141:
781:
639:
624:
612:
600:
596:
585:
557:
485:
481:
477:
394:
217:
2789:
1517:, which consisted of the northern half of former Ottoman Syria, excluding the
1436:, defense of Islam in the face of conquest by an infidel enemy referred to as
3156:
3106:
3071:
3041:
2989:
2880:
1487:
1393:
1285:
some 1,500 Mawali fighters) and Turkish officers who served as advisers. The
1109:
sometime in late February–early March. The Turks and the French negotiated a
1015:
998:
946:
874:
846:
a day after routing a small Arab Army contingent and armed volunteers led by
743:
710:
659:
225:
1046:
977:, who Hananu established contact with via intermediaries, chief of whom was
3101:
3046:
1895:
The Tricolor over the Taurus: The French in Cilicia and Vicinity, 1918–1922
1502:
1478:
1401:
1127:
1011:
894:
655:
533:
421:
406:
2808:
2533:
Britain in Global Politics Volume 1: From Gladstone to Churchill, Volume 1
1898:. Atatürk Supreme Council for Culture, Language and History. p. 218.
397:, the revolt mainly consisted of four allied insurgencies in the areas of
2638:
Syria and the French Mandate: The Politics of Arab Nationalism, 1920–1945
1374:
663:
608:
758:
as the headquarters of his branch of the Committee of National Defense.
1497:
1331:
897:(200 rebels) under commander Mustafa al-Hajj Husayn and Najib Uwaid's
793:
1262:
1207:
1182:
1168:
1106:
1042:
882:
785:
734:
as well as put Hananu in touch with Ibrahim al-Shaghuri, head of the
679:
489:
410:
274:
666:
area. In December, French troops occupied Antioch and replaced the
581:
500:
which extended its control to the northern inland Syrian cities of
497:
457:
437:
1400:
Hananu's subordinate officers and rank-and-file fighters were all
1277:. Hananu's rebels first began administering captured territory in
1530:
1278:
1223:
1114:
1050:
925:
902:
886:
647:
537:
521:
1389:
512:. Meanwhile, France claimed special interests in Syria, per the
1526:
1340:
1019:
917:
801:
635:
565:
541:
509:
386:
207:
195:
183:
172:
153:
141:
92:
65:
658:, prompting anti-French uprisings in Antioch, al-Hamammat and
547:
1417:, and referred to the leadership of the revolt as the plural
1336:
1137:
1058:
1034:
1026:
906:
755:
731:
561:
117:
1242:
was composed of anywhere between 30 and 100 rebels known as
646:
In November 1918, soldiers from Emir Faisal's army entered
616:
592:
571:
At the time of the Arab Revolt and its aftermath, Aleppo's
505:
501:
269:
A low-level insurgency continued until at least August 1926
1318:
received a salary depending on his rank, with cavalrymen (
962:. They also sought military training by Turkish officers.
16:
1920–21 insurgency against French forces in northern Syria
2720:
From the Syrian Land to the States of Syria and Lebanon
1322:) or officers receiving higher pay than foot soldiers (
1210:, southeast of Aleppo, and Jisr al-Hadid near Antakya.
436:, who were fighting the French for control of southern
524:
in November 1918 and began to push inland through the
881:(150 rebels) in Jabal Sahyun in the mountains around
2250:
2248:
2246:
261:
20,000 (2nd Division in Cilicia and Aleppo district)
2717:Philipp, Thomas; Schumann, Christoph, eds. (2004).
2349:
Arsuzi-Elamir, ed. Sluglett and Weber 2010, p. 594.
2213:
Arsuzi-Elamir, ed. Sluglett and Weber 2010, p. 592.
1860:
1858:
1856:
1854:
1795:
Arsuzi-Elamir, ed. Sluglett and Weber 2010, p. 588.
1310:, which was associated with banditry, and the term
742:in Aleppo consisting of seven men from his native
630:
2358:Arsuzi, ed. Sluglett and Weber 2010, pp. 591–592.
2243:
1936:Arsuzi, ed. Sluglett and Weber 2010, pp. 589–590.
1674:Arsuzi, ed. Sluglett and Weber 2010, pp. 586–587.
1494:(chief) of the movement until his death in 1935.
