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more time than the transfer to the register. The
Shimadzu camera is based on a chip where each pixel has 103 registers. Charge from the pixel can then be transferred into these registers such that the image sequence is stored "on chip" and then read out well after the event of interest is over. Frame rates as high as a billion fps are possible, with current cameras (Kirana and HPV) achieving up to 10 million fps. ISIS cameras have the obvious advantage over rotating mirror cameras that only one photodetector is needed and the frame count can be much higher. Complex synchronization circuitry necessary for synchronous rotating mirror cameras are also not necessary with ISIS. A main issue with in situ storage chips is ghosting of frames and low spatial resolution, but modern devices such as the Kirana from Specialized Imaging have partially solved the issue. The main use of this type of imaging system is one where the event takes place between 50 ÎĽs and 2 ms, such as applications with
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of the object under study is formed in the region of a rotating mirror with flat faces (a trihedral mirror is commonly used because it has a relatively high bursting speed, but designs with eight or more faces have been used). A field lens optically conjugates the pupil of the main objective lens in the region of a bank of compensation lenses, and the final compensation lenses optically conjugate the mirror to the surface of a photodetector. For each frame formed on the film, one compensation lens is required, but some designs have used a series of flat mirrors. As such, these cameras typically do not record more than one hundred frames, but frame counts up to 2000 have been recorded. This means they record for only a very short time – typically less than a millisecond. Therefore, they require specialized timing and illumination equipment. Rotating mirror cameras are capable of up to 25 million frames per second, with typical speed in the millions of fps.
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objective lens to a rotating mirror, and then back to each CCD camera, which are all essentially operating as single shot cameras. Framing rate is determined by the speed of the mirror, not the read-out rate of the imaging chip, as in single chip CCD and CMOS systems. This means these cameras must necessarily work in a burst mode, as they only can capture as many frames as there are CCD devices (typically 50–100). They are also much more elaborate (and therefore costly) systems than single chip high-speed cameras. These systems do, however, achieve the maximum combination of speed and resolution, as they have no trade-off between speed and resolution. Typical speeds are in the millions of frames per second, and typical resolutions are 2 to 8 megapixels per image. These types of cameras were introduced by the
Beckman Whitley company and later purchased and made by Cordin Company.
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100 billion fps. Some systems were built with interline CCDs, which enables two images per channel, or a 32 frame sequence, though not at the highest speeds (because of the minimum time of the interline transfer). These types of cameras were built by
Hadland Photonics and then DRS Hadland till 2010. Specialised Imaging in the UK also manufactures these cameras, which achieve rates at up to a billion frames per second. However, the minimum exposure time is 3 nanoseconds which limits the effective framing rate to several hundred million frames per second. In 2003, Stanford Computer Optics introduced the multi-framing camera, XXRapidFrame. It allows Image sequences of up to 8 images with a shutter time down to 200
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electrons coming from the input photocathode to the holes create a cascading effect, thereby amplifying the image signal. These electrons fall on an output phosphor, creating the emission of photons that compose the resulting image. The devices can be switched on and off at the picosecond time scale. The output of the MCP is coupled to a CCD, usually by means of a fused fiber-optic taper, creating an electronic camera with very high sensitivity and capable of very short exposure times, though also one that is inherently monochrome due to wavelength information being lost in the photon-electron-photon conversion. The pioneering work in this area was done by Paul Hoess while at PCO Imaging in
Germany.
920:. Based on the same materials as computer memory, the CMOS process was cheaper to build than CCD and easier to integrate with on-chip memory and processing functions. They also offer much greater flexibility in defining sub-arrays as active. This enables high-speed CMOS cameras to have broad flexibility in trading off speed and resolution. Current high-speed CMOS cameras offer full resolution framing rates in the thousands of fps with resolutions in the low megapixels. But these same cameras can be easily configured to capture images in the millions of fps, though with significantly reduced resolution. The image quality and quantum efficiency of CCD devices is still marginally superior to CMOS.
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image sequence would mean each image occupies one fourth of the screen; a nine image sequence has each image occupying one ninth, etc. Images were projected and held on the tube's phosphor screen for several milliseconds, long enough to be optically, and later fiber optically, coupled to film for image capture. Cameras of this design were made by
Hadland Photonics Limited and NAC. It was difficult to change the exposure time without changing the frame rate with earlier designs, but later models added additional "shuttering" plates to allow exposure time and framing rate to be altered independently. The limiting factor of these systems is the time an image can be swept to the next position.
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multi-faceted, typically having six to eight faces. Only one secondary lens is required, as the exposure always occurs at the same point. The series of frames is formed as the film travels across this point. Discrete frames are formed as each successive face of the mirror passes through the optical axis. Rotating drum cameras are capable of speed from the tens of thousands to millions of frames per second, but since the maximum peripheral linear speed of the drum is practically around 500 m/s, increasing the frame rate requires decreasing the frame height and/or increasing the number of frames exposed from the rotating mirror.
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slits. This principle allows extremely high time resolution by sacrificing some spatial resolution (most cameras only have around 60,000 pixels, about 250x250 pixel resolution), with recorded rates of up to 1.5 billion frames per second. Raster techniques have been applied to streak cameras made from image converters for much higher speeds. The raster image is often moved through a rotating mirror system, but the raster itself can also be moved across a sheet of film. These cameras can be very difficult to synchronize, as they often have limited recording times (under 200 frames) and frames are easily overwritten.
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capture of images of moving photons, is possible by the use of the streak camera to collect each field of view rapidly in narrow single streak images. Illuminating a scene with a laser that emits pulses of light every 13 nanoseconds, synchronized to the streak camera with repeated sampling and positioning, researchers have demonstrated collection of one-dimensional data which can be computationally compiled into a two-dimensional video. Although this approach is limited by time resolution to repeatable events, stationary applications such as medical ultrasound or industrial material analysis are possibilities.
