Manhattan Project - Knowledge

1997: 2165:, Ohio, to build the thermal diffusion plant, which was designated S-50. Plans called for the installation of 2,142 48-foot-tall (15 m) diffusion columns arranged in 21 racks. Inside each column were three concentric tubes. Steam, obtained from the nearby K-25 powerhouse at a pressure of 100 pounds per square inch (690 kPa) and temperature of 545 °F (285 °C), flowed downward through the innermost 1.25-inch (32 mm) nickel pipe, while water at 155 °F (68 °C) flowed upward through the outermost iron pipe. The uranium hexafluoride flowed in the middle copper pipe, and isotope separation of the uranium occurred between the nickel and copper pipes. Work commenced on 9 July 1944, and S-50 began partial operation in September. Leaks limited production and forced shutdowns over the next few months, but in June 1945 the S-50 plant produced 12,730 pounds (5,770 kg) of slightly enriched product. 2553: 1150:) was larger and more advanced. Britain rebuffed attempts by Bush and Conant in August 1941 to strengthen cooperation because it was reluctant to share its technological lead and help the United States develop its own atomic bomb. But the British, who had made significant advances in research early in the war, did not have the resources to carry through such a research program into development while a large portion of their economy was engaged in fighting the war; Tube Alloys soon fell behind its American counterpart. The roles of the two countries were reversed, and in January 1943 Conant notified the British that they would no longer receive atomic information except in certain areas. The British investigated the possibility of an independent nuclear program but determined that it could not be ready in time to impact the 691: 3422:, lifted off with a Fat Man on board. This time, Ashworth served as weaponeer and Kokura was the primary target. When they reached Kokura, they found cloud cover had obscured the city, prohibiting the visual attack required by orders. After three runs and with fuel running low, they headed for the secondary target, Nagasaki. Ashworth decided that a radar approach would be used if the target was obscured, but a last-minute break in the clouds over Nagasaki allowed a visual approach as ordered. The Fat Man was dropped over the city's industrial valley midway between the Mitsubishi Steel and Arms Works in the south and the Mitsubishi-Urakami Ordnance Works in the north. The resulting explosion had a blast yield equivalent to 21 kilotons of TNT, roughly the same as the Trinity blast, but was confined to the 2787: 3861: 1069: 1109:, the chairman of the War Production Board, and asked for broad authority to issue a AAA rating whenever it was required. Nelson initially balked but quickly caved in when Groves threatened to go to the President. Groves promised not to use the AAA rating unless it was necessary. It soon transpired that for the routine requirements of the project the AAA rating was too high but the AA-3 rating was too low. After a long campaign, Groves finally received AA-1 authority on 1 July 1944. According to Groves, "In Washington you became aware of the importance of top priority. Most everything proposed in the Roosevelt administration would have top priority. That would last for about a week or two and then something else would get top priority". 213: 3078: 7892:, pp. 14–15: "On the basis of numbers alone, women were important at all the project sites. They accounted for 9 percent of the 51,000 employees at Hanford in 1944, when the site's staff was at its largest. At Los Alamos, when tight security made it difficult to hire people who did not already live on the site, opportunities for women may have been even greater. In September 1943, some sixty women worked in the Technical Area at Los Alamos. By October 1944, about 30 percent, or 200 members of the labor for in the Tech Area, the hospital, and the schools were women. Of these, twenty could be described as scientists and fifty as technicians. ... The number of women working on the Manhattan Project contrasts sharply with the 15902: 1248: 1009: 2269: 2916: 2835: 2388:

television, something unheard of in 1943. Maintenance was carried out with the aid of an overhead crane and specially designed tools. The 224 buildings were smaller because they had less material to process, and it was less radioactive. The 224-T and 224-U buildings were completed on 8 October 1944, and 224-B followed on 10 February 1945. The purification methods that were eventually used in 231-W were still unknown when construction commenced on 8 April 1944, but the plant was complete and the methods were selected by the end of the year. On 5 February 1945, Matthias hand-delivered the first shipment of 80 g of 95%-pure plutonium nitrate to a Los Alamos courier in Los Angeles.

1024:. Reybold, Somervell, and Styer decided to call the project "Development of Substitute Materials", but Groves felt that this would draw attention. Since engineer districts normally carried the name of the city where they were located, Marshall and Groves agreed to name the Army's component the Manhattan District; Reybold officially created this district on 13 August. Informally, it was known as the Manhattan Engineer District, or MED. Unlike other districts, it had no geographic boundaries, and Marshall had the authority of a division engineer. Development of Substitute Materials remained as the official codename of the project as a whole but was supplanted over time by "Manhattan". 1203:. More scientists arrived in early 1944. While those assigned to gaseous diffusion left by the fall of 1944, the thirty-five working under Oliphant with Lawrence at Berkeley were assigned to existing laboratory groups and most stayed until the end of the war. The nineteen sent to Los Alamos also joined existing groups, primarily related to implosion and bomb assembly, but not the plutonium-related ones. The Quebec Agreement specified that nuclear weapons would not be used against another country without the mutual consent of the US and UK. In June 1945, Wilson agreed that the nuclear bombing of Japan would be recorded as a decision of the Combined Policy Committee. 2403: 3578: 2821:, and appointed as chief of the MED's Medical Section and Groves' medical advisor. Warren's initial task was to staff hospitals at Oak Ridge, Richland and Los Alamos. The Medical Section was responsible for medical research, but also for the MED's health and safety programs. This presented an enormous challenge, because workers were handling a variety of toxic chemicals, using hazardous liquids and gases under high pressures, working with high voltages, and performing experiments involving explosives, not to mention the largely unknown dangers presented by radioactivity and handling fissile materials. Yet in December 1945, the 957:. Teller proposed scheme after scheme, but Bethe refused each one. The fusion idea was put aside to concentrate on producing fission bombs. Teller raised the speculative possibility that an atomic bomb might "ignite" the atmosphere because of a hypothetical fusion reaction of nitrogen nuclei. Bethe calculated that it was "extremely unlikely". A postwar report co-authored by Teller concluded that "whatever the temperature to which a section of the atmosphere may be heated, no self-propagating chain of nuclear reactions is likely to be started." In Serber's account, Oppenheimer mentioned the possibility of this scenario to 3803: 2143:, which explained that when a mixed gas passes through a temperature gradient, the heavier one tends to concentrate at the cold end and the lighter one at the warm end. It was developed by US Navy scientists, but was not one of the enrichment technologies initially selected for use in the Manhattan Project. This was primarily due to doubts about its technical feasibility, but the inter-service rivalry between the Army and Navy also played a part. The Naval Research Laboratory continued the research under Philip Abelson's direction, but there was little contact with the Manhattan Project until April 1944, when 1617:

on-site. By July 1944, some 1,200 buildings had been erected and nearly 51,000 people were living in the construction camp. As area engineer, Matthias exercised overall control of the site. At its peak, the construction camp was the third most populous town in Washington state. Hanford operated a fleet of over 900 buses, more than the city of Chicago. Like Los Alamos and Oak Ridge, Richland was a gated community with restricted access, but it looked more like a typical wartime American boomtown: the military profile was lower, and physical security elements like high fences and guard dogs were less evident.

3496: 2359: 2802:(SED), with an authorized strength of 675. Technicians and skilled workers drafted into the Army were assigned to the SED. Another source was the Women's Army Corps (WAC). Initially intended for clerical tasks handling classified material, the WACs were soon tapped for technical and scientific tasks as well. On 1 February 1945, all military personnel assigned to the MED, including all SED detachments, were assigned to the 9812th Technical Service Unit, except at Los Alamos, where military personnel other than SED, including the WACs and Military Police, were assigned to the 4817th Service Command Unit. 1289: 2759: 1581: 2217: 1158: 3598:

wasteful gun method, and composite uranium-plutonium cores were needed now that plutonium was in short supply. However, uncertainty about the future of the laboratory made it hard to induce people to stay. Oppenheimer returned to his job at the University of California and Groves appointed Norris Bradbury as an interim replacement; Bradbury remained in the post for the next 25 years. Groves attempted to combat the dissatisfaction caused by the lack of amenities with a construction program that included an improved water supply, three hundred houses, and recreation facilities.

2035:, was assigned to Stone & Webster in June 1942. The design called for five first-stage processing units, known as Alpha racetracks, and two units for final processing, known as Beta racetracks. In September 1943 Groves authorized construction of four more racetracks, known as Alpha II. Construction began in February 1943. The second Alpha I was operational at the end of January 1944, the first Beta and first and third Alpha I's came online in March, and the fourth Alpha I was operational in April. The four Alpha II racetracks were completed between July and October 1944. 1927: 2020: 1116:, the group that would design and build the bomb. The obvious choice was one of the three laboratory heads, Urey, Lawrence, or Compton, but they could not be spared. Compton recommended Oppenheimer, who was already intimately familiar with the bomb design concepts. However, Oppenheimer had little administrative experience, and, unlike Urey, Lawrence, and Compton, had not won a Nobel Prize, which many scientists felt that the head of such an important laboratory should have. There were also concerns about Oppenheimer's security status, as many of his associates were 2644: 831: 2448: 2436:. Implosion used explosives to crush a subcritical sphere of fissile material into a smaller and denser form. The critical mass is assembled in much less time than with the gun method. When the fissile atoms are packed closer together, the rate of neutron capture increases, so it also makes more efficient use of fissionable material. Neddermeyer's 1943 and early 1944 investigations showed promise, but also made it clear that an implosion weapon was more complex than the gun-type design from both a theoretical and an engineering perspective. In September 1943, 1993:. In the electromagnetic process, a magnetic field deflected charged particles according to mass. The process was neither scientifically elegant nor industrially efficient. Compared with a gaseous diffusion plant or a nuclear reactor, an electromagnetic separation plant would consume more scarce materials, require more manpower to operate, and cost more to build. Nonetheless, the process was approved because it was based on proven technology and therefore represented less risk. Moreover, it could be built in stages, and rapidly reach industrial capacity. 3391:

of 1,750 feet (530 m) with a blast that was later estimated to be the equivalent of 13 kilotons of TNT. An area of approximately 4.7 square miles (12 km) was destroyed. Japanese officials determined that 69% of Hiroshima's buildings were destroyed and another 6–7% damaged. Early estimates were that 66,000 people were killed and 69,000 injured; later re-estimations that included people ignored by previous methods, like Korean slave laborers and additional soldiers, concluded there might have been 140,000 dead from the attack by December 1945.

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published, and the project at first avoided notifying the office. By early 1943 newspapers began publishing reports of large construction in Tennessee and Washington, and the office began discussing with the project how to maintain secrecy. In June it asked newspapers and broadcasters to avoid discussing "atom smashing, atomic energy, atomic fission, atomic splitting, or any of their equivalents. The use for military purposes of radium or radioactive materials, heavy water, high voltage discharge equipment, cyclotrons."

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rotors, assuming that 4-meter rotors could be built. The prospect of keeping so many rotors operating continuously at high speed appeared daunting, and when Beams ran his experimental apparatus, he obtained only 60% of the predicted yield, indicating that more centrifuges were required. Beams, Urey and Cohen then began work on a series of improvements which promised to increase efficiency. However, frequent failures of motors, shafts and bearings at high speeds delayed work on the pilot plant.

51: 2085: 2660: 15710: 2418:. Initial research on the properties of plutonium was done using cyclotron-generated plutonium-239, which was extremely pure but could only be created in very small amounts. Los Alamos received the first sample of plutonium from the Clinton X-10 reactor in April 1944 and within days Emilio Segrè discovered a problem: the reactor-bred plutonium had a higher concentration of plutonium-240, resulting in up to five times the spontaneous fission rate of cyclotron plutonium. 15890: 15926: 2154: 12279: 2652:

tons (194 t) of iron and steel. By the time it arrived, however, confidence in the implosion method was high enough, and the availability of plutonium was sufficient, that Oppenheimer decided not to use it. Instead, it was placed atop a steel tower 800 yards (730 m) from the weapon as a rough measure of the explosion's power. Jumbo survived, although its tower did not, adding credence to the belief that Jumbo would have successfully contained a

2750:, and Groves hastily prepared a lengthier report sent via courier. Truman was powerfully and positively affected by the news. Stimson noted in his diary that when he shared it with Churchill, Churchill remarked: "Now I know what happened to Truman yesterday. I couldn't understand it. When he got to the meeting after having read this report, he was a changed man. He told the Russians just where they got on and off and generally bossed the whole meeting." 1787: 509: 15988: 15971: 2073:, so in a box containing a semi-permeable membrane and a mixture of two gases, the lighter molecules will pass out of the container more rapidly than the heavier molecules. The idea was that such boxes could be formed into a cascade of pumps and membranes, with each successive stage containing a slightly more enriched mixture. Research into the process was carried out at Columbia University by a group that included Harold Urey, 1435: 2097:

and pumps had to be vacuum tight and enclosed in inert gas. The biggest problem was the design of the barrier, which had to be strong, porous and resistant to corrosion. Edward Adler and Edward Norris created a mesh barrier from electroplated nickel. A six-stage pilot plant was built at Columbia to test the process, but the prototype proved to be too brittle. A rival barrier was developed from powdered nickel by Kellex, the

3902:", became the official correspondent for the Manhattan Project in spring 1945. He witnessed both the Trinity test and the bombing of Nagasaki and wrote the official press releases on them. He went on to write a series of articles extolling the virtues of the new weapon. His reporting helped to spur public awareness of the potential of nuclear technology and motivated its development in the United States and Soviet Union. 2229:, a chemical separation plant, and support facilities. Because of the subsequent decision to construct water-cooled reactors at Hanford, only the chemical separation plant operated as a true pilot. The X-10 Graphite Reactor consisted of a huge block of graphite, 24 feet (7.3 m) per side, weighing around 1,500 short tons (1,400 t), surrounded by 7 feet (2.1 m) of high-density concrete as a radiation shield. 1369: 15878: 3838:, who had threatened to reveal the existence of the project if he was not told more about it, five additional Congressmen were permitted to visit the Oak Ridge site to assure themselves of "the reasonableness of the various living accommodations which had been provided, that they actually observe the size and scope of the installations and that some of the complexities of the project be demonstrated to them." 15954: 2376:, was subsequently developed by Seaborg and Stanly G. Thomson. Greenewalt favored the bismuth phosphate process due to the corrosive nature of lanthanum fluoride, and it was selected for the Hanford separation plants. Once X-10 began producing plutonium, the pilot separation plant was put to the test. The first batch was processed at 40% efficiency but over the next few months this was raised to 90%. 2169:

diffusion process in the K-25 plant, which produced a product enriched to about 23%. In turn, this was fed into Y-12, which boosted it to about 89%, sufficient for use in nuclear weapons. About 50 kilograms (110 lb) of uranium enriched to 89% was delivered to Los Alamos by July 1945. The entire 50 kg, along with some 50%-enriched, averaging out to about 85% enriched, were used in the first

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efforts helped raise production to 10% of the uranium-235 feed by January 1945. In February the Alpha racetracks began receiving slightly enriched (1.4%) feed from the new S-50 thermal diffusion plant, and the next month they received enhanced (5%) feed from the K-25 gaseous diffusion plant. By August, K-25 was producing uranium sufficiently enriched to feed directly into the Beta tracks.

921:. Even by December 1943, only two milligrams had been produced. There were many ways of arranging the fissile material into a critical mass. The simplest was shooting a "cylindrical plug" into a sphere of "active material" with a "tamper"—dense material to focus neutrons inward and keep the reacting mass together to increase its efficiency. They also explored designs involving 1404:"for so long as the military necessity continues". Wartime land purchases eventually came to 49,383 acres (19,985 ha), but only $ 414,971 was spent. Work commenced in December 1942. Groves initially allocated $ 300,000 for construction, three times Oppenheimer's estimate, but by the time Sundt finished on 30 November 1943, over $ 7 million had been spent. 3991:

underground storage tanks" that were intended to be temporary, awaiting a more permanent solution. Instead, they were neglected and eventually leaked. Issues of this kind resulted in Hanford becoming "one of the most contaminated nuclear waste sites in North America", and the subject of significant cleanup efforts after it was deactivated in the late Cold War.

2569:. The brittle α phase that exists at room temperature changes to the plastic β phase at higher temperatures. Attention then shifted to the even more malleable δ phase that normally exists in the 300 °C to 450 °C range. It was found that this was stable at room temperature when alloyed with aluminum, but aluminum emits neutrons when bombarded with 1060:, the deputy chief of staff at Services and Supply for requirements and resources, felt that the highest rating he could assign was AA-3, although he was willing to provide a AAA rating on request for critical materials if the need arose. Nichols and Marshall were disappointed; AA-3 was the same priority as Nichols' TNT plant in Pennsylvania. 1923:, most of which was carried out at Oak Ridge. The most obvious technology, the centrifuge, failed, but electromagnetic separation, gaseous diffusion, and thermal diffusion technologies were all successful and contributed to the project. In February 1943, Groves came up with the idea of using the output of some plants as the input for others. 2109:

on the main building began in October 1943, and the six-stage pilot plant was ready for operation on 17 April 1944. In 1945 Groves canceled the upper stages, directing Kellex to instead design and build a 540-stage side feed unit, which became known as K-27. Kellex transferred the last unit to the operating contractor,

3319:, Roosevelt instructed Groves and Stimson that if the atomic bombs were ready before the war with Germany ended, they should be ready to drop them on Germany, but Japan was regarded as more likely. In late April 1945, a targeting committee was established to determine which cities should be targets, and it recommended 3551:. The swelling damaged the charging tubes where the uranium was irradiated to produce plutonium, rendering them unusable. Production was curtailed and the oldest unit, B pile, was closed down so at least one reactor would remain available. Research continued, with DuPont and the Metallurgical Laboratory developing a 1095:, where Colonel Marshall had his liaison office. He assumed command of the Manhattan Project on 23 September 1942. Later that day, he attended a meeting called by Stimson, which established a Military Policy Committee, responsible to the Top Policy Group, consisting of Bush (with Conant as an alternate), Styer and 1646:, since 1930. Urey suggested in 1941 that it could produce heavy water. To the existing $ 10 million plant consisting of 3,215 cells consuming 75 MW of hydroelectric power, secondary electrolysis cells were added to increase the deuterium concentration in the water from 2.3% to 99.8%. For this process, 1132:. A long conversation in October 1942 convinced Groves and Nichols that Oppenheimer thoroughly understood the issues involved in setting up a laboratory in a remote area and should be appointed as its director. Groves personally waived the security requirements and issued Oppenheimer's clearance on 20 July 1943. 2767:

increased to 5,600. Procuring the required numbers of workers, especially highly skilled workers, in competition with other vital wartime programs proved very difficult. Due to high turnover, over 500,000 people worked on the project. Most African Americans were employed in low-level jobs, but there were a few

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was simpler, cheaper and quicker to build. The design did not become available until 4 October 1943; in the meantime, Matthias concentrated on improving the Hanford Site by erecting accommodations, improving the roads, building a railway switch line, and upgrading the electricity, water and telephone lines.

2429:). A higher-velocity gun was suggested but found to be impractical. The possibility of separating the isotopes was also considered and rejected, as plutonium-240 is even harder to separate from plutonium-239 than uranium-235 from uranium-238, and attempting it "would postpone the weapon indefinitely". 3798:

The project expenditure through 1 October 1945 was $ 1.845 billion, equivalent to less than nine days of wartime spending, and was $ 2.191 billion when the AEC assumed control on 1 January 1947. The total allocation was $ 2.4 billion. 84% of the costs through the end of 1945 were spent

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was approved by Marshall and Stimson on 25 July which specified that the "first special bomb" be used "after about 3 August 1945," and that "additional bombs" would be used "as soon as made ready by the project staff". The operational plan was to drop the first bomb on 2 August, the second bomb on 10

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This clashed with the norms of many of the scientists involved, who claimed that science could not operate successfully under such requirements. The Manhattan Project officials also had difficulty with journalists, Congressmen, federal officials who were not "in the know", residents near local sites,

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At Hanford, top priority was initially given to the installations in the 300 area: buildings for testing materials, preparing uranium, and assembling and calibrating instrumentation. One of the buildings housed the canning equipment for the uranium slugs, while another contained a small test reactor.

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of xenon-135, which turned out to be 30,000 times that of uranium. DuPont engineer George Graves had deviated from the Metallurgical Laboratory's original design in which the reactor had 1,500 tubes arranged in a circle, and had added an additional 504 tubes to fill in the corners. The scientists had

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under an argon atmosphere. Finally, they were tested to detect holes or faulty welds. Disappointingly, most canned slugs initially failed the tests, resulting in an output of only a handful per day. But steady progress was made and by June 1944 production increased to the point where it appeared that

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Kellex's design for K-25 called for a four-story 0.5-mile (0.80 km) long U-shaped structure containing 54 contiguous buildings. These were divided into nine sections containing cells of six stages. A survey party began construction by marking out the 500-acre (2.0 km) site in May 1943. Work

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The dispute did not delay work. Although progress on the reactor design at Metallurgical Laboratory and DuPont was not sufficiently advanced to accurately predict the scope of the project, a start was made in April 1943 on facilities for an estimated 25,000 workers, half of whom were expected to live

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through a subsidiary, the Roane-Anderson Company. Chemical engineers were part of "frantic efforts" to make 10% to 12% enriched uranium 235, with tight security and fast approvals for supplies and materials. The population of Oak Ridge soon expanded well beyond the initial plans, and peaked at 75,000

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The prospect of sabotage was always present, and sometimes suspected when there were equipment failures. While there were some problems believed to be the result of careless or disgruntled employees, there were no confirmed instances of Axis-instigated sabotage. However, on 10 March 1945, a Japanese

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Compartmentalization of knowledge, to me, was the very heart of security. My rule was simple and not capable of misinterpretation—each man should know everything he needed to know to do his job and nothing else. Adherence to this rule not only provided an adequate measure of security, but it greatly

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At its peak in June 1944, the Manhattan Project employed about 129,000 workers, of whom 84,500 were construction workers, 40,500 were plant operators and 1,800 were military personnel. As construction activity declined, the workforce fell to 100,000 a year later, but the number of military personnel

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For the actual test, the weapon, nicknamed "the gadget", was hoisted to the top of a 100-foot (30 m) steel tower, as detonation at that height would give a better indication of how the weapon would behave when dropped from a bomber. Detonation in the air maximized the energy applied directly to

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Early plans called for the construction of two separation plants in each of the areas known as 200-West and 200-East. This was subsequently reduced to two, the T and U plants, in 200-West and one, the B plant, at 200-East. Each separation plant consisted of four buildings: a process cell building or

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Although an air-cooled design was chosen for the reactor at Oak Ridge to facilitate rapid construction, this was impractical for the much larger production reactors. Initial designs by the Metallurgical Laboratory and DuPont used helium for cooling, before they determined that a water-cooled reactor

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accepted an offer to construct the plant, which was codenamed K-25. A separate corporate entity called Kellex was created for the project. The process faced formidable technical difficulties. The highly corrosive gas uranium hexafluoride had to be used as no substitute could be found, and the motors

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The calutrons initially enriched the uranium-235 content to between 13% and 15%, and shipped the first few hundred grams of this to Los Alamos in March 1944. Only 1 part in 5,825 of the uranium feed emerged as product. Much of the rest was splattered over equipment in the process. Strenuous recovery

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Groves appreciated the early British atomic research and the British scientists' contributions to the Manhattan Project but stated that the United States would have succeeded without them, although not in time for the August 1945 bombing of Hiroshima. The British wartime participation was crucial to

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was in London. Britain agreed to give the United States most of the Belgian ore, as it could not use most of the supply without restricted American research. In 1944, the Trust purchased 3,440,000 pounds (1,560,000 kg) of uranium oxide ore from companies operating mines in the Belgian Congo. To

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When cooperation resumed after the Quebec Agreement, the Americans' progress and expenditures amazed the British. Chadwick pressed for British involvement in the Manhattan Project to the fullest extent and abandoned hopes of an independent British project during the war. With Churchill's backing, he

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and his team in February 1941. The scientists at the July 1942 conference envisioned creating plutonium in nuclear reactors where uranium-238 atoms absorbed neutrons that had been emitted from fissioning uranium-235. At this point no reactor had been built, and only tiny quantities of plutonium were

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story is apparently from 1948. Oppenheimer at times translated it to "shatterer of worlds" as well. The quote with "destroyer of worlds" comes from a taped interview of Oppenheimer did with NBC in 1965. Oppenheimer's translation is not considered a standard or literal one, and was likely influenced

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The original project goal in 1942 was to acquire approximately 1,700 short tons (1,500 t) of uranium ore. By the time of the dissolution of the Manhattan District, it had acquired about 10,000 short tons (9,100 t) tons of uranium oxides, 72% of which came from the Congolese ores, 14% from

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These Congressional inquiries, along with the need for smooth budgetary approval, led to Bush, Groves, and Stimson agreeing in the spring of 1944 that a few high-ranking Congressmen should be told of the project's purpose. By March 1945, exactly seven Congressmen were officially informed. The funds

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and a port of embarkation, was the primary target, with Kokura and Nagasaki as alternatives. Parsons, the weaponeer in charge of the mission, completed the bomb assembly in the air to minimize the risks of a nuclear explosion in the event of a crash during takeoff. The bomb detonated at an altitude

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was created to advise on wartime and postwar use of nuclear energy. The Interim Committee in turn established a scientific panel consisting of Arthur Compton, Fermi, Lawrence, and Oppenheimer; the scientific panel offered its opinion not just on the likely physical effects of an atomic bomb, but on

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In December 1945 the US Army published a secret report assessing the security apparatus surrounding the Manhattan Project. The report states that the project was "more drastically guarded than any other highly secret war development." The surrounding security infrastructure was so vast and thorough

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The work proved dangerous. By the end of the war, half the chemists and metallurgists had to be removed from work with plutonium when unacceptably high levels of the element was detected in their urine. A minor fire at Los Alamos in January 1945 led to a fear that a fire in the plutonium laboratory

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Work began on 221-T and 221-U in January 1944, with the former completed in September and the latter in December. The 221-B building followed in March 1945. Because of the high levels of radioactivity involved, work in the separation plants had to be conducted by remote control using closed-circuit

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By March 1945, all 21 production racks were operating. Initially the output of S-50 was fed into Y-12, but starting in March 1945 all three enrichment processes were run in series. S-50 became the first stage, enriching the uranium from 0.71% to 0.89% uranium-235. This was then fed into the gaseous

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Scaling this up to a production plant presented a formidable technical challenge. Urey and Cohen estimated that producing a kilogram (2.2 lb) of uranium-235 per day would require up to 50,000 centrifuges with 1-meter (3 ft 3 in) rotors, or 10,000 centrifuges with 4-meter (13 ft)

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were posting notices to vacate on farmhouse doors, and construction contractors were moving in. Some families were given two weeks' notice to vacate farms that had been their homes for generations. The ultimate cost of the land acquisition, which was not completed until March 1945, was only about $

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During the war, the Manhattan Project ultimately produced the three bombs used (the Trinity gadget, Little Boy, and Fat Man), as well as an additional unused Fat Man bomb, making the average wartime cost per bomb around $ 500 million in 1945 dollars. By comparison, the project's total cost by

3814:. As plans were made to turn the work over to the Army Corps of Engineers, Bush wrote to Roosevelt in late 1942 that "it would be ruinous to the essential secrecy to have to defend before an appropriations committee any request for funds for this project." Instead, initial funding was done through 3573:

Nichols recommended that S-50 and the Alpha tracks at Y-12 be closed down. This was done in September. Although performing better than ever, the Alpha tracks could not compete with K-25 and the new K-27, which had commenced operation in January 1946. In December, the Y-12 plant was closed, cutting

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On 11 August, Groves phoned Warren with orders to organize a survey team to report on the damage and radioactivity at Hiroshima and Nagasaki as soon as the war ended. A party equipped with portable Geiger counters arrived in Hiroshima on 8 September headed by Farrell and Warren, with Japanese Rear

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Valley, and a major portion of the city, including the city center, was protected by the intervening hills. About 44% of the city was destroyed, and estimates of casualties range from 40,000 to 80,000 people killed and at least 60,000 injured. Overall, an estimated 35,000–40,000 people were killed

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office was urged to work at the Hanford Site. No other job was offered until the applicant definitively rejected the offer. Tolman and Conant, in their role as the project's scientific advisers, drew up a list of candidate scientists and had them rated by scientists already working on the project.

