History of medieval Tunisia

90: 1030:, is credited or blamed for theorizing a causative dynamic to the different tribal confederacies over time. Issues concerning tribal social-economies and their influence have generated a large literature, which critics say is overblown. Abdallah Laroui discounts the impact of tribes, declaring the subject a form of obfuscation which cloaks suspect colonial ideologies. While Berber tribal society has made an impact on culture and government, their continuance was chiefly due to strong foreign interference which usurped the primary domain of the government institutions, and derailed their natural political development. Rather than there being a predisposition for tribal structures, the Berber's survival strategy in the face of foreign occupation was to figuratively retreat into their own way of life through their enduring tribal networks. On the other hand, as it is accepted and understood, tribal societies in the Middle East have continued over millennia and from time to time flourish. 1862:"There is no better indication of the importance of the Almohad empire than the fascination it has exerted on all subsequent rulers in the Magrib." It was an empire Berber in its inspiration, and whose imperial fortunes were under the direction of Berber leaders. The unitarian Almohads had gradually modified the original ambition of strictly implementing their founder's designs; in this way the Almohads were similar to the preceding Almoravids (also Berber). Yet their movement probably worked to deepen the religious awareness of the Muslim people across the Maghrib. Nonetheless, it could not suppress other traditions and teachings, and alternative expressions of Islam, including the popular cult of saints, the 3104: 463: 1539: 2210: 1664: 1695:, who function was both religious and military. There is lack of certainty about some details, but general agreement that Ibn Tumart sought to reduce the "influence of the traditional tribal framework." Later historical developments "were greatly facilitated by his original reorganization because it made possible collaboration among tribes" not likely to otherwise coalesce. These organizing and group solidarity preparations made by Ibn Tumart were "most methodical and efficient" and a "conscious replica" of Medina in the time of Muhammad. 943: 1102: 1716: 605: 5808: 6397: 22: 1400: 2505:, presents the development of long-term political trends and events as a field for the study, characterizing them as human phenomena, in quasi-sociological terms. It is widely considered to be a gem of sustained cultural analysis. Unfortunately Ibn Khaldun did not attract sufficient interest among local scholars, his studies being neglected in Ifriqiyah; however, in the Persian and Turkish worlds he acquired a sustained following. 1829: 6407: 2482:. Yet it was his participation in the small unstable governments of the region that inspired many of his key insights. His history seeks to account for the apparent cyclical progression of historical states of the Maghrib, whereby: (a) a new ruling association comes to power with strong loyalties, (b) which over the course of several generations fall apart, (c) leading to the collapse of the ruling strata. The 2092: 6417: 2423: 2897:. In general long-standing tribal loyalties can compare to the composite language classifications, yet any match will not always correspond due to changing tribal alliances over time, episodic adoptations of a region's majority speech by newly arrived or minority tribal groups, and otherwise. It is notorious that the attempt to connect a language and an ethnic identity will be a hit-and-miss proposition. 474: 2002: 734: 1959:(1242). He solidified his rule among the Berber confederacies. Government structure of the Hafsid state followed the Almohad model, a rather strict hierarchy and centralization. Abu Zakariya's succession to the Almohad movement was acknowledged as the only state maintaining Almohad traditions, and was recognized in Friday prayer by many states in Al-Andalus and in Morocco (including the 1269: 2512:, he focuses especially on the history of the Berbers of the Maghrib. The perceptive Ibn Khaldun in his narration eventually arrives at historical events he himself witnessed or encountered. As an official of the Hafsids, Ibn Khaldun experienced first hand the effects on the social structure of troubled regimes and the long-term decline in the region's fortunes. 89: 700:

come to compose the History of Tunisia for its modern people. Prof. Perkins mentions the preceding history of rule from the east (al-Mashriq), and comments that following the Fatimids departure there arose in Tunisia an intent to establish a "Muslim state geared to the interests of its Berber majority." Thus commenced the medieval era of their sovereignty.

2399:). Yet unfortunately general prosperity was not steady over the centuries of Hafsid rule; there was a sharp economic decline starting in the mid-fourteenth century due to a variety of factors (e.g., agriculture, and the Sahara trade). Under the amir Abu al-'Abbas (1370–1394), Hafsid participation in the Mediterranean trade began to decline, while early 2238: 1736:(in southern Spain); yet Almohad rule there was uneven and divisive. Abd al-Mu'min spend many years "organizing his state internally with a view to establishing the government of the Almohad state in his family." "Abd al-Mu'min tried to create a unified Muslim community in the Maghrib on the basis of Ibn Tumart's teachings." 1569:: each a militant Berber movement of strong Muslim faith, each rebellious against a status quo of lax orthodoxy, each seeking to found a state in which "leading the Muslim good life was the professed aim of politics". These medieval Berber movements, the Almoravids and the Almohads, have been compared to the more recent 1338:

Even though in this period the Maghrib often fell into conflict, becoming submerged in political confusion, the Fatimid province of Ifriqiya at first managed to continue in relative prosperity under the Zirid Berbers. Agriculture thrived (grains and olives), as did the artisans of the city (weavers,

699:

would become the permanent capital of Ifriqiya. The social discord between Berber and Arab would move toward resolution. In fact it might be said that the history of the Ifriqiya prior to this period was prologue, which merely set the stage; henceforth, the memorable events acted on that stage would

2229:

and structured shipping arrangements that were crafted to ensure mutual security, customs revenue, and commercial profit. It was possible for an arriving ship to deliver its goods and pick-up the return cargo in several days time. Christian merchants of the Mediterranean, usually organized by their

2054:

and tambors, with colorful silk banners held high, all in order to cultivate a regal pomp. In provinces where the Amir enjoyed recognized authority, his governors were usually close family members, assisted by an experienced official. Elsewhere provincial appointees had to contend with strong local

1798:

With the capture of Tunis, Mahdia, and later Tripoli, the Almohad state reached from Morocco to Libya. "This was the first time that the Maghrib became united under one local political authority." "Abd al-Mu'min briefly presided over a unified North African empire--the first and last in its history

725:

and later local migrations, today Berber languages are reduced to several large regions (in Morocco, Algeria, and the central Sahara) or remain as smaller language islands. Several linguists characterize the Berber spoken as one language with many dialect variations, spread out in discrete regions,

1824:

al-Mansur (1184–1199) who was loyal to Ibn Tumart's teachings. Yet the confused status continued to exist on and off, although at the end for the most part to function poorly. After of century of such oscillation, the caliph Abu al-'Ala Idris al-Ma'mun broke with the narrow ideology of the Almohad

1421:

defeated in battle the Zirid and Hammadid Berber armies in 1057, and sack the Zirid capital Kairouan. It has since been said that much of the Maghrib's misfortunes to follow can be traced to the chaos and regression occasioned by their arrival, although historical opinion is not unanimous. In Arab

1314:

Berbers to the west was fruitless. His son al-Mansur (r. 984-996) challenged rule by the Fatimid Shi'a Caliphate in Cairo, but without his intended effect; instead, the Kotama Berbers were inspired by the Fatimids to rebel; al-Manur did manage to subdue the Kotama. The Fatimids continued to demand

1395:

Arabians, the Banu Hilal, who had already migrated into upper Egypt. These warrior bedouins were induced by the Fatimids to continue westward into Ifriqiya. Ominously, westward toward Zirid Ifriqiya came the entire Banu Hilal, along with them the Banu Sulaym, both Arab tribes quitting upper Egypt

2146:

Djerba, and the desert south. An unfortunate divide developed between the governance of the cities and that of the countryside; at times the city-based rulers would grant rural tribes autonomy ('iqta') in exchange for their support in intra-maghribi struggles. Yet this tribal independence of the

1698:

The mahdi Ibn Tumart also had championed the idea of strict Islamic law and morals displacing unorthodox aspects of Berber custom. At his early base at Tinmal, Ibn Tumart functioned as "the custodian of the faith, the arbiter of moral questions, and the chief judge." Yet evidently because of the

1053:

is unclear, perhaps deriving from tribal customs for clothing ("abtar" and "burnous"), or perhaps words coined to distinguish the nomad (Butr) from the farmer (Baranis). The Arabs drew most of their early recruits from the Butr. Later, legends arose which spoke of an obscure, ancient invasion of

1033:

Berber tribal identities survived undiminished during the long period of dominance by the city-state of Carthage. Under centuries of Roman rule also tribal ways were maintained. The sustaining social customs would include: communal self-defense and group liability, marriage alliances, collective

1437:

In Tunisia as the Banu Hilali tribes looted the rural areas, the local sedentary populace were forced to take refuge in the main coastal cities as well as in fortified towns in northern Tunisia (Such as Tunis, Sfax, Mahdia, Bizerte...). During this time, Tunisia underwent rapid urbanisation as

1351:

Berber movement in Morocco to the west. This decline in the Saharan trade caused a rapid deterioration in the commercial well being of Kairouan. To compensate, the Zirids encouraged the sea trade of their coastal cities, which did begin to quicken; however, they faced rigorous competition from

2310:

Tunis exported grain, dates, olive oil, wool and leather, wax, coral, salt fish, cloth, carpets, arms, and also perhaps black slaves. Imports included cabinet work, arms, hunting birds, wine, perfumes, spices, medical plants, hemp, linen, silk, cotton, many types of cloth, glass ware, metals,

2078:

Toward the end, internal disarray within the Hafsid dynasty created vulnerabilities, while a great power struggle arose between Spaniard and Turk over control of the Mediterranean. The Hafsid dynasts became pawns, subject to the rival strategies of the combatants. By 1574 Ifriqiya had been

2041:, who supervised the ranking of the designated shaiks and assigned them to specified categories. Originally there were three ministers : of the army (commander and logistics); of finance (accounting and tax); and, of state (correspondence and police). Over the centuries the office of 1483:"By the early 12th century, Sicily and Ifrīqiya were linked through their economic interdependence. From 1135, Al-Mahdīya became a de facto Sicilian protectorate, and in the 1140s much of coastal Ifrīqiya was subjected to Roger II's overlordship while the Zirid state ceased to exist." 1674:

the Almohad founder left writings in which his theological ideas mix with the political. Therein he claimed that the leader, the mahdi, is infallible. Ibn Tumart created a hierarchy from among his followers which persisted long after the Almohad era (i.e., in Tunisia under the

1656:. A charismatic leader, he preached an interior awareness of the Unity of God. A puritan and a hard-edged reformer, he gathered a strict following among the Berbers in the Atlas, founded a radical community, and eventually began an armed challenge to the current rulers, the 2059:

or leading families. Regarding the rural tribes, various strategies were employed; for those on good terms their tribal shaik might work as a double agent, serving as their representative to the central government, and also as government agent to his fellow tribal members.

2327:, the supervision of market transactions, and related matters. The urban marketplace was generally a street of shops selling the same or similar commodities (vegetables, cloth, metalware, lumber, etc.). The city official charged with these responsibilities was called the 663:

During the interval of generally disagreeable Shi'a rule, the Berber people appear to have ideologically moved away from a popular antagonism against the Islamic east (al-Mashriq), and toward an acquiescence to its Sunni orthodoxy, though of course mediated by their own

5076:

Maghribi students were drawn to Iraq by the teachings left by Fakhr al-Din al-Razi (died 1209). By the end of the 13th century, Ibn Zaytun Haskuni Mishaddali had introduced transformations in Maliki fiqh which were incorporated in the Hafsid restoration. Mahsin Mahdi,

601:, at the time of the Fatimids, there was disdain for any rule from the east regardless if it was Sunni or Shi'a. Hence the rise in medieval Tunisia (Ifriqiya) of regimes not beholden to the east (al-Mashriq), which marks a new and a popular era of Berber sovereignty. 633:. The Fatimids left the Berber Zirids as their local vassals to govern in the Maghrib. Originally only a client of the Fatimid Shi'a Caliphate in Egypt, the Zirids eventually expelled the Shi'a Fatimids from Ifriqiya. In revenge, the Fatimids sent the disruptive 1323:(1015–1152), named for Hammad, another descendant of Buluggin. The security of civic life declined, due largely to intermittent political quarrels between the Zirids and the Hammadids, including a civil war ending in 1016. Armed attacks also came from the 1679:), based not only on a specie of ethnic loyalty, such as the "Council of Fifty" , and the assembly of "Seventy" , but more significantly based on a formal structure for an inner circle of governance that would transcend tribal loyalties, namely, (a) his 2824:

Yet modern Arab dialects of the interior are "heavily infused with Berber words, particularly place-names taken from Berber terms for flora, fauna, and tools." LaVerle Berry and Robert Rinehart, "The Society and its Environment" 71-143, at 88, in

2141:

Bedouin Arabs continued to arrive into the 13th century. With their tribal ability to raid and war still intact, they remained problematic and influential. The Arab language came to be predominant, except for a few Berber-speaking areas, e.g.,

2118:(school of law) resumed its full traditional jurisdiction over the Maghrib. During the 13th century, the Maliki school had undergone substantial liberalizing changes due in part to Iraqi influence. Under Hafsid jurisprudents the concept of 1819:

of any established school of law. In practice, however, the Maliki school of law survived and by default worked at the margin. Eventually Maliki jurists came to be recognized in some official fashion, except during the reign of

1001:

Berber languages and dialects predominate). In contrast, use of Berber is relatively common in Morocco, and also in Algeria, and in the remote central Sahara. Berber poetry endures, as well as a traditional Berber literature.

1478:

raided the east coast of Ifriqiya for the first time in 1123. After some years of attacks, in 1148 Normans under George of Antioch conquered all the coastal cities of Tunisia: Bona (Annaba), Mahdia, Sfax, Gabès, and Tunis.

620:

rule. Thus, the Fatimids were ultimately successful in acquiring local state power. Nonetheless, once installed in Ifriqiya, Fatimid rule greatly disrupted social harmony; they imposed high, unorthodox taxes, leading to a

2711:

Professor Américo Castro makes the case, regarding several nearby Mediterranean countries to the north, i.e., Italy, France, and Spain, that their true national histories do not begin until about the year 1000 (circa 400

1727:

al-Kumi (c. 1090 – 1163) circa 1130 became the Almohad caliph—the first non-Arab to take such title. Abd al-Mu'min had been one of the original "Ten" followers of Ibn Tumart. He immediately launched attacks on the ruling

3173:

Until recently, its most frequent modern usage seemed to be within the family, e.g., domestic messages, personal and household ornament, magic symbolism, love letters and other notes of intimacy. Lately, public use of

652:'s rôle in Islamic history. In addition to their above grievances against the Fatimids (per the Banu Hilal), during the Fatimid era the prestige of cultural leadership within al-Maghrib shifted decisively away from 5576:

There is said to be danger in contemporary use of his local histories, because Ibn Khaldun reluctantly employed highly nuanced "folk Maghribi archetypes" that conflate Berber and Arab tribal identities with static

2200:

began to assume the religious authority once held by the unitarian Almohads, according to Abun-Nasr. Poetry blossomed, as did architecture. For the moment, Tunisia had regained cultural leadership of the Maghrib.

3858:). Encouraged by the Fatimids, these stories evidently arose in upper Egypt among the pastoral Arabs left behind, who gloried in rumors of conquest by their cousin Arabs in the far west. Norris (1982) at 218-219. 2045:

increased in importance, at first being major-domo of the palace, then intermediary between the Amir and his cabinet, and finally de facto the first minister. State authority was publicly asserted by impressive

916:

script, i.e., written left to right then right to left on alternating lines, or up and down in columns. Most of these early inscriptions were funerary and short in length. Several longer texts exist, taken from

1034:

religious practices, reciprocal gift-giving, family working relationships and wealth. Abdallah Laroui summarizes the abiding results under foreign rule (here, by Carthage and by Rome) as: Social (assimilated,

2697:

During this period, especially under the Hafsids, "the process of Arabization accelerated. ...the use of Arabic spread, and Arab-Berber cultural and racial distinctions became increasingly blurred." Perkins,

3182:(2001) at 93. Brent & Fentress (1996) at 208-209, 212. Currently on the agenda in various Berber communities are considerations to expand the language's use, making its application more comprehensive. 2021:, whose name was invoked during Friday prayer at emirate mosques until the 15th century. Hafsid government was accordingly constituted after the Almohad model created by the Mahdi, i.e., it being rigorous 2441:

Ibn Khaldun entered into a political career early on, working under a succession of different rulers of small states, whose designs unfolded amid shifting rivalries and alliances. At one point he rose to

1388:. Consequently, many shia were killed during disturbances throughout Ifriqiya. The Zirid state seized Fatimid wealth and coinage. Sunni Maliki jurists were reestablished as the prevailing school of law. 1018:, and the Gaetulians. The Mauri inhabited the far west (ancient Mauritania, now Morocco and central Algeria). The Numidians were located between the Mauri and the city-state of Carthage. Both had large 1869:

The Almohad empire (like its predecessor the Almoravid) eventually weakened and dissolved. Except for the Muslim Kingdom of Granada, Spain was lost. In Morocco, the Almohads were to be followed by the

2716:). A nation is based on its members having "the awareness of forming part of a human community that works out and is responsible for its own destiny." For example, Italy is not a continuation of the 2138:

of Malik, to become an integral part of the legal discipline. Later, the Maliki theologian Muhammad ibn 'Arafa (1316–1401) of Tunis studied at the Zaituna library, said to contain 60,000 volumes.