989:who had fled their villages in Turkey during the
584:hinterland, which was predominantly populated by
516:made with the British, and sought to establish a
3154:
2596:Western Imperialism in the Middle East 1914–1958
2189:
2187:
2185:
2183:
1996:
1994:
1992:
1990:
1988:
1986:
1984:
1982:
1851:
1844:
1842:
1840:
1807:
1805:
1803:
1801:
1728:
1726:
1335:shotguns, and Turkish five-shooters, as well as
2716:
1596:
1594:
1592:
941:
2313:
2050:
2048:
2046:
2044:
1791:
1789:
1787:
1670:
1668:
812:
682:. The rebels consisted of small, disorganized
393:. Commonly named after its leading commander,
2824:
2491:
2377:
2375:
2373:
2327:
2325:
2306:
2304:
2285:
2283:
2281:
2262:
2260:
2180:
2173:
2107:
2105:
2086:
2084:
1979:
1837:
1821:
1819:
1817:
1798:
1723:
1682:
1680:
1486:in 1928, which according to Syrian historian
1033:. Other major scenes of fighting occurred at
290:
2444:
2442:
2414:
2412:
2410:
2400:
2398:
2396:
2390:Arsuzi, ed. Sluglett and Weber 2010, p. 595.
2345:
2343:
2341:
2339:
2337:
2209:
2207:
2205:
2203:
2201:
2199:
2171:
2169:
2167:
2165:
2163:
2161:
2159:
2157:
2155:
2153:
2074:
2072:
2070:
2068:
2066:
2064:
2062:
2060:
2034:
2032:
2030:
2028:
2026:
2024:
2022:
2012:
2010:
2008:
2006:
1958:Arsuzi, ed. Sluglett and Weber 2010, p. 590.
1954:
1952:
1950:
1948:
1946:
1944:
1942:
1927:Arsuzi, ed. Sluglett and Weber 2010, p. 589.
1923:
1921:
1919:
1917:
1915:
1878:
1876:
1777:
1775:
1765:
1763:
1753:
1751:
1749:
1747:
1711:Arsuzi, ed. Sluglett and Weber 2010, p. 588.
1707:
1705:
1703:
1701:
1695:Arsuzi, Ed. Sluglett and Weber 2010, p. 582.
1589:
1557:Arsuzi, ed. Sluglett and Weber 2010, p. 593.
1509:is seated first from right at the bottom row
1413:(Northern revolts) rather than the singular
1234:The rebel groups were collectively known as
1163:
1099:
2838:
2143:
2141:
2041:
1784:
1665:
1658:
1656:
1654:
1652:
1650:
1648:
1646:
1622:
1620:
1618:
1608:
1606:
1553:
1551:
1549:
1513:In September 1920, Gouraud established the
973:The Turkish forces in Anatolia were led by
778:Turkish revolts against the French military
575:was divided between those who embraced the
548:Political and cultural sentiments in Aleppo
2831:
2817:
2758:
2592:
2370:
2322:
2301:
2292:
2278:
2257:
2131:
2129:
2127:
2125:
2123:
2121:
2119:
2117:
2102:
2081:
1961:
1814:
1677:
1636:
1634:
1632:
1560:
297:
283:
2439:
2407:
2393:
2334:
2196:
2150:
2057:
2019:
2003:
1939:
1912:
1873:
1864:
1772:
1760:
1744:
1714:
1698:
1384:
3193:Resistance to the French colonial empire
2674:
2571:
2138:
1643:
1615:
1603:
1582:
1580:
1578:
1576:
1574:
1572:
1546:
1496:
1463:
1388:
1167:
945:
816:
642:, a principal leader of the revolt, 1932
634:
551:
2787:
2655:
2550:
2367:Philipp and Schumann 2004, pp. 260–261.
2114:
1891:
1720:Arsuzi, ed. Sluglett and Weber, p. 583.
1629:
1185:and extradited him to Syria in August.
1053:forces commanded by ex-Ottoman officer
3155:
2634:
2613:
2575:State and Society in Syria and Lebanon
2529:
2470:
2319:Méouchy, ed. Liebau 2010, pp. 511–512.
693:British forces withdrew from Syria to
2812:
2737:
1569:
1425:, which refers to a central command.
1229:
496:, formed a rudimentary government in
488:. With British military support, the
452:, which began in the summer of 1925.
416:The Hananu Revolt coincided with the
304:
278:
3018:Franco-Syrian Treaty of Independence
2695:
1004:
780:presence in the Anatolian cities of
420:in Syria's coastal mountains led by
1468:The French Mandate of Syria in 1922
1356:The chief operational goals of the
1122:associated with the Ottoman state.
492:leader of the Sharifian army, Emir
13:
2620:. University of California Press.
2298:Philipp and Schumann 2004, p. 278.
2090:Philipp and Schumann 2004, p. 261.
1976:Schleifer, ed. Burke 1993, p. 169.
1834:Philipp and Schumann 2004, p. 277.
1825:Philipp and Schumann 2004, p. 279.
771:
14:
3219:
2781:
2554:Dictionary of Modern Arab History
2381:Méouchy, ed. Liebau 2010, p. 514.