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short as a few nanoseconds, and deflected to different areas of the large 70 and 90 mm diameter phosphor screens to produce sequences of up to 20+ frames. In the early 1970s these camera attained speeds up to 600 million frame/s, with 1 ns exposure times, with more than 20 frames per event. As they were analog devices there were no digital limitations on data rates and pixel transfer rates. However, image resolution was quite limited, due to the inherent repulsion of electrons and the grain of the phosphor screen, as well as the small size of each individual image. Resolutions of 10
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generate the first electronic streak cameras. With no moving parts, sweep speeds of up to 10 picoseconds per mm could be attained, thus giving technical time resolution of several picoseconds. As early as the 1973–74 there were commercial streak cameras capable of 3 picosecond time resolution derived from the need to evaluate the ultra short laser pulses which were being developed at that time. Electronic streak cameras are still used today with time resolution as short as sub picoseconds, and are the only true way to measure short optical events in the picosecond time scale.
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same proportional speed. The prism is located between the objective lens and the film, such that the revolution of the prism "paints" a frame onto the film for each face of the prism. Prisms are typically cubic, or four sided, for full frame exposure. Since exposure occurs as the prism rotates, images near the top or bottom of the frame, where the prism is substantially off axis, suffer from significant aberration. A shutter can improve the results by gating the exposure more tightly around the point where the prism faces are nearly parallel.
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1002:, Redlake, Vision Research, Slow Motion Camera Company and IDT, with sensors developed by Photobit, Cypress, CMOSIS, and in-house designers. In addition to those science and engineering types of cameras, an entire industry has been built up around industrial machine vision systems and requirements. The major application has been for high-speed manufacturing. A system typically consists of a camera, a
252:, when Berlin Brixner, the photographic technician on the project, built the first known fully functional rotating mirror camera. This camera was used to photograph early prototypes of the first nuclear bomb, and resolved a key technical issue about the shape and speed of the implosion, that had been the source of an active dispute between the explosives engineers and the physics theoreticians.
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makes more than one revolution while light is entering the camera. Many cameras use ultra high speed shutters such as those employing explosives to shatter a block of glass, rendering it opaque. Alternatively, high speed flashes with a controlled duration can be used. In modern ccd imaging systems, the sensors can be shuttered within microseconds, obviating the need for an external shutter.
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1,000-foot (300 m) magazines are available. Typically rotary prism cameras use 100 ft (30m) film loads. The images on 35 mm high-speed film are typically more rectangular with the long side between the sprocket holes instead of parallel to the edges as in standard photography. 16 mm and 70 mm images are typically more square rather than rectangular. A list of
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which required the fast record speed to image a 30 ms deployment. Roper
Industries purchased this division from Kodak in November 1999 and it was merged with Redlake (which was also purchased by Roper Industries). Redlake has since been purchased by IDT, which is today a market leader in the high speed camera market, and continues to serve the automotive crash test market.
737:) suffered from severe "ghosting" due to the fact that the latent image on the target remained even after the subject had moved. Furthermore, as the system scanned the target, the motion of the scanning relative to the subject resulted in artifacts that compromised the image. The target in Vidicon type camera tubes can be made of various photoconductive chemicals such as
245:. Wollensak further improved the design to achieve 10,000 frame/s. Redlake Laboratories introduced another 16 mm rotating prism camera, the Hycam, in the early 1960s. Photo-Sonics developed several models of rotating prism camera capable of running 35 mm and 70 mm film in the 1960s. Visible Solutions introduced the Photec IV 16 mm camera in the 1980s.
167:. The second is that a series of photographs may be taken at a high sampling frequency or frame rate. The first requires a sensor with good sensitivity and either a very good shuttering system or a very fast strobe light. The second requires some means of capturing successive frames, either with a mechanical device or by moving data off electronic sensors very quickly.
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appropriately, the images show events as a function of time. Objects remaining motionless show up as streaks. This is the technique used for finish line photographs. At no time is it possible to take a still photograph that duplicates the results of a finish line photograph taken with this method. A still is a photograph
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HPV-1 and HPV-2 cameras. In a typical interline transfer CCD chip, each pixel has a single register. Charge from an individual pixel can be quickly transferred into its register in the microsecond time scale. These charges are then read out of the chip and stored in a serial "read" process that takes
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Most raster cameras operate using a black grid with very thin lines etched into it, with hundreds or thousands of transparent lines in between much thicker opaque areas. If each slit is 1/10 the width as each opaque area, when the raster is moved, 10 images can be recorded in the distance between two
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Raster cameras, which are often referred to as image dissection cameras in literature, involve the principle that only a small fraction of an image needs to be recorded to produce a discernible image. This principle is used most commonly in lenticular printing where many images are placed on the same
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In pure rotating mirror cameras, film is held stationary in an arc centered about a rotating mirror. The basic construction of a rotating mirror camera consists of four parts; a main objective lens, a field lens, image compensation lenses, and a rotating mirror to sequentially expose frames. An image
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Each film type is available in many load sizes. These may be cut down and placed in magazines for easier loading. A 1,200-foot (370 m) magazine is typically the longest available for the 35 mm and 70 mm cameras. A 400-foot (120 m) magazine is typical for 16 mm cameras, though
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By removing the prism from a rotary prism camera and using a very narrow slit in place of the shutter, it is possible to take images whose exposure is essentially one dimension of spatial information recorded continuously over time. Streak records are therefore a space vs. time graphical record. The
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In both types of rotating mirror cameras, double exposure can occur if the system is not controlled properly. In a pure rotating mirror camera, this happens if the mirror makes a second pass across the optics while light is still entering the camera. In a rotating drum camera, it happens if the drum
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The rotary prism camera allowed higher frame rates without placing as much stress on the film or transport mechanism. The film moves continuously past a rotating prism which is synchronized to the main film sprocket such that the speed of the film and the speed of the prism are always running at the
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Most cameras use pulsed timing marks along the edge of the film (either inside or outside of the film perforations) produced by sparks or later by LEDs. These allow accurate measurement of the film speed and in the case of streak or smear images, velocity measurement of the subject. These pulses are
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A sequence of images at these very fast speeds can be obtained by multiplexing MCP-CCD cameras behind an optical beam splitter and switching the MCP devices using an electronic sequencer control. These systems typically use eight to sixteen MCP-CCD imagers, yielding a frame sequence at speeds up to
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in 1979, helped freeze the action and eliminate ghosting. This was a mechanical shutter similar to the one used in high-speed film cameras—a disk with a wedge removed. The opening was synchronized to the frame rate, and the size of the opening was proportional to the integration or shutter time. By
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Commercial availability of both types of rotating mirror cameras began in the 1950s with