1049:

During the initial centuries of the Islamic era, it was said that the Berbers tribes were divided into two blocs, the Butr (Zanata and allies) and the Baranis (Sanhaja, Masmuda, and others). The

2158:

in 1492, the last Muslim state ruling on the Iberian peninsula. These newly arriving immigrants brought infusions of their highly developed arts. The well-regarded Andalusian traditions of

1767:. He responded with several military campaigns into the eastern Maghrib which absorbed the Hammaid and Zirid states, and removed the Christians. Thus in 1152 he first attacked and occupied 2075:, who captured and lost Tunis twice (1347, and 1357). Yet Hafsid fortunes would recover; two notable rulers being Abu Faris (1394–1434) and his grandson Abu 'Amr 'Uthman (r. 1435–1488). 5977: 1943:. In 1229 during disturbances within the Almohad movement, Abu Zakariya declared his independence, having the Mahdi's name declared at Friday prayer, but himself taking the title of 1295:

in Ifriqiya, the Fatimids also withdrew from direct governance of al-Maghrib, which they delegated to a local vassal. Their Maghriban power, however, was not transferred to a loyal

5982: 1310:

For a time the region enjoyed great prosperity and the early Zirid court famously enjoyed luxury and the arts. Yet political affairs were turbulent. Bologguin's war against the

6118: 2434:(1332–1406) is recognized as a pioneer in sociology, historiography, and related disciplines. Although having Yemeni ancestry, his family enjoyed centuries-long residency in 6162: 2366:(judge) and the police, or on other occasions perhaps between a public prosecutor (or trade commissioner) and the mayor (or a high city official). Often a leading judge or 4951:

The honorific surname of al-Mustansir was given to Abu 'Abd Allah, son of Abu Zakariya. (In Tunisian history there was earlier another Abu 'Abd Allah, namely the Isma'ili

561:

movement, supplanted the Almoravids, and would eventually bring under the movement's control al-Maghrib and al-Andalus. Almohad rule would be succeeded by the Tunis-based

4540:

Unfortunately, as a result of the Almohad invasion, zealots forced many of the conquered to choose between conversion or flight. The family of the Jewish philosopher and

6167: 6150: 5563:(HarperSanFrancisco 1991), "Ibn Khaldun" at 171-172; R. Idris, "Society in the Maghrib after the disappearance of the Almohad" in J.KiZerbo & D.T.Niane (editors), 1807:(who claimed to be heirs of the Almoravids) had spread to Ifriqiya and elsewhere, causing severe problems for the Almohad regime, on and off for the next fifty years. 1825:

regimes (first articulated by the mahdi Ibn Tumart); circa 1230, he affirmed the reinstitution of the then-reviving Malikite rite, perennially popular in al-Maghrib.

929:. One throws some light on the governing institutions of the Berbers in the 2nd century BC. The other text begins: "This temple the citizens of Thugga built for King 2213:

Bacino del Mediterraneo, dall'Atlante manoscritto del 1582–1584 ca. Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale Vittorio Emanuele II, Roma (cart. naut. 2 – cart. naut 6/1-2)

1438:

famines depopulated the countryside and industry shifted from agriculture to manufactures. The prosperous agriculture of central and northern Ifriqiya gave way to

5743: 5270:

Two commercial letters originally in Arabic sent from Tunis and addressed to merchants of Pisa, dated 1201, can be found in Robert S. Lopez and Irving W. Raymond,

2067:, whose brother was the king of Sicily, landed an army near Tunis; disease devastated their camp. Later, Hafsid influence was reduced by the rise of the Moroccan 2025:. The Amir held all power with a code of etiquette surrounding his person, although as sovereign he did not always hold himself aloof. The Amir's counsel was the 648:

were opposing and battling against the Shi'a Fatimids. Perhaps because Tunisians have long been Sunnis themselves, they may currently evidence faint pride in the

3397:

Cf., Steven C. Caton, "Anthropological Theories of Tribe and State Formation in the Middle East: Ideology and the Semiotics of Power" in Khoury and Kostiner,

676:

remarks that while enjoying sovereignty the Berber Maghrib experimented with several doctrinal viewpoints during the 9th to the 13th centuries, including the

6135: 5337:

action, e.g., breaking into homes to smash bottles of alcohol. Such private initiative also challenges the legitimacy of the government to keep public order.

2285:(in Libya). At such ports generally, the imports were off loaded and transferred to a customs area from where they were deposited in a sealed warehouse, or 2499:(shortened title) is a telescoped "universal" history, which concentrates on the Persian, Arab, and Berber civilizations. Its lengthy prologue, called the 6036: 3440:

Philip S. Khoury and Joseph Kostiner, "Introduction: Tribes and the Complexities of State Formation in the Middle East" at 1-22, in Khoury and Kostiner,

2458:

where he died. In order to write he retired for a while from active political life. Later, after his pilgrimage to Mecca, he served as Grand Qadi of the

2438:

before leaving in the 13th century for Ifriqiyah. As a native of Tunis, he spent much of his life under the Hafsids, whose regime he served on occasion.

1347:

began to decline, caused by changing demand, and by the encroachments of rival traders: from Fatimid Egypt to the east, and from the rising power of the

4326:"Every member of the community had to belong to a tribe" under the control of their chief. Too, only Berbers of the Masmuda tribe could claim the title 3980: 2470:

took the city; this cruel conqueror interviewed the elderly jurist and social philosopher, yet Ibn Khaldun managed to escape back to his life in Egypt.

565:. The Hafsids were a local Berber dynasty and would retain control with varying success until the arrival of the Ottomans in the western Mediterranean. 2724:(; retitled and augmented, University of California 1971) at 41-42, 124 (Italy and France); quote at 41-42. Spain's history, e.g., chapters II and XIV. 3292:, edited by M. Lionel Bender, Gabor Takacs, and David L. Appleyard (Muenchen: LINCOM 2003). Today Berber speakers said to total about 12 million. 726:

without ongoing standardization. The Berber languages may be classified as follows (with some more widely known languages or language groups shown in

1851:(Averroës) of Córdoba (1126–1198), who was also appointed a Maliki judge, were dignitaries known to the Almohad court, whose capital became fixed at 1921:

were companions of Ibn Tumart the Mahdi, and formed an inner circle consulted on all important matters. Abu Hafs 'Umar Inti, wounded in battle near

617: 1859:

was born in Murcia in 1165. Under the Almohads architecture flourished, the Giralda being built in Seville and the pointed arch being introduced.

6761: 6531: 3638:

Abun-Nasr remarks that "hese divisions do not seem to coincide entirely either with the ethnic groupings or distinctions of dialect." Abun-Nasr,

2629: 1449:. These rough Arab newcomers, however, did constitute a second large wave of Arab immigration into Ifriqiya, and thus accelerated the process of 1284: 574: 5601: 4006: 2395:

came Muslim and Jewish immigrants with appreciated talents, e.g., trade connections, agricultural techniques, manufacture, and arts (see below,

1315:

tribute payments from the Zirids. After Buluggin's death, the Fatamid vassalage had eventually been split among two dynasties: for Ifriqiya the

5422:(HarperSanFrancisco 1991), "Ibn Khaldun" at 171-172. Ibn Khaldun lost his wife and children at sea (on their journey to Egypt) in 1384. Simon, 3338:(Berkeley: Turtle Island Foundation 1983) at 45-105, contains Berber (Kabyle) legends and folk tales, originally published by Leo Frobenius in 2934:

The language map above right (by Davius Sanctex of Spanish provenance) links to another which divides the Moroccan into thirds. Another map at

6041: 1998:

caliphate by the Mongols in 1258. Yet the moment passed as a rival claimant to the title advanced; the Hafsids remained a local sovereignty.

391: 1632:

movement ruled variously in the Maghrib starting about 1130 until 1248 (locally in Morocco until 1275). This movement had been founded by

692:. Eventually they settled on an orthodoxy, on Maliki Sunni doctrines. This progression indicates a grand period of Berber self-definition. 502: 1299:

Berber, which tribe had provided crucial support to the Fatimids during their rise. Instead authority was given to a chief from among the

640:

The independent Zirid dynasty has been viewed historically as a Berber kingdom; the Zirids were essentially founded by a leader among the

6453: 3253:(Dallas 12th ed. 1990) at 305-307, indicates 5,700,000 speakers of Berber out of a total Moroccan population of 26,250,000, or about 22%. 1947:: hence, the start of the Hafsid dynasty (1229–1574). In the next few years he secured his hold on the cities of Ifriqiya, then captured 1925:

in 1130, was for a long time a powerful figure within the Almohad movement. His son 'Umar al-Hintati was appointed by the Almohad caliph

1592:. After a century, this movement had run its course, losing its cohesion and strength, thereafter becoming decadent. From their capital 1703:

jurists and because of their influence in the rival Almoravid regime, Ibn Tumart opposed the Maliki school of law favoring instead the

4249:(1971) at 103, stating that although Ibn Tumart was clearly influenced by al-Ghazali, the two never personally met (citing Goldziher). 5442:(1957) at 30-33) understands that he was influenced directly by Fakhr al-Din al-Razi (died 1209) of Iraq, and at least indirectly by 629:

managed to accomplish their long-held, grand design for the conquest of Islamic Egypt; soon thereafter their leadership relocated to

626: 401: 4072: 2017:

Since their origins with Abu Zakariya the Hafsids had represented their regime as heir to the Almohad movement founded by the Mahdi

1566: 6058: 5628: 5333:, duties required of all Muslims, but especially of the Sultan. In some current Islamist movements, it can be viewed as license to 1799:

under indigenous rule". It would be the high point of Maghribi political unity. Yet twenty years later, by 1184, the revolt in the

6676: 1687:

or the "Ten", originally composed of his first ten forminable followers, and (c) a variety of offices. Ibn Tumart trained his own

6516: 5895: 5780: 2942:(revised by Ayadho) differs at the margins. The two classification schemata presented there, one by Maarten Kossmann (1999), and 2486:

necessary for the group's initial rise to power, and for the group's ability to maintain it and exercise it, Ibn Khaldun called

549:

emerged in the far western area in al-Maghrib al-Aksa (Morocco) establishing an empire stretching as far north as modern Spain (

6123: 3626: 593:

branch. They originated in Islamic lands far to the east. Today, and for many centuries, the majority of Tunisians identify as

3266:(12th ed. 1990) at 153-155, states that 14% speak Berber out of a total Algerian population of 25,700,000, or about 3,600,000. 1732:

and had wrestled Morocco away from them by 1147, suppressing subsequent revolts there. Then he crossed the straits, occupying

545:

During this time there arose in Maghrib two strong local successive movements dedicated to Muslim purity in its practice. The

32: 5547:(Cambridge Univ. 1958), Chapter IV, "The Theory of the Power-State: Ibn Khaldun's study of civilization" at 84-109; Hodgson, 2307:

but also might negotiate commercial agreements, conclude treaties, and act as judge in legal disputes involving foreigners.

1094:

held that the Himyarite Arab ancestry was totally unacceptable. This legendary ancestry, however, played a rôle in the long

171: 6865: 6536: 6048: 381: 2130:

to considerations of necessity and circumstance with regard to the general welfare of the community. By this means, local

1611:

tribe. They defeated and supplanted the Amoravids and themselves established a large empire, which embraced the region of

5418:(London: George Allen & Unwin 1957; reprint Univ. Chicago 1964) at 53-62 (in Egypt), at 58-60 (Timur); Cyril Glassé, 1929:

as governor of Ifriqiya in 1207 and served until his death in 1221. His son, the grandson of Abu Hafs, was Abu Zakariya.

1353: 2954:

between adjacent oral cultures; at their borders, such neighboring speech regions of related idioms may blend and merge.

1648:. After a pilgrimage to Mecca followed by study, he had returned to the Maghrib about 1218 inspired by the teachings of 912:

Berbers developed their own writing system, evidently derived from Phoenician, as early as the 4th century BC. It was a

421: 5960: 5257:

at 195-196. While Cairo sent west the spices of India and raw flax, Tunis chiefly sent silk, olive oil, and soap east.

3579:(1900 & 1901). Yet Norris also notes that E.F.Gautier (1942) found an echo in the 6th century Byzantine historian 6232: 5641: 5116:

The new arrivals being the Banu Suaim. As to the Banu Hilal, most had by this period moved on to Morocco. Abun-Nasr,

1066:

was evidently fabricated: Berber descent from two brothers, Burnus and Abtar, who were sons of Barr, the grandson of

4501:

at II:269. The Zahiris, not now one of the recognized four, taught a "literal" interpretation of the sources of law.

2217:

Tunisia under the early Hafsids, as well as the entire Maghrib, enjoyed a general prosperity due to the rise of the

2147:

central authority meant also that when the center grew weak, the periphery might still remain strong and resilient.

5765: 2526: 1964: 1522:: the most important testimony of the existence of the African Romance comes from the 12th-century Arab geographer 495: 221: 44: 4137:, i.e., "those who stand together for the defense of religion" or "ones bound (to religious duty)". Cyril Glassé, 538:

dynasty to govern in their stead. The Zirids would eventually break all ties to the Fatimids and formally embrace

6870: 6446: 5274:(Columbia Univ. 1955, 2001) at 384-388 'Solidarity of Muslim and Christian Merchants,' docs. no. 190 and no. 191. 721:) are spoken in North Africa. Berber speakers were once predominant over all this large area, but as a result of 186: 5770: 5309:

In the villages and rural areas, there was generally a market day each week at a fixed location for trading and

2225:. Across the region, the repetition of buy and sell dealings with Christians led to the eventual development of 1445:

Even after the fall of the Zirids, the Banu Hilal were a source of disorder, as in the 1184 insurrection of the

411: 6291: 5728: 5706: 4271:

Le Tourneau reports (and criticizes) the story that the Almoravids (with Maliki legal backing) burned the book

1893:

rule in Ifriqiya, with the Hafsids claiming to represent the true spiritual heritage of its founder, the Mahdi

1426:

is a hero; he enjoys a victory parade in Tunis where he is made lord of al-Andalus, according to the folk epic

6787: 6410: 6242: 6140: 5997: 5992: 5987: 5948: 5888: 5738: 4955:

who prepared the way for the Fatimid Mahdi; and there was also another Fatimid caliph known as al-Mustansir.)

4583: 3984: 2352:), keep roadways open, regulate the safety of building construction, and monitor the metal value of existing 2245:)Caravela Latina), which starting in the 13th century carried commercial cargoes across the Mediterranean Sea 5402:(Paris 1952; London 1970) at 148. Abu al-'Abbas was the father of the celebrated amir Abu Faris (1394–1434). 3554:, at 10:1 & 6. The Hebrew Bible apparently does not list Barr as a descendant of Ham. Chapter 10 of the 6551: 6004: 5621: 1026:

elements, and lived in the near south on the margins of the Sahara. The medieval historian of the Maghrib,

144: 5253:. Tunis was a major center of this east-west Mediterranean trade, which continued for four hundred years. 4434:

In Al-Andalus the Maliki school had turned inward to develop only those issues already present in its own

3325:(New York: P.F.Collier & Son 1901) contains Berber ballads, tales, stories, folk-lore, and traditions. 6834: 6830: 6203: 6181: 5272:

Medieval Trade in the Mediterranean World. Illustrative documents translated with introductions and notes

4112:

confederacy, then located across the far west Sahara, the early Almoravids were first led chiefly by the

2289:, until the duties and fees were paid. The amount imposed varied, usually five or ten percent. The Tunis 1783:, compelling these Christians to negotiate their withdrawal in 1160. Yet Christian merchants, e.g., from 488: 69: 2356:

and the minting of new coin (gold dinars and silver dirhems were minted at Tunis). The authority of the

1901:

of Islam. Tunisia under the Hafsids would eventually regain for a time cultural primacy in the Maghrib.