2331:Méouchy, ed. Liebau 2010, p. 511.
2310:Méouchy, ed. Liebau 2010, p. 512.
2289:Méouchy, ed. Liebau 2010, p. 510.
2266:Méouchy, ed. Liebau 2010, p. 504.
2899:
2759:Watenpaugh, Keith David (2014).
1364:
809:, who he and his aides trained.
206:
194:
182:
171:
152:
140:
128:
91:
37:
2463:
2451:
2430:
2421:
2384:
2361:
2352:
2269:
2234:
2225:
2216:
2093:
1970:
1930:
1892:Zeidner, Robert Farrer (2005).
1885:
1828:
1735:
1689:
936:
776:Hananu's revolt coincided with
631:Prelude and early rebel actions
2765:. Princeton University Press.
2702:. Cambridge University Press.
2641:. Princeton University Press.
2578:. University of Exeter Press.
766:
580:commercial access to Aleppo's
1:
3183:History of Aleppo Governorate
2572:Choueiri, Youssef M. (1993).
2254:Watenpaugh 2014, pp. 180–181.
1540:
467:
3203:History of Idlib Governorate
2530:Baxter, Christopher (2013).
942:Alliance with Turkish forces
750:to forty fighters, known as
7:
2599:. Oxford University Press.
813:French occupation of Aleppo
426:Arab government in Damascus
10:
3224:
3188:Military history of France
2635:Khoury, Philip S. (1987).
2593:Fieldhouse, D. K. (2006).
1346:
1041:, Kafr Takharim, Darkush,
460:. In the aftermath of the
55:April 1920 –July 1921
3120:
3034:
3027:
3012:Paulet–Newcombe Agreement
2998:
2908:
2897:
2846:
2738:Rogan, Eugene L. (2012).
2614:Gelvin, James L. (1999).
2477:. Yale University Press.
2457:Khoury 1987, pp. 110–111.
2240:Khoury 1987, pp. 109–110.
1781:Gelvin 1999, pp. 133–134.
1459:
1351:
1164:Suppression and aftermath
1100:Dwindling Turkish support
869:(over 400 rebels) in the
761:
577:Arab nationalist movement
316:
268:
255:
164:
84:
47:
36:
28:
23:
3173:Anti-imperialism in Asia
3128:French High Commissioner
3112:Abd al-Rahman Shahbandar
2231:Watenpaugh 2014, p. 180.
2222:Watenpaugh 2014, p. 115.
2193:Watenpaugh 2014, p. 179.
2000:Watenpaugh 2014, p. 177.
1848:Watenpaugh 2014, p. 178.
1811:Watenpaugh 2014, p. 176.
1732:Watenpaugh 2014, p. 175.
1600:Fieldhouse 2006, p. 283.
1091:, the Hashemite emir of
719:Syrian National Congress
654:and entered the city of
324:Syrian Coastal Mountains
3168:1921 in Mandatory Syria
3163:1920 in Mandatory Syria
2968:Battle of al-Musayfirah
2840:French Mandate of Syria
2791:Alep et ses territoires
2723:. Ergon in Kommission.
2675:Moubayed, Sami (2006).
2551:Bidwell, Robin (2012).
2471:Allawi, Ali A. (2014).
1686:Neep 2012, pp. 109–110.
1452:According to historian
391:French Mandate of Syria
64:Western countryside of
3208:Syria–Turkey relations
2985:Syria–Lebanon campaign
2948:Epic of Ain Albu Gomaa
2943:1925–1927 revolt
2886:Sanjak of Alexandretta
2536:. Palgrave Macmillan.
2436:Moubayed 2006, p. 377.
2054:Moubayed 2006, p. 376.
1566:Moubayed 2006, p. 604.
1510:
1469:
1454:Keith David Watenpaugh
1397:
1385:Motivations for revolt
1238:, and each individual
1222:and the French was at
1177:
1067:Henri-Félix de Lamothe
1049:, east of Aleppo, and
954:
931:British-held Palestine
826:
643:
568:
462:Franco-Turkish accords
234:Mustafa al-Hajj Husayn
165:Commanders and leaders
3077:Mar'i Pasha al-Mallah
3006:Sykes–Picot Agreement
2696:Neep, Daniel (2012).
2111:Bidwell 2012, p. 174.
1967:Choueiri 1993, p. 19.
1586:Neep 2012, pp. 27–28.
1500:
1467:
1392:
1371:André-Gaston Prételat
1171:
949:
865:, namely al-Sa'dun's
820:
723:Arab Kingdom of Syria
638:
555:
528:, where they faced a
514:Sykes-Picot agreement
201:André-Gaston Prételat
3087:Kamil Pasha al-Qudsi
2741:The Arabs: A History
2448:Khoury 1987, p. 114.