Beckman & Whitley, and Cordin Company. Beckman & Whitley sold both rotating mirror and rotating drum cameras, and coined the "Dynafax" term. In the mid-1960s, Cordin Company bought Beckman & Whitley
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16 mm rotary prism – Redlake Hycam cameras are capable of 11,000 frame/s with a full frame prism (4 facets), 22,000 frame/s with a half-frame kit, and 44,000 frame/s with a quarter-frame kit. Visible
Solutions also makes the Photec IV. For a more rugged solution, Weinberger made the Stalex 1B,
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rates (approximately 60 frame/s), but some, especially those built by the Kodak Spin
Physics group, ran faster and recorded onto specially constructed video tape cassettes. The Kodak MASD group developed the first HyG (rugged) high-speed digital color camera called the RO that replaced 16-mm crash
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were typical. Also, the images were inherently monochrome, as wavelength information is lost in the photon-electron-photon conversion process. There was also a fairly steep trade-off between resolution and number of images. All images needed to fall on the output phosphor screen. Therefore, a four
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Most image dissection camera designs involve thousands of fiber optic fibers bundled together that are then separated into a line that is recorded with traditional streak camera means (rotating drum, rotating mirror, etc.). The resolution is limited to the number of fibers, and commonly only a few
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time. When used to image high-speed projectiles the use of a slit (as in streak photography) produce very short exposure times ensuring higher image resolution. The use for high-speed projectiles means that one still image is normally produced on one roll of cine film. From this image information
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Rotating mirror film camera technology has been adapted to take advantage of CCD imaging by putting an array of CCD cameras around a rotating mirror in place of film. The operating principles are substantially similar to those of rotating mirror film cameras, in that the image is relayed from an
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sensor for 2 seconds. Kodak MASD group also introduced an ultra high-speed CCD camera called the HS4540 that was designed and manufactured by
Photron in 1991 that recorded 4,500 frame/s at 256 x 256. The HS4540 was used extensively by companies manufacturing automotive air bags to do lot testing
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Other Image Converter tube based systems emerged in the 1950s which incorporated a modified GenI image intensifier with additional deflector plates which allowed a photon image to be converted to a photoelectron beam. The image, while in this photoelectron state, could be shuttered on and off as
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were developed. The MCP intensifier is similar to technology used for night vision applications. They are based on a similar photon-electron-photon conversion as the above-described image converter tubes, but incorporate a micro-channel plate. This plate is given a high-voltage charge such that
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In addition to framing tubes, these tubes could also be configured with one or two sets of deflector plates in one axis. As light was converted to photoelectrons, these photoelectrons could be swept across the phosphor screen at incredible sweep speeds limited only by the sweep electronics, to
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In December 2011, a research group at MIT reported a combined implementation of the laser (stroboscopic) and streak camera applications to capture images of a repetitive event that can be reassembled to create a trillion-frame-per-second video. This rate of image acquisition, which enables the
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cameras is arrayed around the rotating mirror. This adaptation enables all of the advantages of electronic imaging in combination with the speed and resolution of the rotating mirror approach. Speeds up to 25 million frames per second are achievable, with typical speeds in the millions of fps.
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Intermittent motion cameras are capable of hundreds of frames per second, rotating prism cameras are capable of thousands to millions of frames per second, rotating mirror cameras are capable of millions of frames per second, raster cameras can achieve millions of frames per second, and image
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The rotating drum camera works by holding a strip of film in a loop on the inside track of a rotating drum. This drum is then spun up to the speed corresponding to a desired framing rate. The image is still relayed to an internal rotating mirror centered at the arc of the drum. The mirror is
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Motion compensation photography (also known as ballistic synchro photography or smear photography when used to image high-speed projectiles) is a form of streak photography. When the motion of the film is opposite to that of the subject with an inverting (positive) lens, and synchronized
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which enter the film through perforations, pulling it into place and then retracting out of the perforations and out of the film gate, are multiplied to grab the film through multiple perforations in the film, thereby reducing the stress that any individual perforation is subjected to.
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image that results allows for very precise measurement of velocities. It is also possible to capture streak records using rotating mirror technology at much faster speeds. Digital line sensors can be used for this effect as well, as can some two-dimensional sensors with a slit mask.
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By combining this technique with a diffracted wavefront of light, as by a knife-edge, it is possible to take photographs of phase perturbations within a homogeneous medium. For example, it is possible to capture shockwaves of bullets and other high-speed objects. See, for example,
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configuration of the sensor eliminated the scanning artifacts. Precise control of the integration time replaced the use of the mechanical shutter. However, the CCD architecture limited the rate at which images could be read off the sensor. Most of these systems still ran at
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while the photograph is being taken. In high-speed photography, this requires some modifications to the mechanism for achieving this intermittent motion at such high speeds. In all cases, a loop is formed before and after the gate to create and then take up the slack.
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A high-speed camera is defined as having the capability of capturing video at a rate in excess of 250 frames per second. There are many different types of high-speed film cameras, but they can mostly all be grouped into five different categories:
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16 mm pin register: D. B. Milliken Locam, capable of 500 frame/s; the design was eventually sold to Redlake. Photo-Sonics built a 16 mm pin-registered camera that was capable of 1000 frame/s, but they eventually removed it from the
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For the development of explosives the image of a line of sample was projected onto an arc of film via a rotating mirror. The advance of flame appeared as an oblique image on the film, from which the velocity of detonation was measured.
152:(SMPTE) defined high-speed photography as any set of photographs captured by a camera capable of 69 frames per second or greater, and of at least three consecutive frames. High-speed photography can be considered to be the opposite of
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in his studies of supersonic motion. German weapons scientists applied the techniques in 1916, and The Japanese Institute of Aeronautical Research manufactured a camera capable of recording 60,000 frames per second in 1931.
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Rotating prism cameras, which run film continuously past an exposure point and use a rotating prism between the objective lens and the film to impart motion to the image which matches the film motion, thereby canceling it
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Intermittent motion cameras, which are a speed-up version of the standard motion picture camera using a sewing machine type mechanism to advance the film intermittently to a fixed exposure point behind the objective
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which secure the film through perforations in final position while it is being exposed, after the pulldown claws are retracted are also multiplied, and often made from exotic materials. In some cases, vacuum
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to combine a series of essentially one-dimensional images into a two-dimensional image. The terms "streak photography" and "strip photography" are often interchanged, though some authors draw a distinction.