6439: 6303: 5900: 5733: 4853:

Or: Abu Hafs 'Umar al-Hintati. Not to be confused with Abu Hafs 'Umar, son of the first Almohad caliph

3828:, volume III, at 163-175, 173-174 (Paris: UNESCO; Berkeley: Univ.of California 1992, abridged edition). 2159: 5581:(socio-economic life styles), creating "mythological entities" and a chaos of meaning. Aziz al-Azmeh, 2173:

As a result of the initial prosperity, Al-Mustansir (r.1249-1277) had transformed the capital city of

1779:

Ifriqiya, a disorganized territory, taking Tunis. His armies also besieged Mahdia, held by Normans of

553:) and south to Mauretania; Almoravid rule never included Ifriqiya. Later, the Berber religious leader 6843: 6155: 5955: 5836: 5533:

Ibn Khaldun's Philosophy of History. A study in the philosophic foundations of the science of culture

5519:

can mean "instructive examples" , "bridge" or medium of explanation , or "bridge between meanings" .

851: 831: 372: 40: 4693:, came to predominate in the western Mediterranean trade of the Maghrib starting in the Almohad era. 977:

Berber, however, no longer is widely spoken in present-day Tunisia; e.g., centuries ago many of its

6591: 6420: 5657: 2972: 2950:

based on Aikhenvald and Militarev (1991), also differ somewhat. Another complicating factor is the

2842:, edited by M. Lionel Bender, Gabor Takacs, and David L. Appleyard (Muenchen: LINCOM 2003), citing 1475: 772: 108: 2478:

The history and historiography written by Ibn Khaldun was informed in theory by his learning as a

2037:

assembled from petty shaiks, with ordinary shaiks thereafter. The early Hafsids had a censor, the

1759:, all of which served as centers for commerce and trade. The only strong Muslim power then in the 616:

elements around Ifriqiya by appealing to Berber distrust of the Islamic east, here in the form of

6826: 6701: 6691: 6496: 6376: 6371: 6286: 6254: 6091: 5972: 5905: 5841: 5831: 5807: 5795: 5614: 4968:

2: 291-292, 477. In 1261 Baybars had become sultan of Egypt and he revived the Abbasid Caliphate.

2196:, became increasingly prominent, forming social links between the city and countryside. The Sufi 1791:, had already arrived to stay in Ifriqiya, so that such a foreign merchant presence (Italian and 1109:

In their medieval Islamic history the Berbers may be divided into three major tribal groups: the

149: 3841:

at 218-222. The Maghriban Ibn Khaldun (1332–1406) wrote strongly disapproving of the Banu Hilal.

1499:

that lasted from 1135 to 1160 and was supported mainly by the last local Christian communities.

981:

Berbers became Arabized. Today in Tunisia the small minority that speaks Berber may be heard on

645: 6706: 6596: 6526: 6259: 6198: 6108: 5790: 5785: 4027: 2628:

For additional references to authorities re the Fatimids, see the preceding article subsection

2384:, order a shop closed, or expel an offender from the city. However, the civic authority of the 1526:, who wrote that the people of Gafsa (in central-south Tunisia) used a language that he called 175: 2850:(London 1961), and Wolf (1981). Dialects are said to number in the hundreds, if not thousands. 1739:

Meanwhile, the anarchy in Zirid Ifriqiya (Tunisia) made it a target for the Norman kingdom in

1380:(always favored by most Maghribi Muslims) and hence declared their allegiance to the moribund 6766: 6686: 6651: 6636: 6621: 6576: 6511: 6247: 6227: 6222: 6031: 6009: 5755: 1561:(1130–1269). Professor Jamil Abun-Nasr compares these movements with the 8th-and-9th-century 1035: 950: 6817: 4569:

Due to Almohad severity, many Jews eventually chose to enter Christian Spain. Yitzhak Baer,

2185:

to be without equal in the world). Education was improved by the institution of a system of

1604:(southern Spain), yet Almoravid rule had never reached east far enough to include Ifriqiya. 1343:

served also as the chief political and cultural center of the Zirid state. Soon however the

1208:(909–1171, only until 1049 in Ifriqiya); their vassals and later successors in Ifriqiya the 1125:

early on allied more closely with the Arabs and consequently became more Arabized, although

6641: 6210: 6193: 6145: 6053: 5943: 5866: 5816: 4854: 2799:, edited by M. Lionel Bender, Gabor Takacs, and David L. Appleyard (Muenchen: LINCOM 2003). 2345: 2222: 2006: 1427: 3290:

Selected Comparative-Historical Afrasian Linguistic Studies in memory of Igor M. Diakonoff

3103: 2840:

Selected Comparative-Historical Afrasian Linguistic Studies in memory of Igor M. Diakonoff

2797:

Selected Comparative-Historical Afrasian Linguistic Studies in memory of Igor M. Diakonoff

2446:; however, he also spent a year in prison. His career required several relocations, e.g., 2154:

Muslim and Jewish migration continued to come into Ifriqiya, especially after the fall of

1461:

Zirid rule lingered, with civil society disrupted, and the regional economy now in chaos.

8: 6741: 6716: 6566: 6561: 6541: 6506: 6491: 6346: 6334: 6276: 6269: 6237: 5931: 5883: 5775: 2992: 2779: 2380:, but nonetheless could prescribe the pain and humiliation of up to 40 lashes, remand to 2221:. Perhaps more important was the increase in Mediterranean commerce including trade with 2218: 1986:

For an historic moment, the son of Abu Zakariya and self-declared caliph of the Hafsids,

1821: 1553:, among the Berber tribes, two strong religious movements arose one after the other: the 1344: 986: 431: 200: 125: 2943: 2234:) in these North African customs ports to handle the flow of merchandise and marketing. 2209: 1457:

decreased in rural areas as a result of the Bedouin ascendancy. Substantially weakened,

933:.... " Today the script descendent from the ancient Libyan remains in use; it is called 6813: 6804: 6795: 6726: 6696: 6681: 6666: 6656: 6646: 6611: 6606: 6556: 6501: 6476: 6313: 6130: 6101: 6074: 6019: 5871: 5856: 5851: 5760: 5649: 4275:

by Al-Ghazali (1058–1111), which was said to have antagonized Ibn Tumart. Le Tourneau,

3709:

H. Mones, "The conquest of North Africa and Berber resistance" at 118-129, 118-120, in

2581: 2521: 2381: 2324: 2293:

was a stratified bureaucracy. At its head was often a member of the ruling nobility or

2064: 1956: 1523: 1488: 1423: 1372:

In 1048, for both economic and popular reasons, the Zirids dramatically broke with the

990: 973:

supplanted some Afroasiatic languages, e.g., ancient Egyptian and Berber in many areas.

78: 3711:

General History of Africa, Volume III, Africa from the Seventh to the Eleventh Century

3502:

General History of Africa, Volume III, Africa from the Seventh to the Eleventh Century

2317:

during this era had developed a specific institution to regulate community morals, or

6736: 6731: 6671: 6626: 6586: 6481: 6462: 6324: 6298: 6113: 5915: 5748: 4587: 4063:

Today, remnants of these Maghriban Kharijis are located about the Tunisian island of

2542: 1987: 1926: 1780: 1538: 1470: 1391:

In retaliation, the Fatimid political leaders sent against the Zirids an invasion of

1381: 1376:

Fatimid Caliphate, who had ruled them from Cairo. Instead the Zirids chose to become

1304: 1205: 962: 649: 531: 307: 297: 260: 240: 230: 5189:(University of California 1989) at 2 & 35; al-Tifasi's text translated at 36-69. 4549: 2893:

Refer to the discussion on Berber ethnic identities at the end of the prior section

2462:

rite in Egypt (he was appointed and dismissed several times). While he was visiting

1129:

Berber is still spoken in small islands across Algeria and in northern Morocco (the

997:

border with Algeria (across this frontier to the west lies a large region where the

6791: 6711: 6661: 6616: 6601: 6581: 6571: 6546: 6486: 6400: 6353: 6341: 6329: 6281: 6264: 5696: 5684: 5669: 5551:

at volume II: 476, 478-484 (at 481 n.13, Hodgson criticizes the translation of the

5483:(Lahore: Ashraf 1978) at 68-88, presents a discussion of this key concept, wherein 3500:

H. Mones, "The conquest of North Africa and Berber resistance" at 118-129, 118, in

3237: 3134: 3126: 3119: 3082: 2976: 2935: 2304: 2163: 1897:(c. 1077 – 1130). For a brief moment a Hafsid sovereign would be recognized as the 1833: 1800: 1764: 1724: 1663: 1607:

The rival Almohads were also a Berber Islamic movement, whose founder was from the

1454: 1307:(died 984). His father Ziri had been a loyal follower and soldier of the Fatimids. 1079: 1071: 998: 900:: The classification and nomenclature of Berber languages lack complete consensus. 881: 785: 781: 744: 714: 134: 4827:

Sufis mystical orders spread after the collapse of the Almohad regime. Abun-Nasr,

4573:

translated from Hebrew (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society 1961) at I:46-49.

6721: 6631: 6521: 6361: 6215: 6086: 5965: 5716: 5711: 5689: 5679: 5662: 5455: 5182: 4314: 3551: 3162: 3112: 2552: 2237: 1641: 1511: 1450: 1141:

are also widely dispersed throughout the Maghrib, among which are: the sedentary

1095: 994: 970: 966: 868: 847: 842: 815: 802: 722: 673: 354: 344: 335: 99: 4007:"Bridging Europe and Africa: Norman Sicily's Other Kingdom | Charles Dalli" 3275:

Generally, see Joseph R. Applegate, "The Berber Languages" 96-118, at 96-97, in

2843: 1038:, free); Geographical (city, country, desert); Economic (commerce, agriculture, 612:

Initially the local agents of the Fatimids managed to inspire the allegiance of

6096: 5861: 3837:

Negative view of the Banu Hilal, of course, is challenged; cf., Aziz al-Azmeh,

3302: 3027:

A chart shows the Berber letters and sound values of ancient Libyan and modern

3004: 2987:

people. P. Salama, "The Sahara in Classical antiquity" 286-295, at 289-290, in

2860: 2557: 2400: 2282: 2108: 2080: 2010: 1890: 1886: 1503: 1496: 1248: 1011: 954: 922: 749: 478: 317: 161: 4861:, and brother of the next caliph Abu Ya'qub Yusuf (r.1163-1184). Le Tourneau, 4408:

E.g., Ibn Tumart condemned unveiled women and musical instruments. Abun-Nasr,

3576: 3529:(1996) at 131. E.F.Gautier is cited for the conjecture per farmers and nomads. 3318: 2760: 2340:

would enforce fair commercial dealing (merchants truthfully quoting the local

2177:, constructing a palace and the Abu Fihr park; he also created an estate near 637:

against Ifriqiya, which led to a period of social chaos and economic decline.

6859: 6366: 6024: 6014: 3484: 3306: 3158: 3142: 2877: 2547: 1856: 1649: 1185:

inland to Azru and Khanifra, the most populous of the modern Berber regions.

1162: 1142: 909: 777: 762: 757: 730:). Ethnic historical correspondence is suggested by the designation |Tribe|. 613: 467: 287: 4661:

The Almohad Movement in North Africa in the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries

4260:

The Almohad Movement in North Africa in the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries

4152:

The Almohad Movement in North Africa in the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries

4133:

often was a fort on the frontier of Islam. Those at such a fort were called

3081:(London: Reaktion 2001) at 92. The text is over 50 words and dates from the 1287:(909−1171), who had conquered Egypt in 969. After removing their capital to 1101: 5528: 5508: 5435: 5411: 5246: 5241:(London: Collins 1976). Trade had quickened in the Mediterranean after the 4998:, a 27-volume Arabic encyclopedia of the 14th century written by al-'Umari. 4621: 3086: 3040:

Joseph R. Applegate, "The Berber Language" at 96-118, 115, in Hodge (ed.),

2922: 2717: 2713: 2226: 1979:. Abu Zakariya the founder of the Hafsids became the foremost ruler in the 1948: 1932: 1804: 1574: 1507: 1446: 1134: 1059: 942: 43:

by adding information on neglected viewpoints, or discuss the issue on the

1715: 1442:

for a time; consequently the economic well-being went into steep decline.

921:, modern Dougga, Tunisia. Both are bilingual, being written in Punic with 604: 4088: 3911: 3089:

coin from Spain of the first century B.C. inscribed with Libyan letters.

2562: 2431: 2412: 2274: 2182: 2056: 2051: 2047: 1994:

by Mecca and the Islamic world (1259–1261), following termination of the

1768: 1439: 1083: 1027: 946: 590: 539: 5063:; yet the Almohads may have followed the Zahiri school of law (Hodgson, 3228:

Berber speakers are indicated at the extreme south of Tunisia (near the

3215:

Berry and Rhinehart, "The Society and its Environment" at 84-85, 86, in

5674: 5463: 4637:

Abun-Nasr, A History of the Maghrib (Cambridge Univ. 1971) at 109, 110.

4545: 4293: 2947: 2501: 2435: 2392: 2377: 2151: 1894: 1844: 1733: 1671: 1657: 1653: 1633: 1601: 1597: 1562: 1554: 1418: 1403: 1328: 1232: 1217: 1178: 1154: 1121:. These tribal divisions are mentioned by Ibn Khaldun (1332–1406). The 820: 657: 634: 554: 550: 528: 5249:

ports. In 996 there were said to be at least 160 Italian merchants in

4028:"IFRIQIYYA in "Federiciana" | Ruggero II in Tunisia (in Italian)" 2991:(UNESCO 1990) Abridged Edition. Many alphabets seem to derive via the 2811:

Cf., Joseph R. Applegate, "The Berber Languages" at 96-118, 96-97, in

2230:

city-of-origin, set up and maintained their own trading facilities (a

1763:

was that of the newly emerging Almohads, led by their caliph a Berber

5910: 5721: 5451: 5443: 5334: 5310: 4620:

The Normans ruled Sicily for over one hundred years until 1194, when

4591: 4095:(Univ. of Chicago 1947) at 25-26, per excerpt in Lenczowski, editor, 3735:

The Kotama tribe was also a member of the parent Sanhaja confederacy.

3580: 3058: 2989:

General History of Africa, volume II, Ancient Civilizations of Africa

2984: 2488: 2143: 2022: 1922: 1852: 1848: 1729: 1593: 1581: 1542: 1431: 1407: 1399: 1348: 1174: 1091: 1055: 1050: 1019: 1015: 930: 622: 598: 546: 250: 6431: 1010:

The grand tribal identities of Berber antiquity were said to be the

515:

The medieval era of Tunisia began with what would eventually return

5606: 5447: 5242: 4586:

proved to be a turning point not only for the Almohads (then under

4076: 3229: 3028: 2964: 2876:

In substantial accord with Militarev's classification of Berber is

2536: 2531: 2463: 2329: 2186: 2068: 1960: 1870: 1828: 1772: 1612: 1558: 1340: 1320: 1236: 1189: 1087: 1063: 1039: 1023: 935: 926: 696: 685: 653: 586: 582: 578: 534:

departed to their newly conquered territories in Egypt leaving the

516: 5495:

means the "paternal relationship" in the law of inheritance , and

5462:(1958) at 104-105) states that he favored and shared the views of 4689:(1970, 1977), at 201, 217. Italian merchants, as well as those of 4490:

Compare: Marshall Hodgson states that the Almohads did follow the

2266: 1936: 1748: 1515: 1165:(al-Tawarik), the well-known camel breeding nomads of the central 5637: 5239:

A Social and Economic History of the Near East in the Middle Ages

5060: 4553: 4494: 4313:, edited by Jean-Dominique Luciani (Algiers 1903), introduced by 4113: 4109: 3914:(1332–1406) viewed the Banu Hilal as destroying locust. Perkins, 3351: 3233: 3154: 2939: 2906: 2451: 2290: 2193: 2178: 2155: 2123: 2096: 1995: 1980: 1952: 1874: 1837: 1760: 1676: 1637: 1629: 1608: 1589: 1585: 1570: 1458: 1414: 1385: 1339:

metalworkers, potters), and the Saharan trade,. The holy city of

1300: 1292: 1272: 1221: 1193: 1158: 1146: 1118: 1114: 958: 886: 873: 860: 856: 835: 824: 689: 677: 669: 641: 562: 558: 524: 520: 441: 4510:

Abd al-Mu'min was the first non-Arab to take the caliphal title

3305:(1670–1748). Awzal wrote Berber using a Maghribi variant of the 2278: 1596:

the Almoravids had once governed a large empire stretching from

1502:

These communities, usually Christian North African populations (

5876: 4858: 4690: 4541: 4491: 4438:; this had led to the burning of al-Ghazali's book. Abun-Nasr, 4064: 3584: 3146: 3057:

Over 150 words, the text dates from the era of the Berber King

2459: 2443: 2422: 2319: 2314: 2295: 2258: 2135: 2112: 2101: 2091: 2030: 1991: 1976: 1968: 1898: 1792: 1744: 1740: 1704: 1700: 1550: 1492: 1332: 1311: 1296: 1209: 1201: 1166: 1150: 1126: 1110: 1098:

process that continued for centuries among the Berber peoples.