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Groves did not relish the prospect of explaining to a Senate committee the loss of a billion dollars worth of plutonium, so a cylindrical containment vessel codenamed "Jumbo" was constructed to recover the active material in the event of a failure. It was fabricated at great expense from 214 short

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The production plant commenced operation in February 1945, and as cascade after cascade came online, the quality of the product increased. By April 1945, K-25 had attained a 1.1% enrichment, and the output of the S-50 thermal diffusion plant began being used as feed. Some product produced the next

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was the government's codename for the heavy water production program. It was estimated that 3 short tons (2.7 t) of heavy water would be required per month. The plant at Trail, then under construction, could produce 0.5 short tons (0.45 t) per month. Groves therefore authorized DuPont to

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and other tribes using the area. A dispute arose with farmers over compensation for crops, which had already been planted. Where schedules allowed, the Army allowed the crops to be harvested, but this was not always possible. The land acquisition process dragged on and was not completed before the

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Marshall and Nichols began assembling the necessary resources. The first step was to obtain a high priority rating for the project. The top ratings were AA-1 through AA-4 in descending order, although there was a special AAA rating reserved for emergencies. Ratings AA-1 and AA-2 were for essential

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Following in the wake of the advancing Allied armies, the Alsos team interrogated scientists and searched facilities in liberated areas of France and Germany to learn about the German work. Goudsmit concluded in November 1944 that the German nuclear program had never made it beyond the laboratory

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estimated that before the Hiroshima and Nagasaki bombings "probably no more than a few dozen men in the entire country knew the full meaning of the Manhattan Project, and perhaps only a thousand others even were aware that work on atoms was involved." The magazine wrote that the more than 100,000

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for the test site. A base camp was constructed with barracks, warehouses, workshops, an explosive magazine and a commissary. A pre-test explosion was conducted on 7 May 1945 to calibrate the instruments. A wooden test platform was erected 800 yards (730 m) from future Trinity Ground Zero and

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of natural uranium. Its main job was to hold the critical mass together as long as possible, but it would also reflect neutrons into the core and some of its uranium would fission. To prevent predetonation by an external neutron, the tamper was coated in a thin layer of neutron-absorbing boron. A

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Its production sites, operating with new technologies, exotic substances, and under conditions of secrecy and haste, also left a vast legacy of waste and environmental damage. At Hanford, for example, corrosive and radioactive wastes were stored in "hastily fabricated, single-shell, steel-lined,

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Nowhere was demobilization more of a problem than at Los Alamos, where there was an exodus of talent. Much remained to be done. The bombs used on Hiroshima and Nagasaki needed work to make them simpler, safer and more reliable. Implosion methods needed to be developed for uranium in place of the

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to initiate production. At first all appeared well but around 03:00 the power level started to drop and by 06:30 the reactor had shut down completely. The cooling water was investigated to see if there was a leak or contamination. The next day the reactor started up again, only to shut down once

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Work began on Reactor B, the first of six planned 250 MW reactors, on 10 October 1943. The reactor complexes were given letter designations A through F, with B, D and F sites developed first, as this maximized the distance between the reactors. They were the only ones constructed during the

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Five years ago, the idea of Atomic Power was only a dream. You have made that dream a reality. You have seized upon the most nebulous of ideas and translated them into actualities. You have built cities where none were known before. You have constructed industrial plants of a magnitude and to a

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The Manhattan Project operated under tight security lest its discovery induce Axis powers, especially Germany, to accelerate their own nuclear projects or undertake covert operations against the project. The Office of Censorship relied on the press to comply with a voluntary code of conduct it

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The X-10 Graphite Reactor went critical on 4 November 1943 with about 30 short tons (27 t) of uranium. A week later the load was increased to 36 short tons (33 t), raising its power generation to 500 kW, and by the end of the month the first 500 mg of plutonium was created.

2842:

The Manhattan Project operated under a mandate of "absolute secrecy" from Roosevelt, meaning that the very existence of the project itself was to be kept secret. This proved a daunting task given the amount of knowledge and speculation about nuclear fission that existed prior to the Manhattan

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tried canning, developing a new process for flux-less welding; 97% of the cans passed a standard vacuum test, but high temperature tests indicated a failure rate of more than 50%. Nonetheless, production began in June 1943. The Metallurgical Laboratory eventually developed an improved welding

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Somervell and Styer selected Groves for the post; General Marshall ordered that he be promoted to brigadier general, as it was felt that the title "general" would hold more sway with the academic scientists working on the project. Groves' orders placed him directly under Somervell rather than

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The ultimate task of the metallurgists was to determine how to cast plutonium into a sphere. The difficulties became apparent when attempts to measure the density of plutonium gave inconsistent results. At first contamination was suspected, but it was soon determined that there were multiple

1385:. Oppenheimer expressed a strong preference for the site, citing its natural beauty, which, it was hoped, would inspire those working on the project. The engineers were concerned about the poor access road, and whether the water supply would be adequate, but otherwise felt that it was ideal. 1348:

got its name. The Army presence at Oak Ridge increased in August 1943 when Nichols replaced Marshall as head of the Manhattan Engineer District. One of his first tasks was to move the district headquarters to Oak Ridge, although the name of the district did not change. In September 1943 the

574:. The office was empowered to engage in research and large engineering projects. The NDRC Committee on Uranium became the S-1 Section of the OSRD; the word "uranium" was dropped for security reasons. In July 1941, Briggs proposed spending $ 167,000 on researching uranium, particularly the 3030:

was their short supply of uranium ore. It may have saved the Soviets at least one or two years in the development of their own bomb, although some historians have argued the Soviets spent as much time vetting and reduplicating the information as they would have saved had they trusted it.

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Marshall and Nichols discovered that the electromagnetic isotope separation process would require 5,000 short tons (4,500 tonnes) of copper, which was in desperately short supply. However, silver could be substituted, in an 11:10 copper to silver ratio. On 3 August 1942, Nichols met with

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hammered out a deal with Sengier and the Belgian government in May 1944 for the mine to be reopened and 1,720 short tons (1,560 t) of ore to be purchased at $ 1.45 a pound. To avoid dependence on the British and Canadians for ore, Groves also arranged for the purchase of US Vanadium

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Admiral Masao Tsuzuki, who acted as a translator. They remained in Hiroshima until 14 September and then surveyed Nagasaki from 19 September to 8 October. This and other scientific missions to Japan provided valuable data on the effects of the atomic bomb, and led to the creation of the

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the end of 1945 was about 90% of the total spent on the production of US small arms (not including ammunition) and 34% of the total spent on US tanks during the same period. It was the second most expensive weapons project undertaken by the United States during the war, behind only the

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Research into the Super was also pursued, although it was considered secondary to the development of a fission bomb. The effort was directed by Teller, who was its most enthusiastic proponent. The F-1 (Super) Group calculated that burning 1 cubic meter (35 cu ft) of liquid

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In contrast to the plutonium Fat Man, the uranium gun-type Little Boy weapon was straightforward if not trivial to design. Overall responsibility for it was assigned to Parsons's Ordnance (O) Division, with the design, development, and technical work at Los Alamos consolidated under

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would release the energy of 10 megatonnes of TNT (42 PJ), enough to devastate 1,000 square miles (2,600 km). In a final report on the Super in June 1946, Teller remained upbeat about the prospect of it being successfully developed, although that opinion was not universal.

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originally considered this overengineering a waste of time and money, but Fermi realized that by loading all 2,004 tubes, the reactor could reach the required power level and efficiently produce plutonium. Reactor D was started on 17 December 1944 and Reactor F on 25 February 1945.

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The key raw material for the project was uranium, which was used as fuel for the reactors, as feed that was transformed into plutonium, and, in its enriched form, in the atomic bomb itself. There were four known major deposits of uranium in 1940: in Colorado, in northern Canada, in

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The Manhattan Project became instantly famous after the bombing of Hiroshima and the partial lifting of its secrecy. It was widely credited with ending the war, and Groves worked to credit its contractors, whose work had hitherto been secret. Groves and Nichols presented them with

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told Stalin that the US had "a new weapon of unusual destructive force", without giving any details. As he showed "no special interest," Truman erroneously assumed that Stalin did not understand. In reality, Soviet spies had kept Stalin informed of the work and the planned test.

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at a cost of $ 3.5 million. An additional 3,000 acres (1,200 ha) was subsequently acquired. About 1,000 families were affected by the order, which came into effect on 7 October. Protests, legal appeals, and a 1943 Congressional inquiry were to no avail. By mid-November

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Map of the Hanford Site. Railroads flank the plants to the north and south. Reactors are the three northernmost red squares, along the Columbia River. The separation plants are the lower two red squares from the grouping south of the reactors. The bottom red square is the 300

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The greatest difficulty was encountered with the uranium slugs produced by Mallinckrodt and Metal Hydrides. These had to be coated in aluminum to avoid corrosion and the escape of fission products into the cooling system. The Grasselli Chemical Company attempted to develop a

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month reached nearly 7% enrichment. In August, the last of the 2,892 stages commenced operation. K-25 and K-27 achieved their full potential in the early postwar period, when they eclipsed the other production plants and became the prototypes for a new generation of plants.

1052:. Conant advised that it be acquired at once and Styer agreed but Marshall temporized, awaiting the results of Conant's reactor experiments. Of the prospective processes, only Lawrence's electromagnetic separation appeared sufficiently advanced for construction to commence. 3609:

in July 1946. Two Fat Man-type bombs were detonated — one as an airburst, one as an underwater burst — to investigate the effect of nuclear weapons on warships. Press and international observers were allowed to attend, making the tests an international spectacle.

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The Manhattan Project persisted until 31 December 1946, and the Manhattan District to 15 August 1947. During this time, it suffered from numerous difficulties caused by technical problems, the effects of rapid demobilization, and a lack of clarity on its long-term mission.

2384:"canyon" (known as 221), a concentration building (224), a purification building (231) and a magazine store (213). The canyons were each 800 feet (240 m) long and 65 feet (20 m) wide. Each consisted of forty 17.7-by-13-by-20-foot (5.4 by 4.0 by 6.1 m) cells. 2825:

presented the Manhattan Project with the Award of Honor for Distinguished Service to Safety in recognition of its safety record. Between January 1943 and June 1945, there were 62 fatalities and 3,879 disabling injuries—about 62 percent below the rate of private industry.

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Of these ores, those from the Belgian Congo contained the most uranium per mass of rock by far. Beyond their wartime needs, American and British leaders concluded that it was in their countries' interest to control as much of the world's uranium deposits as possible. The

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improved over-all efficiency by making our people stick to their knitting. And it made quite clear to all concerned that the project existed to produce a specific end product—not to enable individuals to satisfy their curiosity and to increase their scientific knowledge.

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one for the fourth stage tower. The final cost was $ 2.8 million. The Canadian Government did not officially learn of the project until August 1942. Trail's heavy water production started in January 1944 and continued until 1956. Heavy water from Trail was used for

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its probable military and political impact. In a meeting on 1 June, the Interim Committee resolved that "the bomb should be used against Japan as soon as possible; that it be used on a war plant surrounded by workers' homes; and that it be used without prior warning".

628:, flew to the US in late August 1941 and discovered that data provided by the MAUD Committee had not reached key American physicists. Oliphant set out to find out why the committee's findings were apparently being ignored. He met with the Uranium Committee and visited 2367:

Meanwhile, the chemists considered how plutonium could be separated from uranium when its chemical properties were not known. Working with the minute quantities of plutonium available at the Metallurgical Laboratory in 1942, a team under Charles M. Cooper developed a

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to coordinate the efforts of the US and UK; Canada was not a signatory, but the Agreement provided for a Canadian representative on the Combined Policy Committee in view of Canada's contribution to the effort. An agreement between Roosevelt and Churchill known as the

1891:. By July 1942, Mallinckrodt was producing a ton of highly pure oxide a day, but turning this into uranium metal initially proved more difficult. Production was too slow and quality was unacceptably low. A branch of the Metallurgical Laboratory was established at 4231:

mine had a uranium oxide content as high as 65% to 75%, which was many times higher than any other global sources. By comparison, the Canadian ores could be as high as 30%, and American sources, many of them byproducts of the mining of other minerals (especially

2459:, began in August 1944 when Oppenheimer implemented a sweeping reorganization of the Los Alamos laboratory to focus on implosion. Two new groups were created at Los Alamos to develop the implosion weapon, X (for explosives) Division headed by explosives expert 9209: 1482:, and Captain James F. Grafton was appointed Chicago area engineer. It soon became apparent that the scale of operations was too great for the area, and it was decided to build the pilot plant at Oak Ridge and keep a research and testing facility in Chicago. 1930:

Oak Ridge hosted several uranium separation technologies. The Y-12 electromagnetic separation plant is in the upper right. The K-25 and K-27 gaseous diffusion plants are in the lower left, near the S-50 thermal diffusion plant. The X-10 was for plutonium

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plant that Nichols had recently built in Pennsylvania had cost $ 128 million. Nor were they impressed with estimates to the nearest order of magnitude, which Groves compared with telling a caterer to prepare for between ten and a thousand guests. A

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and Fermi, who inserted the first slug, the reactor was powered up beginning on 13 September 1944. Over the next few days, 838 tubes were loaded and the reactor went critical. Shortly after midnight on 27 September, the operators began to withdraw the

1539:, ordered Chicago Pile-1 dismantled and reassembled at the Argonne Forest site, as he regarded the operation of a reactor as too hazardous for a densely populated area. The new site, still operated by the Metallurgical Laboratory, became known as ' 673:. Roosevelt chose the Army to run the project rather than the Navy, because the Army had more experience with managing large-scale construction. He agreed to coordinate the effort with the British and on 11 October sent a message to Prime Minister 1388:

Patterson approved the acquisition of the site on 25 November 1942, authorizing $ 440,000 for the purchase of pre-calculated 54,000 acres (22,000 ha), all but 8,900 acres (3,600 ha) of which were already owned by the Federal Government.

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on the plants at Oak Ridge and Hanford, producing the enriched uranium and plutonium needed to fuel the bombs. At both sites, the majority of the costs were for construction (74% at Oak Ridge, 87% at Hanford), with the rest being for operations.

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Voluntary censorship of atomic information began before the Manhattan Project. After the start of the European war in 1939 American scientists began avoiding publishing military-related research, and in 1940 scientific journals began asking the

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balked at the idea and convinced Oppenheimer that other scientists would object. Conant, Groves, and Oppenheimer then devised a compromise whereby the laboratory was operated by the University of California under contract to the War Department.

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contracts, they were built and operated by the Army Corps of Engineers. The American plants used a process different from Trail's; heavy water was extracted by distillation, taking advantage of the slightly higher boiling point of heavy water.

2778:. In March 1944, both the War Production Board and the War Manpower Commission gave the project their highest priority. The Kansas commission director stated that from April to July 1944 every qualified applicant in the state who visited a 1532:. The point at which a reaction becomes self-sustaining became known as "going critical". Compton reported the success to Conant in Washington, D.C., by a coded phone call, saying, "The Italian navigator has just landed in the new world." 3368:

August, and a third bomb around 24 August. However, due to weather conditions over Japan and the desire for visual bombing, the date of the first bombing mission was pushed back to 6 August, and the second was moved forward to 9 August.

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The second line of development pursued by the Manhattan Project used plutonium. Although small amounts of plutonium exist in nature, the best way to obtain large quantities is via a reactor. Natural uranium is bombarded by neutrons and

274:. The Manhattan Project employed nearly 130,000 people at its peak and cost nearly US$ 2 billion (equivalent to about $ 27 billion in 2023), over 80 percent of which was for building and operating the plants that produced the 1607:

Under Secretary Patterson gave his approval on 9 February, allocating $ 5 million for the acquisition of 430,000 acres (170,000 ha). The federal government relocated some 1,500 residents of nearby settlements, as well as the

1699:(zero-energy experimental pile) became the first Canadian reactor, and the first to be completed outside the United States, when it went critical in September 1945; ZEEP remained in use by researchers until 1970. A larger 10 MW 2150:, the naval officer in charge of ordnance development at Los Alamos, brought Oppenheimer news of encouraging progress on thermal diffusion. Oppenheimer informed Groves, who approved construction of a thermal plant on 24 June 1944. 360:, Manhattan Project personnel served in Europe, sometimes behind enemy lines, where they gathered nuclear materials and documents, and rounded up German scientists. Despite the Manhattan Project's emphasis on security, Soviet 3826:. Appropriations requests were quietly slipped into other bills, but the project's mounting costs and large facilities (which appeared to many to produce nothing) attracted scrutiny from several Congressional auditors. The 3445:, Truman told his cabinet that "the thought of wiping out another 100,000 people was too horrible. He didn't like the idea of killing, as he said, 'all those kids.'" Groves suspended the third core's shipment on 13 August. 2301:

Manhattan Project. Some 390 short tons (350 t) of steel, 17,400 cubic yards (13,300 m) of concrete, 50,000 concrete blocks and 71,000 concrete bricks were used to construct the 120-foot (37 m) high building.

1683:, to provide residences and facilities for the team members. The site was chosen for its proximity to the industrial manufacturing area of Ontario and Quebec, and proximity to a rail head adjacent to a large military base, 1173:

and one or two other British scientists were important enough that the bomb design team at Los Alamos needed them, despite the risk of revealing weapon design secrets. In August 1943 Churchill and Roosevelt negotiated the

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As it grew in size and cost, Congress was deliberately kept ignorant of the project, because of concerns that Congressmen were prone to leaking information, and because it was feared that the project would appear to be a

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were hidden into appropriation requests with the inconspicuous headings, frequently "Engineer Service Army" and "Expediting Production." In late May 1945, to further expedite budget issues and assure the cooperation of

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To review this work and the general theory of fission reactions, Oppenheimer and Fermi convened meetings at the University of Chicago in June and at the University of California in July 1942 with theoretical physicists

9217: 2016:. Ultimately 14,700 short tons (13,300 tonnes; 430,000,000 troy ounces) were used. The 1,000-troy-ounce (31 kg) silver bars were cast into cylindrical billets, extruded into strips, and wound onto magnetic coils. 822:, $ 31 million for research and development by OSRD and $ 5 million for contingencies in fiscal year 1943. They sent it on 17 June 1942, to the President, who approved it by writing "OK FDR" on the document. 3999:

precision heretofore deemed impossible. You built the weapon which ended the War and thereby saved countless American lives. With regard to peacetime applications, you have raised the curtain on vistas of a new world.

1863:. The matter was then taken up by the Combined Policy Committee. As 30 percent of Union Minière's stock was controlled by British interests, the British took the lead in negotiations. Sir John Anderson and Ambassador 1376:

The idea of locating Project Y at Oak Ridge was considered, but it was decided that it should be in a remote location. On Oppenheimer's recommendation, the search for a suitable site was narrowed to the vicinity of

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As the idea of the fission bomb was theoretically settled—at least until more experimental data was available—Edward Teller pushed for discussion of a more powerful bomb: the "super", now usually referred to as a

8685: 3638:(1946), which began as an emergency action undertaken by scientists who saw urgent need for an educational program about atomic weapons. In the face of the destructiveness of the bombs and in anticipation of the 1273:

A selection of US and Canadian sites important to the Manhattan Project. Research and production took place at more than thirty sites across the US, the UK, and Canada. Click on the location for more information.

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In March 1943, DuPont began construction of a plutonium plant on a 112-acre (0.5 km) site at Oak Ridge. Intended as a pilot plant for the larger production facilities at Hanford, it included the air-cooled

3062:, OSRD, the Manhattan Project, and Army Intelligence (G-2), to investigate enemy scientific developments. It was not restricted to those involving nuclear weapons. The Chief of Army Intelligence, Major General 2600:'s group. The gun-type design now had to work with enriched uranium only, and this allowed the design to be greatly simplified. A high-velocity gun was no longer required, and a simpler weapon was substituted. 2475:. The final design resembled a soccer ball, with 20 hexagonal and 12 pentagonal lenses, each weighing about 80 pounds (36 kg). Getting the detonation just right required fast, reliable and safe electrical 3002:, a physicist and member of the British Mission who was intimately involved in work at Los Alamos on the design of the implosion bomb. His espionage activities were not identified until 1950, as a result of 2585:

might contaminate the whole town, and Groves authorized the construction of a new facility for plutonium chemistry and metallurgy, which became known as the DP-site. The hemispheres for the first plutonium

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is revealing himself and his true form to Prince Arjuna, imploring Arjuna to fulfill his duty and take part in a war, and assuring him that the fate of those killed is really up to Krishna, not mortal men.

3006:. The revelation of his espionage activities damaged the United States' nuclear cooperation with Britain and Canada, and other instances of espionage were subsequently uncovered, leading to the arrest of 1227:, a special account not subject to the usual auditing and controls was used to hold Trust monies. Between 1944 and his resignation from the Trust in 1947, Groves deposited a total of $ 37.5 million. 4245:

It is necessary to distinguish between the K-25 gaseous diffusion plant and the K-25 power plant. The latter provided energy to both the K-25 gaseous diffusion plant and the S-50 thermal diffusion plant.

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was not far advanced because Japan had little access to uranium ore, but it was initially feared that Germany was very close to developing its own weapons. At the instigation of the Manhattan Project, a

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to prepare a sanitized technical history of the project for public consumption. The idea of releasing such information freely was controversial; the decision to do so was made by Truman personally. The

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Groves expected to have another atomic bomb ready for use on 19 August, with three more in September and a further three in October. Two more Fat Man assemblies were readied, and scheduled to leave

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of the 1960s, which was comparable in size and scope. At its peak in 1965, when Apollo engaged 5.4 percent of the national supply of scientists and engineers, women accounted for only 3 percent of

3570:. Nearby Kirtland Field was used as a B-29 base for aircraft compatibility and drop tests. As reservist officers were demobilized, they were replaced by about fifty hand-picked regular officers. 3335:. Stimson intervened, announcing that he would be making the targeting decision, and that he would not authorize the bombing of Kyoto on the grounds of its historical and religious significance. 2944:

of 7 September 1940, later learned that government officials asked librarians nationwide in 1943 to withdraw the issue. The Soviets noticed the silence, however. In April 1942 nuclear physicist

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and Generals Marshall, Somervell, and Styer about his concerns, advocating that the project be placed under a senior policy committee, with a prestigious officer, preferably Styer, as director.