2427:Khoury 1987, p. 454.
2418:Khoury 1987, p. 112.
2404:Khoury 1987, p. 111.
2177:Khoury 1987, p. 110.
2078:Khoury 1987, p. 109.
2038:Khoury 1987, p. 108.
2016:Khoury 1987, p. 107.
1882:Allawi 2014, p. 291.
1769:Khoury 1987, p. 105.
1757:Gelvin 1999, p. 134.
1741:Gelvin 1999, p. 133.
1662:Khoury 1987, p. 106.
1626:Khoury 1987, p. 104.
1612:Khoury 1987, p. 103.
922:Izz ad-Din al-Qassam
905:and far west as the
652:Gulf of Alexandretta
250:Izz ad-Din al-Qassam
3097:Saadallah al-Jabiri
3062:Mustafa Bey Barmada
2980:1936 general strike
2963:Battle of al-Mazraa
2931:Capture of Damascus
2147:Baxter 2013, p. 80.
2099:Gelvin 1999, p. 85.
1640:Gelvin 1999, p. 84.
1535:Alexandretta Sanjak
1216:Great Syrian Revolt
1113:to end fighting in
1055:Ramadan al-Shallash
979:Jamil Ibrahim Pasha
873:area near Antioch,
703:San Remo conference
480:wrested control of
450:Great Syrian Revolt
377:(also known as the
2973:1925 Hama uprising
2953:Capture of Salkhad
2926:Battle of Maysalun
2869:Al-Jazira Province
2135:Neep 2012, p. 110.
1511:
1470:
1398:
1246:and were led by a
1236:ḥarakat al-′iṣābāt
1230:Rebel organization
1178:
955:
852:Battle of Maysalun
840:Army of the Levant
827:
644:
569:
150: •
138: •
126: •
108:Army of the Levant
106: •
101: •
3178:Franco-Syrian War
3150:
3149:
3146:
3145:
3133:Charles de Gaulle
3067:Shukri al-Quwatli
2958:Battle of al-Kafr
2921:Franco-Syrian War
2876:Jabal Druze State
2864:State of Damascus
2275:Neep 2012, p. 35.
1867:Islamic Quarterly
1423:qiyadat al-thawra
1411:thawrat al-Shimal
1275:Mediterranean Sea
1140:and 5,000 in the
1119:League of Nations
1031:Maarrat al-Nu'man
1005:Renewal of revolt
991:Armenian genocide
987:Armenian refugees
844:captured Damascus
690:and other areas.
526:coastal mountains
472:In October 1918,
370:
369:
308:Franco-Syrian War
273:
272:
264:~5,000 irregulars
242:Abdullah ibn Umar
80:
79:
31:Franco-Syrian War
3215:
3092:Sultan al-Atrash
3082:Jamil Mardam Bey
3057:Hashim al-Atassi
3032:
3031:
2903:
2833:
2826:
2819:
2810:
2809:
2805:
2776:
2755:
2734:
2713:
2692:
2671:
2652:
2631:
2610:
2589:
2568:
2547:
2526:
2524:
2523:
2517:
2511:. Archived from
2500:
2488:
2474:Faisal I of Iraq
2458:
2455:
2449:
2446:
2437:
2434:
2428:
2425:
2419:
2416:
2405:
2402:
2391:
2388:
2382:
2379:
2368:
2365:
2359:
2356:
2350:
2347:
2332:
2329:
2320:
2317:
2311:
2308:
2299:
2296:
2290:
2287:
2276:
2273:
2267:
2264:
2255:
2252:
2241:
2238:
2232:
2229:
2223:
2220:
2214:
2211:
2194:
2191:
2178:
2175:
2148:
2145:
2136:
2133:
2112:
2109:
2100:
2097:
2091:
2088:
2079:
2076:
2055:
2052:
2039:
2036:
2017:
2014:
2001:
1998:
1977:
1974:
1968:
1965:
1959:
1956:
1937:
1934:
1928:
1925:
1910:
1909:
1889:
1883:
1880:
1871:
1870:
1862:
1849:
1846:
1835:
1832:
1826:
1823:
1812:
1809:
1796:
1793:
1782:
1779:
1770:
1767:
1758:
1755:
1742:
1739:
1733:
1730:
1721:
1718:
1712:
1709:
1696:
1693:
1687:
1684:
1675:
1672:
1663:
1660:
1641:
1638:
1627:
1624:
1613:
1610:
1601:
1598:
1587:
1584:
1567:
1564:
1558:
1555:
1438:al-aduw al-kafir
1419:quwwad al-thawra
1191:Fathallah Saqqal
1174:Fathallah Saqqal
1158:Treaty of Ankara
1075:
1016:Amanus Mountains
383:Northern revolts
311:
309:
299:
292:
285:
276:
275:
238:Tahir al-Kayyali
211:
210:
203:
199:
198:
189:H. F. de Lamothe
187:
186:
176:
175:
157:
156:
145:
144:
133:
132:
131:
96:
95:
49:
48:
41:
21:
20:
3223:
3222:
3218:
3217:
3216:
3214:
3213:
3212:
3153:
3152:
3151:
3142:
3116:
3023:
2994:
2904:
2895:
2891:Greater Lebanon
2859:State of Aleppo
2842:
2837:
2802:
2784:
2779:
2773:
2752:
2744:. Basic Books.