1067: 978: 918: 807: 665: 5187:

Ten Hispano-Arabic Strophic Songs in the Modern Oral Tradition

3603:(Beirut: Librairie du Liban 1982), "Berber Lineages" at 32-43. 2189:. Sufism, e.g., Sidi Bin 'Arus (d. 1463 Tunis) founder of the 5250: 4289: 4068: 3108: 2918: 2910: 2467: 2455: 2368: 2341: 2262: 2250: 2174: 2001: 1972: 1940: 1863: 1784: 1776: 1756: 1645: 1519: 1392: 1377: 1357: 1324: 1316: 1288: 1280: 1252: 1182: 1043: 982: 794: 790: 733: 681: 630: 594: 535: 4882:(Princeton Univ. 1969) at 24, 27, 32-33, 41, 65-66; Julien, 3453:

Ernest Gellner, "Tribalism and State in the Middle East" in

1913:, the crucial group composed of very early adherents to the 4435: 2914: 2807: 2805: 2362: 2353: 2270: 2254: 2127: 1944: 1935:(1203–1249) served the Almohads in Ifriqiya as governor of 1816: 1788: 1752: 1683:

or "people of the house", a sort of privy council, (b) his

1373: 1361: 1283:

dynasty (972-1148) began their rule as agents of the Shi'a

1075: 5567:(Univ. of California/UNESCO 1997) volume IV: 44-49, 48-49. 4994:(Paris 1952; London 1970) at 154-156. Julien draws on the 3854:(Beirut: Librairie du Liban 1982) at 209-226 (the chapter 3663: 3661: 3455:

Anthropology and Politics. Revolutions in the Sacred Grove

2630:

History of early Islamic Tunisia#Fatimids: Shi'a Caliphate

1491:

was able to create a coastal dominion of the area between

1268: 1022:

populations. The Gaetulians were less settled, with large

5535:(London: George Allen & Unwin 1957); Heinrich Simon, 5329:, which means "balance" in Arabic, also has the sense of 3178:

in Berber regions has been markedly increasing. Fischer,

3130: 2447: 2122:

or "public interest" developed in the operation of their

2072: 1877:(who claimed to be the heirs of the unitarian Almohads). 1130: 4925:(Paris: Librairie François Maspero 1970), translated as 3774:(Paris 1931, 1961; London 1970) at 64-66 (Ziri's Achir). 3748:(Cambridge University 1971) at 83 (Ziri in Morocco), 84. 2802: 2360:, with his group of assistants, was somewhere between a 1588:

Berbers, arising in the remote deserts of the southwest

1220:(1056–1147) first began far south of Morocco, among the 965:

were not generally spoken elsewhere in Africa until the

5059:

Ibn Tumart is said not to have followed any recognized

5011:(Cambridge Univ. 1954; Harper reprint 1967) at 291-292. 4814:(Paris: Librairie François Masero 1970), translated as 4797:(Paris: Librairie François Masero 1970), translated as 3957:(1986) at 36-37 & 39, and 43 (Normans from Sicily). 3658: 3590:, finding common cultural symbols. Norris (1972) at 30. 3358:(c.42 B.C.), 19-20, translated by S.A.Handford as 3288:

David L. Appleyard, "Berber Overview" at 23-26, 23, in

2838:

David L. Appleyard, "Berber Overview" at 23-26, 23, in

2829:(Washington, D.C: American University, 3rd. ed., 1987). 2580:

Geography and Climate information are presented in the

2050:: high officials on horseback parading to the sound of 5325:(Oxford Univ. 2004) at 195-198. Vikor points out that 4717:

Tunisia. Crossroads of the Islamic and European Worlds

4582:

Seventy years later in 1212 the Almohad defeat at the

3651:

For Masmuda descendent population, cf., Grimes (ed.),

5537:

Ibn Khalduns Wissenschaft von der Menschlichen Kultur

5477:

Ibn Khalduns Wissenschaft von der Menschlichen Kultur

3279:

edited by Carleton T. Hodge (The Hague: Mouton 1971).

2786:

edited by Carleton T. Hodge (The Hague: Mouton 1971).

1847:(Abubacer to the Latins) of Granada (died 1185), and 1196:

often have tribal associations. Linked to the Kabyle

5374:

Between God and the Sultan. A History of Islamic Law

5323:

Between God and the Sultan. A History of Islamic Law

4784:(San Francisco 1991) at 174-175, 176-177, and 38-39. 4650:(New York 1915, reprint Norton Library 1966) at 192. 4560:(Macmillan 1916, reprint Philadelphia 1940) at 238. 2795:David L. Appleyard, "Berber Overview" at 23-26, in 597:(also from the east, but who oppose the Shi'a). In 5515:at 63-71, discusses the subtleties of this title. 4046: 4044: 3583:of the Himyarite myth, and conjectured an ancient 3521:, understood as a long garment. "Abtar" signifies 3166: 3062: 3020: 3011:(London: Thames and Hudson 1962) at 124, 132, 141. 2336:To achieve public order in the urban markets, the 1430:. The Banu Hilal came from the tribal confederacy 668:school of law (viewed as one of the four orthodox 5331:achieving the common good and acting against evil 3679: 3677: 2686:The History of the Maghrib. An interpretive essay 2593:For reference to authorities, see text following. 1743:, who between 1134 and 1148 had taken control of 1667:Almohad Empire (1147–1269) at its greatest extent 1105:Topography of al-Maghib with modern state borders 737:Modern Berber languages. Untinted: mostly Arabic. 6857: 3483:(Paris: Librairie François 1970), translated by 2249:The principal maritime customs ports were then: 5245:in Egypt took over the trade to India from the 4292:condemn as unorthodox, i.e., as similar to the 4041: 2859:Schema by Alexander Militarev, as presented in 2722:The Spaniards. An introduction to their history 5543:(Lahore: Ashraf 1978); Erwin I. J. Rosenthal, 3674: 2688:(Paris 1970; Princeton Univ. 1977) at 105-106. 2684:(Paris: François Maspero 1970), translated as 1832:Ibn Rushd of Córdoba, detail from the fresco " 1710: 1204:tribes, whose support worked to establish the 6447: 6042:Assembly of the Representatives of the People 5622: 4927:History of the Maghrib. An interpretive essay 4899:Abu Zakariya later was also known as Yahya I. 4228:"Almohad" is from the Spanish for the Arabic 4206:(San Francisco: HarperCollins 1989) at 38-39. 3889:Abulafia, "The Norman Kingdom of Africa", 27. 3880:Abulafia, "The Norman Kingdom of Africa", 29. 3824:I. Hrbek, "The emergence of the Fatimids" in 3616:(1996) at 120-126, 130, 131-132; cf., 135 ff. 3457:(Oxford: Blackwell 1995) at 180-201, 180-185. 3442:Tribes and State Formation in the Middle East 3399:Tribes and State Formation in the Middle East 3048:writing was more common in the ancient world. 1464: 1396:where they had been pasturing their animals. 1005: 496: 5539:(Leipzig 1959), translated by Fuad Baali as 5479:(Leipzig 1959), translated by Fuad Baali as 3627:History of early Islamic Tunisia#Berber rôle 2303:, who not only managed the staff collecting 2018: 5585:(London 1981) at 215-222. Compare: Laroui, 4923:L'Histoire du Maghreb: Un essai de synthese 4219:(Princeton Univ. 1969) at 3, 41, 48-49, 92. 3525:, hence a short tunic. Brent and Fentress, 3481:L'Histoire du Maghreb: Un essai de synthèse 3401:(Univ.of California 1990) at 74-108, 85-90. 2750:(Paris 1931, 1961; London 1970) at 133-135. 2682:L'Histoire du Maghreb. Un essai de synthese 2323:, which included the order and security of 1866:, as well as the Maliki jurists, survived. 1771:(in eastern Algeria), ruled by the Sanhaja 1618: 1533: 608:The Coat of Arms of the Republic of Tunisia 6454: 6440: 5629: 5615: 4097:The Political Awakening of the Middle East 3342:(Jena: Eugen Diederichs Verlag 1921–1924). 1880: 1623: 1303:Berber confederacy of the central Magrib, 1258: 703: 503: 489: 6037:National Council of Regions and Districts 4141:(HarperSanFrancisco 1989) at 335, and 39. 3970:(Paris 1931, 1961; London 1970) at 66-72. 3205:. Cambridge University. pp. 8–9, 10. 3200: 1963:). Diplomatic relations were opened with 644:Berbers. Concurrently, the Sunni Umayyad 589:, specifically of the more controversial 6059:Independent High Authority for Elections 4929:(Princeton Univ. 1977) at 178, 182, 195. 4571:A History of the Jews in Christian Spain 4020: 3998: 3340:Volksmärchen und Volksdichtungen Afrikas 3153:for writing their language Tamachek. In 3102: 2421: 2236: 2208: 2090: 2000: 1827: 1815:Ibn Tumart had refused to recognize the 1723:Following the Mahdi Ibn Tumart's death, 1714: 1662: 1537: 1398: 1267: 1100: 941: 732: 603: 5559:(1970, 1977) at 218-223; Cyril Glassé, 4558:A History of Medieval Jewish Philosophy 3418:section of History of medieval Tunisia. 3190:now enjoys official status in Morocco. 3186:(1996) at 281. Evidently, a variant of 2782:, "The Berber Languages" at 96-118, in 1904: 1810: 1506:), holding to their religion since the 1319:(972−1148); and for western lands the 708: 6858: 5555:by Franz Rosenthal); Abdullah Laroui, 5541:Ibn Khaldun's Science of Human Culture 5481:Ibn Khaldun's Science of Human Culture 4552:in 1148, eventually finding safety in 4262:(Princeton Univ. 1969) at 3-11, 25-26. 3809: 3575:(Oxford Univ. 1972) at 26, 30, citing 2759: 2086: 1434:, located mostly in southwest Arabia. 1331:and from the other Berbers, e.g., the 577:, for the next half millennium Berber 6461: 6435: 5610: 5424:Ibn Khaldun's Science of Human Nature 4598:(Cornell Univ. 1975) at 234, 245-249. 4154:(Princeton University 1969) at 11-15. 4079:region, in the pre-Sahara of Algeria. 3944:(Cambridge University 1971) at 84-86. 2388:did not extend into the countryside. 2348:, but not quality of goods nor price 2204: 1356:traders of the rising city-states of 1263: 1243:. Accordingly, it was from among the 568: 6416: 5636: 4886:at 102, 108, 115, 120, 141; Laroui, 4880:The Almohad Movement in North Africa 4863:The Almohad Movement in North Africa 4844:(San Francisco 1989, 1991) at 38-39. 4663:(Princeton Univ. 1969) at 48-57, 92. 4594:(southern Spain). Joseph Callaghan, 4277:The Almohad Movement in North Africa 2720:, but a new entity. Américo Castro, 2473: 2391:Beginning in the 13th century, from 2170:, in volume 41 of his encyclopedia. 2013:) and neighboring states, circa 1400 1951:(1234) to the east, and to the west 1584:began as an Islamic movement of the 1239:(1130–1269), later supported by the 656:and instead came to be the prize of 15: 6406: 5545:Political Thought in Medieval Islam 5513:Ibn Khaldun's Philosophy of History 5460:Political Thought in Medieval Islam 5440:Ibn Khaldun's Philosophy of History 5416:Ibn Khaldun's Philosophy of History 5079:Ibn Khaldun's Philosophy of History 4912:(Paris: 1952; London: 1970) at 141. 4167:(HarperSanFrancisco 1989) at 39-40. 3700:(1986) at 34 (Fatamid), 36 (Zirid). 3031:. Brent and Fentress (1996) at 220. 2658:(1970, 1977) at 134, 138, 141, 147. 2606:(1986) pp. 28-29, 34, 36-37, 39-40. 1909:Abu Hafs 'Umar Inti was one of the 903: 581:enjoyed self-rule (1048−1574). The 13: 5285:Algiers in the Age of the Corsairs 4818:(Princeton Univ. 1977) at 186-192. 4771:(Princeton Univ. 1977) at 188-189. 3444:(Univ.of California 1990) at 1-22. 3334:Leo Frobenius and Douglas C. Fox, 3125:(written left to right), from the 3085:, 218-201. Fischer also reports a 2417: 2162:and poetry are found discussed by 1699:narrow legalism then common among 14: 6882: 5595: 5583:Ibn Khaldun in Modern Scholarship 5561:The Concise Encyclopedia of Islam 5499:means "the nature of the group" . 5420:The Concise Encyclopedia of Islam 5133:at 211-212 (Banu Hilal), cf. 216. 5067:at II:269), which is now extinct. 4204:The Concise Encyclopedia of Islam 4165:The Concise Encyclopedia of Islam 4139:The Concise Encyclopedia of Islam 4004: 3839:Ibn Khaldun in Modern Scholarship 3157:it is also widely written by the 2168:Muta'at al-Asma' fi 'ilm al-sama' 1990:(r.1249-1277), was recognised as 6762:Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic 6532:Democratic Republic of the Congo 6415: 6405: 6396: 6395: 5806: 5570: 5522: 5502: 5469: 5429: 5405: 5392: 5379: 5366: 5353: 5350:(Oxford Univ. 2003) at 114, 213. 5340: 5315: 5303: 5290: 5277: 5264: 5231: 5218: 5205: 5192: 5175: 5162: 5149: 5136: 5123: 5110: 5097: 5084: 5070: 5053: 5040: 5027: 5014: 5001: 4984: 4971: 4958: 4945: 4932: 4915: 4902: 4893: 4872: 4847: 4834: 4821: 4804: 4787: 4774: 4761: 4748: 4735: 4722: 4709: 4696: 4679: 4666: 4653: 4640: 4631: 4614: 4601: 4576: 4563: 4534: 4521: 4504: 4484: 4471: 4458: 4445: 4428: 4415: 4402: 4389: 4376: 4363: 4350: 4337: 4320: 4311:Le Livre de Mohammed Ibn Toumert 4303: 4282: 4265: 4252: 4239: 4222: 3601:The Berbers in Arabic Literature 3466:Generally, Marshall D. Sahlins, 2867:(Stanford Univ. 1987) at 92, 93. 2865:A Guide to the World's Languages 2527:Umayyad conquest of North Africa 2029:, composed of the chief Almohad 1873:; in Ifriqiya (Tunisia), by the 1615:, formerly ruled by the Zirids. 472: 461: 88: 20: 5376:(Oxford Univ. 2004) at 197-198. 4842:A Concise Encyclopedia of Islam 4782:A Concise Encyclopedia of Islam 4648:The Normans in European History 4590:), but also for Muslim rule in 4209: 4196: 4183: 4170: 4157: 4144: 4123: 4102: 4082: 4057: 3981:"Conquest of Tunis by Roger II" 3973: 3960: 3947: 3934: 3921: 3905: 3892: 3883: 3874: 3861: 3844: 3831: 3818: 3810:Julien, Charles-Andre (1970) . 3803: 3790: 3777: 3764: 3751: 3738: 3729: 3716: 3703: 3690: 3667:Generally, Jamil M. Abun-Nasr, 3645: 3632: 3619: 3606: 3593: 3565: 3545: 3532: 3507: 3494: 3473: 3460: 3447: 3434: 3421: 3404: 3391: 3378: 3365: 3345: 3328: 3312: 3295: 3282: 3269: 3256: 3243: 3222: 3209: 3194: 3096: 3071: 3051: 3034: 3014: 2998: 2957: 2928: 2900: 2887: 2870: 2853: 2832: 2818: 2789: 2773: 2753: 2740: 2727: 2705: 2691: 2426:Statue of Ibn Khaldoun in Tunis 1691:or ideologists, as well as his 1367: 1153:of southern Morocco (the south 5348:The Oxford Dictionary of Islam 4801:(Princeton Univ. 1977) at 201. 3852:The Berbers in Arab Literature 3671:(Cambridge Univ. 1971) at 8-9. 2674: 2661: 2648: 2635: 2622: 2609: 2596: 2587: 2574: 2406: 1939:, then in 1226 as governor of 1406:in genealogical scheme of the 1: 4584:Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa 4548:, then thirteen, had to flee 4309:His writing are contained in 4273:Revival of Religious Sciences 4108:Predominantly Berbers of the 3491:(Princeton Univ. 1977) at 64. 2971:, derives in the Afroasiatic 2632:and the text following below. 2568: 2166:(1184–1253) of Tunis, in his 1917:movement , circa 1121. These 1855:. The Sufi master theologian 1422:lore the Banu Hilal's leader 1090:(994-1064) as well as Berber 5602:The Norman kingdom of Africa 3201:Abun-Nasr, Jamil M. (1971). 2967:, more accurately in French 2430:A major social philosopher, 2403:raiding activity commenced. 1573:, strict fundamentalists of 1157:) and the western Sahara to 1145:on the coast west of modern 7: 6866:Medieval history of Tunisia 6124:Water supply and sanitation 4596:A History of Medieval Spain 4099:(Prentice-Hall 1970) at 30. 3726:(1996) at 130-132, 134-135. 3375:(1970, 1977) at 55, 60, 65. 3249:Barbara F. Grimes, editor, 3167:Brent and Fentress (1996). 3063:Brent and Fentress (1996). 3021:Brent and Fentress (1996). 2515: 2281:(Annaba) (in Algeria); and 2241:Modern reconstruction of a 2005:Hafsid Ifriqiya (including 1711:Empire of a unified Maghrib 1644:of Morocco, who became the 1177:Berbers of Morocco, in the 1062:, from which a prehistoric 885:- (Morocco, Algeria, & 10: 6887: 5587:The History of the Maghrib 5557:The History of the Maghrib 4816:The History of the Maghrib 4799:The History of the Maghrib 4769:The History of the Maghrib 4687:The History of the Maghrib 4674:The History of the Maghrib 4371:The History of the Maghrib 4358:The History of the Maghrib 3869:The History of the Maghrib 3489:The History of the Maghrib 3429:The History of the Maghrib 3373:The History of the Maghrib 2656:The History of the Maghrib 2508:In the later books of the 2410: 2107:After an hiatus under the 2100:'jurisdiction' in current 1775:. His armies next entered 1530:("the Latin of Africa";). 1468: 1465:Normans in coastal Tunisia 1046:, Punico-Berber, Berber). 1042:); and, Linguistic (e.g., 1006:Berber tribal affiliations 6775: 6750: 6469: 6391: 6312: 6189: 6180: 6082: 6073: 5944:President of the Republic 5939: 5930: 5828:Administrative divisions 5824: 5815: 5804: 5648: 5565:General History of Africa 5400:A History of North Africa 5361:A History of North Africa 5215:(Oxford Univ. 1971) at 87 5146:at 145-146 (Beni Sulaim). 4890:at 179-180, 183-184, 188. 3826:General History of Africa 3236:(found at the top of the 1169:. The descendants of the 949:language family. Outside 852:Central Morocco Tamazight 832:Northern Berber languages 672:by the Sunni). Professor 35:toward certain viewpoints 6517:Central African Republic 5781:2013–14 political crisis 5756:Independence declaration 5213:The Sufi Orders in Islam 5200:A History of the Maghrib 5118:A History of the Maghrib 5105:A History of the Maghrib 5037:(1952, 1970) at 147-151. 5022:A History of the Maghrib 4829:A History of the Maghrib 4743:A History of the Maghrib 4730:A History of the Maghrib 4704:A History of the Maghrib 4676:(1970, 1977) at 186-187. 4609:A History of the Maghrib 4516:A History of the Maghrib 4479:A History of the Maghrib 4453:A History of the Maghrib 4440:A History of the Maghrib 4423:A History of the Maghrib 4410:A History of the Maghrib 4384:A History of the Maghrib 4373:(1970, 1977) at 179-180. 4360:(1970, 1977) at 178-179. 4332:A History of the Maghrib 4247:A History of the Maghrib 4234:A History of the Maghrib 4191:A History of the Maghrib 4178:A History of the Maghrib 4118:A History of the Maghrib 4052:A History of the Maghrib 3942:A History of the Maghrib 3929:A History of the Maghrib 3746:A History of the Maghrib 3669:A History of the Maghrib 3640:A History of the Maghrib 3362:(Penguin 1963) at 55-56. 3217:Tunisia. A Country Study 3203:A History of the Maghrib 2827:Tunisia. A country study 2669:A History of the Maghrib 2617:A History of the Maghrib 2344:to rural people, honest 2126:. This opened up Maliki 2033:. Next in order was the 1843:The Muslim philosophers 1619:Almohads (al-Muwahiddin) 1534:Berber Islamic movements 1487:Indeed, the Norman king 519:(Tunisia and the entire 6092:Central Bank of Tunisia 5298:History of North Africa 5226:History of North Africa 5170:History of North Africa 5144:History of North Africa 5120:(1971) at 129, 144-145. 