1407:

During the war, Los Alamos was referred to as "Site Y" or "the Hill". Initially it was to have been a military laboratory with Oppenheimer and other researchers commissioned into the Army, but

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at Albuquerque, New Mexico. Groves allocated $ 72 million to them for research activities in fiscal year 1946–1947. They would be in the vanguard of the kind of large-scale research that

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following the capture of the city in June 1944. Meanwhile, Pash formed a combined British and American Alsos mission in London under the command of Captain Horace K. Calvert to participate in

4284:, who translated the line as: "Death am I, and my present task / Destruction." A more common translation has the identification not as "Death," but as "Time." In the passage, the Hindu god 3952:

The Naval Research Laboratory had long been interested in the prospect of using nuclear power for warship propulsion, and sought to create its own nuclear project. In May 1946, Nimitz, now

505:

in October 1939. The committee reported back to Roosevelt in November that uranium "would provide a possible source of bombs with a destructiveness vastly greater than anything now known."

12154: 2768: 1815:. All but Joachimstal were in Allied hands. A 1942 survey determined that sufficient quantities of uranium were available to satisfy the project's requirements. Nichols arranged with the 1733:

Although DuPont's preferred designs for the nuclear reactors were helium cooled and used graphite as a moderator, DuPont still expressed an interest in using heavy water as a backup. The

16053: 2903: (equivalent to $ 169,000 in 2023), they monitored "dials and switches while behind thick concrete walls mysterious reactions took place" without knowing the purpose of their jobs. 16058: 3382:, a Boeing B-29 Superfortress of the 393d Bombardment Squadron, piloted by Tibbets, lifted off from North Field with a Little Boy in its bomb bay. Hiroshima, the headquarters of the 2979:

struck a power line, and the resulting power surge caused the three reactors at Hanford to be temporarily shut down. With so many people involved, security was difficult. A special

1083:

Vannevar Bush became dissatisfied with Colonel Marshall's failure to get the project moving forward expeditiously and felt that more aggressive leadership was required. He spoke to

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By December 1942 there were concerns that even Oak Ridge was too close to a major population center (Knoxville) in the unlikely event of a major nuclear accident. Groves recruited

1027:

Marshall later conceded that, "I had never heard of atomic fission but I did know that you could not build much of a plant, much less four of them for $ 90 million." A single

2529:, known as an "urchin", was developed to start the chain reaction at precisely the right moment. This work on the chemistry and metallurgy of radioactive polonium was directed by 3487:, drafted in July 1945 and signed by dozens of scientists working on the Manhattan Project, was a late attempt at warning Truman about his responsibility in using such weapons. 4171:

In Bethe's account, the possibility of this ultimate catastrophe came up again in 1975 when it appeared in a magazine article by H.C. Dudley, who got the idea from a report by

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Specifically at its Berkeley campus; however, as of 1940, the University of California had not yet established a formal distinction between the university as a whole and its

2380:

Notwithstanding its priority, work on the 300 area fell behind schedule due to the unique and complex nature of the facilities, and wartime shortages of labor and materials.

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for the purchase of ore from its refinery in Port Hope, Ontario. The Canadian government subsequently bought up the company's stock until it acquired a controlling interest.

3441:

On 10 August, Truman was informed that another bomb was being prepared. He ordered that no additional atomic bombs could be used without his express authority. According to

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2.6 million—around $ 47 an acre. When presented with a proclamation declaring Oak Ridge a total exclusion area that no one could enter without military permission, the

2991:, investigated suspected Soviet espionage at the Radiation Laboratory in Berkeley. Oppenheimer informed Pash that he had been approached by a fellow professor at Berkeley, 2771:. The unique labor and security requirements also resulted in the Manhattan Project having a higher percentage of women in technical roles than later government projects. 2467:

that focused the implosion into a spherical shape. The design of lenses turned out to be slow, difficult and frustrating. Various explosives were tested before settling on

854:, a physicist at the Metallurgical Laboratory, was assigned to assist Oppenheimer by coordinating experimental physics groups scattered across the country. Oppenheimer and 10009: 3160:—the heart of the German nuclear effort. T-Force captured nuclear laboratories, documents, equipment and supplies, including heavy water and 1.5 tons of metallic uranium. 1308:

The day after he took over the project, Groves went to Tennessee with Colonel Marshall to inspect the proposed site there, and Groves was impressed. On 29 September 1942,

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in September 1945, two months after the test blast and just after the end of World War II. The white overshoes prevented fallout from sticking to the soles of their shoes.

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together. This became unnecessary after Thin Man was abandoned, as a Little Boy was short enough to fit into a B-29 bomb bay, but modifications were still required. The

13874: 613:, which unanimously recommended pursuing the development of an atomic bomb. In July 1940, Britain had offered to give the United States access to its research, and the 13475: 2983:

detachment was formed to handle the project's security issues. By 1943, it was clear that the Soviet Union was attempting to penetrate the project. Lieutenant Colonel

2513:. This allowed the taking of an X-ray movie of the implosion. The lenses were designed primarily using this series of tests. In his history of the Los Alamos project, 998:, the principal project contractor, and to Columbia University. He had permission to draw on his former command, the Syracuse District, for staff, and he started with 3806:

Manhattan Project monthly expenditures from January 1943 through the end of December 1946. In its peak month, August 1944, US$ 111.4 million was spent on the project.

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design were instead developed in the Soviet Union after the war. It eventually became the preferred method of uranium isotope separation, being far more economical.

1604:, which could supply sufficient water to cool the reactors. Groves visited the site in January and established the Hanford Engineer Works (HEW), codenamed "Site W". 15611: 7736: 3906: 2250:

Gradual modifications raised the power to 4,000 kW in July 1944. X-10 operated as a production plant until January 1945, when it was turned over to research.

388: 13818: 3956:, decided that the Navy should instead work with the Manhattan Project. A group of naval officers were assigned to Oak Ridge, the most senior of whom was Captain 16048: 13414: 13386: 12530: 9136: 5618: 2899:

others employed with the project "worked like moles in the dark". Warned that disclosing the project's secrets was punishable by 10 years in prison or a fine of

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mine was flooded and closed, and Nichols unsuccessfully attempted to negotiate its reopening and the sale of the entire future output to the United States with

1547:, the first heavy water reactor, also went critical at this site, on 15 May 1944. After the war, operations at Site A were moved about 6 miles (9.7 km) to 1048:

could supply ample electric power and the rivers could provide cooling water for the reactors. After examining several sites, the survey team selected one near

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attempted to ensure that every request from Groves for assistance was honored. The British Mission that arrived in the United States in December 1943 included

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of the 509th Group's 320th Troop Carrier Squadron. Two Fat Man assemblies traveled to Tinian in specially modified 509th Composite Group B-29s, and the first

551:

created the first nuclear fission reaction in the Americas, verifying the work of Hahn and Strassmann. The same team subsequently built a series of prototype

16068: 14441: 13804: 13106: 12731: 11057:

Atomic Energy for Military Purposes: the Official Report on the Development of the Atomic Bomb under the Auspices of the United States Government, 1940–1945

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became a principal repository for Manhattan Project waste for the Eastern United States. All of the radioactive materials stored at the LOOW site—including

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At Hanford, plutonium production declined as Reactors B, D and F wore out, poisoned by fission products and swelling of the graphite moderator known as the

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Because most of his task involved construction, Marshall worked in cooperation with the head of the Corps of Engineers Construction Division, Major General

16023: 13447: 13393: 12579: 9842: 2198:. As only a small amount will be transformed, the plutonium must be chemically separated from the remaining uranium, from any initial impurities, and from 11075:

Management of the Hanford Engineer Works In World War II: How the Corps, DuPont and the Metallurgical Laboratory Fast Tracked the Original Plutonium Works

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to head the Army's part of the project in June 1942. Marshall created a liaison office in Washington, D.C., but established his temporary headquarters at

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stage. As he put it later: "The evidence at hand proved definitely that Germany had no atom bomb and was not likely to have one in any reasonable time."

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On 2 December 1942, a team led by Enrico Fermi initiated the first artificial self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction in an experimental reactor known as

1017: 11534: 1588:

DuPont recommended that the site be located far from the existing uranium production facility at Oak Ridge. In December 1942, Groves dispatched Colonel

16033: 12426: 730: 9601: 8157: 3438:. Although cast, it still needed to be pressed and coated, which would take until 16 August. It could therefore have been ready for use on 19 August. 321:. In parallel with the work on uranium was an effort to produce plutonium. After the feasibility of the world's first artificial nuclear reactor, the 16018: 13797: 13237: 13113: 6013: 2027:

were young women who monitored calutron control panels at Y-12. Gladys Owens, seated in the foreground, was unaware of what she had been involved in.

1996: 15994: 10961: 238:. It was led by the United States in collaboration with the United Kingdom and Canada. From 1942 to 1946, the project was directed by Major General 13090: 12470: 624:

As part of the scientific exchange, the MAUD Committee's findings were conveyed to the United States. One of its members, the Australian physicist

3621:

to take over the project's functions and assets. It established civilian control over atomic development. Military aspects were taken over by the

2520:

Within the explosives was an aluminum pusher, which provided a smooth transition from the relatively low-density explosive to the next layer, the

13527: 12839: 9213: 8857: 3304:

on 16 July and arrived on Tinian on 26 July. The remaining components, which included six highly enriched uranium rings, were delivered by three

1823:

and negotiated for the purchase of 1,200 short tons (1,100 t) of uranium ore from the Belgian Congo that was being stored in a warehouse on

1254: 10307: 2907:

that in the early days of the project in 1943, investigators vetted 400,000 potential employees and 600 companies for potential security risks.

621:

briefed American scientists on British developments. He discovered that the American project was smaller than the British, and not as advanced.

13346: 12648: 5617:

William J. (Bill) Wilcox Jr., Oak Ridge City Historian, Retired Technical Director for the Oak Ridge Y-12 & K-25 Plants, 11 November 2007,

2006: 1300:, on 11 August 1945. By May 1945, 82,000 people were employed at the Clinton Engineer Works. Photograph by the Manhattan District photographer 1268: 859: 15352: 3227:

The only Allied aircraft capable of carrying the 17-foot (5.2 m) long Thin Man or the 59-inch (150 cm) wide Fat Man was the British

1952:

produced a body of mathematical theory making it possible to design a centrifugal separation unit, which Westinghouse undertook to construct.

1265: 1258: 16063: 14145: 14108: 14085: 13599: 12521: 12491: 12169: 7509: 6140: 3811: 1977:

Electromagnetic isotope separation was developed at the University of California Radiation Laboratory. This method employed devices known as

1141: 567: 466:, which warned of the potential development of "extremely powerful bombs of a new type". It urged the United States to acquire stockpiles of 271: 13860: 6206: 16028: 15604: 14238: 14094: 14078: 14050: 13291: 12498: 1267: 961:, who "didn't have enough sense to shut up about it. It somehow got into a document that went to Washington" and was "never laid to rest". 8888: 2280:

As at Oak Ridge, the most difficulty was encountered while canning the uranium slugs, which commenced at Hanford in March 1944. They were

1266: 1262: 1261: 818:

Bush and Conant then took the recommendation to the Top Policy Group with a budget proposal for $ 54 million for construction by the

14995: 14062: 13974: 13918: 13881: 13156: 11734: 11596: 11504: 5517: 2844: 1146:

The British and Americans exchanged nuclear information but did not initially combine their efforts; during 1940-41 the British project (

17: 10489: 3286:

was formed at Los Alamos under Parsons's command to assist in preparing and delivering the bombs. The 509th Composite Group deployed to

13967: 12692: 4077:. The process of transforming the University into a multi-campus university system began in March 1951 and was not complete until 1960. 4004: 2810: 2589:(or core) were produced and delivered on 2 July 1945. Three more hemispheres followed on 23 July and were delivered three days later. 2509:. The gamma ray source was placed in the center of a metal sphere surrounded by the explosive lenses, which in turn were inside in an 1269: 16043: 15473: 14101: 12484: 12442: 12061: 5811: 3830:

that investigated wartime waste and fraud attempted to audit the project several times, but each time their inquiries were rejected.

3196: 2783:

Groves then sent a personal letter to the head of their university or company asking for them to be released for essential war work.

1344:

developed a residential community for 13,000. The community was located on the slopes of Black Oak Ridge, from which the new town of

1259: 726: 651:

On 9 October 1941, President Roosevelt approved the atomic program after he convened a meeting with Vannevar Bush and Vice President

376: 157: 3994:

On handing over control to the Atomic Energy Commission, Groves bid farewell to the people who had worked on the Manhattan Project:

1573:

in November 1942 to be the prime contractor for the construction of the plutonium production complex. The President of the company,

15322: 13134: 12908: 12671: 12537: 12348: 3635: 2728:कालोऽस्मि लोकक्षयकृत्प्रवृद्धो लोकान्समाहर्तुमिह प्रवृत्तः। ऋतेऽपि त्वां न भविष्यन्ति सर्वे येऽवस्थिताः प्रत्यनीकेषु योधाः॥११- ३२॥ 2421:

This rendered it unsuitable for use in a gun-type weapon, for the plutonium-240 would start the chain reaction too soon, causing a

663: 2746:

The test was significantly more successful than had been anticipated; this was immediately cabled to Stimson, who was then at the

2735:

If the radiance of a thousand suns were to burst at once into the sky, that would be like the splendor of the mighty one ...

15597: 14217: 14014: 13666: 13044: 12544: 12456: 12392: 9477: 8050: 7922: 4050: 3651: 3282:, equipped with Silverplate B-29s, practiced long-distance flights over water and dropped pumpkin bombs. A special unit known as 2623:

Because of the complexity of an implosion-style weapon, it was decided that, despite the waste of fissile material, a full-scale

2092:

In November 1942 the Military Policy Committee approved the construction of a 600-stage gaseous diffusion plant. On 14 December,

1340:(CEW) in early 1943. While Stone & Webster concentrated on the production facilities, the architectural and engineering firm 1252: 9585:"The Community LOOW Project: A Review of Environmental Investigations and Remediation at the Former Lake Ontario Ordnance Works" 3475:. Some questioned whether "atomic diplomacy" would have attained the same goals, and the relative weight that the bombs and the 2699:(radioactive glass) in the desert 250 feet (76 m) wide. The shock wave was felt over 100 miles (160 km) away, and the 2113:

and Carbon, on 11 September 1945. The total cost, including the K-27 plant completed after the war, came to $ 480 million.

1255: 15845: 14420: 13932: 12775: 12313: 10026: 8862: 8720:"Foreign Relations of the United States: Diplomatic Papers, The Conference of Berlin (The Potsdam Conference), 1945, Volume II" 3643: 3618: 3590: 3559:

technique to the bismuth phosphate process, which left unspent uranium in a state from which it could not easily be recovered.

1253: 648:. Oliphant's mission was therefore a success; key American physicists were now aware of the potential power of an atomic bomb. 400: 4454: 2877:

to investigate potential security violations. Ultimately over 1,500 "loose talk" cases were investigated during the war. Even

16073: 15795: 15016: 14921: 14448: 14194: 14069: 13148: 13122: 12979: 12685: 12602: 11376: 11082: 11028: 10884: 10843: 10804: 10777: 10737: 10645: 10615: 10540: 10470: 10411: 10384: 10261: 10181: 9399: 7595: 3960:, who became assistant director there. They immersed themselves in the study of nuclear energy, laying the foundations for a 3910: 3483:

was the most notable effort pushing for a demonstration but was turned down by the Interim Committee's scientific panel. The

3387: 1712: 1270: 1263: 1257: 1256: 819: 243: 1631:

Canada provided research, extraction and production of uranium and plutonium, and Canadian scientists worked at Los Alamos.

1251: 690: 15249: 14656: 14542: 13707: 13167: 13163: 13141: 12745: 3975:

The ability of the new reactors to create radioactive isotopes in previously unheard-of quantities sparked a revolution in

3622: 2594: 1479: 1309: 721:

The S-1 Committee meeting on 18 December 1941 was "pervaded by an atmosphere of enthusiasm and urgency" in the wake of the

8130: 3058:

was carried out against heavy water plants in German-occupied Norway. A small mission was created, jointly staffed by the

1959:

In November 1942 the centrifuge process was abandoned by the Military Policy Committee. Successful gas centrifuges of the

1381:, where Oppenheimer owned a ranch. On 16 November 1942, Oppenheimer, Groves, Dudley and others toured the vicinity of the 15942: 15164: 14628: 13960: 13946: 13152: 7585: 2432:

Work on an alternative method of bomb design, known as implosion, had begun earlier under the direction of the physicist

1091:

Reybold, with Colonel Marshall now answerable to Groves. Groves established his headquarters in Washington, D.C., in the

560: 349:

plutonium implosion-type weapon was developed in a concerted design and development effort by the Los Alamos Laboratory.

10145:. A History of the United States Atomic Energy Commission, no. 2. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press. 3654:(UNAEC) in June 1946, proposed the establishment of an international atomic development authority, but was not adopted. 912:

The properties of pure uranium-235 were relatively unknown, as were those of plutonium, which had only been isolated by

15373: 15242: 15120: 14698: 14413: 14364: 14122: 13677: 12922: 12761: 12609: 12463: 11044: 4262:(with the total explosive power of approximately 108 tons of TNT), actually a few tons more than the stated "100-tons". 4070: 3860: 3855: 3642:

several project members including Bohr, Bush and Conant expressed the view that it was necessary to reach agreement on

999: 770: 152: 31: 11544:

Chadwick, Mark B. (3 December 2021). "Nuclear Science for the Manhattan Project and Comparison to Today's ENDF Data".

9144: 3026:

remained unknown for decades. The value of the espionage is difficult to quantify, as the principal constraint on the

16078: 15754: 15489: 14371: 14343: 14160: 13742: 13454: 13421: 11614: 11346: 11316: 11286: 11252: 11198: 10563: 10443: 10357: 10288: 10234: 10200: 10150: 10116: 9940: 9906: 8104:"The Secret City/ Calutron operators at their panels, in the Y-12 plant at Oak Ridge, Tennessee, during World War II" 7868: 5843: 3630: 2795: 1944:

had developed such a process in the 1930s, but had encountered technical difficulties. In 1941 he began working with

809: 508: 412: 12637: 2843:

Project, the huge numbers of people involved, and the scale of the facilities. Groves adopted an extreme version of

1354:

in May 1945, by which time 82,000 people were employed at the Clinton Engineer Works, and 10,000 by Roane-Anderson.

15526: 14684: 14621: 13756: 13585: 12708: 10931:

Kemp, R. Scott (April 2012). "The End of Manhattan: How the Gas Centrifuge Changed the Quest for Nuclear Weapons".

9584: 7846: 3050: 2881:

was not informed about the project while he was vice president, and only learned about it after Roosevelt's death.

2818: 2779: 1522: 1264: 1151: 15901: 13262: 9519: 8756: 3180: 2707:, so Groves issued a cover story about an ammunition magazine explosion at Alamogordo Field involving gas shells. 2039:

was contracted to manage Y-12. The calutrons were turned over to trained Tennessee Eastman operators known as the

1860: 655:. He created a Top Policy Group consisting of himself—although he never attended a meeting—Wallace, Bush, Conant, 16038: 15960: 15800: 15050: 14891: 14880: 14716: 14475: 14434: 14327: 14265: 13645: 12915: 12784: 12752: 11589: 11400: 9899:

The Silverplate Bombers: A History and Registry of the Enola Gay and Other B-29s Configured to Carry Atomic Bombs

9625:

Jenks, Andrew (July 2002). "Model City USA: The Environmental Cost of Victory in World War II and the Cold War".

9000: 5726: 4386: 4192: 3987:

for cancer diagnosis and treatment. Isotopes were also used in biological, industrial and agricultural research.

3450: 1401: 15744: 13432: 13000: 3536:

were awarded to key contractors and scientists, including Bush and Oppenheimer. Military personnel received the

3045:

In addition to developing the atomic bomb, the Manhattan Project was charged with gathering intelligence on the

2861:

judges adjudicating land claims, and other sources of speculation, prying, and leaks, along with concerns about

2581:

into the desired spherical shape. As plutonium was found to corrode readily, the sphere was coated with nickel.

2031:

Responsibility for the design and construction of the electromagnetic separation plant, which came to be called

15769: 15620: 15436: 15408: 15286: 15079: 14316: 13767: 13693: 13482: 12853: 12572: 12477: 12362: 11489: 11020: 9868:

Bernstein, Barton J. (June 1976). "The Uneasy Alliance: Roosevelt, Churchill, and the Atomic Bomb, 1940–1945".

8824: 3930: 3914: 3529: 3500: 3476: 3231:, but using a British aircraft would have caused difficulties with maintenance. Groves hoped that the American 3055: 2915: 2480: 2132: 2032: 1321: 656: 15764: 15724: 1501:

blocks and uranium in both metallic and powdered oxide forms. At the time, there was a limited source of pure

281:

The project resulted in two types of atomic bombs, developed concurrently during the war: a relatively simple

15496: 15429: 15380: 15311: 15136: 14642: 14593: 14357: 14350: 13953: 13714: 13498: 12551: 11419: 10434: 9810:"Nuclear Waste: DOE's Efforts to Protect the Columbia River from Contamination Could Be Further Strengthened" 9210:"Petition to the President of the United States, 17 July 1945. Miscellaneous Historical Documents Collection" 4028: 3918: 3046: 2013: 1757: 1687:. Located on the Ottawa River, it had access to abundant water. The first director of the new laboratory was 1341: 1260: 606: 498: 353: 286: 9556: 8103: 7771: 6341: 6284: 3979:. Starting in mid-1946, Oak Ridge began distributing radioisotopes to hospitals and universities, primarily 559:

at Columbia but were not yet able to achieve a chain reaction. The Advisory Committee on Uranium became the

15739: 15570: 15466: 14841: 14802: 13721: 13549: 13534: 13461: 13440: 13258: 12936: 12722: 12715: 12699: 12410: 12369: 12341: 12221: 11434: 10532: 9608: 8719: 3964:. A similar group of Air Force personnel arrived at Oak Ridge in September 1946 with the aim of developing 3938: 3533: 3059: 2925: 2597: 2444:, proposed using a spherical configuration instead of the cylindrical one that Neddermeyer was working on. 2369: 1828: 1397: 1096: 1068: 494: 419: 110: 15774: 15734: 15729: 8910: 5344: 2552: 15805: 15533: 14857: 14809: 14427: 14399: 14252: 13867: 13846: 13360: 13023: 12929: 12419: 12189: 10973: 10799:. Swords of Armageddon: US Nuclear Weapons Development since 1945. Sunnyvale, CA: Chukelea Publications. 10772:. Swords of Armageddon: US Nuclear Weapons Development since 1945. Sunnyvale, CA: Chukelea Publications. 5059: 3969: 3922: 3865: 3256: 3090: 3082: 2799: 2526: 2514: 2157:

The S-50 plant is the dark building to the upper left behind the Oak Ridge powerhouse (with smokestacks).

2144: 2098: 1552: 1350: 1219: 463: 399:. It maintained control over American atomic weapons research and production until the formation of the 16013: 15868: 15840: 15331: 14827: 14746: 14691: 14579: 14535: 14185: 13811: 13735: 13630: 13507: 13379: 13372: 13332: 13305: 13037: 12970: 12565: 12376: 12306: 12282: 11582: 11453: 9558:

Manhattan District History, Book 1, Volume 4, Chapter 1 (Legislative Contacts of the Manhattan Project)

6166: 3279: 3240: 3027: 3015: 2980: 2919:

Security poster, warning office workers to close drawers and put documents in safes when not being used

2653: 2627:

was required. Oppenheimer codenamed it "Trinity". In March 1944, planning for the test was assigned to

1207: 1045: 808:. The S-1 Committee recommended pursuing all five technologies. This was approved by Bush, Conant, and 785: 742: 443: 7568: 2304:

Construction of the reactor itself commenced in February 1944. Watched by Compton, Matthias, DuPont's

15918: 15882: 15779: 15233: 15150: 14935: 14795: 14767: 14600: 14505: 14295: 13728: 12795: 12449: 12164: 12159: 9026: 3953: 3843: 3614: 3586: 3562:

Bomb engineering was carried out by the Z Division, initially located at Wendover Field but moved to

3232: 3077: 2940: 2373: 2140: 2061:

The most promising but also the most challenging method of isotope separation was gaseous diffusion.