2731:
2710:
2689:
2668:
2649:
2628:
2607:
2586:
2565:
2544:
2521:
2519:
2515:
2509:
2498:
2485:
2466:
2461:
2456:
2452:
2447:
2440:
2435:
2431:
2426:
2422:
2417:
2408:
2403:
2394:
2389:
2385:
2380:
2371:
2366:
2362:
2357:
2353:
2348:
2335:
2330:
2323:
2318:
2314:
2309:
2302:
2297:
2293:
2288:
2279:
2274:
2270:
2265:
2258:
2253:
2244:
2239:
2235:
2230:
2226:
2221:
2217:
2212:
2197:
2192:
2181:
2176:
2151:
2146:
2139:
2134:
2115:
2110:
2103:
2098:
2094:
2089:
2082:
2077:
2058:
2053:
2042:
2037:
2020:
2015:
2004:
1999:
1980:
1975:
1971:
1966:
1962:
1957:
1940:
1935:
1931:
1926:
1913:
1906:
1890:
1886:
1881:
1874:
1869:. 20–24: 66–67.
1863:
1852:
1847:
1838:
1833:
1829:
1824:
1815:
1810:
1799:
1794:
1785:
1780:
1773:
1768:
1761:
1756:
1745:
1740:
1736:
1731:
1724:
1719:
1715:
1710:
1699:
1694:
1690:
1685:
1678:
1673:
1666:
1661:
1644:
1639:
1630:
1625:
1616:
1611:
1604:
1599:
1590:
1585:
1570:
1565:
1561:
1556:
1547:
1543:
1515:State of Aleppo
1462:
1387:
1367:
1354:
1349:
1300:junūd al-thawra
1232:
1166:
1150:al-Suqaylabiyah
1102:
1069:
1007:
944:
939:
821:French general
815:
774:
772:Battle of Harim
769:
764:
732:Muslim scholars
688:Jisr al-Shughur
633:
573:political elite
550:
470:
446:Yusuf al-Sa'dun
371:
366:
343:
312:
307:
305:
303:
248:
244:
240:
236:
232:
230:Yusuf al-Sa'dun
228:
224:
220:
213:Fernand Goubeau
205:
204:
193:
192:
191:
181:
180:
170:
151:
149:
139:
137:
129:
127:
125:
120:
105:
103:Mandatory Syria
100:
90:
68:
42:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3221:
3211:
3210:
3205:
3200:
3195:
3190:
3185:
3180:
3175:
3170:
3165:
3148:
3147:
3144:
3143:
3141:
3140:
3135:
3130:
3124:
3122:
3118:
3117:
3115:
3114:
3109:
3104:
3099:
3094:
3089:
3084:
3079:
3074:
3069:
3064:
3059:
3054:
3052:Ibrahim Hananu
3049:
3044:
3038:
3036:
3029:
3025:
3024:
3022:
3021:
3015:
3009:
3002:
3000:
2996:
2995:
2993:
2992:
2987:
2982:
2977:
2976:
2975:
2970:
2965:
2960:
2955:
2950:
2940:
2935:
2934:
2933:
2928:
2918:
2912:
2910:
2906:
2905:
2898:
2896:
2894:
2893:
2888:
2883:
2878:
2873:
2872:
2871:
2866:
2861:
2854:State of Syria
2850:
2848:
2844:
2843:
2836:
2835:
2828:
2821:
2813:
2807:
2806:
2800:
2783:
2782:External links
2780:
2778:
2777:
2771:
2756:
2750:
2735:
2729:
2714:
2708:
2693:
2687:
2681:. Cune Press.