5035:History of North Africa 5009:History of the Crusades 4992:History of North Africa 4979:History of North Africa 4940:History of North Africa 4910:History of North Africa 4884:History of North Africa 4867:History of North Africa 4865:at 67-68; cf., Julien, 3968:History of North Africa 3900:History of North Africa 3812:History of North Africa 3772:History of North Africa 3655:(12th ed. 1992) at 307. 3513:Singular of Baranis is 2748:History of North Africa 2376:did not hear contested 2372:held the position. The 1881:Hafsid dynasty of Tunis 1624:Mahdi of the Unitarians 1259:Zirid Berber succession 993:, as well as along the 704:Berber language history 6871:Medieval Islamic world 5796:25 July 2021 self-coup 5791:2021 Tunisian protests 5786:2018 Tunisian protests 5387:History of the Maghrib 5131:History of the Maghrib 4888:History of the Maghrib 4810:Cf., Abdallah Laroui, 4626:Italy. A Short History 4093:Modern Trends in Islam 3761:(1986) at 36 & 39. 3431:(1970, 1977) at 64-66. 3138: 3077:Steven Roger Fischer, 2737:(Westview 1986) at 49. 2702:(Westview 1986) at 49. 2427: 2311:hardware, and jewels. 2246: 2219:Saharan-Sudanese trade 2214: 2104: 2079:incorporated into the 2014: 1889:(1230–1574) succeeded 1840: 1720: 1668: 1600:(south of Morocco) to 1546: 1485: 1410: 1276: 1106: 1074:being the grandson of 974: 738: 609: 176:Byzantine North Africa 6677:São Tomé and Príncipe 6537:Republic of the Congo 4812:L'Histoire du Maghreb 4795:L'Histoire du Maghreb 4624:rule began. Hearder, 4330:(Almohad). Abun-Nasr 4120:(1971) at 92-96, 101. 3814:. pp. 68, 72–74. 3573:Saharan Myth and Saga 3470:(Prentice-Hall 1968). 3277:Afroasiatic. A Survey 3106: 3042:Afroasiatic. A Survey 2813:Afroasiatic. A Survey 2784:Afroasiatic. A Survey 2425: 2240: 2212: 2094: 2004: 1831: 1718: 1666: 1557:(1056–1147), and the 1541: 1514:in a few places like 1481: 1402: 1271: 1212:(973-1160) were also 1104: 989:region, and near the 945: 736: 607: 172:2nd Roman (Byzantine) 5896:World Heritage Sites 5766:Republic declaration 5739:naturalization issue 5549:The Venture of Islam 5363:(1952, 1970) at 158. 5181:Benjamin M. Liu and 4966:The Venture of Islam 4756:The Almohad Movement 4556:Egypt. Isaac Husik, 4529:The Almohad Movement 4499:The Venture of Islam 4466:The Almohad Movement 4455:(1970, 1977) at 169. 4397:The Almohad Movement 4345:The Almohad Movement 4298:The Almohad Movement 4217:The Almohad Movement 4009:. malta.academia.edu 3787:(1986) at 40-41, 42. 3722:Brett and Fentress, 3683:Brett and Fentress, 3612:Brett and Fentress, 3560:The Table of Nations 3538:Brett and Fentress, 3384:Brett and Fentress, 3180:A History of Writing 3079:A History of Writing 2983:which signifies the 2346:weights and measures 2134:was admitted in the 1905:Political chronology 1811:Religion and culture 1755:, and the island of 1428:Taghribat Bani Hilal 1054:North Africa by the 768:III. Berber Proper. 709:Result of migrations 646:Caliphate of Córdoba 627:Fatimids of Ifriqiya 442:Parliamentary system 139:12th C.–146 BC 6752:States with limited 5776:Tunisian revolution 5744:Protests of 9 April 5729:French protectorate 5491:means "the group", 4857:(r.1132-1163), his 4745:(1971) at 111, 114. 4659:Roger Le Tourneau, 4611:(1971) at 109, 111. 4334:(1971) at 105, 110. 4258:Roger Le Tourneau, 4150:Roger Le Tourneau, 2780:Joseph R. Applegate 2397:Society and culture 2087:Society and culture 1528:al-latini al-afriqi 1476:Normans from Sicily 1188:Medieval events in 985:island, around the 925:and in Berber with 625:revolt. Later, the 432:Tunisian revolution 41:improve the article 6163:Traditional crafts 6141:Telecommunications 6102:Banking in Tunisia 5761:Kingdom of Tunisia 5346:John L. Esposito, 5024:(1971) at 229-231. 4754:Cf., Le Tourneau, 4732:(1971) at 114-118. 4386:(1971) at 105-106. 4236:(1971) at 105 n.1. 4116:tribe. Abun-Nasr, 3687:(1996) at 131-132. 3410:See subsection on 3360:The Jugurthine War 3356:Bellum Iugurthinum 3323:Moorish Literature 3139: 2882:Afrasian Languages 2582:History of Tunisia 2522:History of Tunisia 2428: 2269:(all in Tunisia); 2247: 2215: 2205:Commerce and trade 2105: 2065:Louis IX of France 2015: 1841: 1721: 1669: 1567:including Ifriqiya 1547: 1524:Muhammad al-Idrisi 1510:, still spoke the 1489:Roger II of Sicily 1424:Abu Zayd al-Hilali 1411: 1277: 1264:Under the Fatimids 1107: 975: 969:(after 632). Then 810:region). |Sanhaja| 739: 610: 569:Berber sovereignty 479:History portal 392:Kingdom of Tunisia 6853: 6852: 6779:other territories 6552:Equatorial Guinea 6463:History of Africa 6429: 6428: 6387: 6386: 6358:National symbols 6176: 6175: 6119:Natural resources 6069: 6068: 6049:Political parties 6005:Foreign relations 5926: 5925: 5916:Tunisian diaspora 5749:Tunisian campaign 5734:National movement 5487:means "to bind", 5050:(1986) at 48-52. 5007:Steven Runciman, 4921:Abdallah Laroui, 4793:Abdallah Laroui, 4767:Abdallah Laroui, 4588:Muhammad an-Nasir 4279:(1969) at 6-8, 14 3588:Völkerwanderungen 3479:Abdallah Laroui, 3067:. pp. 39–40. 2895:Berber background 2848:La langue Berbère 2766:La langue berbère 2680:Abdullah Laroui, 2543:Fatimid Caliphate 2495:His seven-volume 2474:Social philosophy 2227:trading practices 1955:(1235) and later 1927:Muhammad an-Nasir 1471:Kingdom of Africa 1382:Abbasid Caliphate 1305:Buluggin ibn Ziri 1206:Fatimid Caliphate 963:Semitic languages 650:Fatimid Caliphate 532:Fatimid Caliphate 513: 512: 468:Africa portal 453: 452: 363: 362: 326: 325: 269: 268: 212: 211: 116: 115: 62: 61: 6878: 6840: 6839:(United Kingdom) 6835:Tristan da Cunha 6831:Ascension Island 6823: 6810: 6801: 6777:Dependencies and 6470:Sovereign states 6456: 6449: 6442: 6433: 6432: 6419: 6418: 6409: 6408: 6399: 6398: 6204:Higher education 6187: 6186: 6080: 6079: 5978:Fundamental Pact 5937: 5936: 5822: 5821: 5810: 5771:1987 coup d'état 5712:Regency of Tunis 5702:Medieval history 5697:Byzantine Empire 5670:Ancient Carthage 5631: 5624: 5617: 5608: 5607: 5590: 5574: 5568: 5526: 5520: 5506: 5500: 5475:Heinrich Simon, 5473: 5467: 5433: 5427: 5409: 5403: 5396: 5390: 5383: 5377: 5370: 5364: 5357: 5351: 5344: 5338: 5319: 5313: 5307: 5301: 5294: 5288: 5281: 5275: 5268: 5262: 5237:Cf., E. Ashtor, 5235: 5229: 5222: 5216: 5209: 5203: 5196: 5190: 5179: 5173: 5166: 5160: 5153: 5147: 5140: 5134: 5127: 5121: 5114: 5108: 5101: 5095: 5092:Venture of Islam 5088: 5082: 5074: 5068: 5065:Venture of Islam 5057: 5051: 5044: 5038: 5031: 5025: 5018: 5012: 5005: 4999: 4988: 4982: 4975: 4969: 4962: 4956: 4949: 4943: 4942:at 141-142, 154. 4936: 4930: 4919: 4913: 4906: 4900: 4897: 4891: 4876: 4870: 4851: 4845: 4838: 4832: 4825: 4819: 4808: 4802: 4791: 4785: 4778: 4772: 4765: 4759: 4758:(1969) at 94-96. 4752: 4746: 4739: 4733: 4726: 4720: 4713: 4707: 4700: 4694: 4683: 4677: 4670: 4664: 4657: 4651: 4644: 4638: 4635: 4629: 4618: 4612: 4605: 4599: 4580: 4574: 4567: 4561: 4546:Moshe ben Maimon 4538: 4532: 4531:(1969) at 25-26. 4525: 4519: 4512:amir al-mu'minin 4508: 4502: 4488: 4482: 4475: 4469: 4462: 4456: 4449: 4443: 4432: 4426: 4419: 4413: 4406: 4400: 4393: 4387: 4380: 4374: 4367: 4361: 4354: 4348: 4347:(1969) at 31-34. 4341: 4335: 4324: 4318: 4307: 4301: 4300:(1969) at 28-29. 4286: 4280: 4269: 4263: 4256: 4250: 4243: 4237: 4226: 4220: 4213: 4207: 4200: 4194: 4187: 4181: 4174: 4168: 4161: 4155: 4148: 4142: 4127: 4121: 4106: 4100: 4086: 4080: 4075:now live in the 4071:remnants of the 4061: 4055: 4048: 4039: 4038: 4036: 4035: 4024: 4018: 4017: 4015: 4014: 4005:Dalli, Charles. 4002: 3996: 3995: 3993: 3992: 3983:. Archived from 3977: 3971: 3964: 3958: 3951: 3945: 3938: 3932: 3925: 3919: 3909: 3903: 3896: 3890: 3887: 3881: 3878: 3872: 3865: 3859: 3848: 3842: 3835: 3829: 3822: 3816: 3815: 3807: 3801: 3794: 3788: 3781: 3775: 3768: 3762: 3755: 3749: 3742: 3736: 3733: 3727: 3720: 3714: 3707: 3701: 3694: 3688: 3681: 3672: 3665: 3656: 3649: 3643: 3636: 3630: 3623: 3617: 3610: 3604: 3597: 3591: 3569: 3563: 3549: 3543: 3536: 3530: 3511: 3505: 3498: 3492: 3477: 3471: 3464: 3458: 3451: 3445: 3438: 3432: 3425: 3419: 3408: 3402: 3395: 3389: 3388:(1989) at 41-42. 3382: 3376: 3369: 3363: 3349: 3343: 3332: 3326: 3316: 3310: 3299: 3293: 3286: 3280: 3273: 3267: 3260: 3254: 3247: 3241: 3238:Berber languages 3232:) on the map of 3226: 3220: 3219:(3rd ed., 1986). 3213: 3207: 3206: 3198: 3192: 3172: 3127:Tarifit language 3100: 3094: 3083:Second Punic War 3075: 3069: 3068: 3055: 3049: 3038: 3032: 3026: 3018: 3012: 3002: 2996: 2977:triliteral roots 2963:Its modern name 2961: 2955: 2952:dialect continua 2936:Berber languages 2932: 2926: 2904: 2898: 2891: 2885: 2884:(1988) at 19-20. 2874: 2868: 2857: 2851: 2836: 2830: 2822: 2816: 2809: 2800: 2793: 2787: 2777: 2771: 2770: 2757: 2751: 2744: 2738: 2731: 2725: 2709: 2703: 2695: 2689: 2678: 2672: 2665: 2659: 2652: 2646: 2645:(1986) at 39-40. 2639: 2633: 2626: 2620: 2619:(1971) at 83-84. 2613: 2607: 2600: 2594: 2591: 2585: 2578: 2164:Ahmad al-Tifashi 1834:School of Athens 1822:Abu Yusuf Ya'qub 1801:Balearic Islands 1640:Berber from the 1549:In the medieval 1455:Berber languages 1237:Almohad movement 1086:(1332–1406) and 1078:through his son 904:Script, writings 715:Berber languages 695:Tunis under the 505: 498: 491: 477: 476: 475: 466: 465: 464: 449: 378: 377: 341: 340: 284: 283: 227: 226: 208: 203: 194: 189: 156:146 BC–435 153: 131: 130: 105: 104: 92: 82: 64: 63: 57: 54: 48: 24: 23: 16: 6886: 6885: 6881: 6880: 6879: 6877: 6876: 6875: 6856: 6855: 6854: 6849: 6848: 6838: 6821: 6808: 6799: 6780: 6778: 6771: 6755: 6753: 6746: 6465: 6460: 6430: 6425: 6383: 6367:National anthem 6308: 6304:Public holidays 6216:Tunisian Arabic 6172: 6087:Bourse de Tunis 6065: 5922: 5811: 5802: 5707:Muslim conquest 5663:Capsian culture 5644: 5635: 5598: 5593: 5575: 5571: 5527: 5523: 5507: 5503: 5474: 5470: 5456:Erwin Rosenthal 5434: 5430: 5410: 5406: 5397: 5393: 5384: 5380: 5372:Knut S. Vikor, 5371: 5367: 5358: 5354: 5345: 5341: 5321:Knut S. Vikor, 5320: 5316: 5308: 5304: 5295: 5291: 5287:(1976) at 8-11. 5282: 5278: 5269: 5265: 5236: 5232: 5223: 5219: 5210: 5206: 5197: 5193: 5183:James T. Monroe 5180: 5176: 5167: 5163: 5154: 5150: 5141: 5137: 5128: 5124: 5115: 5111: 5102: 5098: 5089: 5085: 5075: 5071: 5058: 5054: 5045: 5041: 5032: 5028: 5019: 5015: 5006: 5002: 4989: 4985: 4976: 4972: 4963: 4959: 4950: 4946: 4937: 4933: 4920: 4916: 4907: 4903: 4898: 4894: 4877: 4873: 4852: 4848: 4839: 4835: 4826: 4822: 4809: 4805: 4792: 4788: 4779: 4775: 4766: 4762: 4753: 4749: 4740: 4736: 4727: 4723: 4714: 4710: 4701: 4697: 4684: 4680: 4671: 4667: 4658: 4654: 4645: 4641: 4636: 4632: 4619: 4615: 4606: 4602: 4581: 4577: 4568: 4564: 4539: 4535: 4526: 4522: 4509: 4505: 4489: 4485: 4476: 4472: 4463: 4459: 4450: 4446: 4433: 4429: 4420: 4416: 4407: 4403: 4394: 4390: 4381: 4377: 4368: 4364: 4355: 4351: 4342: 4338: 4325: 4321: 4315:Ignaz Goldziher 4308: 4304: 4296:. Le Tourneau, 4287: 4283: 4270: 4266: 4257: 4253: 4244: 4240: 4227: 4223: 4214: 4210: 4201: 4197: 4188: 4184: 4175: 4171: 4162: 4158: 4149: 4145: 4128: 4124: 4107: 4103: 4087: 4083: 4062: 4058: 4049: 4042: 4033: 4031: 4026: 4025: 4021: 4012: 4010: 4003: 3999: 3990: 3988: 3979: 3978: 3974: 3965: 3961: 3952: 3948: 3939: 3935: 3926: 3922: 3910: 3906: 3897: 3893: 3888: 3884: 3879: 3875: 3866: 3862: 3849: 3845: 3836: 3832: 3823: 3819: 3808: 3804: 3795: 3791: 3782: 3778: 3769: 3765: 3756: 3752: 3743: 3739: 3734: 3730: 3721: 3717: 3708: 3704: 3695: 3691: 3682: 3675: 3666: 3659: 3650: 3646: 3637: 3633: 3624: 3620: 3611: 3607: 3598: 3594: 3570: 3566: 3556:Book of Genesis 3552:Book of Genesis 3550: 3546: 3537: 3533: 3512: 3508: 3499: 3495: 3478: 3474: 3465: 3461: 3452: 3448: 3439: 3435: 3426: 3422: 3409: 3405: 3396: 3392: 3383: 3379: 3370: 3366: 3350: 3346: 3336:African Genesis 3333: 3329: 3317: 3313: 3301:E.g., the poet 3300: 3296: 3287: 3283: 3274: 3270: 3261: 3257: 3248: 3244: 3227: 3223: 3214: 3210: 3199: 3195: 3145:of the central 3107:"Stop" sign in 3101: 3097: 3076: 3072: 3056: 3052: 3039: 3035: 3019: 3015: 3003: 2999: 2962: 2958: 2933: 2929: 2905: 2901: 2892: 2888: 2878:I. M. Diakonoff 2875: 2871: 2858: 2854: 2837: 2833: 2823: 2819: 2810: 2803: 2794: 2790: 2778: 2774: 2758: 2754: 2745: 2741: 2732: 2728: 2710: 2706: 2696: 2692: 2679: 2675: 2666: 2662: 2653: 2649: 2640: 2636: 2627: 2623: 2614: 2610: 2601: 2597: 2592: 2588: 2579: 2575: 2571: 2553:Almohad dynasty 2518: 2484:social cohesion 2476: 2420: 2418:Life and career 2415: 2409: 2382:debtor's prison 2291:customs service 2207: 2089: 1907: 1883: 1813: 1713: 1642:Atlas Mountains 1636:(1077–1130), a 1626: 1621: 1536: 1512:African Romance 1473: 1467: 1370: 1266: 1261: 1251:(1227–1574) of 1008: 967:spread of Islam 906: 711: 706: 674:Abdallah Laroui 571: 509: 473: 471: 462: 460: 455: 454: 447: 426:1987–2011 406:1957–1987 396:1956–1957 386:1881–1956 375: 365: 364: 359:1705–1881 349:1574–1705 338: 328: 327: 322:1229–1574 312:1160–1229 302:1148–1160 281: 271: 270: 224: 214: 213: 206: 199: 192: 185: 147: 128: 118: 117: 102: 80: 73: 58: 52: 49: 38: 25: 21: 12: 11: 5: 6884: 6874: 6873: 6868: 6851: 6850: 6847: 6846: 6844:Western Sahara 6841: 6824: 6811: 6802: 6788:Canary Islands 6784: 6783: 6781: 6776: 6773: 6772: 6770: 6769: 6764: 6758: 6756: 6751: 6748: 6747: 6745: 6744: 6739: 6734: 6729: 6724: 6719: 6714: 6709: 6704: 6699: 6694: 6689: 6684: 6679: 6674: 6669: 6664: 6659: 6654: 6649: 6644: 6639: 6634: 6629: 6624: 6619: 6614: 6609: 6604: 6599: 6594: 6589: 6584: 6579: 6574: 6569: 6564: 6559: 6554: 6549: 6544: 6539: 6534: 6529: 6524: 6519: 6514: 6509: 6504: 6499: 6494: 6489: 6484: 6479: 6473: 6471: 6467: 6466: 6459: 6458: 6451: 6444: 6436: 6427: 6426: 6424: 6423: 6413: 6403: 6392: 6389: 6388: 6385: 6384: 6382: 6381: 6380: 6379: 6374: 6369: 6364: 6356: 6351: 6350: 6349: 6339: 6338: 6337: 6332: 6327: 6318: 6316: 6310: 6309: 6307: 6306: 6301: 6296: 6295: 6294: 6289: 6284: 6274: 6273: 6272: 6267: 6262: 6252: 6251: 6250: 6245: 6240: 6235: 6233:Radio stations 6230: 6220: 6219: 6218: 6208: 6207: 6206: 6201: 6190: 6184: 6178: 6177: 6174: 6173: 6171: 6170: 6168:Major projects 6165: 6160: 6159: 6158: 6156:Rail transport 6153: 6143: 6138: 6133: 6128: 6127: 6126: 6121: 6111: 6106: 6105: 6104: 6099: 6097:Tunisian dinar 6094: 6083: 6077: 6071: 6070: 6067: 6066: 6064: 6063: 6062: 6061: 6051: 6046: 6045: 6044: 6039: 6029: 6028: 6027: 6022: 6017: 6007: 6002: 6001: 6000: 5995: 5990: 5985: 5980: 5970: 5969: 5968: 5963: 5956:Prime Minister 5953: 5952: 5951: 5940: 5934: 5928: 5927: 5924: 5923: 5921: 5920: 5919: 5918: 5913: 5903: 5898: 5893: 5892: 5891: 5881: 5880: 5879: 5874: 5869: 5864: 5859: 5854: 5846: 5845: 5844: 5839: 5834: 5825: 5819: 5813: 5812: 5805: 5803: 5801: 5800: 5799: 5798: 5793: 5788: 5783: 5773: 5768: 5763: 5758: 5753: 5752: 5751: 5746: 5741: 5736: 5726: 5725: 5724: 5719: 5709: 5704: 5699: 5694: 5693: 5692: 5687: 5682: 5672: 5667: 5666: 5665: 5654: 5652: 5646: 5645: 5634: 5633: 5626: 5619: 5611: 5605: 5604: 5597: 5596:External links 5594: 5592: 5591: 5569: 5521: 5501: 5468: 5428: 5404: 5391: 5385:E.g., Laroui, 5378: 5365: 5352: 5339: 5314: 5302: 5289: 5276: 5263: 5230: 5217: 5204: 5202:(1971) at 141. 