1919:

it must be physically separated from the more plentiful isotope. Various methods were considered for

1741: 1179: 843: 774: 636:. Lawrence was sufficiently impressed to commence his own research into uranium. He in turn spoke to 372: 12993: 9063:(Spring 1991). "Eclipsed by Hiroshima and Nagasaki: Early Thinking about Tactical Nuclear Weapons". 1478:, southwest of Chicago. In July, Nichols arranged for a lease of 1,025 acres (415 ha) from the 1184: 15820: 15649: 14972: 14949: 14201: 14002: 13995: 13652: 13312: 13284: 13277: 12664: 12246: 11779: 11638: 10902:

Home, R. W.; Low, Morris F. (September 1993). "Postwar Scientific Intelligence Missions to Japan".

7501: 3802: 3628:

After the bombings at Hiroshima and Nagasaki, a number of Manhattan Project physicists founded the

3520: 3298: 3114: 2790:

Major General Leslie R. Groves Jr., speaks to service personnel Oak Ridge Tennessee in August 1945.

2632: 2521: 1672: 1429: 1390: 1200: 1092: 926: 797: 738: 605:

of 10 kilograms (22 lb), small enough to be carried by contemporary bombers. Their March 1940

594: 583: 326: 206: 142: 13009: 12986: 10583:. The Canadian Committee for the History of the Second World War, Department of National Defence. 3251:, the codename for the modification of the B-29, in November 1943. Test drops were carried out at 2743:

together with verse (XI,32), which he translated as "Now I am become Death, destroyer of worlds".

15394: 15338: 15208: 15068: 14753: 14406: 14302: 14208: 13776: 13637: 13607: 13571: 13556: 13428: 13320: 13298: 13244: 13230: 13212: 12876: 12657: 12385: 12334: 12241: 12138: 11693: 11240: 10324: 10103: 6210: 4022: 3869: 3431: 3271: 3220: 3129: 2988: 2822: 2775: 2637: 2574: 2566: 2415: 2411: 1948:, the only known gaseous compound of uranium, and was able to separate uranium-235. At Columbia, 1643: 1574: 1548: 1518: 1382: 1378: 1232: 991: 667: 290: 282: 10578: 10573:

Villa, Brian L. (1981). "Chapter 11: Alliance Politics and Atomic Collaboration, 1941–1943". In

6291:. An additional 5% came from "miscellaneous sources", which included some ores recovered by the 5656:"50th Anniversary Article: Oppenheimer's Better Idea: Ranch School Becomes Arsenal of Democracy" 15855: 15679: 15086: 14979: 14781: 14732: 14635: 14528: 14498: 14281: 14169: 13895: 13686: 13270: 13251: 13221: 12768: 12738: 12020: 11688: 11683: 11678: 11653: 9951: 9065: 3305: 3137: 2758: 2710:

Oppenheimer later claimed that, while witnessing the explosion, he thought of a verse from the

2664: 2618: 2545:

per month of polonium, which Monsanto was able to deliver. The whole assembly was encased in a

2342: 2259: 1745: 1663:, the first reactor using heavy water and natural uranium, which went critical on 15 May 1944. 1577:, wanted no profit of any kind; for legal reasons a nominal fee of one dollar was agreed upon. 1564: 1475: 1337: 1293: 1283: 1076: 891: 722: 475: 278:. Research and production took place at more than 30 sites across the US, the UK, and Canada. 56: 11519: 5521: 1915:

Natural uranium consists of 99.3% uranium-238 and 0.7% uranium-235, but as only the latter is

15699: 15684: 15577: 15300: 15143: 15039: 15009: 14965: 14705: 14670: 14663: 14586: 14484: 13925: 13902: 13749: 13353: 12890: 12630: 12616: 12299: 12261: 12086: 11829: 11774: 10554:

Secrets of Victory: The Office of Censorship and the American Press and Radio in World War II

10506: 8850:"U.S. Strategic Bombing Survey: The Effects of the Atomic Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki" 8077: 3566:, New Mexico, in September 1945 to be closer to Los Alamos. This marked the beginning of the 3504: 3267: 3215: 3124:

Interrogation of German prisoners indicated that uranium and thorium were being processed in

2426: 2346: 2226: 2211: 2183: 1960: 1761: 1510: 1489:

to authorize the Metallurgical Laboratory to construct the first nuclear reactor beneath the

1439: 1326: 1121: 1072: 839: 750: 486: 342: 334: 330: 251: 247: 13188: 10875:

Critical Assembly: A Technical History of Los Alamos During the Oppenheimer Years, 1943–1945

10608:

The Road to Yucca Mountain: The Development of Radioactive Waste Policy in the United States

9675: 9654:"A Toxic Waste Capital Looks to Spread it Around; Upstate Dump is the Last in the Northeast" 5953: 3434:

for Tinian on 11 and 14 August. At Los Alamos, technicians worked 24 hours straight to cast

15401: 15256: 14907: 14864: 14834: 14760: 14570: 14549: 13468: 12945: 12623: 12071: 12066: 11925: 11799: 11139: 11115: 5892: 5278: 4880: 4306: 4205: 4074: 3602: 3556: 3516: 3287: 3252: 3110: 3102: 2889: 2685: 2586: 2573:, which would exacerbate the pre-ignition problem. The metallurgists then hit upon using a 2530: 2517:

wrote: "RaLa became the most important single experiment affecting the final bomb design".

2425:

that would disperse the critical mass after a minimal amount of plutonium had fissioned (a

1945: 1940:

The centrifuge process was regarded as the only promising separation method in April 1942.

1597: 1345: 1297: 1224: 1041: 1037: 629: 384: 375:

in New Mexico on 16 July 1945. Little Boy and Fat Man bombs were used a month later in the

120: 15977: 11430: 5818: 2647:

The explosives of "the gadget" were raised to the top of the tower for the final assembly.

1703:

reactor, which was designed during the war, was completed and went critical in July 1947.

1420:

ran the branch office in Santa Fe, where she met new arrivals and issue them with passes.

8: 15759: 15519: 15293: 15171: 15127: 14649: 13783: 13542: 13069: 12899: 12883: 12832: 11930: 11885: 11845: 11668: 10222: 4918: 3884:-226—were buried in an "Interim Waste Containment Structure" (in the foreground) in 1991. 3316: 3145: 3141: 3106: 2952:

on the absence of articles on nuclear fission in American journals; this resulted in the

2929: 2892:, ultimately designated the Manhattan Project "the best-kept secret of the war". In 1945 2484: 2460: 2305: 1769: 1680: 1676: 1655: 1626: 1497:

at the University of Chicago. The reactor required an enormous amount of highly purified

1312: 758: 536: 524: 162: 11414: 11143: 11119: 5896: 5655: 4496: 3888:

The political and cultural impacts of the development of nuclear weapons were profound.

3484: 990:

in New York, where he could draw on administrative support from the Corps of Engineers'

15825: 15512: 15345: 15270: 15224: 15194: 15102: 14942: 14607: 14491: 14385: 14336: 14274: 14030: 13981: 13790: 13407: 13062: 12860: 11995: 11819: 11789: 11729: 11553: 11221: 11155: 11105: 11051: 10919: 10873: 10868: 10824: 10169: 10099: 9885: 9388: 9082: 8971: 8328: 6022: 5877: 4923: 4037: 3894: 3574:

the Tennessee Eastman payroll from 8,600 to 1,500 and saving $ 2 million a month.

3468: 3457: 3419: 3348: 3094: 2934: 2874: 2814: 2747: 2628: 2510: 2147: 1920: 1892: 1765: 1536: 1521:, produced in a rush with makeshift process. A large square balloon was constructed by 1099: 995: 975: 734: 695: 670: 633: 602: 306: 147: 15694: 3613:

Following a domestic debate over the peacetime management of the nuclear program, the

2402: 1336:

Initially known as the Kingston Demolition Range, the site was officially renamed the

1315:

authorized the Corps of Engineers to acquire 56,000 acres (23,000 ha) of land by

1008: 15503: 15387: 15277: 15217: 15178: 15111: 15093: 15059: 15002: 14956: 14900: 14725: 14463: 14455: 14392: 14245: 13839: 13364: 12825: 12804: 12210: 12199: 12106: 11965: 11960: 11910: 11759: 11754: 11744: 11382: 11372: 11352: 11342: 11322: 11312: 11292: 11282: 11258: 11248: 11228: 11204: 11194: 11187: 11163: 11127: 11088: 11078: 11061: 11034: 11024: 10948: 10890: 10880: 10849: 10839: 10810: 10800: 10783: 10773: 10753: 10733: 10692: 10668: 10651: 10641: 10621: 10611: 10584: 10559: 10552: 10536: 10498: 10476: 10466: 10449: 10439: 10417: 10407: 10390: 10380: 10363: 10353: 10316: 10294: 10284: 10267: 10257: 10240: 10230: 10206: 10196: 10177: 10156: 10146: 10122: 10112: 10087: 10070: 10050: 10018: 9996: 9960: 9936: 9929: 9912: 9902: 9395: 9074: 8323: 8165: 7746: 7591: 7590:. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers. p. 133. 6343:

Manhattan District History, Book 7, Volume 1 (Feed Materials and Special Procurement)

6286:

Manhattan District History, Book 7, Volume 1 (Feed Materials and Special Procurement)

5916: 5908: 5858: 4497:"Executive Order 8807 Establishing the Office of Scientific Research and Development" 4310: 4041: 3957: 3639: 3340: 3176: 3098: 2036: 1647: 1589: 1393: 1129: 983: 930: 830: 805: 754: 715: 699: 674: 641: 379:. In the immediate postwar years, the Manhattan Project conducted weapons testing at 314: 185: 12010: 11275: 10705: 10404:

The Tizard Mission: the Top-Secret Operation that Changed the Course of World War II

3577: 15894: 15422: 15415: 15359: 15023: 14788: 14774: 14677: 14614: 14565: 14378: 14231: 14178: 13988: 13939: 13853: 13076: 13053: 12586: 12231: 12030: 12015: 11980: 11955: 11809: 11764: 11563: 11364: 11339:

The Road to Trinity: A Personal Account of How America's Nuclear Policies Were Made

11147: 10940: 10911: 10864: 10831: 10667:. Washington, DC: Office of the Chief of Military History, Department of the Army. 10633: 10603: 9992: 9988: 9877: 9671: 9634: 9515: 9060: 9022: 8972:"Telephone conversation transcript, General Hull and Colonel Seeman (13 August 45)" 8820: 7842: 5900: 5850: 4462: 4322: 4298: 3976: 3965: 3889: 3827: 3495: 3442: 3383: 3144:. In April 1945, Pash, in command of a composite force known as T-Force, conducted 3063: 3011: 2992: 2534: 2437: 2433: 2338: 2281: 2243: 2199: 1884: 1869: 1816: 1753: 1463: 1417: 1175: 1106: 1036:

from Stone & Webster had already scouted a site for the production plants. The

812: 801: 659: 652: 645: 427: 275: 12595: 11567: 8590: 8563: 8551: 7443: 5904: 5701: 4179:

in 1959. The worry was not entirely extinguished in some people's minds until the

3294:

in July 1945. Most of the components for the Little Boy left San Francisco on the

2372:

which was chosen for the pilot separation plant. A second separation process, the

15930: 15689: 15644: 15589: 15445: 15157: 15072: 15030: 14928: 14871: 14739: 14521: 14512: 14041: 13616: 13592: 12846: 12236: 12076: 12040: 11970: 11905: 11895: 11870: 11769: 11749: 11724: 11334: 11151: 10526: 10062: 9159: 7776: 7741: 7732: 5064: 4872: 4338: 4334: 4330: 4326: 4016: 3934: 3926: 3835: 3582: 3537: 3508: 3360: 3352: 3283: 3275: 3172: 3071: 2894: 2681: 2677: 2570: 2557: 2506: 2495: 2322: 2105:

Corporation. In January 1944, Groves ordered the Kellex barrier into production.

2078: 2062: 1888: 1688: 1330: 1049: 1028: 1002: 883: 850:, who had quit on 18 May 1942 because of concerns over lax operational security. 711: 707: 637: 552: 548: 544: 516: 482: 357: 190: 15557: 11985: 10465:. The Contemporary anthology series. Iowa City: The Spirit That Moves Us Press. 4367: 3972:

project ran into formidable technical difficulties and was ultimately canceled.

3132:

on 15 March 1945 to deny its capture by the Soviet Union. An Alsos team went to

894: 834:

Different fission bomb assembly methods explored during the July 1942 conference

601:

of uranium-235 in June 1939. Their calculations indicated that it was within an

266:, for the entire project. The project absorbed its earlier British counterpart, 15906: 15639: 15452: 14988: 14914: 12959: 12818: 12179: 12174: 11945: 11890: 11880: 11875: 11794: 11719: 11648: 11216: 11012: 10747: 10429: 7893: 6982: 4372: 4302: 4176: 4045: 3942: 3328: 3309: 3228: 3003: 2945: 2704: 2700: 2692: 2668: 2538: 2464: 2326: 2070: 2040: 2024: 2009: 1880: 1834: 1660: 1601: 1544: 1529: 1506: 1486: 1443: 1316: 1170: 1162: 1057: 979: 958: 946: 906: 902: 879: 851: 778: 766: 762: 618: 614: 610: 590: 322: 318: 235: 62: 11431:"The Atomic Bomb and the End of World War II, A Collection of Primary Sources" 10655: 9638: 9160:"The Atomic Bomb and the End of World War II, A Collection of Primary Sources" 4560: 2268: 1827:

and the remaining stocks of mined ore stored in the Congo. He negotiated with

367:

The first nuclear device ever detonated was an implosion-type bomb during the

16007: 15850: 15664: 15659: 15263: 13181: 13030: 12869: 12194: 12056: 12025: 12005: 11950: 11940: 11850: 11739: 11714: 11658: 11481:

Features hundreds of audio/visual interviews with Manhattan Project veterans.

11270: 11008: 10952: 10814: 10787: 10625: 10502: 10480: 10421: 10394: 10271: 10126: 10054: 10022: 10000: 9924: 9078: 8169: 7750: 6604: 6292: 5912: 4876: 4259: 3984: 3601:

Manhattan Project personnel participated in the first postwar nuclear tests,

3548: 3512: 3480: 3040: 3023: 2984: 2949: 2786: 2716: 2502: 2468: 2441: 2422: 2234: 2195: 2191: 2110: 2093: 2074: 1949: 1899:, under Frank Spedding to investigate alternatives. This became known as the 1856: 1824: 1820: 1812: 1799: 1749: 1692: 1684: 1408: 1215: 1157: 1021: 942: 934: 913: 909:. They tentatively confirmed that a fission bomb was theoretically possible. 867: 855: 847: 746: 703: 625: 598: 571: 502: 459: 239: 11356: 11208: 11092: 11038: 10894: 10757: 10588: 10453: 10320: 10244: 10210: 10091: 9916: 3418:, a second B-29 piloted by the 393d Bombardment Squadron's commander, Major 1218:

and Canada held much of the world's uranium outside Eastern Europe, and the

1211: 446:

would develop one first, especially among scientists who were refugees from

61:

test of the Manhattan Project on 16 July 1945 was the first detonation of a

15749: 15674: 15654: 15562: 15366: 13659: 13564: 13195: 12558: 12322: 12251: 12133: 11990: 11935: 11915: 11900: 11804: 11628: 11326: 11262: 11167: 11055: 10944: 10765: 10672: 10574: 10343: 10298: 10160: 10074: 9979:

Frisch, David H. (June 1970). "Scientists and the Decision to Bomb Japan".

9809: 7573:. U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, Technical Information Division. p. 1. 5920: 5849:. Office of Public Affairs, Argonne National Laboratory. 1996. p. 11. 4318: 4305:(Ranking minority member of the Sub-Committee on Military Appropriations), 4281: 4180: 3961: 3815: 3606: 3563: 3462: 3260: 3244: 3164: 3097:. Groves considered the risk that the Germans might attempt to disrupt the 3019: 2976: 2969: 2953: 2878: 2848: 2659: 2636:

piled with about 100 short tons (91 t) of high explosives spiked with

2624: 2578: 2542: 2499: 2136: 2126: 1972: 1904: 1900: 1843: 1593: 1455: 1447: 1125: 1084: 887: 512: 490: 471: 447: 431: 396: 380: 368: 361: 338: 231: 15709: 11386: 11296: 11232: 11065: 10696: 10367: 10349:

Brighter than a Thousand Suns: A Personal History of the Atomic Scientists

9964: 7587:

Birthplace of the Atomic Bomb: A Complete History of the Trinity Test Site

6011:

Fermi, Enrico (1946). "The Development of the first chain reaction pile".

3394: 3315:

At the end of December 1944, worried by the heavy losses occurring in the

566:

On 28 June 1941, Roosevelt signed Executive Order 8807, which created the

15815: 15669: 15201: 15187: 14849: 13518: 13339: 13324: 12678: 12081: 12035: 12000: 11975: 11920: 11824: 11814: 11698: 11304: 10691:. Washington, DC: Office of the Surgeon General, Department of the Army. 4314: 4228: 4032: 3946: 3647: 3567: 3364: 3248: 3210: 3125: 2999: 2885: 2834: 2774:

In 1943, Groves obtained a special temporary priority for labor from the

2643: 2463:

and G (for gadget) Division under Robert Bacher. The new design featured

2406:

A row of Thin Man casings. Fat Man casings are visible in the background.

2358: 2314: 2309: 2289: 2187: 2019: 1941: 1926: 1876: 1864: 1852: 1795: 1735: 1728: 1716: 1494: 1471: 1459: 1451: 1412: 1301: 1236: 1196: 1147: 1102:. Tolman and Conant were later appointed as Groves' scientific advisers. 898: 793: 789: 575: 467: 455: 439: 435: 302: 267: 15925: 11468: 11110: 11017:

The Los Alamos Primer: The First Lectures on How to Build an Atomic Bomb

10497:. The Queen's Printer by authority of the Minister of National Defence. 4543: 4541: 2884:

Because of its relative success at keeping the story out of newspapers,

2703:

reached 7.5 miles (12.1 km) in height. It was heard as far away as

1808: 1740:

establish heavy water facilities at the Morgantown Ordnance Works, near

815:, who had been designated the Army's representative on nuclear matters. 14556: 14309: 14288: 13174: 12507: 12435: 12184: 12128: 11865: 11855: 11784: 11182: 11159: 11104:. Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of British Columbia. 10463:

Nuke-Rebuke: Writers & Artists Against Nuclear Energy & Weapons

10218: 9086: 8078:"Manhattan Project: Its Scientists Have Harnessed Nature's Basic Force" 7482: 6026: 4342: 4172: 3980: 3899: 3823: 3435: 3157: 3067: 3007: 2491: 2447: 2170: 1896: 1192: 875: 556: 520: 298: 11130:(21 July 1961). "Impact of Large-Scale Science on the United States". 10923: 10853: 9889: 3810:

Initial funding for the project was through the general budget of the

3089:

The Alsos Mission to Italy questioned physics laboratory staff at the

3070:

to command the unit, which was codenamed "Alsos" (Greek for "grove").

2794:

One source of skilled personnel was the Army itself, particularly the

2246:, which was incorporated into the production process in October 1943. 1691:. He was replaced by John Cockcroft in May 1944, who was succeeded by 1600:, was "ideal in virtually all respects". It was isolated and near the 1592:

and DuPont engineers to scout potential sites. Matthias reported that

945:", which would use the force of a detonating fission bomb to ignite a 15634: 14819: 14224: 14021: 13832: 13623: 13578: 12226: 12092: 11860: 11663: 11538: 10528:

The Prometheus Bomb: The Manhattan Project and Government in the Dark

9931:

109 East Palace: Robert Oppenheimer and the Secret City of Los Alamos

8743:

Red Cloud at Dawn: Truman, Stalin, and the End of the Atomic Monopoly

8684:. The Harry S Truman Library and Museum. pp. 8–9. Archived from 8365:

Red Cloud at Dawn: Truman, Stalin, and the End of the Atomic Monopoly

7799:

Hijiya, James A. (June 2000). "The 'Gita' of J. Robert Oppenheimer".

7470: 6289:. Vol. Book 7, Volume 1. 1947. pp. 2.14, 5.1, Appendix D.3. 5862: 4538: 3399: 3378: 3324: 3184: 3168: 3149: 3133: 2862: 2806: 2762:

Manhattan Project contractors' employment, August 1942-December 1946.

2696: 2688:

on 13 July, and precariously winched up the tower the following day.

2605: 2546: 2476: 2397: 2334: 2330: 2294: 2273: 2162: 1791: 1514: 1363: 1117: 1113: 1033: 987: 950: 918: 579: 563:(NDRC) on Uranium when that organization was formed on 27 June 1940. 532: 423: 392: 294: 259: 212: 50: 13099: 11574: 10835: 10704:

Baker, Richard D.; Hecker, Siegfried S.; Harbur, Delbert R. (1983).

10638:

Restricted Data: The History of Nuclear Secrecy in the United States

6167:"Canada's contributions to the atomic bomb developed by Oppenheimer" 5702:"Secretary of Agriculture granting use of land for Demolition Range" 5440: 5438: 3105:

and send an officer to brief his chief of staff, Lieutenant General

2012:

and asked for the transfer of 6,000 tons of silver bullion from the

1786: 1584:

Hanford workers collect their paychecks at the Western Union office.

1288: 519:, and Dana P. Mitchell in front of the cyclotron in the basement of 387:, developed new weapons, promoted the development of the network of 15810: 13083: 12811: 12266: 12099: 11633: 11558: 10915: 10826:

Manhattan District history, Project Y, the Los Alamos story, Vol. 2

10315:. Washington, D.C.: United States Army Center of Military History. 9881: 9053: 8759:. Office of History and Heritage Resources, US Department of Energy 7710: 5854: 5518:"Oak Ridge National Laboratory Review, Vol. 25, Nos. 3 and 4, 2002" 4325:(Senate Minority Leader). The five allowed to tour Oak Ridge were: 4277: 4233: 3456:

In anticipation of the bombings, Groves had commissioned physicist

3414: 3405: 3336: 3236: 3153: 2866: 2479:, of which there were two for each lens for reliability. They used 2216: 2102: 2084: 2066: 1978: 1651: 1498: 1490: 922: 540: 310: 30:

This article is about the atomic bomb project. For other uses, see

10193:

Stalin and the Bomb: The Soviet Union and Atomic Energy, 1939–1956

8889:"Life Arises from Hiroshima: Legacy of slavery still haunts Japan" 4516: 4514: 4413: 4411: 1580: 1434: 1210:

in June 1944, with Groves as its chairman, to procure uranium and

12256: 12123: 11449: 10822:

Hawkins, David; Truslow, Edith C.; Smith, Ralph Carlisle (1961).

9959:. Washington, DC: United States Army Center of Military History. 7502:"American Experience . Race for the Superbomb . Super Conference" 5992: 5812:"Site A/Plot M, Illinois, Decommissioned Reactor Site Fact Sheet" 5435: 4285: 3877: 3873: 3423: 3295: 2472: 2456: 2285: 2284:

to remove dirt and impurities, dipped in molten bronze, tin, and

1916: 1639: 1609: 1502: 1368: 954: 863: 846:—key to calculations of critical mass and weapon detonation—from 451: 346: 10990: 8954: 8952: 5486: 4254:

The charge consisted of 89.75 short tons (81.42 t) tons of

3945:, the director of the Oak Ridge National Laboratory, would call 777:. Murphree also headed an unsuccessful separation project using 352:

The project was also charged with gathering intelligence on the

13700: 12291: 11642: 10491:

Arms, Men and Government: The War Policies of Canada, 1939–1945

8757:"Order to Drop the Atomic Bomb, Handy to Spaatz, July 25, 1945" 7260: 7258: 5498: 4511: 4408: 3881: 3320: 3291: 3263:

to test their ballistic, fuzing and stability characteristics.

3206: 1570: 1540: 11485: 10863: 10017:. Miamisburg, OH: Mound Laboratory, Atomic Energy Commission. 9607:. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 31 August 2011. Archived from 8958: 8911:"Hiroshima and Nagasaki Bombing – Facts about the Atomic Bomb" 8804: 8596: 8569: 8557: 7673: 7661: 7649: 7637: 7625: 7449: 7437: 7425: 7413: 7377: 7317: 7305: 7276: 7264: 7249: 7225: 7213: 7201: 7165: 7153: 6405: 4835: 4811: 4775: 3929:. Two more were established by Groves soon after the war, the 2556:

Remote handling of a kilocurie source of radiolanthanum for a

870:—how the explosion produced by a chain reaction might behave. 15936: 13888: 11369:

The Price of Vision: The Diary of Henry A. Wallace, 1942–1946

10049:. Washington, DC: US Department of Energy, History Division. 8949: 8580: 8578: 6546: 4321:(Chair of the Sub-Committee on Military Appropriations), and 3552: 3332: 2711: 2238: 2069:

of a gas is inversely proportional to the square root of its

1839: 866:

diffusion—how neutrons moved in a nuclear chain reaction—and

254:

that designed the bombs. The Army program was designated the

7255: 5411: 5399: 5313: 5215: 4631: 4629: 4435: 4423: 3644:

international control of nuclear research and atomic weapons

3190: 2483:, a new invention developed at Los Alamos by a group led by 1292:

Shift change at the Y-12 uranium enrichment facility at the

12204: 11673: 11509: 10706:"Plutonium: A Wartime Nightmare but a Metallurgist's Dream" 9539: 9537: 8018: 8016: 7897: 3503:

at Los Alamos on 16 October 1945. Standing, left to right:

2153: 2056: 1696: 1675:, site was established to rehouse the Allied effort at the 842:

of the University of California to take over research into

16054:

Military history of the United Kingdom during World War II

9987:(6). Educational Foundation for Nuclear Science: 107–115. 9164:

National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 162

8979:

National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 162

8780:

Five Days in August: How World War II Became a Nuclear War

8638: 8602: 8575: 2220:

Workers load uranium slugs into the X-10 Graphite Reactor.