2678:Steel and Silk
2672:
2666:
2653:
2647:
2632:
2626:
2611:
2605:
2590:
2584:
2569:
2563:
2548:
2542:
2527:
2507:
2489:
2483:
2467:
2465:
2462:
2460:
2459:
2450:
2438:
2429:
2420:
2406:
2392:
2383:
2369:
2360:
2351:
2333:
2321:
2312:
2300:
2291:
2277:
2268:
2256:
2242:
2233:
2224:
2215:
2195:
2179:
2149:
2137:
2113:
2101:
2092:
2080:
2056:
2040:
2018:
2002:
1978:
1969:
1960:
1938:
1929:
1911:
1904:
1884:
1872:
1850:
1836:
1827:
1813:
1797:
1783:
1771:
1759:
1743:
1734:
1722:
1713:
1697:
1688:
1676:
1664:
1642:
1628:
1614:
1602:
1588:
1568:
1559:
1544:
1542:
1539:
1507:Alawite Revolt
1461:
1458:
1386:
1383:
1366:
1363:
1353:
1350:
1348:
1345:
1231:
1228:
1165:
1162:
1142:Antioch region
1101:
1098:
1076:, assembled a
1006:
1003:
943:
940:
938:
935:
920:led by Sheikh
848:Yusuf al-'Azma
814:
811:
773:
770:
768:
765:
763:
760:
640:Ibrahim Hananu
632:
629:
625:Ibrahim Hananu
613:Aleppo Vilayet
558:Aleppo Vilayet
549:
546:
518:French Mandate
486:Ottoman Empire
478:Sharifian army
469:
466:
430:Turkish forces
418:Alawite Revolt
395:Ibrahim Hananu
368:
367:
365:
364:
359:
354:
342:
341:
336:
331:
326:
317:
314:
313:
302:
301:
294:
287:
279:
271:
270:
266:
265:
262:
258:
257:
253:
252:
218:Ibrahim Hananu
215:
167:
166:
162:
161:
116:) of northern
112:Rebel groups (
110:
87:
86:
82:
81:
78:
77:
76:French victory
74:
70:
69:
63:
61:
57:
56:
53:
45:
44:
34:
33:
26:
25:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3220:
3209:
3206:
3204:
3201:
3199:
3196:
3194:
3191:
3189:
3186:
3184:
3181:
3179:
3176:
3174:
3171:
3169:
3166:
3164:
3161:
3160:
3158:
3139:
3138:Henri Gouraud
3136:
3134:
3131:
3129:
3126:
3125:
3123:
3119:
3113:
3110:
3108:
3107:Ayyash Al-Haj
3105:
3103:
3100:
3098:
3095:
3093:
3090:
3088:
3085:
3083:
3080:
3078:
3075:
3073:
3072:Khalid al-Azm
3070:
3068:
3065:
3063:
3060:
3058:
3055:
3053:
3050:
3048:
3045:
3043:
3042:Yusuf al-Azma
3040:
3039:
3037:
3033:
3030:
3026:
3019:
3016:
3013:
3010:
3007:
3004:
3003:
3001:
2997:
2991:
2990:Levant Crisis
2988:
2986:
2983:
2981:
2978:
2974:
2971:
2969:
2966:
2964:
2961:
2959:
2956:
2954:
2951:
2949:
2946:
2945:
2944:
2941:
2939:
2938:Hananu Revolt
2936:
2932:
2929:
2927:
2924:
2923:
2922:
2919:
2917:
2914:
2913:
2911:
2907:
2902:
2892:
2889:
2887:
2884:
2882:
2881:Alawite State
2879:
2877:
2874:
2870:
2867:
2865:
2862:
2860:
2857:
2856:
2855:
2852:
2851:
2849:
2845:
2841:
2834:
2829:
2827:
2822:
2820:
2815:
2814:
2811:
2803:
2801:9782351595275
2797:
2793:
2792:
2786:
2785:
2774:
2772:9781400866663
2768:
2764:
2763:
2757:
2753:
2751:9780465032488
2747:
2743:
2742:
2736:
2732:
2730:9783899133530
2726:
2722:
2721:
2715:
2711:
2709:9781107000063
2705:
2701:
2700:
2694:
2690:
2684:
2680:
2679:
2673:
2669:
2667:9789004185456
2663:
2659:
2654:
2650:
2648:9781400858392
2644:
2640:
2639:
2633:
2629:
2627:9780520919839
2623:
2619:
2618:
2612:
2608:
2606:9780191536960
2602:
2598:
2597:
2591:
2587:
2585:9780859894104
2581:
2577:
2576:
2570:
2566:
2564:9781136162985
2560:
2557:. Routledge.