5191: 5174: 5161: 5155:Cf., Perkins, 5148: 5135: 5122: 5109: 5107:(1971) at 150. 5096: 5083: 5069: 5052: 5039: 5026: 5013: 5000: 4983: 4970: 4957: 4944: 4931: 4914: 4901: 4892: 4871: 4855:'Abd al-Mu'min 4846: 4840:Cyril Grasse, 4833: 4831:(1971) at 119. 4820: 4803: 4786: 4780:Cyril Grasse, 4773: 4760: 4747: 4734: 4721: 4708: 4706:(1971) at 110. 4695: 4678: 4665: 4652: 4646:Cf., Haskins, 4639: 4630: 4628:at 55, 58, 68. 4613: 4600: 4575: 4562: 4533: 4520: 4518:(1971) at 111. 4503: 4483: 4481:(1971) at 104. 4470: 4457: 4444: 4427: 4425:(1971) at 106. 4414: 4412:(1971) at 104. 4401: 4388: 4375: 4362: 4349: 4336: 4319: 4302: 4281: 4264: 4251: 4238: 4221: 4208: 4202:Cyril Glassé, 4195: 4193:(1971) at 103. 4182: 4169: 4163:Cyril Glassé, 4156: 4143: 4122: 4101: 4081: 4056: 4054:(1971) at 119. 4040: 4019: 3997: 3972: 3959: 3946: 3933: 3920: 3904: 3891: 3882: 3873: 3860: 3850:H. T. Norris, 3843: 3830: 3817: 3802: 3789: 3776: 3763: 3750: 3737: 3728: 3715: 3713:(UNESCO 1992). 3702: 3689: 3673: 3657: 3644: 3631: 3618: 3605: 3592: 3564: 3544: 3542:(1996) at 131. 3531: 3506: 3504:(UNESCO 1992). 3493: 3472: 3459: 3446: 3433: 3420: 3416:Hafsid dynasty 3403: 3390: 3377: 3364: 3344: 3327: 3311: 3303:Muhammad Awzal 3294: 3281: 3268: 3255: 3242: 3230:Ghadames oasis 3221: 3208: 3193: 3163:their language 3095: 3070: 3050: 3033: 3013: 3005:David Diringer 2997: 2956: 2927: 2899: 2886: 2869: 2861:Merritt Ruhlen 2852: 2831: 2817: 2801: 2788: 2772: 2769:. Oxford Univ. 2752: 2739: 2726: 2704: 2690: 2673: 2660: 2647: 2634: 2621: 2608: 2602:cf., Perkins, 2595: 2586: 2572: 2570: 2567: 2566: 2565: 2560: 2558:Hafsid dynasty 2555: 2550: 2545: 2540: 2534: 2529: 2524: 2517: 2514: 2510:Kitab al-'Ibar 2497:Kitab al-'Ibar 2475: 2472: 2419: 2416: 2411:Main article: 2408: 2405: 2325:public markets 2206: 2203: 2088: 2085: 2081:Ottoman Empire 1906: 1903: 1887:Hafsid dynasty 1882: 1879: 1812: 1809: 1712: 1709: 1625: 1622: 1620: 1617: 1565:in the Magrib 1535: 1532: 1504:Roman Africans 1469:Main article: 1466: 1463: 1369: 1366: 1265: 1262: 1260: 1257: 1249:Hafsid dynasty 1149:, the nomadic 1036:nonassimilated 1007: 1004: 953:, marked here 905: 902: 895: 894: 893: 892: 891: 890: 877: 864: 828: 811: 798: 766: 753: 750:Canary Islands 710: 707: 705: 702: 573:Following the 570: 567: 511: 510: 508: 507: 500: 493: 485: 482: 481: 457: 456: 451: 450: 444: 438: 437: 434: 428: 427: 424: 418: 417: 414: 408: 407: 404: 402:Bourguiba rule 398: 397: 394: 388: 387: 384: 382:French Tunisia 376: 371: 370: 367: 366: 361: 360: 357: 351: 350: 347: 339: 334: 333: 330: 329: 324: 323: 320: 314: 313: 310: 304: 303: 300: 294: 293: 292:973–1148 290: 282: 277: 276: 273: 272: 267: 266: 263: 257: 256: 253: 247: 246: 243: 237: 236: 233: 225: 220: 219: 216: 215: 210: 209: 204: 196: 195: 190: 182: 181: 178: 168: 167: 164: 158: 157: 154: 141: 140: 137: 129: 124: 123: 120: 119: 114: 113: 111: 103: 98: 97: 94: 93: 85: 84: 75: 74: 67: 60: 59: 28: 26: 19: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6883: 6872: 6869: 6867: 6864: 6863: 6861: 6845: 6842: 6836: 6832: 6828: 6825: 6819: 6815: 6812: 6806: 6803: 6797: 6793: 6789: 6786: 6785: 6782: 6774: 6768: 6765: 6763: 6760: 6759: 6757: 6749: 6743: 6740: 6738: 6735: 6733: 6730: 6728: 6725: 6723: 6720: 6718: 6715: 6713: 6710: 6708: 6705: 6703: 6700: 6698: 6695: 6693: 6690: 6688: 6685: 6683: 6680: 6678: 6675: 6673: 6670: 6668: 6665: 6663: 6660: 6658: 6655: 6653: 6650: 6648: 6645: 6643: 6640: 6638: 6635: 6633: 6630: 6628: 6625: 6623: 6620: 6618: 6615: 6613: 6610: 6608: 6605: 6603: 6600: 6598: 6595: 6593: 6592:Guinea-Bissau 6590: 6588: 6585: 6583: 6580: 6578: 6575: 6573: 6570: 6568: 6565: 6563: 6560: 6558: 6555: 6553: 6550: 6548: 6545: 6543: 6540: 6538: 6535: 6533: 6530: 6528: 6525: 6523: 6520: 6518: 6515: 6513: 6510: 6508: 6505: 6503: 6500: 6498: 6495: 6493: 6490: 6488: 6485: 6483: 6480: 6478: 6475: 6474: 6472: 6468: 6464: 6457: 6452: 6450: 6445: 6443: 6438: 6437: 6434: 6422: 6414: 6412: 6404: 6402: 6394: 6393: 6390: 6378: 6375: 6373: 6370: 6368: 6365: 6363: 6360: 6359: 6357: 6355: 6352: 6348: 6345: 6344: 6343: 6340: 6336: 6333: 6331: 6328: 6326: 6323: 6322: 6320: 6319: 6317: 6315: 6311: 6305: 6302: 6300: 6297: 6293: 6290: 6288: 6285: 6283: 6280: 6279: 6278: 6275: 6271: 6268: 6266: 6263: 6261: 6258: 6257: 6256: 6253: 6249: 6246: 6244: 6241: 6239: 6236: 6234: 6231: 6229: 6226: 6225: 6224: 6221: 6217: 6214: 6213: 6212: 6209: 6205: 6202: 6200: 6199:Baccalaureate 6197: 6196: 6195: 6192: 6191: 6188: 6185: 6183: 6179: 6169: 6166: 6164: 6161: 6157: 6154: 6152: 6149: 6148: 6147: 6144: 6142: 6139: 6137: 6134: 6132: 6129: 6125: 6122: 6120: 6117: 6116: 6115: 6112: 6110: 6107: 6103: 6100: 6098: 6095: 6093: 6090: 6089: 6088: 6085: 6084: 6081: 6078: 6076: 6072: 6060: 6057: 6056: 6055: 6052: 6050: 6047: 6043: 6040: 6038: 6035: 6034: 6033: 6030: 6026: 6023: 6021: 6018: 6016: 6013: 6012: 6011: 6008: 6006: 6003: 5999: 5996: 5994: 5991: 5989: 5986: 5984: 5981: 5979: 5976: 5975: 5974: 5971: 5967: 5964: 5962: 5959: 5958: 5957: 5954: 5950: 5947: 5946: 5945: 5942: 5941: 5938: 5935: 5933: 5929: 5917: 5914: 5912: 5909: 5908: 5907: 5904: 5902: 5899: 5897: 5894: 5890: 5887: 5886: 5885: 5882: 5878: 5875: 5873: 5870: 5868: 5865: 5863: 5860: 5858: 5855: 5853: 5850: 5849: 5847: 5843: 5840: 5838: 5835: 5833: 5830: 5829: 5827: 5826: 5823: 5820: 5818: 5814: 5809: 5797: 5794: 5792: 5789: 5787: 5784: 5782: 5779: 5778: 5777: 5774: 5772: 5769: 5767: 5764: 5762: 5759: 5757: 5754: 5750: 5747: 5745: 5742: 5740: 5737: 5735: 5732: 5731: 5730: 5727: 5723: 5720: 5718: 5715: 5714: 5713: 5710: 5708: 5705: 5703: 5700: 5698: 5695: 5691: 5688: 5686: 5683: 5681: 5678: 5677: 5676: 5673: 5671: 5668: 5664: 5661: 5660: 5659: 5658:Early history 5656: 5655: 5653: 5651: 5647: 5643: 5639: 5632: 5627: 5625: 5620: 5618: 5613: 5612: 5609: 5603: 5600: 5599: 5588: 5584: 5580: 5579:genres de vie 5573: 5566: 5562: 5558: 5554: 5550: 5546: 5542: 5538: 5534: 5530: 5525: 5518: 5514: 5510: 5505: 5498: 5494: 5490: 5486: 5482: 5478: 5472: 5465: 5461: 5457: 5453: 5449: 5445: 5441: 5437: 5432: 5425: 5421: 5417: 5413: 5408: 5401: 5395: 5388: 5382: 5375: 5369: 5362: 5356: 5349: 5343: 5336: 5332: 5328: 5324: 5318: 5312: 5306: 5299: 5293: 5286: 5283:Wm. Spencer, 5280: 5273: 5267: 5260: 5256: 5252: 5248: 5244: 5240: 5234: 5227: 5221: 5214: 5208: 5201: 5195: 5188: 5184: 5178: 5171: 5165: 5159:(1986) at 53. 5158: 5152: 5145: 5139: 5132: 5126: 5119: 5113: 5106: 5100: 5093: 5087: 5080: 5073: 5066: 5062: 5056: 5049: 5043: 5036: 5030: 5023: 5017: 5010: 5004: 4997: 4993: 4987: 4980: 4974: 4967: 4961: 4954: 4948: 4941: 4935: 4928: 4924: 4918: 4911: 4905: 4896: 4889: 4885: 4881: 4878:Le Tourneau, 4875: 4868: 4864: 4860: 4856: 4850: 4843: 4837: 4830: 4824: 4817: 4813: 4807: 4800: 4796: 4790: 4783: 4777: 4770: 4764: 4757: 4751: 4744: 4738: 4731: 4725: 4719:(1986) at 44. 4718: 4712: 4705: 4699: 4692: 4688: 4682: 4675: 4669: 4662: 4656: 4649: 4643: 4634: 4627: 4623: 4617: 4610: 4604: 4597: 4593: 4589: 4585: 4579: 4572: 4566: 4559: 4555: 4551: 4547: 4543: 4537: 4530: 4527:Le Tourneau, 4524: 4517: 4514:. Abun-Nasr, 4513: 4507: 4500: 4496: 4493: 4487: 4480: 4474: 4468:(1969) at 14. 4467: 4461: 4454: 4448: 4442:(1971) at 99. 4441: 4437: 4431: 4424: 4418: 4411: 4405: 4399:(1969) at 20. 4398: 4395:Le Tourneau, 4392: 4385: 4379: 4372: 4366: 4359: 4353: 4346: 4343:Le Tourneau, 4340: 4333: 4329: 4323: 4316: 4312: 4306: 4299: 4295: 4291: 4288:An idea some 4285: 4278: 4274: 4268: 4261: 4255: 4248: 4242: 4235: 4232:. Abun-Nasr, 4231: 4230:al-Muwahhidun 4225: 4218: 4215:Le Tourneau, 4212: 4205: 4199: 4192: 4186: 4180:(1971) at 94. 4179: 4173: 4166: 4160: 4153: 4147: 4140: 4136: 4132: 4126: 4119: 4115: 4111: 4105: 4098: 4094: 4090: 4085: 4078: 4074: 4070: 4066: 4060: 4053: 4047: 4045: 4030:. treccani.it 4029: 4023: 4008: 4001: 3987:on 2011-09-27 3986: 3982: 3976: 3969: 3963: 3956: 3950: 3943: 3937: 3930: 3924: 3917: 3913: 3908: 3901: 3895: 3886: 3877: 3870: 3864: 3857: 3856:The Hilaliyya 3853: 3847: 3840: 3834: 3827: 3821: 3813: 3806: 3800:at 39-40, 41. 3799: 3793: 3786: 3780: 3773: 3767: 3760: 3754: 3747: 3741: 3732: 3725: 3719: 3712: 3706: 3699: 3693: 3686: 3680: 3678: 3670: 3664: 3662: 3654: 3648: 3641: 3635: 3628: 3622: 3615: 3609: 3602: 3596: 3589: 3586: 3582: 3578: 3574: 3568: 3561: 3557: 3553: 3548: 3541: 3535: 3528: 3524: 3520: 3517:, from which 3516: 3510: 3503: 3497: 3490: 3486: 3485:Ralph Manheim 3482: 3476: 3469: 3463: 3456: 3450: 3443: 3437: 3430: 3424: 3417: 3413: 3407: 3400: 3394: 3387: 3381: 3374: 3368: 3361: 3357: 3353: 3348: 3341: 3337: 3331: 3324: 3320: 3315: 3308: 3307:Arabic script 3304: 3298: 3291: 3285: 3278: 3272: 3265: 3262:Grimes, ed., 3259: 3252: 3246: 3239: 3235: 3231: 3225: 3218: 3212: 3204: 3197: 3191: 3189: 3185: 3181: 3177: 3171:. p. 37. 3170: 3164: 3160: 3156: 3152: 3148: 3144: 3136: 3132: 3128: 3124: 3121: 3117: 3114: 3110: 3105: 3099: 3092: 3088: 3084: 3080: 3074: 3066: 3060: 3054: 3047: 3043: 3037: 3030: 3025:. p. 37. 3024: 3017: 3010: 3006: 3001: 2994: 2990: 2986: 2982: 2978: 2974: 2970: 2966: 2960: 2953: 2949: 2945: 2941: 2937: 2931: 2924: 2920: 2916: 2912: 2908: 2903: 2896: 2890: 2883: 2879: 2873: 2866: 2862: 2856: 2849: 2845: 2841: 2835: 2828: 2821: 2814: 2808: 2806: 2798: 2792: 2785: 2781: 2776: 2768: 2765: 2762: 2761:Basset, André 2756: 2749: 2746:Cf., Julien, 2743: 2736: 2730: 2723: 2719: 2715: 2708: 2701: 2694: 2687: 2683: 2677: 2671:(1971) at 90. 2670: 2664: 2657: 2651: 2644: 2638: 2631: 2625: 2618: 2612: 2605: 2599: 2590: 2583: 2577: 2573: 2564: 2561: 2559: 2556: 2554: 2551: 2549: 2548:Zirid dynasty 2546: 2544: 2541: 2538: 2535: 2533: 2530: 2528: 2525: 2523: 2520: 2519: 2513: 2511: 2506: 2504: 2503: 2498: 2493: 2491: 2490: 2485: 2481: 2471: 2469: 2465: 2461: 2457: 2454:, eventually 2453: 2449: 2445: 2439: 2437: 2433: 2424: 2414: 2404: 2402: 2398: 2394: 2389: 2387: 2383: 2379: 2375: 2371: 2370: 2365: 2364: 2359: 2355: 2351: 2347: 2343: 2339: 2334: 2332: 2331: 2326: 2322: 2321: 2316: 2312: 2308: 2306: 2302: 2298: 2297: 2292: 2288: 2284: 2280: 2276: 2272: 2268: 2264: 2260: 2256: 2252: 2244: 2239: 2235: 2233: 2228: 2224: 2220: 2211: 2202: 2199: 2195: 2192: 2188: 2184: 2180: 2176: 2171: 2169: 2165: 2161: 2157: 2153: 2148: 2145: 2139: 2137: 2133: 2129: 2125: 2121: 2117: 2114: 2110: 2103: 2099: 2098: 2093: 2084: 2082: 2076: 2074: 2070: 2066: 2063:In 1270 King 2061: 2058: 2053: 2049: 2044: 2040: 2036: 2032: 2028: 2024: 2020: 2012: 2008: 2003: 1999: 1997: 1993: 1989: 1984: 1982: 1978: 1974: 1970: 1966: 1962: 1958: 1954: 1950: 1946: 1942: 1938: 1934: 1930: 1928: 1924: 1920: 1916: 1912: 1902: 1900: 1896: 1892: 1888: 1878: 1876: 1872: 1867: 1865: 1860: 1858: 1854: 1850: 1846: 1839: 1835: 1830: 1826: 1823: 1818: 1808: 1806: 1802: 1796: 1795:) continued. 1794: 1790: 1786: 1782: 1778: 1774: 1770: 1766: 1765:Abd al-Mu'min 1762: 1758: 1754: 1750: 1746: 1742: 1737: 1735: 1731: 1726: 1725:Abd al-Mu'min 1717: 1708: 1706: 1702: 1696: 1694: 1690: 1686: 1685:ahl al-'Ashra 1682: 1678: 1673: 1665: 1661: 1660:(1056–1147). 