543:. A team of Columbia professors including Fermi, Szilard, 16059:

Military history of the United States during World War II

15836:

Military history of the United States during World War II

11539:

University of Chicago Special Collections Research Center

10750:

History of the Plutonium Production Facilities, 1943–1990

9953:

The Corps of Engineers: Construction in the United States

9807: 8964: 8682:"Notes of Meeting of the Interim Committee, June 1, 1945" 7711:"Bhagavad Gita As It Is, 11: The Universal Form, Text 12" 7505: 7460: 7458: 6346:. Vol. Book 7, Volume 1. 1947. pp. Appendix C1. 5363: 5351: 5301: 4953: 4626: 4614: 4255: 3235:

could be modified to carry a Thin Man by joining its two

2870: 2455:

An accelerated effort on the implosion design, codenamed

1700: 1654:

for the first three stages while Urey developed a nickel-

1349:

administration of community facilities was outsourced to

1112:

One of Groves' early problems was to find a director for

230:

was a research and development program undertaken during

10748:

Hanford Cultural and Historic Resources Program (2002).

10111:. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press. 10084:

The Atomic Age: Scientists in National and World Affairs

9534: 8013: 6141:"Canada's historical role in developing nuclear weapons" 5956:. Argonne National Laboratory; U.S. Department of Energy 5777: 5289: 5251: 5227: 3101:

with radioactive poisons was sufficient to warn General

2288:, canned using hydraulic presses, and then capped using 1470:

An Army-OSRD council on 25 June 1942 decided to build a

1239:

of 1946 temporarily ended American nuclear cooperation.

1135: 11077:. New York: American Society of Civil Engineers Press. 10752:. Richland, WA: Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. 10254:

Inventing Los Alamos: The Growth of an Atomic Community

9676:"Drama of the Atomic Bomb Found Climax in July 16 Test" 2838:

A billboard encouraging secrecy among Oak Ridge workers

2667:

of the Manhattan Project was the first detonation of a

1859:, the director of the company that owned the mine, the 937:

to increase the efficiency of the bomb as it exploded.

262:; the name gradually superseded the official codename, 12953:

Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany

11277:

Now it Can be Told: The Story of the Manhattan Project

9901:. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Company. 9561:. Vol. Book 1, Volume 4. 1947. pp. 2.4–2.13. 9390:

Operation Crossroads: The Atomic Tests at Bikini Atoll

9261: 9259: 8650: 8626: 8614: 7455: 6879: 6877: 6864: 6862: 6524: 6522: 6209:. Canada Science and Technology Museum. Archived from 6062: 6060: 4871: 1768:. Although known as Ordnance Works and paid for under 1679:

away from an urban area. A new community was built at

1012:

The Manhattan Project Organizational Chart, 1 May 1946

784:

Meanwhile, there were two lines of investigation into

270:, and subsumed the program from the American civilian 15866: 10580:

The Second World War as a National Experience: Canada

9271: 7691: 5423: 5387: 5239: 5179: 3471:

on 15 August. The necessity of the bombings became a

2987:, the head of the Counter Intelligence Branch of the 2691:

At 05:30 on 16 July 1945 the gadget exploded with an

2161:

Groves contracted with the H. K. Ferguson Company of

677:, suggesting that they correspond on atomic matters. 454:

countries. In August 1939, Hungarian-born physicists

10281:

City Behind a Fence: Oak Ridge, Tennessee, 1942–1946

10227:

Their Day in the Sun: Women of the Manhattan Project

10082:

Grodzins, Morton; Rabinowitch, Eugene, eds. (1963).

9508: 8122: 7289: 7287: 7285: 6983:

Hanford Cultural and Historic Resources Program 2002

6189: 6187: 5375: 5325: 3905:

The Manhattan Project left a legacy of a network of

2680:. The gadget was assembled under the supervision of 800:

in early 1942 to study plutonium and reactors using

582:, which had been isolated for the first time at the 11535:

Manhattan Project and Allied Scientists Collections

10858:

Originally published as Los Alamos Report LAMS-2532

10821: 10558:. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. 10081: 9425: 9256: 7764: 7488: 7476: 7329: 7065: 7063: 7012: 6874: 6859: 6519: 6057: 5097: 5095: 4943: 4941: 4708: 4706: 4704: 3163:Alsos teams rounded up German scientists including 3074:was the scientific director of the Alsos mission. 15619: 11274: 11220: 11186: 10872: 10823: 10551: 9928: 9387: 8782:. Princeton University Press. pp. 80, 90, 99. 7847:"How many people worked on the Manhattan Project?" 6918: 6916: 5806: 5804: 5682: 4396: 4365: 3479:had on the Japanese willingness to surrender. The 3081:Allied soldiers dismantle the German experimental 2695:of around 20 kilotons of TNT, leaving a crater of 609:initiated the British atomic bomb project and its 539:$ 6,000, most of which Fermi and Szilard spent on 10703: 10195:. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. 10167: 9664: 9343: 7801:Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 7609: 7607: 7401: 7282: 6575: 6573: 6184: 6014:Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 5998: 5601: 5599: 5276: 4592: 4590: 4086:The reaction Teller was most concerned with was: 3663:Manhattan Project costs through 31 December 1945 2995:, about passing information to the Soviet Union. 2549:bomb casing to protect it from bullets and flak. 16005: 11486:"History Center: Los Alamos National Laboratory" 9590:. King Groundwater Science, Inc. September 2008. 7915: 7725: 7060: 5092: 5042: 5040: 4938: 4701: 4665: 4297:The seven Congressmen officially informed were: 4218:the Colorado plateau, and 9% from Canadian ores. 3465:" was released to the public on 12 August 1945. 2410:In 1943, development efforts were directed to a 1790:A sample of a high-quality uranium-bearing ore ( 1485:Delays in establishing the plant at Argonne led 796:at Columbia, while Arthur Compton organized the 442:theoretically possible. There were fears that a 10770:Volume I: The Development of US Nuclear Weapons 10732:. Westport, Connecticut & London: Meckler. 10217: 10098: 9829: 9723: 9502: 9452: 9349: 9337: 9325: 9214:Harry S. Truman Presidential Library and Museum 9196: 8858:Harry S. Truman Presidential Library and Museum 8367:. Farrar, Straus, and Giroux. pp. 153–156. 8324:"A Spy's Path: Iowa to A-Bomb to Kremlin Honor" 8131:"Oak Ridge Confidential, or Baseball for Bombs" 8069: 7889: 7542: 7389: 7353: 7237: 7189: 7177: 7141: 7093: 7081: 7030: 7006: 6994: 6958: 6913: 6907: 6895: 6847: 6841: 6805: 6733: 6697: 6685: 6591: 6489: 6477: 6465: 6453: 6417: 6381: 6369: 6304: 6247: 5801: 5771: 5456: 5107: 5086: 5007: 4881:"Ignition of the Atmosphere with Nuclear Bombs" 4760: 4659: 4608: 4596: 4547: 4520: 4441: 4429: 4417: 4366:Johnston, Louis; Williamson, Samuel H. (2023). 1613:end of the Manhattan Project in December 1946. 1396:granted about 45,000 acres (18,000 ha) of 1250: 293:gun-type design proved impractical to use with 16049:Military history of Canada during World War II 10278: 9394:, Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 9151: 8981:. George Washington University. 13 August 1945 8861:. 19 June 1946. pp. 9, 36. Archived from 8815: 8813: 8045: 8043: 7604: 6570: 5707:. Los Alamos National Laboratory. 8 April 1943 5596: 5578: 5566: 5554: 5492: 5444: 4587: 4359: 4204:The allusion here is to the Italian navigator 3187:, where they were surreptitiously surveilled. 733:. Work was proceeding on three techniques for 15605: 12307: 11590: 11060:. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. 10141:Hewlett, Richard G.; Duncan, Francis (1969). 10140: 10047:The Manhattan Project: Making the Atomic Bomb 9949: 9783: 9771: 9759: 9747: 8825:"Counting the dead at Hiroshima and Nagasaki" 8309: 8297: 7869:"African Americans and the Manhattan Project" 6552: 5642: 5504: 5272: 5270: 5268: 5266: 5125: 5046: 5037: 5019: 4971: 4271:The first instance in print of Oppenheimer's 3970:Nuclear Energy for the Propulsion of Aircraft 3812:Office of Scientific Research and Development 3555:solvent extraction process as an alternative 3339:was ultimately substituted. In May 1945, the 3183:. They were taken to England and interned at 2325:, who identified the cause of the problem as 1966: 1372:Map of Los Alamos site, New Mexico, 1943–1945 1142:British contribution to the Manhattan Project 568:Office of Scientific Research and Development 272:Office of Scientific Research and Development 16069:Nuclear weapons program of the United States 11007: 10610:. Berkeley: University of California Press. 10283:. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press. 9843:"Manhattan Project National Historical Park" 9448: 9446: 8057:. Associated Press. 8 August 1945. p. 5 7929:. Associated Press. 8 August 1945. p. 1 5345:"Hyde Park Aide-Mémoire (18 September 1944)" 4799: 4258:and 14.91 short tons (13.53 t) tons of 2938:, who wrote an article on atomic fission in 2577:, which stabilized the δ phase and could be 1695:in September 1946. A pilot reactor known as 1650:of Princeton developed a platinum-on-carbon 1535:In January 1943, Grafton's successor, Major 1223:avoid briefing US Secretary of the Treasury 1063: 694:March 1940 meeting at Berkeley, California: 430:in 1938, and its theoretical explanation by 16024:1946 disestablishments in the United States 11505:"ORNL: The first 50 Years: History of ORNL" 10632: 10374: 10279:Johnson, Charles; Jackson, Charles (1981). 9571: 9543: 9514: 9470: 9021: 8819: 8810: 8745:. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. pp. 7–10. 8128: 8040: 8022: 7841: 3880:, and the world's largest concentration of 3650:, unveiled in a speech to the newly formed 2769:African-American scientists and technicians 2293:enough canned slugs was available to start 2131:The thermal diffusion process was based on 1838:A uranium metal "biscuit" created from the 27:World War II Allied nuclear weapons program 15612: 15598: 12314: 12300: 11597: 11583: 10959: 10730:Atomic Bomb Scientists: Memoirs, 1939–1945 9950:Fine, Lenore; Remington, Jesse A. (1972). 6393: 5729:. Atomic Heritage Foundation. 26 July 2017 5263: 4919:"Why They Called It the Manhattan Project" 4005:Manhattan Project National Historical Park 2956:establishing its own atomic bomb project. 2811:University of Rochester School of Medicine 1206:The Combined Policy Committee created the 994:. It was close to the Manhattan office of 597:had made a breakthrough investigating the 49: 16034:Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki 11557: 11109: 10379:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 10229:. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. 9867: 9443: 9059: 8158:"The Difficulties of Nuclear Containment" 8076:Wickware, Francis Sill (20 August 1945). 5844:"FRONTIERS Research Highlights 1946–1996" 5405: 5319: 5295: 5257: 5221: 4193:Natural self-sustaining nuclear reactions 3197:Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki 3191:Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki 727:United States declaration of war on Japan 377:atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki 158:Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki 16019:1942 establishments in the United States 11239: 11126: 10879:. New York: Cambridge University Press. 10686: 10662: 10640:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 10524: 10256:. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. 10190: 9896: 9735: 9711: 9670: 9645: 9385: 9099: 8706: 8608: 8533: 8485: 8350: 8201: 8075: 5619:Early Days of Oak Ridge and Wartime Y-12 5277:Fakley, Dennis C. (Winter–Spring 1983). 4959: 4695: 3859: 3801: 3636:Emergency Committee of Atomic Scientists 3576: 3494: 3393: 3259:in California with Thin Man and Fat Man 3205: 3076: 2914: 2833: 2785: 2757: 2658: 2642: 2551: 2446: 2401: 2357: 2267: 2215: 2205: 2152: 2083: 2018: 1995: 1925: 1833: 1785: 1706: 1579: 1433: 1367: 1287: 1246: 1156: 1067: 1007: 829: 689: 507: 11363: 11333: 11215: 11175: 11099: 10901: 10867:; Henriksen, Paul W.; Meade, Roger A.; 10794: 10764: 10549: 10309:Manhattan: The Army and the Atomic Bomb 10044: 10007: 9699: 9651: 9464: 9437: 9361: 9313: 9301: 9289: 9238: 9111: 9047: 8225: 8189: 8155: 7983: 7365: 7341: 7293: 6853: 6661: 6564: 6501: 6328: 6316: 6207:"ZEEP – Canada's First Nuclear Reactor" 6193: 5974: 5727:"Civilian Displacement: Los Alamos, NM" 5209: 4983: 4771: 4769: 4724: 4195:have occurred in the very distant past. 4051:Timeline of nuclear weapons development 3652:United Nations Atomic Energy Commission 3473:subject of controversy among historians 3034: 2817:, was commissioned as a colonel in the 1446:, the first nuclear reactor, including 825: 14: 16006: 15846:New Mexico World War II Army Airfields 14168: 14146:Romanian prisoners in the Soviet Union 11269: 11072: 10988: 10797:Volume V: US Nuclear Weapons Histories 10727: 10687:Ahnfeldt, Arnold Lorentz, ed. (1966). 10680: 10602: 10487: 10428: 10401: 10251: 10061: 9978: 9923: 9795: 9618: 9602:"Niagara Falls Storage Site, New York" 9413: 9277: 9184: 9123: 8943: 8842: 8792: 8777: 8740: 8656: 8644: 8632: 8620: 8584: 8545: 8509: 8461: 8449: 8413: 8389: 8377: 8362: 8322:Broad, William J. (12 November 2007). 8285: 8096: 8034: 7817: 7798: 7583: 7570:100-ton Test: Piezo Gauge Measurements 7566: 7464: 7129: 7069: 7054: 6970: 6934: 6164: 6138: 6102: 6051: 6039: 6004: 5783: 5759: 5747: 5676: 5468: 5429: 5393: 5381: 5369: 5357: 5307: 5245: 5197: 5185: 5161: 5149: 5137: 5113: 4995: 4859: 4823: 4787: 4748: 4647: 4635: 4620: 4581: 4483: 4019: – 2015 American documentary film 3619:United States Atomic Energy Commission 3591:United States Atomic Energy Commission 1981:. The name was derived from the words 1642:had produced electrolytic hydrogen at 890:, and Eldred C. (Carlyle) Nelson, and 501:; Briggs met with Szilard, Wigner and 401:United States Atomic Energy Commission 341:, in which uranium was irradiated and 297:, so a simpler gun-type design called 15593: 15017:Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign 14449:Japanese invasion of French Indochina 14095:Italian prisoners in the Soviet Union 14051:Finnish prisoners in the Soviet Union 13149:Rape during the occupation of Germany 12295: 11604: 11578: 11311:. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. 11303: 11227:. New York: Oxford University Press. 11181: 11050: 10960:Ruhoff, John; Fain, Pat (June 1962). 10572: 10460: 10342: 10305: 9624: 9594: 9520:"Origins of the Nuclear Blcak Budget" 9373: 9265: 9250: 8931: 8668: 8521: 8497: 8473: 8437: 8425: 8401: 8321: 8273: 8261: 8249: 8237: 8213: 8007: 7995: 7971: 7959: 7947: 7909: 7900:'s scientific and engineering staff." 7829: 7713:. A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada 7697: 7685: 7613: 7554: 7530: 7117: 7105: 7042: 7018: 6946: 6922: 6883: 6868: 6829: 6817: 6793: 6781: 6769: 6757: 6745: 6721: 6709: 6673: 6649: 6637: 6625: 6579: 6540: 6528: 6441: 6429: 6357: 6271: 6259: 6235: 6223: 6139:Commission, Canadian Nuclear Safety. 6126: 6114: 6090: 6078: 6066: 6010: 5986: 5940: 5875: 5795: 5688: 5630: 5605: 5590: 5542: 5480: 5417: 5331: 5233: 5173: 5101: 5031: 4947: 4917:Broad, William J. (30 October 2007). 4916: 4904: 4847: 4736: 4712: 4683: 4671: 4532: 4402: 4007:was established on 10 November 2015. 3911:Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory 3412:On the morning of 9 August 1945, the 3274:, Utah, under the command of Colonel 3270:was activated on 17 December 1944 at 3113:, special equipment was prepared and 2353: 1910: 1136:Collaboration with the United Kingdom 969: 820:United States Army Corps of Engineers 555:(or "piles" as Fermi called them) in 16064:Nuclear history of the United States 15943: 14139:Polish prisoners in the Soviet Union 13164:Rape during the liberation of France 11371:. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. 10930: 10174:Argonne National Laboratory, 1946–96 10067:Britain and Atomic Energy, 1935–1945 9478:"Atomic Bomb Seen as Cheap at Price" 9157: 9137:"Hirohito's "Jewel Voice Broadcast"" 8137:from the original on 17 January 2013 7494: 6513: 5719: 4766: 4208:, who reached the Caribbean in 1492. 3623:Armed Forces Special Weapons Project 2722: 2490:To study the behavior of converging 2120: 2050: 1819:for export controls to be placed on 1722: 1480:Cook County Forest Preserve District 1310:United States Under Secretary of War 1231:the success of the United Kingdom's 838:Compton asked theoretical physicist 258:, as its first headquarters were in 16029:American secret government programs 11341:. New York: William Morrow and Co. 10086:. New York: Basic Book Publishing. 8129:Wellerstein, Alex (16 April 2012). 7731: 7512:from the original on 28 August 2016 5347:. Atomic Heritage Foundation. 2022. 4910: 4563:. Berkeley Office of the Chancellor 3223:is painted on for security reasons. 2998:The most successful Soviet spy was 2253: 2190:, which rapidly decays, first into 1887:, which was reduced to highly pure 1634: 1517:. Three short tons was supplied by 1233:independent nuclear weapons program 561:National Defense Research Committee 337:and the production reactors at the 264:Development of Substitute Materials 24: 14365:German invasion of the Netherlands 12638:Weather events during World War II 12062:Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki 10966:Mallinckrodt Uranium Division News 10830:. Los Angeles: Tomash Publishers. 10438:. New York: Simon & Schuster. 9935:. New York: Simon & Schuster. 9876:(2). University of Utah: 202–230. 9808:General Accounting Office (2006). 9652:DePalma, Anthony (10 March 2004). 9001:"Lawrence Litz's Interview (2012)" 8886: 8156:Roberts, Sam (29 September 2014). 4236:), contained less than 1% uranium. 3856:Nuclear weapons in popular culture 3140:and retrieved 11 tons of ore from 1169:By March 1943 Conant decided that 1165:, the head of the British Mission. 1056:weapons and equipment, so Colonel 771:Carnegie Institution of Washington 391:, supported medical research into 325:, was demonstrated in 1942 at the 305:. Three methods were employed for 211: 32:Manhattan Project (disambiguation) 25: 16090: 14996:Northern Burma and Western Yunnan 11469:"Voices of the Manhattan Project" 11394: 10375:O'Brien, Phillips Payson (2015). 9981:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 8829:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 7489:Hawkins, Truslow & Smith 1961 7477:Hawkins, Truslow & Smith 1961 7330:Hawkins, Truslow & Smith 1961 3631:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 2796:Army Specialized Training Program 1620: 1075:and Groves at the remains of the 632:, where he spoke persuasively to 413:Timeline of the Manhattan Project 395:and laid the foundations for the 16044:History of the Manhattan Project 15986: 15969: 15952: 15924: 15912: 15900: 15888: 15876: 15708: 15556: 12321: 12278: 12277: 11193:. New York: Simon and Schuster. 10176:. University of Illinois Press. 10069:. London: Macmillan Publishing. 10045:Gosling, Francis George (1994). 9835: 9823: 9801: 9789: 9777: 9765: 9753: 9741: 9729: 9717: 9705: 9693: 9577: 9565: 9549: 9496: 9458: 9431: 9419: 9407: 9379: 9367: 9355: 9331: 9319: 9307: 9295: 9283: 9244: 9232: 9202: 9190: 9178: 9158:Burr, William (13 August 1945). 9129: 9117: 9105: 9093: 9041: 9015: 8993: 8937: 8925: 8903: 8880: 8798: 8786: 8771: 8749: 8734: 8712: 8700: 8674: 8662: 8539: 8527: 8515: 8503: 8491: 8479: 8467: 8455: 8443: 8431: 8419: 8407: 8395: 8383: 8371: 8356: 8344: 8315: 8303: 8291: 8279: 8267: 8255: 8243: 8231: 8219: 8207: 8195: 8183: 8149: 8028: 8001: 7989: 7977: 7965: 7953: 7941: 7903: 7883: 7861: 7835: 7823: 7811: 7792: 7703: 7679: 7667: 7655: 7643: 7631: 7619: 7577: 7560: 7548: 7536: 7524: 7431: 7419: 7407: 7395: 7383: 7371: 7359: 7347: 7335: 7323: 7311: 7299: 7270: 7243: 7231: 7219: 7207: 7195: 7183: 7171: 7159: 7147: 7135: 7123: 7111: 7099: 7087: 7075: 7048: 7036: 7024: 7000: 6988: 6976: 6964: 6952: 6940: 6928: 6901: 6889: 6835: 6823: 6811: 6799: 6787: 6775: 6763: 6751: 6739: 6727: 6715: 6703: 6691: 6679: 6667: 6655: 6643: 6631: 6619: 6597: 6585: 6558: 6534: 6507: 6495: 6483: 6471: 6459: 6447: 6435: 6423: 6411: 6399: 6387: 6375: 6363: 6351: 6334: 6322: 6310: 6298: 6277: 6265: 6253: 6241: 6229: 6217: 6199: 6158: 6132: 6120: 6108: 6096: 6084: 6072: 6045: 6033: 5980: 5968: 5946: 5934: 5878:"A Manhattan Project Postscript" 5869: 5836: 5789: 5765: 5753: 5741: 5658:. Los Alamos National Laboratory 4886:. Los Alamos National Laboratory 4291: 4265: 4248: 4239: 4221: 4211: 4198: 4186: 3490: 3241:Army Air Forces Materiel Command 3148:, a sweep behind enemy lines of 3051:Japanese nuclear weapons program 2819:United States Army Medical Corps 2780:United States Employment Service 2391: 1474:for plutonium production in the 1242: 1105:On 19 September, Groves went to 11102:An Early History of Heavy Water 11100:Waltham, Chris (20 June 2002). 10962:"The First Fifty Critical days" 10728:Ermenc, Joseph J., ed. (1989). 9870:The Western Political Quarterly 9426:Grodzins & Rabinowitch 1963 8051:"No News Leaked Out About Bomb" 7402:Baker, Hecker & Harbur 1983 5999:Holl, Hewlett & Harris 1997 5954:"CP-1 (Chicago Pile 1 Reactor)" 5694: 5670: 5648: 5636: 5624: 5611: 5584: 5572: 5560: 5548: 5536: 5510: 5474: 5462: 5450: 5337: 5203: 5191: 5167: 5155: 5143: 5131: 5119: 5080: 5052: 5025: 5013: 5001: 4989: 4977: 4965: 4898: 4865: 4853: 4841: 4829: 4817: 4805: 4793: 4781: 4754: 4742: 4730: 4718: 4689: 4677: 4653: 4641: 4602: 4575: 4553: 4526: 4387:Gross Domestic Product deflator 4227:Much of the mined ore from the 4165: 4080: 4063: 3898:, the first to use the phrase " 3818:to which Roosevelt had access. 3451:Atomic Bomb Casualty Commission 3408:, Japan, 9 August 1945 (right). 3201: 3117:teams were trained in its use. 2963: 2798:. In 1943, the MED created the 2481:exploding-bridgewire detonators 2007:Under Secretary of the Treasury 964: 737:: Lawrence and his team at the 470:and accelerate the research of 411:For a chronological guide, see 15770:Los Alamos National Laboratory 15621:New Mexico during World War II 15243:Vietnamese famine of 1944–1945 12946:Territorial changes of Germany 12854:Indonesian National Revolution 11490:Los Alamos National Laboratory 11281:. New York: Harper & Row. 11021:University of California Press 9993:10.1080/00963402.1970.11457835 9166:. George Washington University 6165:Dawson, Tyler (24 July 2023). 4489: 4477: 4447: 3931:Brookhaven National Laboratory 3915:Los Alamos National Laboratory 3507:, unidentified, unidentified, 3402:, Japan, 6 August 1945 (left); 2676:the target and generated less 2451:An implosion-type nuclear bomb 1935: 1811:in Czechoslovakia, and in the 1551:, the current location of the 1342:Skidmore, Owings & Merrill 1214:on international markets. The 680: 13: 1: 14643:Japanese invasion of Thailand 14594:Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran 14358:German invasion of Luxembourg 12732:Mediterranean and Middle East 11568:10.1080/00295450.2021.1901002 10435:The Making of the Atomic Bomb 10102:; Anderson, Oscar E. (1962). 10011:History of the Dayton Project 9897:Campbell, Richard H. (2005). 9861: 9143:. August 2012. Archived from 5905:10.1126/science.212.4501.1369 4368:"What Was the U.S. GDP Then?" 4175:of an interview she had with 4029:Fat Man and Little Boy (film) 3919:Oak Ridge National Laboratory 3534:Presidential Medals for Merit 3469:Japan announced its surrender 3181:Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker 3083:nuclear reactor at Haigerloch 3056:bombing and sabotage campaign 3047:German nuclear energy project 2910: 2541:. Testing required up to 500 2498:, which used the short-lived 2014:West Point Bullion Depository 1875:The raw ore was dissolved in 1861:Union Minière du Haut-Katanga 1719:was a source of uranium ore. 1513:was able to produce only two 1357: 1044:, an isolated area where the 499:Advisory Committee on Uranium 354:German nuclear weapon project 287:implosion-type nuclear weapon 16074:Projects established in 1942 14550:Invasion of the Soviet Union 14239:Occupation of Czechoslovakia 13550:Independent State of Croatia 12222:Oppenheimer security hearing 11471:. Atomic Heritage Foundation 11450:"Atomic Heritage Foundation" 11435:George Washington University 11420:Resources in other libraries 11152:10.1126/science.134.3473.161 10995:. Sandia National Laboratory 10744:(1967 interview with Groves) 10550:Sweeney, Michael S. (2001). 10533:University of Nebraska Press 10352:. New York: Harcourt Brace. 6516:, pp. 281–287, 291–297. 5876:Walsh, John (19 June 1981). 5621:, Retrieved 22 November 2014 4352: 4162:(alpha particle) + 17.7 MeV. 3939:Sandia National Laboratories 3710:Special operating materials 3359:A strike order from General 3130:arranged for it to be bombed 3060:Office of Naval Intelligence 2926:National Academy of Sciences 2753: 2494:, Robert Serber devised the 2337:of 9.2 hours. Fermi, Woods, 2297:on schedule in August 1944. 2176: 1398:United States Forest Service 1277: 685: 495:National Bureau of Standards 420:discovery of nuclear fission 244:U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 111:U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 7: 15806:Arizona during World War II 15534:End of World War II in Asia 15374:Western invasion of Germany 14881:Chinese famine of 1942–1943 14858:Second Battle of El Alamein 14428:Hundred Regiments Offensive 14400:Battle of the Mediterranean 14253:Italian invasion of Albania 12420:Air warfare of World War II 11247:. New York: Henry Schuman. 10992:The History of the Mk4 Bomb 9830:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 9774:, pp. 490–493, 514–515 9724:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 9503:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 9453:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 9386:Weisgall, Jonathan (1994), 9350:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 9338:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 9326:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 9197:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 8363:Gordin, Michael D. (2009). 7890:Howes & Herzenberg 1999 7584:Loring, William S. (2019). 7567:Walker, Raymond L. (1950). 7543:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 7390:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 7354:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 7238:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 7190:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 7178:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 7142:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 7094:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 7082:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 7031:Howes & Herzenberg 1999 7007:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 6995:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 6959:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 6908:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 6896:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 6842:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 6806:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 6734:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 6698:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 6686:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 6592:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 6490:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 6478:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 6466:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 6454:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 6418:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 6382:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 6370:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 6305:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 6248:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 5772:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 5457:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 5087:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 5008:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 4761:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 4660:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 4609:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 4597:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 4548:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 4521:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 4442:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 4430:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 4418:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 4010: 3923:Argonne National Laboratory 3866:Lake Ontario Ordnance Works 3371: 3257:Naval Ordnance Test Station 3049:. It was believed that the 2800:Special Engineer Detachment 2527:modulated neutron initiator 2242:technique with the help of 2099:Bell Telephone Laboratories 1883:, which was processed into 1868:Corporation's stockpile in 1746:Wabash River Ordnance Works 1553:Argonne National Laboratory 1351:Turner Construction Company 1220:Belgian Government in Exile 1093:New War Department Building 485:and delivered to President 333:, the project designed the 18:Manhattan Engineer District 10: 16095: 15841:Nevada during World War II 15780:White Sands Proving Ground 15460:Naval bombardment of Japan 14828:First Battle of El Alamein 14747:Battle of Christmas Island 14692:Japanese invasion of Burma 14456:Italian invasion of Greece 14372:German invasion of Belgium 14344:German invasion of Denmark 14317:1939–1940 Winter Offensive 14186:Second Italo-Ethiopian War 12443:Comparative military ranks 11454:Atomic Heritage Foundation 10663:Williams, Mary H. (1960). 