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sled film cameras. Many new innovations and recording methods were introduced in the RO and further enhancements were introduced in the HG2000, a camera that could run at 1000 frame/s with a 512 x 384
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386:-equivalent plastic), which enhanced the strength and allowed it to be pulled faster. The Estar was also more stable than acetate allowing more accurate measurement, and it was not as prone to fire.
237:. When Kodak declined to develop a higher-speed version, Bell Labs developed it themselves, calling it the Fastax. The Fastax was capable of 5,000 frame/s. Bell eventually sold the camera design to
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which frames at up to 3000full frames per second, and had the ability to be mounted on board for car crash testing. Fastax cameras can achieve up to 18,000 frames per second with an 8-sided prism.
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In 1940, a patent was filed by Cearcy D. Miller for the rotating mirror camera, theoretically capable of one million frames per second. The first practical application of this idea was during the
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and has been the sole source of rotating mirror cameras since. An offshoot of Cordin Company, Millisecond Cinematography, provided drum camera technology to the commercial cinematography market.
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35 mm rotary prism – Photo-Sonics 4C cameras are capable of 2,500 frame/s with a full frame prism (4 facets), 4,000 frame/s with a half-frame kit, and 8,000 frame/s with a quarter-frame kit.
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As film and mechanical transports improved, the high-speed film camera became available for scientific research. Kodak eventually shifted its film from acetate base to Estar (Kodak's name for a
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Subsequently, several camera manufacturers compete in the high-speed digital video market, including iX-Cameras, AOS Technologies, Fastec Imaging, Mega Speed Corp, NAC, Olympus,
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High-speed photographs can be examined individually to follow the progress of an activity, or they can be displayed rapidly in sequence as a moving film with slowed-down motion.
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did not suffer from image "stick" of the type Vidicons exhibit, and so related special image converter tubes might be used to capture short frame sequences at very high speed.
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963:(IMEC). These systems quickly made inroads into the 16 mm high-speed film camera market despite resolution and record times (the Phantom 4 was a 1024 x 1024 pixel, or 1
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may refer to either or both of the following meanings. The first is that the photograph itself may be taken in a way as to appear to freeze the motion, especially to reduce
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Rotating mirror cameras, which relay the image through a rotating mirror to an arc of film, and can work in continuous access or synchronous access depending on the design.
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Pendley, Gil (July 2003). "High speed imaging technology: Yesterday, today, and tomorrow". In Cavailler, Claude; Haddleton, Graham P. & Hugenschmidt, Manfred (eds.).
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Pendley, Gil J. (July 2003). "High speed imaging technology: Yesterday, today, and tomorrow". In Cavailler, Claude; Haddleton, Graham P.; Hugenschmidt, Manfred (eds.).
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939:. However, Photobit's first interest was in the standard video market; the first high-speed CMOS system was NAC Image Technology's HSV 1000, first produced in 1990.
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less than 1 millisecond after detonation. The fireball is about 20 meters in diameter. The spikes at the bottom of the fireball are due to what is known as the
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such as yaw or pitch can be determined. Because of its measurement of time variations in velocity will also be shown by lateral distortions of the image.
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ISIS sensors have achieved rates of more than 3.5 terapixels per second, hundreds of times better than the state of the art high speed readout cameras.
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70 mm rotary prism – Photo-Sonics 10B cameras are capable of 360 frame/s with a full frame prism (4 facets), and 720 frame/s with a half-frame kit.
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High-speed infrared photography has become possible with the introduction of the Amber Radiance, and later the Indigo Phoenix. Amber was purchased by
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301:. The photo was taken in a darkened room, with camera's shutter open and the flash was triggered by the sound of the shot using a microphone.
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259:, Redlake Laboratories, and Photo-Sonics eventually followed in the 1960s with a variety of 16, 35, and 70 mm intermittent cameras.
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Documentary "Moving Still" (1980 broadcast on PBS Nova and BBS Horizon) has footage of these processes up to the modern solid state era.
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Rotating mirror camera technology has more recently been applied to electronic imaging, where instead of film, an array of single shot
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Rotating mirror cameras can be divided into two sub-categories; pure rotating mirror cameras and rotating drum, or Dynafax cameras.
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is used to keep the film, especially 35 mm and 70 mm film, flat so that the images are in focus across the entire frame.
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which became the dominant player in the design of streaming high speed image sensors. FillFactory was in 2004 purchased by
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The D. B. Milliken company developed an intermittent, pin-registered, 16 mm camera for speeds of 400 frame/s in 1957.
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1022:. Telops, Xenics, Santa Barbara Focal Plane, CEDIP, and Electrophysics have also introduced high-speed infrared systems.
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Another approach for capturing images at extremely high speeds is with an ISIS (In Situ storage CCD chip, such as in the
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The raster can be made with lenticular sheets, a grid of opaque slits, arrays of tapered (Selfoc) fiber optics, etc.
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material and an array of cylindrical lenses (or slits) only allows one part of the image to be viewed at a time.
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sensor technology again revolutionized high-speed photography in the 1990s and serves as a classic example of a
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1460:"Journal of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers" : High-Speed Photography, Preface p.5, March 1949.
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The exhaust-fan in this photograph was rotating at its full-speed when the photo was taken.
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175:
138:
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usually cycled at 10, 100, 1000 Hz depending on the speed setting of the camera.
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2013:
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1996:
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2110:
Schlieren and shadowgraph techniques: Visualizing phenomena in transparent media
1505:
1379:
134:
3433:
3259:
3201:
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2655:
2561:
2546:
2541:
2436:
2248:
2238:
2228:
2033:
999:
991:
sensor, a true camera-on-chip device found in many low-end high-speed systems.