2556:
2555:
2549:
2545:
2543:9781137367822
2539:
2535:
2534:
2528:
2518:on 2016-03-04
2514:
2510:
2508:9789004181939
2504:
2497:
2496:
2490:
2486:
2484:9780300127324
2480:
2476:
2475:
2469:
2468:
2454:
2445:
2443:
2433:
2424:
2415:
2413:
2411:
2401:
2399:
2397:
2387:
2378:
2376:
2374:
2364:
2355:
2346:
2344:
2342:
2340:
2338:
2328:
2326:
2316:
2307:
2305:
2295:
2286:
2284:
2282:
2272:
2263:
2261:
2251:
2249:
2247:
2237:
2228:
2219:
2210:
2208:
2206:
2204:
2202:
2200:
2190:
2188:
2186:
2184:
2174:
2172:
2170:
2168:
2166:
2164:
2162:
2160:
2158:
2156:
2154:
2144:
2142:
2132:
2130:
2128:
2126:
2124:
2122:
2120:
2118:
2108:
2106:
2096:
2087:
2085:
2075:
2073:
2071:
2069:
2067:
2065:
2063:
2061:
2051:
2049:
2047:
2045:
2035:
2033:
2031:
2029:
2027:
2025:
2023:
2013:
2011:
2009:
2007:
1997:
1995:
1993:
1991:
1989:
1987:
1985:
1983:
1973:
1964:
1955:
1953:
1951:
1949:
1947:
1945:
1943:
1933:
1924:
1922:
1920:
1918:
1916:
1907:
1905:9789751617675
1901:
1897:
1896:
1888:
1879:
1877:
1868:
1861:
1859:
1857:
1855:
1845:
1843:
1841:
1831:
1822:
1820:
1818:
1808:
1806:
1804:
1802:
1792:
1790:
1788:
1778:
1776:
1766:
1764:
1754:
1752:
1750:
1748:
1738:
1729:
1727:
1717:
1708:
1706:
1704:
1702:
1692:
1683:
1681:
1671:
1669:
1659:
1657:
1655:
1653:
1651:
1649:
1647:
1637:
1635:
1633:
1623:
1621:
1619:
1609:
1607:
1597:
1595:
1593:
1583:
1581:
1579:
1577:
1575:
1573:
1563:
1554:
1552:
1550:
1545:
1538:
1536:
1532:
1528:
1523:
1520:
1516:
1508:
1504:
1499:
1495:
1493:
1489:
1488:Sami Moubayed
1485:
1484:National Bloc
1480:
1474:
1466:
1457:
1455:
1450:
1448:
1443:
1439:
1435:
1431:
1426:
1424:
1420:
1416:
1412:
1407:
1403:
1402:Sunni Muslims
1395:
1394:Umar al-Bitar
1391:
1382:
1378:
1376:
1372:
1365:French forces
1362:
1359:
1344:
1342:
1338:
1333:
1332:Mauser rifles
1327:
1325:
1321:
1317:
1313:
1309:
1305:
1301:
1297:
1291:
1288:
1282:
1280:
1276:
1271:
1268:
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1260:
1255:
1253:
1249:
1245:
1241:
1237:
1227:
1225:
1221:
1217:
1211:
1209:
1204:
1199:
1194:
1192:
1186:
1184:
1175:
1170:
1161:
1159:
1153:
1151:
1145:
1143:
1139:
1134:
1129:
1123:
1120:
1116:
1112:
1108:
1097:
1094:
1090:
1085:
1081:
1079:
1073:
1068:
1062:
1060:
1056:
1052:
1048:
1044:
1040:
1039:Jisr al-Hadid
1036:
1032:
1028:
1023:
1021:
1017:
1013:
1002:
1000:
999:Bab al-Nairab
994:
992:
988:
982:
980:
976:
975:Mustafa Kemal
971:
969:
963:
961:
952:
951:Mustafa Kemal
948:
934:
932:
927:
923:
919:
915:
910:
908:
904:
900:
896:
892:
888:
885:northeast of
884:
880:
876:
875:Umar al-Bitar
872:
868:
864:
860:
855:
853:
849:
845:
841:
836:
833:
832:Henri Gouraud
824:
823:Henri Gouraud
819:
810:
808:
803:
797:
795:
791:
787:
783:
779:
759:
757:
753:
749:
745:
744:Kafr Takharim
741:
737:
733:
727:
724:
720:
714:
712:
711:Subhi Barakat
708:
704:
700:
696:
691:
689:
685:
681:
677:
673:
669:
665:
661:
657:
653:
649:
641:
637:
628:
626:
620:
618:
614:
610:
606:
602:
598:
594:
589:
587:
583:
578:
574:
567:
563:
559:
554:
545:
543:
539:
535:
531:
527:
523:
519:
515:
511:
507:
503:
499:
495:
491:
487:
483:
479:
475:
474:Allied Forces
465:
463:
459:
453:
451:
447:
441:
439:
435:
434:Mustafa Kemal
431:
427:
423:
419:
414:
412:
408:
404:
400:
396:
392:
388:
384:
380:
379:Aleppo Revolt
376:
375:Hananu Revolt
363:
360:
358:
355:
353:
350:
349:
348:
347:
340:
337:
335:
332:
330:
329:Aleppo Region
327:
325:
322:
321:
320:
315:
310:
300:
295:
293:
288:
286:
281:
280:
277:
267:
263:
260:
259:
254:
251:
247:
243:
239:
235:
231:
227:
226:Umar al-Bitar
223:
219:
216:
214:
209:
202:
197:
190:
185:
179:
178:Henri Gouraud
174:
169:
168:
163:
160:
155:
148:
143:
136:
123:
119:
115:
111:
109:
104:
99:
94:
89:
88:
83:
75:
72:
71:
67:
62:
59:
58:
54:
51:
50:
46:
40:
35:
32:
27:
24:Hananu Revolt
22:
19:
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122:Supported by
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85:Belligerents
29:Part of the
18:
2916:1919 revolt
1375:gendarmerie
1267:Jabal Harim
1093:Transjordan
1070: [
968:Second Army
767:First phase
695:Transjordan
609:Arab Revolt
556:Map of the
399:Jabal Harim
319:Engagements
222:Najib Uwaid
159:Transjordan
3157:Categories
2688:1885942419
2522:2015-12-01
1541:References
1047:Viranşehir
605:Circassian
468:Background
2909:Conflicts
2660:. Brill.
2501:. Brill.
1479:Ba'athist
1296:mujahidin
1263:Babatorun
1244:mujahidin
1224:Tell Amar
1208:al-Safira
1183:Jerusalem
1172:Attorney
1107:Jarabulus
1043:Talkalakh
883:al-Haffah
786:Gaziantep
752:mujahidin
736:Arab Army
699:Palestine
680:Euphrates
676:al-Qusayr
668:Arab flag
582:Anatolian
490:Hashemite
484:from the
362:Jerusalem
346:Spillover
2999:Treaties
1434:al-watan
1430:al-bilad
1312:al-askar
1089:Abdullah
662:and the
660:Qirqkhan
498:Damascus
476:and the
458:Damascus
438:Anatolia
339:Damascus
334:Maysalun
256:Strength
60:Location
1531:Rumkale
1527:sanjaks
1519:Tripoli
1406:′isabat
1358:′iṣābāt
1347:Tactics
1341:daggers
1316:mujahid
1302:(sing.
1287:′iṣābāt
1279:Armanaz
1252:′iṣābāt
1198:′iṣābāt
1133:columns
1115:Cilicia
1051:Bedouin
926:Zanqufa
903:Darkush
887:Latakia
863:′iṣābāt
859:′iṣābāt
850:at the
794:Narlija
790:Mar'ash
707:′iṣābāt
684:′iṣābāt
672:Harbiya
664:al-Amuq
648:Antioch
601:Kurdish
540:feudal
538:Alawite
532:led by
522:Latakia
381:or the
352:Tel Hai
114:′Isabat
3121:French
3035:Syrian
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3020:(1936)
3014:(1920)
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1460:Legacy
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1352:Rebels
1337:sabres
1324:mushāt
1320:fursan
1240:′iṣābā
1203:′iṣābā
1111:treaty
1078:column
1020:Beirut
1012:Hammam
918:Jableh
914:′iṣābā
909:area.
899:′iṣābā
891:′iṣābā
889:, the
879:′iṣābā
867:′iṣābā
802:Mawali
762:Revolt
748:′iṣābā
740:′iṣābā
597:Turkic
566:Turkey
542:sheikh
530:revolt
510:Aleppo
494:Faisal
387:Aleppo
357:Samakh
147:Turkey
98:France
73:Result
66:Aleppo
2516:(PDF)
2499:(PDF)
1492:za'im
1442:jihad
1308:iṣābā
1304:jundi
1248:ra'īs
1220:iṣābā
1138:Qatma
1128:Kurin
1074:]
1059:Raqqa
1035:Isqat
1027:Idlib
960:iṣābā
916:from
907:Kesab
807:iṣābā
756:Harim
586:Turks
562:Syria
536:, an
482:Syria
135:Syria
118:Syria
2796:ISBN
2767:ISBN
2746:ISBN
2725:ISBN
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2643:ISBN
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2479:ISBN
1900:ISBN
1339:and
1029:and
788:and
782:Urfa
697:and
674:and
617:Iraq
603:and
593:Arab
564:and
508:and
506:Hama
502:Homs
409:and
373:The
52:Date
1432:or
1326:).
1265:),
912:An
893:in
877:'s
440:.
432:of
3159::
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1072:fr
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