10525:Sullivan, Neil J. (2016). 10461:Sklar, Morty, ed. (1984). 10406:. Yardley, PA: Westholme. 10172:; Harris, Ruth R. (1997). 10008:Gilbert, Keith V. (1969). 9484:. 7 August 1945. p. 1 9027:"The Third Core's Revenge" 9003:. Manhattan Project Voices 5579:Johnson & Jackson 1981 5567:Johnson & Jackson 1981 5555:Johnson & Jackson 1981 5520:. ornl.gov. Archived from 5493:Johnson & Jackson 1981 5445:Johnson & Jackson 1981 5060:"Science:Atomic Footprint" 4301:(Senate Majority Leader), 3853: 3674:Cost (2023 USD, millions) 3671:Cost (1945 USD, millions) 3280:393rd Bombardment Squadron 3194: 3038: 3028:Soviet atomic bomb project 3016:Julius and Ethel Rosenberg 2981:Counter Intelligence Corps 2967: 2829: 2805:An associate professor of 2616: 2612: 2440:, who had experience with 2395: 2370:lanthanum fluoride process 2257: 2209: 2124: 2054: 1970: 1967:Electromagnetic separation 1907:became available in 1943. 1776: 1726: 1666: 1624: 1562: 1558: 1427: 1423: 1361: 1281: 1208:Combined Development Trust 1139: 1046:Tennessee Valley Authority 1020:, and his deputy, Colonel 786:nuclear reactor technology 743:electromagnetic separation 664:Chief of Staff of the Army 444:German atomic bomb project 410: 406: 373:White Sands Proving Ground 163:Allied occupation of Japan 153:Allied invasion of Germany 29: 15788: 15717: 15706: 15627: 15549: 15381:Bratislava–Brno offensive 15321: 15312:Dutch famine of 1944–1945 15049: 14936:Allied invasion of Sicily 14890: 14796:Aleutian Islands campaign 14768:Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign 14715: 14706:Greek famine of 1941–1944 14601:Second Battle of Changsha 14506:German invasion of Greece 14474: 14351:Battle of Zaoyang–Yichang 14326: 14264: 14159: 14040: 13766: 13676: 13517: 13220: 13211: 12969: 12794: 12686:North and Central Pacific 12647: 12409: 12402: 12329: 12275: 12165:Bismuth phosphate process 12160:Atomic Energy Act of 1946 12147: 12116: 12049: 11838: 11707: 11621: 11612: 11415:Resources in your library 10972:(3 and 4). Archived from 10689:Radiology in World War II 9784:Hewlett & Duncan 1969 9772:Hewlett & Duncan 1969 9760:Hewlett & Duncan 1969 9748:Hewlett & Duncan 1969 8722:. Office of the Historian 8310:Hewlett & Duncan 1969 8298:Hewlett & Duncan 1969 6553:Fine & Remington 1972 5643:Fine & Remington 1972 5505:Fine & Remington 1972 5126:Fine & Remington 1972 5047:Fine & Remington 1972 5020:Fine & Remington 1972 4972:Fine & Remington 1972 4313:(House Majority Leader), 4309:(House Minority Leader), 3954:Chief of Naval Operations 3849: 3844:Boeing B-29 Superfortress 3738:Research and development 3615:Atomic Energy Act of 1946 3587:Atomic Energy Act of 1946 3477:Soviet declaration of war 3398:Little Boy explodes over 3233:Boeing B-29 Superfortress 2941:The Saturday Evening Post 2374:bismuth phosphate process 2000:Alpha I racetrack at Y-12 1742:Morgantown, West Virginia 1180:Combined Policy Committee 1064:Military Policy Committee 1040:recommended sites around 1005:, who became his deputy. 933:, and the possibility of 862:examined the problems of 844:fast neutron calculations 775:Naval Research Laboratory 607:Frisch–Peierls memorandum 403:(UNAEC) in January 1947. 204: 199: 176: 171: 148:Allied invasion of France 135: 127: 116: 106: 86: 78: 70: 48: 43: 16079:Secret military programs 15821:Escape from Fort Stanton 15755:Fort Sumner Army Aifield 15725:Alamogordo Army Airfield 14973:Allied invasion of Italy 14950:Solomon Islands campaign 14699:Third Battle of Changsha 14296:First Battle of Changsha 14202:Second Sino-Japanese War 13135:German military brothels 13001:United States war crimes 11189:The Road from Los Alamos 10715:(Winter/Spring): 142–151 10402:Phelps, Stephen (2010). 10191:Holloway, David (1994). 10143:Atomic Shield, 1947–1952 10105:The New World, 1939–1946 8913:. Hiroshimacommittee.org 8778:Gordin, Michael (2007). 8741:Gordin, Michael (2009). 7772:"The Eternal Apprentice" 4800:Serber & Rhodes 1992 4317:(Speaker of the House), 4056: 3521:William Sterling Parsons 3312:went in a special C-54. 3115:Chemical Warfare Service 2726: 2638:nuclear fission products 2633:Alamogordo Bombing Range 2537:and became known as the 2065:states that the rate of 1442:team that worked on the 1430:Metallurgical Laboratory 1391:Secretary of Agriculture 1178:, which established the 798:Metallurgical Laboratory 739:University of California 595:University of Birmingham 584:University of California 364:penetrated the program. 327:Metallurgical Laboratory 301:was developed that used 250:was the director of the 207:shoulder sleeve insignia 143:Allied invasion of Italy 15395:Second Guangxi campaign 15250:Philippines (1944–1945) 14754:Battle of the Coral Sea 14657:Fall of the Philippines 14303:Battle of South Guangxi 14209:Battles of Khalkhin Gol 13608:Italian Social Republic 12242:S-1 Executive Committee 12190:Einstein–Szilard letter 10795:Hansen, Chuck (1995b). 10306:Jones, Vincent (1985). 10223:Herzenberg, Caroline L. 9639:10.1093/envhis/12.3.552 7737:"J. Robert Oppenheimer" 7156:, pp. 226–229, 237 6688:, pp. 30–32, 96–98 5420:, pp. 90, 299–306. 4023:Oppenheimer (TV series) 3657: 3306:Douglas C-54 Skymasters 3272:Wendover Army Air Field 3221:444th Bombardment Group 3219:. The tail code of the 2989:Western Defense Command 2873:and his own autonomous 2869:. Groves relied on the 2823:National Safety Council 2776:War Manpower Commission 2575:plutonium-gallium alloy 2567:allotropes of plutonium 2412:gun-type fission weapon 2272:Aerial view of Hanford 1644:Trail, British Columbia 1575:Walter S. Carpenter Jr. 1525:to encase the reactor. 1519:Westinghouse Lamp Plant 1476:Argonne Forest preserve 1383:Los Alamos Ranch School 1379:Albuquerque, New Mexico 1235:after the war when the 992:North Atlantic Division 925:, a primitive form of " 892:experimental physicists 765:directed research into 589:In Britain, Frisch and 570:(OSRD), under director 476:nuclear chain reactions 464:Einstein–Szilard letter 283:gun-type fission weapon 16039:Explosives engineering 15740:Carlsbad Army Airfield 15718:Military installations 15680:Willard Varnell Oliver 14980:Armistice of Cassibile 14782:Battle of Dutch Harbor 14733:Battle of the Java Sea 14636:Attack on Pearl Harbor 14536:Syria–Lebanon campaign 14529:Battle of South Shanxi 14499:Invasion of Yugoslavia 14282:Battle of the Atlantic 13896:Korean Liberation Army 13602:(until September 1943) 13559:(until September 1944) 13537:(until September 1944) 11684:Salt Wells Pilot Plant 11335:Nichols, Kenneth David 11073:Thayer, Harry (1996). 10945:10.1353/tech.2012.0046 10933:Technology and Culture 10869:Westfall, Catherine L. 10488:Stacey, C. P. (1970). 9845:. Department of Energy 9066:International Security 8055:Lawrence Journal-World 7927:Lawrence Journal-World 6394:Ruhoff & Fain 1962 4550:, pp. 33–35, 183. 4001: 3885: 3807: 3594: 3524: 3436:another plutonium core 3409: 3404:Fat Man explodes over 3376:On 6 August 1945, the 3351:in Germany, President 3224: 3138:Soviet Occupation Zone 3086: 2920: 2858: 2839: 2791: 2763: 2733: 2672: 2648: 2619:Trinity (nuclear test) 2561: 2452: 2414:with plutonium called 2407: 2364: 2343:John Archibald Wheeler 2286:aluminum-silicon alloy 2277: 2260:Hanford Engineer Works 2221: 2158: 2089: 2028: 2001: 1932: 1847: 1803: 1781: 1758:Alabama Ordnance Works 1585: 1565:Hanford Engineer Works 1467: 1373: 1338:Clinton Engineer Works 1333:, angrily tore it up. 1305: 1294:Clinton Engineer Works 1284:Clinton Engineer Works 1274: 1199:, Rudolf Peierls, and 1185:Hyde Park Aide-Mémoire 1166: 1120:, including his wife, 1080: 1013: 860:University of Illinois 835: 723:attack on Pearl Harbor 718: 531:In February 1940, the 528: 489:. Roosevelt called on 481:They had it signed by 216: 15796:200th Coast Artillery 15775:Roswell Army Airfield 15700:Frank Tsosie Thompson 15685:J. Robert Oppenheimer 15144:Second Battle of Guam 15040:Bengal famine of 1943 15010:Second Battle of Kiev 14966:Battle of the Dnieper 14671:Battle of Wake Island 14543:East African campaign 14485:Battle of South Henan 14130:atrocities by Germans 13903:Korean Volunteer Army 12877:Occupation of Germany 12631:Music in World War II 12262:X-10 Graphite Reactor 12217:Nobel Prize laureates 12087:509th Composite Group 11305:Libby, Leona Marshall 9674:(26 September 1945). 9627:Environmental History 9147:on 10 September 2013. 7923:"1,000 were at Pasco" 5279:"The British Mission" 4031:- 1989 film starring 3996: 3907:national laboratories 3863: 3805: 3580: 3505:J. Robert Oppenheimer 3498: 3397: 3268:509th Composite Group 3209: 3109:. Under the codename 3080: 2918: 2875:G-2 intelligence unit 2853: 2837: 2789: 2761: 2662: 2646: 2555: 2505:, a potent source of 2450: 2405: 2361: 2347:nuclear cross section 2271: 2227:X-10 Graphite Reactor 2219: 2212:X-10 Graphite Reactor 2206:X-10 Graphite Reactor 2156: 2087: 2022: 1999: 1929: 1837: 1789: 1707:Northwest Territories 1583: 1511:Iowa State University 1454:in the front row and 1440:University of Chicago 1437: 1371: 1327:Governor of Tennessee 1291: 1272: 1160: 1071: 1011: 935:autocatalytic methods 840:J. Robert Oppenheimer 833: 751:Jesse Wakefield Beams 693: 511: 487:Franklin D. Roosevelt 389:national laboratories 335:X-10 Graphite Reactor 331:University of Chicago 252:Los Alamos Laboratory 248:J. Robert Oppenheimer 234:to produce the first 215: 15745:Deming Army Airfield 15735:Clovis Army Airfield 15430:Surrender of Germany 14908:Battle of West Hubei 14865:Guadalcanal campaign 14835:Battle of Stalingrad 14761:Battle of Madagascar 13528:Albania protectorate 13315:(formerly Swaziland) 13024:Wehrmacht war crimes 12840:Expulsion of Germans 12624:Art and World War II 12522:British contribution 12471:Governments in exile 12170:British contribution 12072:Operation Peppermint 12067:Operation Crossroads 11926:Maria Goeppert Mayer 11176:Participant accounts 10665:Chronology 1941–1945 10330:on 28 September 2013 10252:Hunner, Jon (2004). 9672:Laurence, William L. 9614:on 23 February 2017. 9061:Bernstein, Barton J. 8959:Hoddeson et al. 1993 8805:Hoddeson et al. 1993 8597:Hoddeson et al. 1993 8570:Hoddeson et al. 1993 8558:Hoddeson et al. 1993 8025:, pp. 43, 52–96 7674:Hoddeson et al. 1993 7662:Hoddeson et al. 1993 7650:Hoddeson et al. 1993 7638:Hoddeson et al. 1993 7626:Hoddeson et al. 1993 7450:Hoddeson et al. 1993 7438:Hoddeson et al. 1993 7426:Hoddeson et al. 1993 7414:Hoddeson et al. 1993 7378:Hoddeson et al. 1993 7318:Hoddeson et al. 1993 7306:Hoddeson et al. 1993 7277:Hoddeson et al. 1993 7265:Hoddeson et al. 1993 7250:Hoddeson et al. 1993 7226:Hoddeson et al. 1993 7214:Hoddeson et al. 1993 7202:Hoddeson et al. 1993 7166:Hoddeson et al. 1993 7154:Hoddeson et al. 1993 6605:"The Calutron Girls" 6406:Hoddeson et al. 1993 4836:Hoddeson et al. 1993 4812:Hoddeson et al. 1993 4776:Hoddeson et al. 1993 4459:physics.columbia.edu 4307:Joseph W. Martin Jr. 4276:by the style of his 4206:Christopher Columbus 4025:- 1980 TV miniseries 3962:nuclear-powered navy 3752:Government overhead 3603:Operation Crossroads 3557:plutonium extraction 3530:Army–Navy "E" Awards 3517:Robert Gordon Sproul 3499:Presentation of the 3427:and 60,000 injured. 3253:Muroc Army Air Field 3111:Operation Peppermint 3103:Dwight D. Eisenhower 3035:Foreign intelligence 2890:Office of Censorship 2845:compartmentalization 2686:McDonald Ranch House 2595:Lieutenant Commander 2531:Charles Allen Thomas 2345:then calculated the 2088:Oak Ridge K-25 plant 1946:uranium hexafluoride 1673:Chalk River, Ontario 1598:Richland, Washington 1298:Oak Ridge, Tennessee 1225:Henry Morgenthau Jr. 1161:Groves confers with 1042:Knoxville, Tennessee 1038:War Production Board 826:Bomb design concepts 753:'s team looked into 630:Berkeley, California 385:Operation Crossroads 345:into plutonium. The 246:. Nuclear physicist 121:Oak Ridge, Tennessee 15760:Hobbs Army Airfield 15520:Potsdam Declaration 15409:Italy (Spring 1945) 15172:Liberation of Paris 14629:Siege of Sevastopol 13640:(until August 1944) 13543:Wang Jingwei regime 13365:from September 1943 13325:from September 1944 13263:from September 1944 13123:Romanian war crimes 13114:Persecution of Jews 13100:Croatian war crimes 13070:Japanese war crimes 12884:Occupation of Japan 12833:First Indochina War 12545:Military production 12457:Declarations of war 11931:George Kistiakowsky 11886:Charles Critchfield 11518:(3). Archived from 11241:Goudsmit, Samuel A. 11144:1961Sci...134..161W 11120:2002physics...6076W 11052:Smyth, Henry DeWolf 10681:Technical histories 10377:How the War Was Won 10170:Hewlett, Richard G. 10100:Hewlett, Richard G. 9786:, pp. 252–253. 9726:, pp. 633–637. 9702:, pp. 204–205. 9518:(5 December 2011). 9455:, pp. 723–724. 9416:, pp. 394–398. 9340:, pp. 630, 646 9316:, pp. 216–217. 9304:, pp. 225–226. 9268:, pp. 592–593. 9199:, pp. 399–400. 9187:, pp. 107–115. 9126:, pp. 348–362. 9112:Home & Low 1993 9102:, pp. 886–889. 8946:, pp. 343–346. 8795:, pp. 315–319. 8709:, pp. 116–117. 8671:, pp. 530–532. 8647:, pp. 268–276. 8599:, pp. 386–388. 8587:, pp. 259–262. 8572:, pp. 380–381. 8560:, pp. 379–380. 8548:, pp. 333–340. 8536:, pp. 174–176. 8524:, pp. 289–290. 8500:, pp. 286–288. 8476:, pp. 283–285. 8464:, pp. 200–206. 8452:, pp. 194–196. 8392:, pp. 187–190. 8380:, pp. 191–192. 8353:, pp. 222–223. 8300:, pp. 312–314. 8288:, pp. 142–145. 8276:, pp. 261–265. 8264:, pp. 258–260. 8240:, pp. 263–264. 8228:, pp. 198–200. 8216:, pp. 253–255. 8192:, pp. 196–198. 8133:. Restricted Data. 7950:, pp. 349–350. 7845:(1 November 2013). 7820:, pp. 303–304. 7688:, pp. 514–517. 7557:, pp. 478–481. 7545:, pp. 318–319. 7491:, pp. 214–216. 7452:, pp. 245–249. 7392:, pp. 244–245. 7180:, pp. 312–313. 7144:, pp. 219–222. 7108:, pp. 214–216. 7096:, pp. 204–205. 7084:, pp. 184–185. 7045:, pp. 182–183. 7021:, pp. 220–223. 7009:, pp. 304–307. 6997:, pp. 216–217. 6961:, pp. 222–226. 6898:, pp. 208–210. 6886:, pp. 204–206. 6871:, pp. 130–132. 6844:, pp. 300–302. 6832:, pp. 180–183. 6820:, pp. 178–179. 6808:, pp. 170–172. 6796:, pp. 175–177. 6772:, pp. 161–162. 6760:, pp. 167–171. 6748:, pp. 158–165. 6736:, pp. 126–127. 6724:, pp. 154–157. 6712:, pp. 150–151. 6676:, pp. 143–148. 6640:, pp. 138–139. 6628:, pp. 126–132. 6543:, pp. 164–165. 6531:, pp. 117–119. 6432:, pp. 154–156. 6384:, pp. 291–292. 6372:, pp. 285–288. 6250:, pp. 201–202. 6238:, pp. 107–108. 6145:www.cnsc-ccsn.gc.ca 6129:, pp. 463–464. 6093:, pp. 452–457. 6069:, pp. 108–111. 5989:, pp. 195–196. 5943:, pp. 214–216. 5897:1981Sci...212.1369W 5891:(4501): 1369–1371. 5774:, pp. 230–232. 5691:, pp. 328–331. 5645:, pp. 664–665. 5608:, pp. 443–446. 5545:, pp. 327–328. 5507:, pp. 663–664. 5459:, pp. 116–117. 5447:, pp. 168–169. 5408:, pp. 223–224. 5372:, pp. 242–244. 5360:, pp. 340–342. 5322:, pp. 216–217. 5310:, pp. 168–173. 5236:, pp. 144–145. 5224:, pp. 206–208. 5128:, pp. 659–661. 5068:. 17 September 1945 4650:, pp. 372–374. 4638:, pp. 282–283. 4623:, pp. 126–128. 4584:, pp. 322–325. 4486:, pp. 337–338. 4455:"Fermi at Columbia" 4389:figures follow the 3816:discretionary funds 3766:Heavy water plants 3664: 3589:, establishing the 3501:Army–Navy "E" Award 3317:Battle of the Bulge 3146:Operation Harborage 3107:Walter Bedell Smith 3018:. Other spies like 2930:William L. Laurence 2928:to clear articles. 2631:, who selected the 2525:polonium-beryllium 2461:George Kistiakowsky 2306:Crawford Greenewalt 2235:hot dipping process 1829:Eldorado Gold Mines 1770:Ordnance Department 1681:Deep River, Ontario 1677:Montreal Laboratory 1627:Montreal Laboratory 1313:Robert P. Patterson 1128:; and his brother, 996:Stone & Webster 982:, selected Colonel 759:Columbia University 586:in February 1941. 537:Columbia University 525:Columbia University 285:and a more complex 205:Manhattan District 15919:History of science 15883:Nuclear technology 15826:Lordsburg Killings 15513:Surrender of Japan 15346:Battle of Iwo Jima 15195:Belgrade offensive 14608:Siege of Leningrad 14492:Battle of Shanggao 14421:British Somaliland 14386:Dunkirk evacuation 14337:Norwegian campaign 14275:Invasion of Poland 14102:Japanese prisoners 13063:Italian war crimes 12994:British war crimes 12909:Soviet occupations 12693:South-West Pacific 12580:Allied cooperation 12538:Military equipment 11996:Henry DeWolf Smyth 11775:Robert Oppenheimer 11730:Priscilla Duffield 11546:Nuclear Technology 11128:Weinberg, Alvin M. 10713:Los Alamos Science 9680:The New York Times 9658:The New York Times 9141:Air Force Magazine 9025:(16 August 2013). 8961:, pp. 396–397 8868:on 31 January 2012 8807:, pp. 392–393 8329:The New York Times 8162:The New York Times 7676:, pp. 372–374 7664:, pp. 367–370 7652:, pp. 365–367 7640:, pp. 174–175 7628:, pp. 360–362 7440:, pp. 330–331 7404:, pp. 144–145 7380:, pp. 308–310 7320:, pp. 148–154 7308:, pp. 301–307 7267:, pp. 294–296 7228:, pp. 245–248 7216:, pp. 130–131 7204:, pp. 129–130 7168:, pp. 242–244 5824:on 26 October 2014 5283:Los Alamos Science 4924:The New York Times 4907:, pp. xi, 30. 4561:"Past Chancellors" 4038:Oppenheimer (film) 3895:The New York Times 3886: 3808: 3662: 3595: 3525: 3458:Henry DeWolf Smyth 3420:Charles W. Sweeney 3410: 3349:Potsdam Conference 3225: 3095:Operation Overlord 3091:University of Rome 3087: 2935:The New York Times 2921: 2840: 2815:Stafford L. Warren 2792: 2764: 2748:Potsdam Conference 2673: 2649: 2629:Kenneth Bainbridge 2562: 2511:ionization chamber 2453: 2408: 2365: 2354:Separation process 2278: 2222: 2159: 2148:William S. Parsons 2090: 2029: 2002: 1933: 1921:uranium enrichment 1911:Isotope separation 1893:Iowa State College 1848: 1804: 1766:Sylacauga, Alabama 1586: 1537:Arthur V. Peterson 1468: 1374: 1306: 1275: 1167: 1124:; his girlfriend, 1100:William R. Purnell 1081: 1014: 1000:Lieutenant Colonel 976:Chief of Engineers 970:Manhattan District 836: 735:isotope separation 719: 696:Ernest O. Lawrence 671:George C. Marshall 634:Ernest O. Lawrence 603:order of magnitude 529: 307:uranium enrichment 256:Manhattan District 217: 44:Manhattan District 16014:Manhattan Project 15939:Manhattan Project 15864: 15863: 15831:Manhattan Project 15587: 15586: 15545: 15544: 15388:Battle of Okinawa 15287:Burma (1944–1945) 15121:Mariana and Palau 14901:Tunisian campaign 14726:Fall of Singapore 14650:Fall of Hong Kong 14393:Battle of Britain 14246:Operation Himmler 14155: 14154: 13819:Dutch East Indies 13455:Southern Rhodesia 13207: 13206: 13107:Genocide of Serbs 13010:German war crimes 12987:Soviet war crimes 12980:Allied war crimes 12826:Division of Korea 12805:Chinese Civil War 12603:Strategic bombing 12515:Manhattan Project 12289: 12288: 12211:Los Alamos Primer 12200:Interim Committee 12155:African Americans 12107:The Great Artiste 11966:Isidor Isaac Rabi 11961:Norman Ramsey Jr. 11760:Franklin Matthias 11699:Heavy water sites 11606:Manhattan Project 11552:(sup1): S24–S61. 11406:Manhattan Project 11401:Library resources 11378:978-0-395-17121-9 11138:(3473): 161–164. 11084:978-0-7844-0160-6 11045:Wikimedia Commons 11030:978-0-520-07576-4 10886:978-0-521-44132-2 10865:Hoddeson, Lillian 10845:978-0-938228-08-0 10806:978-0-9791915-0-3 10779:978-0-9791915-1-0 10739:978-0-88736-267-5 10647:978-0-226-02038-9 10634:Wellerstein, Alex 10617:978-0-520-26045-0 10604:Walker, J. Samuel 10542:978-1-61234-815-5 10472:978-0-930370-16-9 10413:978-1-59416-116-2 10386:978-1-107-01475-6 10263:978-0-8061-3891-6 10183:978-0-252-02341-5 9762:, pp. 72–74. 9750:, pp. 74–76. 9714:, pp. 59–60. 9574:, pp. 47–48. 9522:. Restricted Data 9516:Wellerstein, Alex 9467:, pp. 34–35. 9440:, pp. 55–57. 9401:978-1-55750-919-2 9029:. Restricted Data 9023:Wellerstein, Alex 8823:(4 August 2020). 8821:Wellerstein, Alex 8611:, pp. 39–40. 8488:, pp. 70–71. 8204:, pp. 76–79. 7849:. Restricted Data 7843:Wellerstein, Alex 7780:. 8 November 1948 7597:978-1-4766-3381-7 7479:, pp. 95–98. 6937:, pp. 78–82. 6492:, pp. 96–97. 6456:, pp. 22–23. 6420:, pp. 87–88. 6307:, pp. 85–86. 6226:, pp. 8, 62. 6054:, pp. 68–69. 6042:, pp. 58–59. 5798:, pp. 67–71. 5786:, pp. 58–61. 5750:, pp. 31–32. 5679:, pp. 66–67. 5633:, pp. 83–84. 5581:, pp. 14–17. 5524:on 25 August 2009 5495:, pp. 39–43. 5471:, pp. 25–26. 5212:, pp. 72–73. 5200:, pp. 61–63. 5176:, pp. 80–82. 5164:, pp. 22–23. 5152:, pp. 44–45. 5140:, pp. 27–28. 5104:, pp. 74–77. 5034:, pp. 57–61. 5010:, pp. 76–78. 4962:, pp. 86–87. 4950:, pp. 41–44. 4739:, pp. 35–36. 4715:, pp. 37–39. 4674:, pp. 30–32. 4662:, pp. 43–44. 4611:, pp. 39–40. 4523:, pp. 40–41. 4420:, pp. 16–20. 4311:John W. McCormack 4042:Christopher Nolan 3958:Hyman G. Rickover 3796: 3795: 3640:nuclear arms race 3341:Interim Committee 3177:Werner Heisenberg 3099:Normandy landings 2741: 2740: 2693:energy equivalent 2654:fizzled explosion 2327:neutron poisoning 2237:without success. 2121:Thermal diffusion 2051:Gaseous diffusion 2037:Tennessee Eastman 1723:Heavy water sites 1590:Franklin Matthias 1394:Claude R. Wickard 1018:Thomas M. Robbins 984:James C. Marshall 931:Richard C. Tolman 886:, Robert Serber, 882:, Edward Teller, 810:Brigadier General 806:neutron moderator 767:thermal diffusion 755:gaseous diffusion 700:Arthur H. Compton 675:Winston Churchill 642:Arthur H. Compton 228:Manhattan Project 221: 220: 186:James C. Marshall 16:(Redirected from 16086: 15999: 15991: 15990: 15989: 15982: 15974: 15973: 15972: 15965: 15957: 15956: 15955: 15945: 15929: 15928: 15917: 15916: 15915: 15905: 15904: 15893: 15892: 15891: 15881: 15880: 15879: 15872: 15801:American Theater 15712: 15614: 15607: 15600: 15591: 15590: 15580: 15573: 15566: 15563:World portal 15561: 15560: 15536: 15529: 15522: 15515: 15506: 15499: 15492: 15483: 15476: 15469: 15462: 15455: 15448: 15439: 15432: 15425: 15423:Prague offensive 15418: 15416:Battle of Berlin 15411: 15404: 15397: 15390: 15383: 15376: 15369: 15362: 15360:Vienna offensive 15355: 15348: 15341: 15339:Battle of Manila 15334: 15314: 15305: 15296: 15289: 15280: 15273: 15266: 15259: 15252: 15245: 15238: 15229: 15220: 15213: 15204: 15197: 15190: 15183: 15174: 15167: 15160: 15153: 15146: 15139: 15132: 15123: 15116: 15107: 15098: 15089: 15082: 15080:Korsun–Cherkassy 15075: 15064: 15042: 15033: 15026: 15019: 15012: 15005: 14998: 14991: 14982: 14975: 14968: 14961: 14952: 14945: 14938: 14931: 14924: 14922:Bombing of Gorky 14917: 14910: 14903: 14883: 14876: 14867: 14860: 14853: 14844: 14837: 14830: 14823: 14812: 14805: 14798: 14791: 14789:Battle of Midway 14784: 14777: 14775:Battle of Gazala 14770: 14763: 14756: 14749: 14742: 14735: 14728: 14708: 14701: 14694: 14687: 14685:Battle of Borneo 14680: 14678:Malayan campaign 14673: 14666: 14659: 14652: 14645: 14638: 14631: 14624: 14622:Bombing of Gorky 14617: 14615:Battle of Moscow 14610: 14603: 14596: 14589: 14582: 14575: 14559: 14552: 14545: 14538: 14531: 14524: 14515: 14508: 14501: 14494: 14487: 14467: 14458: 14451: 14444: 14437: 14430: 14423: 14416: 14409: 14402: 14395: 14388: 14381: 14379:Battle of France 14374: 14367: 14360: 14353: 14346: 14339: 14319: 14312: 14305: 14298: 14291: 14284: 14277: 14255: 14248: 14241: 14234: 14232:Munich Agreement 14227: 14220: 14211: 14204: 14197: 14188: 14181: 14166: 14165: 14148: 14141: 14132: 14125: 14118: 14117:Soviet prisoners 14111: 14104: 14097: 14088: 14081: 14072: 14065: 14058: 14057:German prisoners 14053: 14033: 14024: 14017: 14010: 14005: 13998: 13991: 13984: 13977: 13970: 13963: 13956: 13949: 13942: 13935: 13928: 13921: 13914: 13905: 13898: 13891: 13884: 13877: 13870: 13863: 13856: 13849: 13842: 13835: 13828: 13821: 13814: 13807: 13800: 13793: 13786: 13779: 13759: 13752: 13745: 13738: 13731: 13724: 13717: 13710: 13703: 13696: 13689: 13669: 13662: 13655: 13648: 13641: 13633: 13626: 13619: 13610: 13603: 13595: 13588: 13586:French Indochina 13581: 13574: 13567: 13560: 13552: 13545: 13538: 13530: 13510: 13501: 13494: 13485: 13478: 13471: 13464: 13457: 13450: 13443: 13436: 13433:from August 1944 13424: 13417: 13410: 13403: 13396: 13389: 13382: 13375: 13368: 13356: 13349: 13342: 13335: 13328: 13316: 13308: 13301: 13294: 13287: 13280: 13273: 13266: 13254: 13247: 13240: 13233: 13218: 13217: 13198: 13191: 13184: 13177: 13170: 13159: 13144: 13137: 13130: 13125: 13116: 13109: 13102: 13093: 13086: 13079: 13077:Nanjing Massacre 13072: 13065: 13056: 13054:Nuremberg trials 13047: 13040: 13033: 13026: 13019: 13012: 13003: 12996: 12989: 12982: 12962: 12955: 12948: 12939: 12932: 12925: 12918: 12911: 12904: 12895: 12886: 12879: 12872: 12865: 12856: 12849: 12842: 12835: 12828: 12821: 12814: 12807: 12787: 12778: 12771: 12764: 12755: 12748: 12741: 12734: 12725: 12718: 12711: 12702: 12695: 12688: 12681: 12674: 12667: 12660: 12658:Asia and Pacific 12640: 12633: 12626: 12619: 12612: 12605: 12598: 12589: 12587:Mulberry harbour 12582: 12575: 12568: 12561: 12554: 12547: 12540: 12533: 12524: 12517: 12510: 12501: 12494: 12487: 12480: 12473: 12466: 12459: 12452: 12445: 12438: 12429: 12422: 12407: 12406: 12395: 12388: 12379: 12372: 12365: 12358: 12351: 12344: 12337: 12316: 12309: 12302: 12293: 12292: 12281: 12280: 12232:Quebec Agreement 12016:John von Neumann 11956:George B. Pegram 11765:Dorothy McKibbin 11599: 11592: 11585: 11576: 11575: 11571: 11561: 11531: 11529: 11527: 11500: 11498: 11496: 11480: 11478: 11476: 11464: 11462: 11460: 11445: 11443: 11441: 11390: 11360: 11330: 11300: 11280: 11266: 11236: 11226: 11212: 11192: 11171: 11123: 11113: 11096: 11069: 11042: 11004: 11002: 11000: 10985: 10983: 10981: 10976:on 30 March 2015 10956: 10927: 10898: 10878: 10860: 10829: 10818: 10791: 10761: 10743: 10724: 10722: 10720: 10710: 10700: 10676: 10659: 10629: 10599: 10597: 10595: 10569: 10557: 10546: 10521: 10519: 10517: 10511: 10505:. Archived from 10496: 10484: 10457: 10425: 10398: 10371: 10339: 10337: 10335: 10329: 10323:. Archived from 10314: 10302: 10275: 10248: 10214: 10187: 10164: 10137: 10135: 10133: 10110: 10095: 10078: 10063:Gowing, Margaret 10058: 10041: 10039: 10037: 10032:on 12 April 2019 10031: 10025:. Archived from 10016: 10004: 9975: 9973: 9971: 9958: 9946: 9934: 9920: 9893: 9855: 9854: 9852: 9850: 9839: 9833: 9827: 9821: 9820: 9818: 9816: 9805: 9799: 9793: 9787: 9781: 9775: 9769: 9763: 9757: 9751: 9745: 9739: 9733: 9727: 9721: 9715: 9709: 9703: 9697: 9691: 9690: 9688: 9686: 9668: 9662: 9661: 9649: 9643: 9642: 9622: 9616: 9615: 9613: 9606: 9598: 9592: 9591: 9589: 9581: 9575: 9569: 9563: 9562: 9553: 9547: 9546:, pp. 77–82 9544:Wellerstein 2021 9541: 9532: 9531: 9529: 9527: 9512: 9506: 9500: 9494: 9493: 9491: 9489: 9482:Edmonton Journal 9474: 9468: 9462: 9456: 9450: 9441: 9435: 9429: 9423: 9417: 9411: 9405: 9404: 9393: 9383: 9377: 9371: 9365: 9359: 9353: 9347: 9341: 9335: 9329: 9323: 9317: 9311: 9305: 9299: 9293: 9292:, p. V-152. 