948:
755:
1319:
1119:"Peter Salcher und Ernst Mach: Schlierenfotografie von Ăśberschall-Projektilen"
186:
3812:
3586:
3554:
3539:
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3109:
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2243:
2233:
1992:
1581:
1019:
1018:, the Amber design team left and formed Indigo, and Indigo is now owned by
293:
207:
141:'s photographic sequence of a race horse galloping, first published in 1878
1526:"SMPTE STANDARD for Motion-Picture Film (35 mm) – Perforated CS-1870"
339:
3767:
3626:
3621:
3549:
3462:
3299:
3274:
3104:
3099:
3084:
2944:
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2468:
2431:
2401:
2354:
2322:
2317:
2283:
2204:
1084:
1037:
959:'s first CMOS sensor, used in the Phantom 4, was designed at the Belgian
928:
636:
331:
271:
164:
160:
837:
In the early 1990s very fast cameras based on micro-channel plate (MCP)
3269:
3249:
3163:
3153:
3014:
2979:
2954:
2888:
2628:
2613:
2593:
2475:
2411:
2327:
2278:
1183:
1042:
1032:
847:
782:
685: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
314:
233:
at 1000 frame/s and had a 100-foot (30 m) load capacity, to study
215:
148:
is the science of taking pictures of very fast phenomena. In 1948, the
2063:
1883:"Ultra High-Speed Imaging Solutions: Cameras, Systems and Accessories"
1277:
3666:
3606:
3234:
3196:
3158:
3054:
2416:
2379:
2374:
2359:
2312:
2300:
1818:
XXRapidFrame camera was nominated for the Photonic Prism Awards 2014
407:
371:
Image dissection cameras, which can use a rotating mirror system, and
234:
222:
170:
Other considerations for high-speed photographers are record length,
1175:
660:
458:
35:
3254:
3069:
2571:
2501:
2369:
2295:
2290:
2048:
25th International Congress on High-Speed Photography and Photonics
1855:
1748:"Replacing 16 mm Film Cameras with High Definition Digital Cameras"
1262:
25th International Congress on High-Speed Photography and Photonics
1015:
859:
742:
738:
3294:
2448:
2394:
1882:
1078:
995:
944:
734:
422:
379:
dissection cameras are capable of billions of frames per second.
313:
to capture images of molecular dynamics down to the scale of the
279:
275:
374:
Raster cameras, which record a "chopped up" version of an image.
2846:
2268:
2218:
2144:
1506:"SMPTE STANDARD for Motion-Picture Film (35mm) – Perforated KS"
1052:
923:
The first patent of an Active Pixel Sensor (APS), submitted by
763:
748:
444:, and Photo-Sonics 10A and 10R cameras, capable of 125 frame/s.
347:
305:
Advancing the idea of the stroboscope, researchers began using
229:
in the early 1930s. Bell used the system, which ran 16 mm
211:
2173:
904:
Exploding cantaloupe recorded at 600 frames per second with a
309:
to stop high-speed motion. Recent advances include the use of
202:
The first practical application of high-speed photography was
3509:
2929:
2389:
1678:
Applied Chemistry: A Textbook for Engineers and Technologists
988:
964:
825:
383:
306:
786:
making the opening very small, the motion could be stopped.
2167:
1551:
960:
913:
820:
760:
560:
1162:
Michaelis, Anthony R. (1952). "Film Studies of Armament".
987:
in 2006. Photobit eventually introduced a 500 frame/s 1.3
343:
A droplet is caught with a strobe after rebounding upward.
2001:
Flash!: Seeing the Unseen By Ultra High-speed Photography
924:
767:), and others with various image "stick" properties. The
440:
70 mm pin register: Cameras include a model made by
225:
was one of the first customers for a camera developed by
814:
revolutionized high-speed photography in the 1980s. The
1821:"The Prism Awards for Photonics Innovation - Finalists"
722:
Rupture of water filled balloon captured at 480 frame/s
335:
A 5 millisecond capture of coffee blown out of a straw.
850:
at a frame rate of several billion frames per second.
437:
for the 4ER in 1988. The 4E is capable of 360 frame/s.
297:
A photo of a Smith & Wesson firing, taken with an
1724:
270:
is generally credited with pioneering the use of the
262:
181:
1660:; Petersen, Phred (2007). Peres, Michael R. (ed.).
1494:– via The University of Wisconsin Collection.
60:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
1664:(4th ed.). Elsevier/Focal Press. p. 617.
1582:"High Speed Rotating Mirror CCD Camera: Model 510"
1533:Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers
1511:Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers
1228:"Kodak High-Speed Camera Type III, September 1944"
955:uses CMOS imaging sensors (CIS) in their cameras.
286:. Also see the photograph of an explosion using a
274:to freeze fast motion. He eventually helped found
150:Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers
1905:"CCDs Outperform Film in Rotating-Mirror Cameras"
1656:
1636:"CCDs Outperform Film in Rotating-Mirror Cameras"
1607:
1605:
3810:
626:time, a streak/smear photograph is a photograph
1991:
1613:"Measuring bullet speed with a Dynafax camera"
1602:
2189:
2029:"(Ultra-High-Speed) Photographic Engineering"
1093:(Vision Research Phantom high-speed cameras)
935:of Photobit, which was eventually bought by
401:
214:in 1886, a technique that was later used by
3741:Conservation and restoration of photographs
1342:"High Speed Camera - Harold "Doc" Edgerton"
1208:(2). Bonnier Corporation: 24. August 1931.
1087:(less advanced than high-speed photography)
487:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
3468:Comparison of digital and film photography
2196:
2182:
2012:(3rd ed.). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
1164:The Quarterly of Film Radio and Television
1128:(in German) (1). Universität Wien: 22–26.
320:
3693:Photographs considered the most important
1978:Learn how and when to remove this message
1469:
1255:
1253:
1161:
701:Learn how and when to remove this message
577:thousand fibers can be practically used.
507:Learn how and when to remove this message
120:Learn how and when to remove this message
2007:
2003:. Boston, MA: Hale, Cushman & Flint.
1941:This article includes a list of general
1701:
894:
832:
712:
346:
338:
330:
292:
185:
133:
2170:(Compact and Rugged High Speed Cameras)
2107:
2045:
1633:
1576:
1574:
1348:. MIT. 28 November 2009. Archived from
1259:
961:Interuniversity Microelectronics Center
601:Streak photography (closely related to
435:Academy Award for Technical Achievement
14:
3811:
1800:from the original on 11 September 2016
1764:from the original on 11 September 2016
1674:
1623:from the original on 25 February 2016.