1659: 1655: 1651: 1647: 1643: 1639: 1635: 1631: 1616: 1614: 1610: 1605: 1603: 1599: 1595: 1591: 1587: 1583: 1578: 1576: 1572: 1568: 1564: 1560: 1556: 1552: 1544: 1540: 1531: 1529: 1525: 1521: 1517: 1513: 1509: 1505: 1500: 1498: 1494: 1490: 1484: 1480: 1477: 1472: 1462: 1460: 1456: 1453:. Use of the 1452: 1448: 1443: 1441: 1435: 1433: 1429: 1425: 1420: 1416: 1413:The arriving 1409: 1405: 1401: 1397: 1394: 1389: 1387: 1383: 1379: 1375: 1365: 1363: 1359: 1355: 1354:Mediterranean 1350: 1346: 1345:Saharan trade 1342: 1336: 1334: 1330: 1326: 1322: 1318: 1313: 1308: 1306: 1302: 1298: 1294: 1290: 1286: 1282: 1274: 1270: 1256: 1254: 1250: 1246: 1242: 1238: 1234: 1230: 1226: 1223: 1219: 1215: 1211: 1207: 1203: 1199: 1195: 1191: 1186: 1184: 1180: 1176: 1172: 1168: 1164: 1160: 1156: 1152: 1148: 1144: 1140: 1136: 1132: 1128: 1124: 1120: 1116: 1112: 1103: 1099: 1097: 1093: 1089: 1085: 1081: 1077: 1073: 1069: 1065: 1061: 1057: 1052: 1047: 1045: 1041: 1037: 1031: 1029: 1025: 1021: 1017: 1013: 1003: 1000: 996: 992: 988: 984: 980: 972: 968: 964: 960: 956: 952: 948: 944: 940: 938: 937: 932: 928: 924: 920: 915: 911: 901: 899: 888: 884: 883: 878: 875: 871: 870: 865: 862: 858: 854: 853: 849: 844: 840: 839: 837: 833: 829: 826: 822: 818: 817: 812: 809: 805: 804: 799: 796: 792: 788: 787: 783: 779: 774: 770: 769: 767: 764: 763:ancient Egypt 760: 759: 754: 751: 747: 746: 741: 740: 735: 731: 729: 724: 720: 717:(also called 716: 713:Twenty or so 701: 698: 693: 691: 687: 683: 679: 675: 671: 667: 661: 659: 655: 651: 647: 643: 638: 636: 632: 628: 624: 619: 615: 606: 602: 600: 596: 592: 588: 584: 580: 576: 566: 564: 560: 556: 552: 548: 543: 541: 540:Sunni Islamic 537: 533: 530: 526: 522: 518: 506: 501: 499: 494: 492: 487: 486: 484: 483: 480: 469: 459: 458: 445: 443: 440: 439: 435: 433: 430: 429: 425: 423: 420: 419: 415: 413: 410: 409: 405: 403: 400: 399: 395: 393: 390: 389: 385: 383: 380: 379: 374: 369: 368: 358: 356: 353: 352: 348: 346: 343: 342: 337: 332: 331: 321: 319: 316: 315: 311: 309: 306: 305: 301: 299: 296: 295: 291: 289: 286: 285: 280: 275: 274: 265:909–973 264: 262: 259: 258: 255:800–909 254: 252: 249: 248: 245:750–800 244: 242: 239: 238: 235:698–750 234: 232: 229: 228: 223: 222:Early Islamic 218: 217: 207:590–698 205: 202: 198: 197: 193:534–590 191: 188: 184: 183: 180:534–698 179: 177: 173: 170: 169: 166:435–534 165: 163: 160: 159: 155: 151: 146: 143: 142: 138: 136: 133: 132: 127: 122: 121: 112: 110: 107: 106: 101: 96: 95: 91: 87: 86: 83: 77: 76: 71: 66: 65: 56: 53:February 2023 46: 42: 36: 34: 29:This article 27: 18: 17: 6827:Saint Helena 6798: 6702:South Africa 6692:Sierra Leone 6497:Burkina Faso 6372:Coat of arms 6287:Christianity 6255:Human rights 6010:Armed Forces 5973:Constitution 5906:Demographics 5867:Central West 5842:Subdivisions 5832:Governorates 5701: 5586: 5582: 5578: 5572: 5564: 5560: 5556: 5552: 5548: 5544: 5540: 5536: 5532: 5529:Muhsin Mahdi 5524: 5516: 5512: 5509:Muhsin Mahdi 5504: 5496: 5492: 5488: 5484: 5480: 5476: 5471: 5459: 5439: 5436:Muhsin Mahdi 5431: 5423: 5419: 5415: 5412:Muhsin Mahdi 5407: 5399: 5394: 5386: 5381: 5373: 5368: 5360: 5355: 5347: 5342: 5330: 5326: 5322: 5317: 5305: 5297: 5292: 5284: 5279: 5271: 5266: 5258: 5254: 5247:Persian Gulf 5238: 5233: 5225: 5220: 5212: 5211:Trimingham, 5207: 5199: 5194: 5186: 5177: 5169: 5164: 5156: 5151: 5143: 5138: 5130: 5125: 5117: 5112: 5104: 5099: 5091: 5086: 5078: 5072: 5064: 5055: 5047: 5042: 5034: 5029: 5021: 5016: 5008: 5003: 4995: 4991: 4986: 4978: 4973: 4965: 4960: 4952: 4947: 4939: 4934: 4926: 4922: 4917: 4909: 4904: 4895: 4887: 4883: 4879: 4874: 4866: 4862: 4849: 4841: 4836: 4828: 4823: 4815: 4811: 4806: 4798: 4794: 4789: 4781: 4776: 4768: 4763: 4755: 4750: 4742: 4737: 4729: 4724: 4716: 4711: 4703: 4698: 4686: 4681: 4673: 4668: 4660: 4655: 4647: 4642: 4633: 4625: 4622:Hohenstaufen 4616: 4608: 4603: 4595: 4578: 4570: 4565: 4557: 4536: 4528: 4523: 4515: 4511: 4506: 4498: 4486: 4478: 4473: 4465: 4464:Le Tourneau 4460: 4452: 4447: 4439: 4430: 4422: 4417: 4409: 4404: 4396: 4391: 4383: 4378: 4370: 4365: 4357: 4352: 4344: 4339: 4331: 4327: 4322: 4310: 4305: 4297: 4284: 4276: 4272: 4267: 4259: 4254: 4246: 4241: 4233: 4229: 4224: 4216: 4211: 4203: 4198: 4190: 4185: 4177: 4172: 4164: 4159: 4151: 4146: 4138: 4135:al-murabitum 4134: 4130: 4125: 4117: 4104: 4096: 4092: 4084: 4059: 4051: 4032:. Retrieved 4022: 4011:. Retrieved 4000: 3989:. Retrieved 3985:the original 3975: 3967: 3962: 3954: 3949: 3941: 3936: 3928: 3923: 3915: 3907: 3899: 3894: 3885: 3876: 3868: 3867:Cf. Laroui, 3863: 3855: 3851: 3846: 3838: 3833: 3825: 3820: 3811: 3805: 3797: 3792: 3784: 3779: 3771: 3766: 3758: 3753: 3745: 3740: 3731: 3723: 3718: 3710: 3705: 3697: 3692: 3684: 3668: 3652: 3647: 3642:(1971) at 8. 3639: 3634: 3621: 3613: 3608: 3600: 3599:H.T.Norris, 3595: 3587: 3572: 3571:H.T.Norris, 3567: 3559: 3558:is known as 3555: 3547: 3539: 3534: 3526: 3522: 3518: 3514: 3509: 3501: 3496: 3488: 3480: 3475: 3467: 3462: 3454: 3449: 3441: 3436: 3428: 3423: 3415: 3411: 3406: 3398: 3393: 3385: 3380: 3372: 3367: 3359: 3355: 3347: 3339: 3335: 3330: 3322: 3314: 3297: 3289: 3284: 3276: 3271: 3263: 3258: 3250: 3245: 3224: 3216: 3211: 3202: 3196: 3187: 3183: 3179: 3175: 3168: 3150: 3140: 3122: 3115: 3098: 3090: 3087:Celt-Iberian 3078: 3073: 3064: 3053: 3045: 3041: 3036: 3022: 3016: 3008: 3000: 2988: 2980: 2968: 2959: 2951: 2930: 2923:Burkina Faso 2902: 2894: 2889: 2881: 2872: 2864: 2855: 2847: 2844:André Basset 2839: 2834: 2826: 2820: 2812: 2796: 2791: 2783: 2775: 2767: 2764: 2755: 2747: 2742: 2734: 2729: 2721: 2718:Roman Empire 2707: 2699: 2693: 2685: 2681: 2676: 2668: 2663: 2655: 2650: 2642: 2637: 2624: 2616: 2611: 2603: 2598: 2589: 2576: 2509: 2507: 2500: 2496: 2494: 2487: 2483: 2479: 2477: 2440: 2429: 2396: 2390: 2385: 2373: 2367: 2361: 2357: 2349: 2337: 2335: 2328: 2318: 2313: 2309: 2300: 2294: 2286: 2248: 2242: 2231: 2216: 2197: 2190: 2172: 2167: 2149: 2140: 2131: 2119: 2115: 2106: 2095: 2077: 2062: 2042: 2038: 2034: 2026: 2016: 1988:al-Mustansir 1985: 1965:Frederick II 1949:Tripolitania 1933:Abu Zakariya 1931: 1918: 1914: 1910: 1908: 1884: 1868: 1861: 1842: 1814: 1805:Banu Ghaniya 1797: 1738: 1722: 1719:Almohad flag 1697: 1692: 1688: 1684: 1680: 1670: 1627: 1606: 1579: 1575:Saudi Arabia 1548: 1527: 1508:Roman Empire 1501: 1486: 1482: 1474: 1447:Banu Ghaniya 1444: 1436: 1412: 1390: 1371: 1368:Independence 1337: 1335:of Morocco. 1327:Umayyads of 1309: 1278: 1255:originated. 1244: 1240: 1228: 1224: 1213: 1197: 1187: 1170: 1138: 1135:Middle Atlas 1122: 1108: 1092:genealogists 1048: 1032: 1009: 976: 934: 913: 907: 897: 896: 880: 876:). |Sanhaja| 867: 863:). |Masmuda| 846: 827:). |Sanhaja| 814: 813:C. Western: 801: 776: 756: 743: 727: 718: 712: 694: 662: 639: 611: 572: 557:founded the 544: 529:Shia Islamic 514: 422:Ben Ali rule 412:Ben Ali coup 336:Early modern 278: 50: 30: 6754:recognition 6707:South Sudan 6597:Ivory Coast 6411:WikiProject 6109:Agriculture 5589:at 218-223. 5300:at 158-159. 5261:at 197-198. 5228:at 159-161. 5198:Abun-Nasr, 5172:at 151-153. 5103:Abun-Nasr, 5020:Abun-Nasr, 4981:at 142-143. 4869:at 114-115. 4741:Abun-Nasr, 4728:Abun-Nasr, 4702:Abun-Nasr, 4607:Abun-Nasr, 4477:Abun-Nasr, 4421:Abun-Nasr, 4382:Abun-Nasr, 4245:Abun-Nasr, 4189:Abun-Nasr, 4176:Abun-Nasr, 4089:H.A.R. Gibb 4050:Abun-Nasr, 3940:Abun-Nasr, 3927:Abun-Nasr, 3912:Ibn Khaldun 3871:at 147-156. 3744:Abun-Nasr, 3724:The Berbers 3685:The Berbers 3614:The Berbers 3577:René Basset 3540:The Berbers 3527:The Berbers 3412:Ibn Khaldun 3386:The Berbers 3319:René Basset 3169:The Berbers 3111:, Morocco. 3065:The Berbers 3046:Boustrophic 3023:The Berbers 2975:of Semitic 2667:Abun-Nasr, 2615:Abun-Nasr, 2563:Ibn Khaldun 2432:Ibn Khaldun 2413:Ibn Khaldun 2407:Ibn Khaldun 2315:Islamic law 2183:Ibn Khaldun 2102:Islamic law 2057:oligarchies 2052:kettledrums 2048:processions 2007:Constantine 1967:of Sicily, 1545:(1056–1147) 1451:Arabization 1440:pastoralism 1227:. From the 1181:, and from 1096:Arabization 1084:Ibn Khaldun 1028:Ibn Khaldun 995:mountainous 947:Afroasiatic 927:its letters 923:its letters 914:boustrophic 889:). |Zenata| 872:- (East of 806:- (Central 761:- (West of 723:Arabization 542:doctrines. 523:) to local 446:2011– 100:Prehistoric 79:History of 6860:Categories 6809:(Portugal) 6767:Somaliland 6687:Seychelles 6652:Mozambique 6637:Mauritania 6622:Madagascar 6577:The Gambia 6512:Cape Verde 6335:Literature 6248:Censorship 6243:Newspapers 6228:Television 6032:Parliament 5889:Ecoregions 5872:South East 5857:North West 5852:North East 5685:Second War 5675:Punic Wars 5553:Maqaddimah 5464:al-Ghazali 5094:at II:478. 4328:muwahiddin 4034:2016-05-31 4013:2016-05-31 3991:2011-05-17 3653:Ethnologue 3264:Ethnologue 3251:Ethnologue 2993:Phoenician 2985:Phoenician 2973:morphology 2948:Ethnologue 2569:References 2502:Muqaddimah 2436:al-Andalus 2393:al-Andalus 2378:litigation 2273:, Bougie ( 2152:al-Andalus 2019:Ibn Tumart 1895:Ibn Tumart 1857:Ibn 'Arabi 1845:Ibn Tufayl 1734:al-Andalus 1681:ahl al-dar 1672:Ibn Tumart 1658:Almoravids 1654:al-Ghazali 1650:al-Ash'ari 1634:Ibn Tumart 1602:al-Andalus 1598:Mauritania 1582:Almoravids 1563:Kharijites 1555:Almoravids 1543:Almoravids 1432:Banu 'Amir 1419:Banu Hilal 1408:Banu 'Amir 1404:Banu Hilal 1349:al-Murabit 1329:al-Andalus 1233:Ibn Tumart 1218:Almoravids 1194:al-Maghrib 1179:High Atlas 1161:, and the 1155:Anti-Atlas 1133:and north 1117:, and the 987:salt lakes 821:Mauritania 758:Old Libyan 658:al-Andalus 635:Banu Hilal 555:Ibn Tumart 551:al-Andalus 547:Almoravids 527:rule. The 187:Prefecture 109:Prehistory 33:unbalanced 6642:Mauritius 6211:Languages 6194:Education 6146:Transport 6054:Elections 6020:Air Force 5911:Tunisians 5817:Geography 5722:Husaynids 5690:Third War 5680:First War 5511:, in his 5452:Ibn Rushd 5444:al-Farabi 5335:vigilante 5311:bartering 5090:Hodgson, 5081:at 30-31. 5046:Perkins, 4964:Hodgson, 4715:Perkins, 4592:Andalucia 4542:talmudist 4073:Rustamids 3953:Perkins, 3931:at 80-86. 3918:at 41-42. 3902:, at 116. 3796:Perkins, 3783:Perkins, 3757:Perkins, 3696:Perkins, 3585:Canaanite 3581:Procopius 3523:cut short 3468:Tribesmen 3354:(86-35), 3059:Masinissa 2763:(1969) . 2733:Perkins, 2641:Perkins, 2489:Asabiyyah 2468:Tamerlane 2299:, called 2223:Europeans 2181:(said by 2144:Kharijite 2023:hierarchy 1923:Marrakesh 1853:Marrakech 1849:Ibn Rushd 1793:Aragonese 1773:Hammadids 1730:Almoravid 1594:Marrakech 1247:that the 1200:were the 1175:sedentary 1058:Arabs of 1056:Himyarite 1051:etymology 1020:sedentary 1016:Numidians 931:Masinissa 898:Nota Bene 719:Tamazight 623:Kharijite 599:Ifriqiyah 201:Exarchate 145:1st Roman 45:talk page 6833: / 6829: / 6822:(France) 6816: / 6794: / 6790: / 6742:Zimbabwe 6717:Tanzania 6567:Ethiopia 6562:Eswatini 6542:Djibouti 6507:Cameroon 6492:Botswana 6401:Category 6354:Tunisian 6347:Football 6277:Religion 6270:Polygamy 6238:Internet 6136:Industry 5932:Politics 5884:Wildlife 5848:Regions 5642:articles 5497:asabiyah 5489:asabatun 5448:Ibn Sina 5398:Julien, 5359:Julien, 5296:Julien, 5243:Fatimids 5224:Julien, 5168:Julien, 5142:Julien, 5129:Laroui, 5033:Julien, 4990:Julien, 4977:Julien, 4938:Julien, 4908:Julien, 4685:Laroui, 4672:Laroui, 4451:Laroui, 4356:Laroui, 3966:Julien, 3898:Julien, 3770:Julien, 3427:Laroui, 3371:Laroui, 3188:Tifinagh 3176:Tifinagh 3151:Tifinagh 3044:(1971). 3029:Tifinagh 2965:Tifinagh 2654:Laroui, 2584:preview. 2537:Aghlabid 2532:Ifriqiya 2516:See also 2480:faylasuf 2464:Damascus 2386:muhtasib 2374:muhtasib 2358:muhtasib 2338:muhtasib 2330:muhtasib 2296:musharif 2191:Arusiyya 2187:madrasah 2120:maslahah 2109:Almohads 2069:Marinids 1961:Merinids 1871:Merinids 1707:school. 1705:Zahirite 1613:Ifriqiya 1571:Wahhabis 1559:Almohads 1415:Bedouins 1341:Kairouan 1321:Hammadid 1285:Fatimids 1235:and the 1190:Ifriqiya 1088:Ibn Hazm 1082:). 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The 1127:Znatiya 1119:Masmuda 1115:Sanhaja 959:Amharic 887:Tunisia 874:Algiers 861:Algeria 857:Morocco 836:Maghrib 825:Senegal 773:Eastern 745:Guanche 728:italics 690:Almohad 678:Khariji 670:madhhab 642:Sanhaja 563:Hafsids 559:Almohad 521:Maghrib 448:present 345:Ottoman 308:Almohad 261:Fatimid 241:Abbasid 231:Umayyad 126:Ancient 81:Tunisia 39:Please 31:may be 6837: 6820: 6807: 6737:Zambia 6732:Uganda 6672:Rwanda 6627:Malawi 6587:Guinea 6482:Angola 6325:Cinema 6299:Health 6114:Energy 5877:Djerid 5837:Cities 5640: 5493:asabah 5450:, and 5426:at 33. 4859:vizier 4691:Aragon 4492:Zahiri 4065:Djerba 3515:Burnus 3240:page). 3159:Kabyle 3147:Sahara 3143:Tuareg 3135:Zenati 3120:Berber 3118:above 3113:Arabic 3093:at 93. 2921:, and 2460:Maliki 2444:vizier 2350:per se 2305:duties 2287:funduq 2275:Béjaïa 2265:, and 2259:Mahdia 2232:funduq 2136:Sharia 2132:custom 2113:Maliki 2111:, the 2039:mazwar 2031:shaiks 1992:Caliph 1977:Aragon 1975:, and 1969:Venice 1899:Caliph 1781:Sicily 1769:Bougie 1745:Mahdia 1741:Sicily 1701:Maliki 1693:huffaz 1689:talaba 1312:Zenata 1297:Kotama 1275:sphere 1216:. The 1210:Zirids 1202:Kutama 1167:Sahara 1163:Tuareg 1151:Zanaga 1143:Kabyle 1123:Zanata 1113:, the 1111:Zanata 1072:Canaan 1068:Canaan 1014:, the 999:Zenati 991:desert 979:Zenata 971:Arabic 957:& 919:Thugga 910:Libyan 882:Zenati 869:Kabyle 859:& 848:Shilha 823:& 816:Zenaga 808:Sahara 803:Tuareg 793:& 782:Awjila 688:, and 666:Maliki 614:Berber 525:Berber 373:Modern 318:Hafsid 298:Norman 162:Vandal 72:on the 6792:Ceuta 6712:Sudan 6662:Niger 6617:Libya 6602:Kenya 6582:Ghana 6572:Gabon 6547:Egypt 6487:Benin 6377:Motto 6342:Sport 6330:Music 6321:Arts 6282:Islam 6265:Women 6223:Media 6151:Roads 5862:Sahel 5327:hisba 5259:Ibid. 5255:Ibid. 5251:Cairo 4294:shi'a 4290:sunni 4131:Ribat 4069:Ibadi 3414:, in 3184:Ibid. 3109:Nador 3091:Ibid. 2979:from 2919:Niger 2911:Libya 2456:Cairo 2369:mufti 2342:price 2320:hisba 2267:Gabés 2263:Jerba 2251:Tunis 2175:Tunis 2160:music 2150:From 2043:Hajib 2035:Fifty 1973:Genoa 1941:Tunis 1937:Gabès 1864:sufis 1836:" by 1785:Genoa 1777:Zirid 1757:Jerba 1749:Gabès 1646:mahdi 1520:Gafsa 1516:Gabès 1378:Sunni 1374:Shi'a 1358:Genoa 1325:Sunni 1317:Zirid 1291:from 1289:Cairo 1281:Zirid 1253:Tunis 1231:came 1183:Rabat 1060:Yemen 1044:Latin 1012:Mauri 983:Jerba 955:Tigre 843:Atlas 795:Egypt 791:Libya 786:Sokna 686:Shi'a 682:Zaydi 631:Cairo 595:Sunni 587:Shi'a 585:were 536:Zirid 288:Zirid 6722:Togo 6632:Mali 6522:Chad 6362:Flag 6260:LGBT 6025:Navy 6015:Army 5998:2022 5993:2014 5988:1959 5983:1861 5961:List 5949:List 5517:Ibar 5485:asab 4436:fiqh 4077:Mzab 3625:See 3161:for 3149:use 3141:The 3123:bedd 2915:Mali 2714:A.H. 2363:qadi 2279:Bône 2271:Oran 2255:Sfax 2128:fiqh 2009:and 1945:Amir 1885:The 1817:fiqh 1789:Pisa 1787:and 1753:Sfax 1652:and 1628:The 1580:The 1518:and 1495:and 1493:Bona 1362:Pisa 1360:and 1279:The 1192:and 1173:are 1076:Noah 908:The 778:Siwa 755:II. 436:2011 416:1987 4953:dai 3487:as 3131:Rif 3116:qif 2981:FNR 2946:by 2938:by 2448:Fez 2073:Fez 2071:of 2027:Ten 1919:Ten 1911:Ten 1384:in 1131:Rif 1080:Ham 879:3. 866:2. 855:- ( 841:1. 838:). 834:- ( 830:D. 819:- ( 800:B. 789:- ( 771:A. 748:- ( 742:I. 6862:: 5531:, 5454:. 5446:, 5414:, 5185:, 4544:, 4497:. 4129:A 4091:, 4067:. 4043:^ 3676:^ 3660:^ 3321:, 3165:. 3061:. 3007:, 2917:, 2913:, 2909:, 2880:, 2863:, 2846:, 2804:^ 2492:. 2466:, 2450:, 2333:. 2261:, 2257:, 2253:, 2083:. 1983:. 1971:, 1751:, 1747:, 1577:. 1364:. 961:, 939:. 850:, 845:: 797:). 784:, 780:, 775:: 765:). 752:). 684:, 680:, 660:. 174:/ 6455:e 6448:t 6441:v 5630:e 5623:t 5616:v 5466:. 5458:( 5438:( 4317:. 4037:. 4016:. 3994:. 3629:. 3562:. 3309:. 3137:) 3133:( 2995:. 2925:. 1070:( 504:e 497:t 490:v 152:) 148:( 55:) 51:( 47:. 37:.

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History of medieval Tunisia

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