1250:
881:
2177:
2026:
1681:. Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers.
1432:"Attosecond Technology - the project"
596:
2101:High speed photography and photonics
2050:. Vol. 4948. pp. 110–113.
1927:
1915:from the original on 7 October 2016.
1831:from the original on 9 December 2013
1702:Hardesty, Larry (13 December 2011).
1646:from the original on 7 October 2016.
1571:
1559:from the original on 23 January 2009
1264:. Vol. 4948. pp. 110–113.
1116:
1081:(Photron FASTCAM high-speed cameras)
979:, while key staff went on to create
777:The mechanical shutter, invented by
683:adding citations to reliable sources
654:
485:adding citations to reliable sources
452:
58:adding citations to reliable sources
29:
3688:Museums devoted to one photographer
2098:
1893:from the original on 19 April 2014.
1730:Secretary of the United States Navy
1470:Lassanske, George (November 1958).
571:
24:
3230:Timeline of photography technology
1947:it lacks sufficient corresponding
1923:
1714:from the original on 6 March 2014.
1598:from the original on 26 July 2015.
535:
263:Stroboscopy and laser applications
190:Nuclear explosion photographed by
182:Early applications and development
25:
3835:
2137:
1704:"Trillion-frame-per-second video"
1617:Rochester Institute of Technology
1472:"Photographing High Speed Motion"
1442:from the original on 18 June 2009
1232:Rochester Institute of Technology
580:
3791:
3781:
3780:
2156:supply/demand pattern High Speed
2143:
1932:
1238:from the original on 4 July 2010
659:
457:
394:formats and sizes is available.
34:
3792:
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1897:
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1668:
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1454:
1424:
1318:. February 1999. Archived from
670:needs additional citations for
448:
45:needs additional citations for
1394:
1364:
1334:
1304:
1220:
1190:
1155:
1110:
13:
1:
3280:Painted photography backdrops
3212:Golden triangle (composition)
2492:35 mm equivalent focal length
1634:Nebeker, Nathan (June 2004).
1103:
875:(Digital Image Correlation).
241:, who in turn sold it to the
2008:Edgerton, Harold E. (1987).
1346:Edgerton Digital Collections
871:, target impact studies and
865:Split-Hopkinson pressure bar
282:Microflash 549, which is an
159:In common usage, high-speed
7:
2990:Intentional camera movement
2112:. Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
1547:"Academy Awards, USA: 1989"
1025:
1009:
223:Bell Telephone Laboratories
10:
3840:
3683:Most expensive photographs
3035:Multi-exposure HDR capture
2103:. Oxford, UK: Focal Press.
1784:"HS 4540 Key Technologies"
1482:(2): 22–25. Archived from
729:Early video cameras using
324:
3776:
3733:
3675:
3575:
3518:
3424:
3308:
3220:
3172:
2917:
2684:
2484:
2211:
1825:Photonics Prism Award.com
1675:Gesser, Hyman D. (2002).
1402:"Molecules at the movies"
1198:"Popular Science Monthly"
1117:Pohl, W. Gerhard (2003).
853:
402:Intermittent pin register
243:Wollensak Optical Company
3617:Digital image processing
2127:
2010:Electronic flash, strobe
810:The introduction of the
650:
311:High Harmonic Generation
69:"High-speed photography"
3725:Photography periodicals
3285:Photography and the law
2108:Settles, G. S. (2001).
1962:more precise citations.
1791:motionvideoproducts.com
1755:motionvideoproducts.com
1091:Vision Research Phantom
957:Vision Research Phantom
941:Vision Research Phantom
890:
321:High-speed film cameras
3819:Science of photography
3637:Gelatin silver process
2661:Science of photography
2646:Photographic processes
2624:Perspective distortion
2161:7 October 2016 at the
2150:High-speed photography
1476:The Wisconsin Engineer
1064:Harold Eugene Edgerton
909:
805:
723:
352:
344:
336:
302:
199:
154:time-lapse photography
146:High-speed photography
142:
18:High speed photography
3090:Schlieren photography
2634:Photographic printing
2557:Exposure compensation
1372:"EG&G Microflash"
975:and in sold again to
973:Cypress Semiconductor
918:disruptive technology
903:
833:Gated intensified CCD
721:
641:schlieren photography
350:
342:
334:
296:
189:
137:
3824:Photography by genre
2879:Straight photography
2517:Chromatic aberration
2152:at Wikimedia Commons
2027:Mills, Mara (2014).
1097:Wildlife photography
912:The introduction of
679:improve this article
481:improve this section
54:improve this article
3751:photographic plates
3426:Digital photography
2609:Hyperfocal distance
2522:Circle of confusion
2099:Ray, S. F. (1997).
2056:2003SPIE.4948..110P
1993:Edgerton, Harold E.
1851:"HyperVision HPV-2"
1514:. 12 November 2003.
1270:2003SPIE.4948..110P
1055:(High-speed camera)
882:Rotating mirror CCD
867:, stress analysis,
3245:Autochrome Lumière
3240:Analog photography
3065:Pigeon photography
2859:Social documentary
2338:discontinued films
1412:on 16 October 2008
1352:on 7 February 2010
1074:Nature photography
910:
839:image intensifiers
724:
597:Streak photography
353:
345:
337:
303:
204:Eadweard Muybridge
200:
176:spatial resolution
143:
3806:
3805:
3597:Collodion process
3533:Chromogenic print
3520:Color photography
3030:Multiple exposure
3005:Lo-fi photography
2537:Color temperature
2148:Media related to
2064:10.1117/12.516992
1997:Killian, James R.
1988:
1987:
1980:
1688:978-0-306-46553-6
1658:Davidhazy, Andrew
1278:10.1117/12.516992
1143:on 6 January 2012
1069:High-speed camera
1059:Femto-photography
953:High-speed camera
951:, IDT, and other
937:Micron Technology
901:
719:
711:
710:
703:
603:strip photography
517:
516:
509:
327:High-speed camera
288:Rapatronic camera
250:Manhattan Project
196:rope trick effect
192:rapatronic camera
130:
129:
122:
104:
27:Photography genre
16:(Redirected from
3831:
3795:
3794:
3784:
3783:
3657:Print permanence
3602:Cross processing
3560:CMYK color model
3545:Color management
3498:Foveon X3 sensor
3493:Three-CCD camera
3137:Miniature faking
3095:Sabattier effect
2712:Astrophotography
2567:Zebra patterning
2198:
2191:
2184:
2175:
2174:
2147:
2123:
2104:
2095:
2089:
2085:
2083:
2075:
2042:
2023:
2004:
1983:
1976:
1972:
1969:
1963:
1958:this article by
1949:inline citations
1936:
1935:
1928:
1917:
1916:
1901:
1895:
1894:
1879:
1873:
1872:
1870:
1868:
1863:on 19 April 2014
1859:. Archived from
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1419:
1417:
1408:. Archived from
1398:
1392:
1391:
1389:
1387:
1382:on 13 April 2012
1378:. Archived from
1368:
1362:
1361:
1359:
1357:
1338:
1332:
1331:
1329:
1327:
1322:on 5 August 2011
1308:
1302:
1301:
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1289:
1281:
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1248:
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1245:
1243:
1224:
1218:
1217:
1194:
1188:
1187:
1159:
1153:
1152:
1150:
1148:
1142:
1136:. Archived from
1123:
1114:
977:ON Semiconductor
902:
766:
739:antimony sulfide
720:
706:
699:
695:
692:
686:
663:
655:
572:Image dissection
512:
505:
501:
498:
492:
461:
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239:Western Electric
125:
118:
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62:
38:
30:
21:
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3833:
3832:
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3828:
3809:
3808:
3807:
3802:
3772:
3729:
3671:
3662:Push processing
3578:
3571:
3565:RGB color model
3514:
3420:
3304:
3216:
3182:Diagonal method
3168:
2913:
2817:Photojournalism
2680:
2512:Black-and-white
2480:
2459:Slide projector
2454:Movie projector
2333:available films
2207:
2202:
2163:Wayback Machine
2140:
2130:
2120:
2087:
2086:
2077:
2076:
2020:
1984:
1973:
1967:
1964:
1954:Please help to
1953:
1937:
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1926:
1924:Further reading
1921:
1920:
1903:
1902:
1898:
1887:Hadland Imaging
1881:
1880:
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1545:
1544:
1540:
1535:. 26 July 2002.
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1226:
1225:
1221:
1202:Popular Science
1196:
1195:
1191:
1176:10.2307/1209846
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1115:
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895:
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856:
835:
808:
772:Image Dissector
759:
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599:
583:
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538:
536:Rotating mirror
513:
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493:
478:
462:
451:
413:Pulldown claws,
404:
329:
323:
268:Harold Edgerton
265:
184:
174:breakdown, and
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63:
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3434:Digital camera
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2138:External links
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2019:0-262-55014-8
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1049:
1048:Air-gap flash
1046:
1044:
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1039:
1036:
1034:
1031:
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1023:
1021:
1017:
1007:
1005:
1004:frame grabber
1001:
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978:
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931:, led to the
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870:
869:light-gas gun
866:
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816:staring array
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736:
733:(such as the
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668:This section
666:
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607:streak camera
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541:
530:
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466:This section
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317:(10 s).
316:
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299:air-gap flash
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284:air-gap flash
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227:Eastman Kodak
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71: –
70:
66:
65:Find sources:
59:
55:
49:
48:
43:This article
41:
37:
32:
31:
19:
3763:Polaroid art
3652:K-14 process
3647:Instant film
3642:Gum printing
3592:C-41 process
3577:Photographic
3478:Image sensor
3473:Film scanner
3127:Sun printing
3060:Print toning
2974:
2852:space selfie
2822:Pictorialism
2786:
2752:Ethnographic
2732:Conservation
2604:Guide number
2599:Focal length
2109:
2100:
2047:
2038:
2032:
2009:
2000:
1974:
1965:
1946:
1908:
1899:
1886:
1877:
1865:. Retrieved
1861:the original
1854:
1845:
1833:. Retrieved
1824:
1814:
1802:. Retrieved
1790:
1778:
1766:. Retrieved
1754:
1742:
1720:
1707:
1697:
1677:
1670:
1661:
1652:
1639:
1629:
1616:
1588:
1561:. Retrieved
1550:
1541:
1532:
1520:
1509:
1500:
1488:. Retrieved
1484:the original
1479:
1475:
1465:
1456:
1444:. Retrieved
1435:
1426:
1414:. Retrieved
1410:the original
1405:
1396:
1384:. Retrieved
1380:the original
1375:
1366:
1354:. Retrieved
1350:the original
1345:
1336:
1324:. Retrieved
1320:the original
1316:Lemelson–MIT
1315:
1306:
1261:
1240:. Retrieved
1231:
1222:
1205:
1201:
1192:
1167:
1163:
1157:
1145:. Retrieved
1138:the original
1125:
1112:
1020:FLIR Systems
1013:
993:
983:in 2007 and
922:
911:
885:
877:
857:
844:
836:
815:
809:
800:
791:
788:
776:
771:
728:
725:
697:
688:
677:Please help
672:verification
669:
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546:
542:
539:
518:
503:
494:
479:Please help
467:
449:Rotary prism
417:
412:
405:
396:
388:
381:
377:
354:
304:
266:
254:
247:
235:relay bounce
221:
201:
169:
158:
145:
144:
131:
116:
107:
97:
90:
83:
76:
64:
52:Please help
47:verification
44:
3768:Stereoscopy
3627:E-6 process
3622:Dye coupler
3550:color space
3463:Digiscoping
3456:camera back
3371:Philippines
3300:Visual arts
3290:Glass plate
3275:Heliography
3174:Composition
3149:Ultraviolet
3105:Stereoscopy
3100:Slow motion
3085:Scanography
3000:Kite aerial
2945:Contre-jour
2837:Post-mortem
2827:Pornography
2807:Neues Sehen
2742:Documentary
2676:Zone System
2651:Reciprocity
2577:Film format
2507:Backscatter
2485:Terminology
2355:beauty dish
2259:rangefinder
2224:light-field
2205:Photography
1968:August 2009
1960:introducing
1835:10 December
1490:10 November
1406:Physics.org
1356:28 November
1085:slow motion
969:FillFactory
929:Eric Fossum
906:Casio EX-F1
848:picoseconds
637:shadowgraph
272:stroboscope
172:reciprocity
165:motion blur
161:photography
3813:Categories
3758:Lomography
3579:processing
3528:Print film
3444:comparison
3411:Uzbekistan
3361:Luxembourg
3321:Bangladesh
3270:Dufaycolor
3250:Box camera
3207:Simplicity
3164:Zoom burst
3159:Xerography
3154:Vignetting
3144:Time-lapse
3132:Tilt–shift
3025:Mordançage
3015:Luminogram
2980:Holography
2975:High-speed
2955:Fill flash
2940:Burst mode
2918:Techniques
2899:Vernacular
2894:Underwater
2889:Toy camera
2869:Still life
2797:Monochrome
2787:High-speed
2737:Cloudscape
2727:Conceptual
2629:Photograph
2614:Lens flare
2594:Film speed
2476:Zone plate
2422:wide-angle
2407:long-focus
1943:references
1726:US 4171529
1376:QuickBlink
1242:3 November
1104:References
1043:70 mm film
1038:35 mm film
1033:16 mm film
783:China Lake
779:Pat Keller
769:Farnsworth
315:attosecond
216:Ernst Mach
80:newspapers
3703:Norwegian
3667:Stop bath
3612:Developer
3607:Cyanotype
3235:Ambrotype
3197:Lead room
3120:Slit-scan
3055:Photogram
3050:Panoramic
2960:Fireworks
2792:Landscape
2437:telephoto
2385:reflector
2380:monolight
2375:lens hood
2360:cucoloris
2301:safelight
2212:Equipment
2090:ignored (
2080:cite book
2072:108691587
1909:Photonics
1563:22 August
1446:9 October
1416:9 October
1326:22 August
1296:ignored (
1286:cite book
1214:0161-7370
1134:1606-3015
1126:PlusLUCIS
1000:Mikrotron
989:megapixel
965:megapixel
949:Mikrotron
691:July 2013
605:) uses a
497:July 2013
468:does not
408:film gate
139:Muybridge
110:July 2013
3787:Category
3483:CMOS APS
3381:Slovenia
3309:Regional
3255:Calotype
3192:Headroom
3070:Redscale
2985:Infrared
2935:Brenizer
2909:Wildlife
2832:Portrait
2777:Forensic
2767:Fine-art
2702:Aircraft
2692:Abstract
2572:F-number
2552:Exposure
2527:Clipping
2502:Aperture
2370:hot shoe
2296:enlarger
2291:Darkroom
2159:Archived
1999:(1939).
1913:Archived
1891:Archived
1867:17 April
1856:Shimadzu
1829:Archived
1795:Archived
1759:Archived
1712:Archived
1708:MIT News
1644:Archived
1621:Archived
1593:Archived
1557:Archived
1440:Archived
1236:Archived
1026:See also
1016:Raytheon
1010:Infrared
985:Caeleste
933:spin-off
860:Shimadzu
280:EG&G
276:EG&G
257:Mitchell
3798:Outline
3734:Related
3416:Vietnam
3401:Ukraine
3336:Denmark
3316:Albania
3295:Tintype
3222:History
3187:Framing
3080:Rollout
3045:Panning
2995:Kirlian
2904:Wedding
2782:Glamour
2762:Fashion
2747:Eclipse
2717:Banquet
2639:Albumen
2449:Monopod
2427:fisheye
2395:softbox
2249:pinhole
2239:instant
2229:digital
2052:Bibcode
1956:improve
1266:Bibcode
1184:1209846
1079:Photron
996:Photron
947:, NAC,
945:Photron
908:camera.
735:Vidicon
489:removed
474:sources
442:Hulcher
430:market.
423:suction
94:scholar
3796:
3785:
3713:street
3708:Polish
3396:Turkey
3391:Taiwan
3376:Serbia
3366:Norway
3341:Greece
3326:Canada
2925:Afocal
2884:Street
2864:Sports
2847:Selfie
2802:Nature
2757:Erotic
2722:Candid
2697:Aerial
2685:Genres
2587:medium
2464:Tripod
2432:swivel
2345:Filter
2323:holder
2318:format
2219:Camera
2116:
2070:
2016:
1995:&
1945:, but
1735:
1685:
1589:Cordin
1386:30 May
1212:
1182:
1132:
1053:Fastax
981:CMOSIS
854:IS-CCD
307:lasers
212:Rijeka
208:gallop
96:
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67:
3718:women
3676:Lists
3632:Fixer
3510:Pixel
3439:D-SLR
3386:Sudan
3356:Korea
3351:Japan
3346:India
3331:China
3115:Strip
3040:Night
3020:Macro
2930:Bokeh
2874:Stock
2842:Ruins
2582:large
2412:prime
2390:snoot
2350:Flash
2328:stock
2269:still
2254:press
2244:phone
2234:field
2128:Notes
2068:S2CID
1804:5 May
1798:(PDF)
1787:(PDF)
1768:5 May
1762:(PDF)
1751:(PDF)
1596:(PDF)
1585:(PDF)
1529:(PDF)
1180:JSTOR
1147:1 May
1141:(PDF)
1122:(PDF)
826:pixel
795:lp/mm
731:tubes
651:Video
384:Mylar
361:lens,
101:JSTOR
87:books
3746:film
3451:MILC
2950:ETTR
2812:Nude
2772:Fire
2671:Sync
2469:head
2417:zoom
2402:Lens
2365:gobo
2313:base
2308:Film
2284:view
2114:ISBN
2092:help
2041:(5).
2034:Flow
2014:ISBN
1869:2014
1837:2013
1806:2018
1770:2018
1683:ISBN
1565:2009
1552:IMDb
1492:2009
1448:2009
1418:2009
1388:2012
1358:2009
1328:2009
1298:help
1244:2009
1210:ISSN
1149:2011
1130:ISSN
914:CMOS
891:CMOS
821:NTSC
639:and
561:CMOS
472:any
470:cite
392:ANSI
365:out,
231:film
73:news
3488:CCD
2279:toy
2274:TLR
2264:SLR
2168:IDT
2060:doi
1274:doi
1206:119
1172:doi
927:'s
925:JPL
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