9287: 9281: 9275: 9269: 9263: 9254: 9248: 9242: 9236: 9230: 9229: 9227: 9225: 9216:. Archived from 9206: 9200: 9194: 9188: 9182: 9176: 9175: 9173: 9171: 9155: 9149: 9148: 9133: 9127: 9121: 9115: 9109: 9103: 9097: 9091: 9090: 9057: 9051: 9045: 9039: 9038: 9036: 9034: 9019: 9013: 9012: 9010: 9008: 8997: 8991: 8990: 8988: 8986: 8976: 8968: 8962: 8956: 8947: 8941: 8935: 8934:, pp. 22–29 8929: 8923: 8922: 8920: 8918: 8907: 8901: 8900: 8898: 8896: 8887:Buttry, Daniel. 8884: 8878: 8877: 8875: 8873: 8867: 8854: 8846: 8840: 8839: 8837: 8835: 8817: 8808: 8802: 8796: 8790: 8784: 8783: 8775: 8769: 8768: 8766: 8764: 8753: 8747: 8746: 8738: 8732: 8731: 8729: 8727: 8716: 8710: 8704: 8698: 8697: 8695: 8693: 8678: 8672: 8666: 8660: 8654: 8648: 8642: 8636: 8630: 8624: 8618: 8612: 8606: 8600: 8594: 8588: 8582: 8573: 8567: 8561: 8555: 8549: 8543: 8537: 8531: 8525: 8519: 8513: 8507: 8501: 8495: 8489: 8483: 8477: 8471: 8465: 8459: 8453: 8447: 8441: 8435: 8429: 8423: 8417: 8411: 8405: 8399: 8393: 8387: 8381: 8375: 8369: 8368: 8360: 8354: 8348: 8342: 8341: 8339: 8337: 8319: 8313: 8307: 8301: 8295: 8289: 8283: 8277: 8271: 8265: 8259: 8253: 8247: 8241: 8235: 8229: 8223: 8217: 8211: 8205: 8199: 8193: 8187: 8181: 8180: 8178: 8176: 8153: 8147: 8146: 8144: 8142: 8126: 8120: 8119: 8117: 8115: 8100: 8094: 8093: 8091: 8089: 8084:. pp. 2, 91 8073: 8067: 8066: 8064: 8062: 8047: 8038: 8032: 8026: 8023:Wellerstein 2021 8020: 8011: 8005: 7999: 7993: 7987: 7981: 7975: 7969: 7963: 7957: 7951: 7945: 7939: 7938: 7936: 7934: 7919: 7913: 7907: 7901: 7887: 7881: 7880: 7878: 7876: 7871:. Nuclear Museum 7865: 7859: 7858: 7856: 7854: 7839: 7833: 7827: 7821: 7815: 7809: 7808: 7796: 7790: 7789: 7787: 7785: 7768: 7762: 7761: 7759: 7757: 7733:Barnett, Lincoln 7729: 7723: 7722: 7720: 7718: 7707: 7701: 7695: 7689: 7683: 7677: 7671: 7665: 7659: 7653: 7647: 7641: 7635: 7629: 7623: 7617: 7611: 7602: 7601: 7581: 7575: 7574: 7564: 7558: 7552: 7546: 7540: 7534: 7528: 7522: 7521: 7519: 7517: 7498: 7492: 7486: 7480: 7474: 7468: 7462: 7453: 7447: 7441: 7435: 7429: 7423: 7417: 7411: 7405: 7399: 7393: 7387: 7381: 7375: 7369: 7363: 7357: 7351: 7345: 7344:, p. I-298. 7339: 7333: 7327: 7321: 7315: 7309: 7303: 7297: 7296:, p. V-123. 7291: 7280: 7274: 7268: 7262: 7253: 7247: 7241: 7235: 7229: 7223: 7217: 7211: 7205: 7199: 7193: 7187: 7181: 7175: 7169: 7163: 7157: 7151: 7145: 7139: 7133: 7127: 7121: 7115: 7109: 7103: 7097: 7091: 7085: 7079: 7073: 7067: 7058: 7052: 7046: 7040: 7034: 7028: 7022: 7016: 7010: 7004: 6998: 6992: 6986: 6980: 6974: 6968: 6962: 6956: 6950: 6944: 6938: 6932: 6926: 6920: 6911: 6905: 6899: 6893: 6887: 6881: 6872: 6866: 6857: 6856:, p. V-112. 6851: 6845: 6839: 6833: 6827: 6821: 6815: 6809: 6803: 6797: 6791: 6785: 6779: 6773: 6767: 6761: 6755: 6749: 6743: 6737: 6731: 6725: 6719: 6713: 6707: 6701: 6695: 6689: 6683: 6677: 6671: 6665: 6659: 6653: 6647: 6641: 6635: 6629: 6623: 6617: 6616: 6614: 6612: 6601: 6595: 6589: 6583: 6577: 6568: 6562: 6556: 6550: 6544: 6538: 6532: 6526: 6517: 6511: 6505: 6499: 6493: 6487: 6481: 6475: 6469: 6463: 6457: 6451: 6445: 6439: 6433: 6427: 6421: 6415: 6409: 6403: 6397: 6391: 6385: 6379: 6373: 6367: 6361: 6355: 6349: 6347: 6338: 6332: 6326: 6320: 6314: 6308: 6302: 6296: 6290: 6281: 6275: 6269: 6263: 6257: 6251: 6245: 6239: 6233: 6227: 6221: 6215: 6214: 6213:on 6 March 2014. 6203: 6197: 6191: 6182: 6181: 6179: 6177: 6162: 6156: 6155: 6153: 6151: 6136: 6130: 6124: 6118: 6112: 6106: 6100: 6094: 6088: 6082: 6076: 6070: 6064: 6055: 6049: 6043: 6037: 6031: 6030: 6008: 6002: 5996: 5990: 5984: 5978: 5972: 5966: 5965: 5963: 5961: 5950: 5944: 5938: 5932: 5931: 5929: 5927: 5882: 5873: 5867: 5866: 5848: 5840: 5834: 5833: 5831: 5829: 5823: 5817:. Archived from 5816: 5808: 5799: 5793: 5787: 5781: 5775: 5769: 5763: 5757: 5751: 5745: 5739: 5738: 5736: 5734: 5723: 5717: 5716: 5714: 5712: 5706: 5698: 5692: 5686: 5680: 5674: 5668: 5667: 5665: 5663: 5652: 5646: 5640: 5634: 5628: 5622: 5615: 5609: 5603: 5594: 5588: 5582: 5576: 5570: 5564: 5558: 5552: 5546: 5540: 5534: 5533: 5531: 5529: 5514: 5508: 5502: 5496: 5490: 5484: 5478: 5472: 5466: 5460: 5454: 5448: 5442: 5433: 5427: 5421: 5415: 5409: 5403: 5397: 5391: 5385: 5379: 5373: 5367: 5361: 5355: 5349: 5348: 5341: 5335: 5329: 5323: 5317: 5311: 5305: 5299: 5293: 5287: 5286: 5274: 5261: 5255: 5249: 5243: 5237: 5231: 5225: 5219: 5213: 5207: 5201: 5195: 5189: 5183: 5177: 5171: 5165: 5159: 5153: 5147: 5141: 5135: 5129: 5123: 5117: 5111: 5105: 5099: 5090: 5084: 5078: 5077: 5075: 5073: 5056: 5050: 5044: 5035: 5029: 5023: 5017: 5011: 5005: 4999: 4993: 4987: 4981: 4975: 4969: 4963: 4957: 4951: 4945: 4936: 4935: 4933: 4931: 4914: 4908: 4902: 4896: 4895: 4893: 4891: 4885: 4873:Konopinski, E. J 4869: 4863: 4857: 4851: 4845: 4839: 4838:, pp. 44–45 4833: 4827: 4821: 4815: 4814:, pp. 54–56 4809: 4803: 4797: 4791: 4785: 4779: 4778:, pp. 42–44 4773: 4764: 4758: 4752: 4746: 4740: 4734: 4728: 4722: 4716: 4710: 4699: 4693: 4687: 4681: 4675: 4669: 4663: 4657: 4651: 4645: 4639: 4633: 4624: 4618: 4612: 4606: 4600: 4594: 4585: 4579: 4573: 4572: 4570: 4568: 4557: 4551: 4545: 4536: 4530: 4524: 4518: 4509: 4508: 4506: 4504: 4493: 4487: 4481: 4475: 4474: 4472: 4470: 4461:. Archived from 4451: 4445: 4439: 4433: 4427: 4421: 4415: 4406: 4400: 4394: 4384: 4382: 4380: 4363: 4346: 4323:Wallace H. White 4299:Alben W. Barkley 4295: 4289: 4269: 4263: 4252: 4246: 4243: 4237: 4225: 4219: 4215: 4209: 4202: 4196: 4190: 4184: 4169: 4163: 4161: 4160: 4159: 4152: 4151: 4142: 4141: 4140: 4133: 4132: 4123: 4122: 4121: 4114: 4113: 4104: 4103: 4102: 4095: 4094: 4084: 4078: 4067: 3977:nuclear medicine 3966:nuclear aircraft 3890:William Laurence 3828:Truman Committee 3665: 3661: 3485:Szilárd petition 3443:Henry A. Wallace 3384:2nd General Army 3064:George V. Strong 3012:David Greenglass 2993:Haakon Chevalier 2902: 2723: 2535:Monsanto Company 2465:explosive lenses 2438:John von Neumann 2434:Seth Neddermeyer 2339:Donald J. Hughes 2321:Fermi contacted 2254:Hanford reactors 2244:General Electric 2200:fission products 1885:uranium trioxide 1870:Uravan, Colorado 1842:reaction of the 1817:State Department 1754:Newport, Indiana 1635:British Columbia 1418:Dorothy McKibbin 1249: 1201:Ernest Titterton 1176:Quebec Agreement 978:, Major General 813:Wilhelm D. Styer 716:Alfred L. Loomis 660:Henry L. Stimson 657:Secretary of War 653:Henry A. Wallace 646:George B. Pegram 553:nuclear reactors 474:and others into 428:Fritz Strassmann 276:fissile material 53: 41: 40: 21: 16094: 16093: 16089: 16088: 16087: 16085: 16084: 16083: 16004: 16003: 16002: 15992: 15987: 15985: 15975: 15970: 15968: 15958: 15953: 15951: 15948: 15944:sister projects 15941:at Knowledge's 15935: 15923: 15913: 15911: 15899: 15889: 15887: 15877: 15875: 15867: 15865: 15860: 15784: 15713: 15704: 15695:Emilio G. Segrè 15690:Merril Sandoval 15645:John J. Dempsey 15623: 15618: 15588: 15583: 15576: 15569: 15555: 15553: 15541: 15532: 15525: 15518: 15511: 15502: 15495: 15488: 15479: 15474:Atomic bombings 15472: 15465: 15458: 15451: 15444: 15435: 15428: 15421: 15414: 15407: 15400: 15393: 15386: 15379: 15372: 15365: 15358: 15351: 15344: 15337: 15330: 15317: 15310: 15299: 15292: 15285: 15276: 15269: 15262: 15255: 15248: 15241: 15232: 15223: 15216: 15207: 15200: 15193: 15186: 15177: 15170: 15165:Eastern Romania 15163: 15158:Warsaw Uprising 15156: 15151:Tannenberg Line 15149: 15142: 15137:Western Ukraine 15135: 15126: 15119: 15110: 15101: 15092: 15085: 15078: 15067: 15058: 15045: 15038: 15029: 15022: 15015: 15008: 15001: 14994: 14987: 14978: 14971: 14964: 14955: 14948: 14941: 14934: 14929:Battle of Kursk 14927: 14920: 14913: 14906: 14899: 14886: 14879: 14870: 14863: 14856: 14847: 14840: 14833: 14826: 14817: 14808: 14801: 14794: 14787: 14780: 14773: 14766: 14759: 14752: 14745: 14740:St Nazaire Raid 14738: 14731: 14724: 14711: 14704: 14697: 14690: 14683: 14676: 14669: 14662: 14655: 14648: 14641: 14634: 14627: 14620: 14613: 14606: 14599: 14592: 14585: 14578: 14564: 14555: 14548: 14541: 14534: 14527: 14522:Anglo-Iraqi War 14520: 14513:Battle of Crete 14511: 14504: 14497: 14490: 14483: 14470: 14461: 14454: 14447: 14442:Eastern Romania 14440: 14433: 14426: 14419: 14412: 14405: 14398: 14391: 14384: 14377: 14370: 14363: 14356: 14349: 14342: 14335: 14322: 14315: 14308: 14301: 14294: 14287: 14280: 14273: 14260: 14251: 14244: 14237: 14230: 14223: 14216: 14207: 14200: 14193: 14184: 14177: 14151: 14144: 14137: 14128: 14121: 14116: 14107: 14100: 14093: 14084: 14077: 14068: 14061: 14056: 14049: 14036: 14029: 14020: 14013: 14008: 14003:Western Ukraine 14001: 13994: 13987: 13980: 13973: 13966: 13959: 13952: 13947:Northeast China 13945: 13938: 13931: 13924: 13917: 13910: 13901: 13894: 13887: 13880: 13873: 13866: 13859: 13852: 13845: 13838: 13831: 13824: 13817: 13810: 13803: 13796: 13789: 13782: 13775: 13762: 13755: 13748: 13741: 13734: 13727: 13720: 13713: 13706: 13699: 13692: 13685: 13672: 13665: 13658: 13651: 13646:Slovak Republic 13644: 13636: 13629: 13622: 13617:Empire of Japan 13615: 13606: 13598: 13591: 13584: 13577: 13570: 13563: 13555: 13548: 13541: 13533: 13526: 13513: 13506: 13497: 13490: 13481: 13474: 13467: 13460: 13453: 13446: 13439: 13427: 13420: 13413: 13406: 13399: 13392: 13385: 13378: 13371: 13359: 13352: 13345: 13338: 13331: 13319: 13311: 13304: 13297: 13290: 13283: 13276: 13269: 13257: 13250: 13243: 13236: 13229: 13203: 13194: 13187: 13180: 13173: 13162: 13147: 13140: 13133: 13129:Sexual violence 13128: 13121: 13112: 13105: 13098: 13089: 13082: 13075: 13068: 13061: 13052: 13043: 13036: 13029: 13022: 13015: 13008: 12999: 12992: 12985: 12978: 12965: 12958: 12951: 12944: 12935: 12928: 12921: 12914: 12907: 12898: 12889: 12882: 12875: 12868: 12859: 12852: 12847:Greek Civil War 12845: 12838: 12831: 12824: 12817: 12810: 12803: 12790: 12783: 12774: 12767: 12760: 12751: 12744: 12737: 12730: 12721: 12714: 12707: 12698: 12691: 12684: 12677: 12672:South-East Asia 12670: 12663: 12656: 12643: 12636: 12629: 12622: 12615: 12608: 12601: 12594: 12585: 12578: 12571: 12564: 12557: 12550: 12543: 12536: 12531:Military awards 12529: 12520: 12513: 12506: 12497: 12490: 12483: 12476: 12469: 12462: 12455: 12448: 12441: 12434: 12425: 12418: 12398: 12391: 12384: 12375: 12368: 12361: 12356: 12347: 12340: 12333: 12325: 12320: 12290: 12285: 12271: 12237:RaLa Experiment 12143: 12112: 12077:Project Alberta 12045: 12041:Chien-Shiung Wu 11971:James Rainwater 11906:Richard Feynman 11896:John R. Dunning 11871:Norris Bradbury 11834: 11820:Stafford Warren 11790:William Purnell 11770:Kenneth Nichols 11750:Ernest Lawrence 11725:James B. Conant 11703: 11617: 11608: 11603: 11543: 11525: 11523: 11503: 11494: 11492: 11484: 11474: 11472: 11467: 11458: 11456: 11448: 11439: 11437: 11429: 11426: 11425: 11424: 11409: 11408: 11404: 11397: 11379: 11349: 11319: 11289: 11255: 11217:Compton, Arthur 11201: 11178: 11111:physics/0206076 11085: 11031: 11013:Rhodes, Richard 10998: 10996: 10989:Sandia (1967). 10979: 10977: 10887: 10846: 10836:10.2172/1087645 10807: 10780: 10740: 10718: 10716: 10708: 10683: 10648: 10618: 10593: 10591: 10566: 10543: 10515: 10513: 10512:on 20 June 2019 10509: 10494: 10473: 10446: 10430:Rhodes, Richard 10414: 10387: 10360: 10333: 10331: 10327: 10312: 10291: 10264: 10237: 10203: 10184: 10168:Holl, Jack M.; 10153: 10131: 10129: 10119: 10108: 10035: 10033: 10029: 10014: 9969: 9967: 9956: 9943: 9909: 9864: 9859: 9858: 9848: 9846: 9841: 9840: 9836: 9828: 9824: 9814: 9812: 9806: 9802: 9794: 9790: 9782: 9778: 9770: 9766: 9758: 9754: 9746: 9742: 9734: 9730: 9722: 9718: 9710: 9706: 9698: 9694: 9684: 9682: 9669: 9665: 9650: 9646: 9623: 9619: 9611: 9604: 9600: 9599: 9595: 9587: 9583: 9582: 9578: 9570: 9566: 9555: 9554: 9550: 9542: 9535: 9525: 9523: 9513: 9509: 9501: 9497: 9487: 9485: 9476: 9475: 9471: 9463: 9459: 9451: 9444: 9436: 9432: 9424: 9420: 9412: 9408: 9402: 9384: 9380: 9372: 9368: 9360: 9356: 9348: 9344: 9336: 9332: 9324: 9320: 9312: 9308: 9300: 9296: 9288: 9284: 9276: 9272: 9264: 9257: 9249: 9245: 9237: 9233: 9223: 9221: 9208: 9207: 9203: 9195: 9191: 9183: 9179: 9169: 9167: 9156: 9152: 9135: 9134: 9130: 9122: 9118: 9110: 9106: 9098: 9094: 9058: 9054: 9046: 9042: 9032: 9030: 9020: 9016: 9006: 9004: 8999: 8998: 8994: 8984: 8982: 8974: 8970: 8969: 8965: 8957: 8950: 8942: 8938: 8930: 8926: 8916: 8914: 8909: 8908: 8904: 8894: 8892: 8885: 8881: 8871: 8869: 8865: 8852: 8848: 8847: 8843: 8833: 8831: 8818: 8811: 8803: 8799: 8791: 8787: 8776: 8772: 8762: 8760: 8755: 8754: 8750: 8739: 8735: 8725: 8723: 8718: 8717: 8713: 8705: 8701: 8691: 8689: 8680: 8679: 8675: 8667: 8663: 8655: 8651: 8643: 8639: 8631: 8627: 8619: 8615: 8607: 8603: 8595: 8591: 8583: 8576: 8568: 8564: 8556: 8552: 8544: 8540: 8532: 8528: 8520: 8516: 8508: 8504: 8496: 8492: 8484: 8480: 8472: 8468: 8460: 8456: 8448: 8444: 8436: 8432: 8424: 8420: 8412: 8408: 8400: 8396: 8388: 8384: 8376: 8372: 8361: 8357: 8349: 8345: 8335: 8333: 8320: 8316: 8308: 8304: 8296: 8292: 8284: 8280: 8272: 8268: 8260: 8256: 8248: 8244: 8236: 8232: 8224: 8220: 8212: 8208: 8200: 8196: 8188: 8184: 8174: 8172: 8154: 8150: 8140: 8138: 8127: 8123: 8113: 8111: 8102: 8101: 8097: 8087: 8085: 8074: 8070: 8060: 8058: 8049: 8048: 8041: 8033: 8029: 8021: 8014: 8006: 8002: 7994: 7990: 7982: 7978: 7970: 7966: 7958: 7954: 7946: 7942: 7932: 7930: 7921: 7920: 7916: 7908: 7904: 7888: 7884: 7874: 7872: 7867: 7866: 7862: 7852: 7850: 7840: 7836: 7828: 7824: 7816: 7812: 7797: 7793: 7783: 7781: 7770: 7769: 7765: 7755: 7753: 7745:. p. 133. 7730: 7726: 7716: 7714: 7709: 7708: 7704: 7696: 7692: 7684: 7680: 7672: 7668: 7660: 7656: 7648: 7644: 7636: 7632: 7624: 7620: 7612: 7605: 7598: 7582: 7578: 7565: 7561: 7553: 7549: 7541: 7537: 7529: 7525: 7515: 7513: 7500: 7499: 7495: 7487: 7483: 7475: 7471: 7463: 7456: 7448: 7444: 7436: 7432: 7424: 7420: 7412: 7408: 7400: 7396: 7388: 7384: 7376: 7372: 7368:, pp. 3–4. 7364: 7360: 7352: 7348: 7340: 7336: 7328: 7324: 7316: 7312: 7304: 7300: 7292: 7283: 7275: 7271: 7263: 7256: 7248: 7244: 7236: 7232: 7224: 7220: 7212: 7208: 7200: 7196: 7188: 7184: 7176: 7172: 7164: 7160: 7152: 7148: 7140: 7136: 7128: 7124: 7116: 7112: 7104: 7100: 7092: 7088: 7080: 7076: 7068: 7061: 7053: 7049: 7041: 7037: 7029: 7025: 7017: 7013: 7005: 7001: 6993: 6989: 6981: 6977: 6969: 6965: 6957: 6953: 6945: 6941: 6933: 6929: 6921: 6914: 6906: 6902: 6894: 6890: 6882: 6875: 6867: 6860: 6852: 6848: 6840: 6836: 6828: 6824: 6816: 6812: 6804: 6800: 6792: 6788: 6780: 6776: 6768: 6764: 6756: 6752: 6744: 6740: 6732: 6728: 6720: 6716: 6708: 6704: 6696: 6692: 6684: 6680: 6672: 6668: 6660: 6656: 6648: 6644: 6636: 6632: 6624: 6620: 6610: 6608: 6603: 6602: 6598: 6590: 6586: 6578: 6571: 6563: 6559: 6551: 6547: 6539: 6535: 6527: 6520: 6512: 6508: 6500: 6496: 6488: 6484: 6476: 6472: 6464: 6460: 6452: 6448: 6440: 6436: 6428: 6424: 6416: 6412: 6404: 6400: 6396:, pp. 3–9. 6392: 6388: 6380: 6376: 6368: 6364: 6356: 6352: 6340: 6339: 6335: 6327: 6323: 6315: 6311: 6303: 6299: 6283: 6282: 6278: 6270: 6266: 6258: 6254: 6246: 6242: 6234: 6230: 6222: 6218: 6205: 6204: 6200: 6196:, pp. 8–9. 6192: 6185: 6175: 6173: 6163: 6159: 6149: 6147: 6137: 6133: 6125: 6121: 6113: 6109: 6101: 6097: 6089: 6085: 6077: 6073: 6065: 6058: 6050: 6046: 6038: 6034: 6009: 6005: 5997: 5993: 5985: 5981: 5973: 5969: 5959: 5957: 5952: 5951: 5947: 5939: 5935: 5925: 5923: 5880: 5874: 5870: 5846: 5842: 5841: 5837: 5827: 5825: 5821: 5814: 5810: 5809: 5802: 5794: 5790: 5782: 5778: 5770: 5766: 5758: 5754: 5746: 5742: 5732: 5730: 5725: 5724: 5720: 5710: 5708: 5704: 5700: 5699: 5695: 5687: 5683: 5675: 5671: 5661: 5659: 5654: 5653: 5649: 5641: 5637: 5629: 5625: 5616: 5612: 5604: 5597: 5589: 5585: 5577: 5573: 5565: 5561: 5553: 5549: 5541: 5537: 5527: 5525: 5516: 5515: 5511: 5503: 5499: 5491: 5487: 5479: 5475: 5467: 5463: 5455: 5451: 5443: 5436: 5428: 5424: 5416: 5412: 5404: 5400: 5392: 5388: 5380: 5376: 5368: 5364: 5356: 5352: 5343: 5342: 5338: 5330: 5326: 5318: 5314: 5306: 5302: 5298:, pp. 213. 5294: 5290: 5275: 5264: 5256: 5252: 5244: 5240: 5232: 5228: 5220: 5216: 5208: 5204: 5196: 5192: 5184: 5180: 5172: 5168: 5160: 5156: 5148: 5144: 5136: 5132: 5124: 5120: 5116:, pp. 4–5. 5112: 5108: 5100: 5093: 5085: 5081: 5071: 5069: 5058: 5057: 5053: 5045: 5038: 5030: 5026: 5018: 5014: 5006: 5002: 4994: 4990: 4982: 4978: 4970: 4966: 4958: 4954: 4946: 4939: 4929: 4927: 4915: 4911: 4903: 4899: 4889: 4887: 4883: 4870: 4866: 4858: 4854: 4846: 4842: 4834: 4830: 4822: 4818: 4810: 4806: 4798: 4794: 4786: 4782: 4774: 4767: 4759: 4755: 4747: 4743: 4735: 4731: 4723: 4719: 4711: 4702: 4698:, pp. 3–4. 4694: 4690: 4682: 4678: 4670: 4666: 4658: 4654: 4646: 4642: 4634: 4627: 4619: 4615: 4607: 4603: 4595: 4588: 4580: 4576: 4566: 4564: 4559: 4558: 4554: 4546: 4539: 4531: 4527: 4519: 4512: 4502: 4500: 4495: 4494: 4490: 4482: 4478: 4468: 4466: 4465:on 21 June 2019 4453: 4452: 4448: 4440: 4436: 4428: 4424: 4416: 4409: 4401: 4397: 4378: 4376: 4364: 4360: 4355: 4350: 4349: 4339:J. Buell Snyder 4335:George H. Mahon 4331:Albert J. Engel 4327:Clarence Cannon 4296: 4292: 4270: 4266: 4253: 4249: 4244: 4240: 4226: 4222: 4216: 4212: 4203: 4199: 4191: 4187: 4170: 4166: 4158: 4156: 4155: 4154: 4150: 4147: 4146: 4145: 4144: 4139: 4137: 4136: 4135: 4131: 4128: 4127: 4126: 4125: 4120: 4118: 4117: 4116: 4112: 4109: 4108: 4107: 4106: 4101: 4099: 4098: 4097: 4093: 4090: 4089: 4088: 4087: 4085: 4081: 4071:flagship campus 4068: 4064: 4059: 4040:- 2023 film by 4017:The Bomb (film) 4013: 3935:Upton, New York 3927:Ames Laboratory 3858: 3852: 3836:Albert J. Engel 3660: 3605:, conducted at 3583:Harry S. Truman 3538:Legion of Merit 3509:Kenneth Nichols 3493: 3403: 3374: 3361:Thomas T. Handy 3353:Harry S. Truman 3284:Project Alberta 3276:Paul W. Tibbets 3204: 3199: 3193: 3173:Walther Gerlach 3072:Samuel Goudsmit 3043: 3037: 2972: 2966: 2913: 2900: 2832: 2756: 2737: 2730: 2714:holy book, the 2682:Norris Bradbury 2678:nuclear fallout 2621: 2615: 2571:alpha particles 2558:RaLa Experiment 2507:gamma radiation 2496:RaLa Experiment 2400: 2394: 2356: 2323:Chien-Shiung Wu 2276:site, June 1944 2262: 2256: 2214: 2208: 2179: 2129: 2123: 2079:John R. Dunning 2059: 2053: 1975: 1969: 1938: 1913: 1889:uranium dioxide 1784: 1779: 1731: 1725: 1709: 1689:Hans von Halban 1669: 1637: 1629: 1623: 1567: 1561: 1432: 1426: 1366: 1360: 1331:Prentice Cooper 1286: 1280: 1271: 1247: 1245: 1195:, Otto Frisch, 1144: 1138: 1066: 1050:Elza, Tennessee 1003:Kenneth Nichols 972: 967: 929:" suggested by 917:available from 884:Emil Konopinski 828: 779:gas centrifuges 712:Karl T. Compton 708:James B. Conant 688: 683: 638:James B. Conant 545:Eugene T. Booth 517:John R. Dunning 483:Albert Einstein 416: 409: 371:, conducted at 358:Operation Alsos 311:electromagnetic 236:nuclear weapons 224: 195: 191:Kenneth Nichols 178: 167: 102: 66: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 16092: 16082: 16081: 16076: 16071: 16066: 16061: 16056: 16051: 16046: 16041: 16036: 16031: 16026: 16021: 16016: 16001: 16000: 15998:from Wikibooks 15983: 15981:from Wikiquote 15966: 15937: 15934: 15933: 15921: 15909: 15897: 15885: 15862: 15861: 15859: 15858: 15853: 15848: 15843: 15838: 15833: 15828: 15823: 15818: 15813: 15808: 15803: 15798: 15792: 15790: 15786: 15785: 15783: 15782: 15777: 15772: 15767: 15765:Kirtland Field 15762: 15757: 15752: 15747: 15742: 15737: 15732: 15730:Camp Lordsburg 15727: 15721: 15719: 15715: 15714: 15707: 15705: 15703: 15702: 15697: 15692: 15687: 15682: 15677: 15672: 15667: 15662: 15657: 15652: 15650:Thomas Farrell 15647: 15642: 15640:Jerry C. Begay 15637: 15631: 15629: 15625: 15624: 15617: 15616: 15609: 15602: 15594: 15585: 15584: 15582: 15581: 15574: 15567: 15550: 15547: 15546: 15543: 15542: 15540: 15539: 15538: 15537: 15530: 15523: 15509: 15508: 15507: 15493: 15490:South Sakhalin 15486: 15485: 15484: 15470: 15463: 15456: 15449: 15442: 15441: 15440: 15426: 15419: 15412: 15405: 15398: 15391: 15384: 15377: 15370: 15363: 15356: 15349: 15342: 15335: 15327: 15325: 15319: 15318: 15316: 15315: 15308: 15307: 15306: 15290: 15283: 15282: 15281: 15267: 15260: 15253: 15246: 15239: 15230: 15221: 15214: 15205: 15198: 15191: 15184: 15175: 15168: 15161: 15154: 15147: 15140: 15133: 15124: 15117: 15108: 15099: 15090: 15083: 15076: 15065: 15055: 15053: 15047: 15046: 15044: 15043: 15036: 15035: 15034: 15027: 15013: 15006: 14999: 14992: 14985: 14984: 14983: 14969: 14962: 14953: 14946: 14939: 14932: 14925: 14918: 14915:Battle of Attu 14911: 14904: 14896: 14894: 14888: 14887: 14885: 14884: 14877: 14868: 14861: 14854: 14845: 14838: 14831: 14824: 14815: 14814: 14813: 14806: 14792: 14785: 14778: 14771: 14764: 14757: 14750: 14743: 14736: 14729: 14721: 14719: 14713: 14712: 14710: 14709: 14702: 14695: 14688: 14681: 14674: 14667: 14664:Battle of Guam 14660: 14653: 14646: 14639: 14632: 14625: 14618: 14611: 14604: 14597: 14590: 14587:Battle of Kiev 14583: 14576: 14562: 14561: 14560: 14546: 14539: 14532: 14525: 14518: 14517: 14516: 14502: 14495: 14488: 14480: 14478: 14472: 14471: 14469: 14468: 14459: 14452: 14445: 14438: 14431: 14424: 14417: 14410: 14403: 14396: 14389: 14382: 14375: 14368: 14361: 14354: 14347: 14340: 14332: 14330: 14324: 14323: 14321: 14320: 14313: 14306: 14299: 14292: 14285: 14278: 14270: 14268: 14262: 14261: 14259: 14258: 14257: 14256: 14249: 14242: 14235: 14228: 14214: 14213: 14212: 14205: 14191: 14190: 14189: 14174: 14172: 14163: 14157: 14156: 14153: 14152: 14150: 14149: 14142: 14135: 14134: 14133: 14126: 14114: 14113: 14112: 14098: 14091: 14090: 14089: 14086:United Kingdom 14082: 14075: 14074: 14073: 14054: 14046: 14044: 14038: 14037: 14035: 14034: 14027: 14026: 14025: 14018: 14006: 13999: 13992: 13985: 13978: 13971: 13964: 13957: 13950: 13943: 13936: 13929: 13922: 13915: 13908: 13907: 13906: 13899: 13885: 13878: 13871: 13864: 13857: 13850: 13843: 13836: 13829: 13822: 13815: 13808: 13801: 13794: 13787: 13780: 13772: 13770: 13764: 13763: 13761: 13760: 13753: 13746: 13739: 13732: 13725: 13718: 13711: 13704: 13697: 13690: 13682: 13680: 13674: 13673: 13671: 13670: 13663: 13656: 13649: 13642: 13634: 13627: 13620: 13613: 13612: 13611: 13596: 13589: 13582: 13575: 13568: 13561: 13553: 13546: 13539: 13531: 13523: 13521: 13515: 13514: 13512: 13511: 13504: 13503: 13502: 13488: 13487: 13486: 13483:British Empire 13476:United Kingdom 13472: 13465: 13458: 13451: 13444: 13437: 13425: 13418: 13411: 13404: 13397: 13390: 13383: 13376: 13369: 13357: 13350: 13343: 13336: 13329: 13317: 13309: 13302: 13295: 13292:Czechoslovakia 13288: 13281: 13274: 13267: 13255: 13248: 13241: 13234: 13226: 13224: 13215: 13209: 13208: 13205: 13204: 13202: 13201: 13200: 13199: 13192: 13189:Rape of Manila 13185: 13178: 13171: 13160: 13145: 13138: 13126: 13119: 13118: 13117: 13110: 13096: 13095: 13094: 13087: 13080: 13066: 13059: 13058: 13057: 13050: 13049: 13048: 13041: 13027: 13020: 13006: 13005: 13004: 12997: 12990: 12975: 12973: 12967: 12966: 12964: 12963: 12960:United Nations 12956: 12949: 12942: 12941: 12940: 12933: 12926: 12919: 12905: 12896: 12887: 12880: 12873: 12866: 12857: 12850: 12843: 12836: 12829: 12822: 12819:Decolonization 12815: 12808: 12800: 12798: 12792: 12791: 12789: 12788: 12781: 12780: 12779: 12765: 12758: 12757: 12756: 12749: 12742: 12728: 12727: 12726: 12719: 12705: 12704: 12703: 12696: 12689: 12682: 12675: 12668: 12653: 12651: 12645: 12644: 12642: 12641: 12634: 12627: 12620: 12613: 12606: 12599: 12592: 12591: 12590: 12583: 12569: 12562: 12555: 12548: 12541: 12534: 12527: 12526: 12525: 12511: 12504: 12503: 12502: 12495: 12492:United Kingdom 12488: 12474: 12467: 12460: 12453: 12446: 12439: 12432: 12431: 12430: 12415: 12413: 12404: 12400: 12399: 12397: 12396: 12389: 12382: 12381: 12380: 12373: 12366: 12354: 12353: 12352: 12338: 12330: 12327: 12326: 12319: 12318: 12311: 12304: 12296: 12287: 12286: 12276: 12273: 12272: 12270: 12269: 12264: 12259: 12254: 12249: 12244: 12239: 12234: 12229: 12224: 12219: 12214: 12207: 12202: 12197: 12192: 12187: 12182: 12180:Chicago Pile-1 12177: 12175:Calutron Girls 12172: 12167: 12162: 12157: 12151: 12149: 12148:Related topics 12145: 12144: 12142: 12141: 12136: 12131: 12126: 12120: 12118: 12114: 12113: 12111: 12110: 12103: 12096: 12089: 12084: 12079: 12074: 12069: 12064: 12059: 12053: 12051: 12047: 12046: 12044: 12043: 12038: 12033: 12028: 12023: 12018: 12013: 12011:Stanisław Ulam 12008: 12003: 11998: 11993: 11988: 11983: 11978: 11973: 11968: 11963: 11958: 11953: 11948: 11946:Edwin McMillan 11943: 11938: 11933: 11928: 11923: 11918: 11913: 11908: 11903: 11898: 11893: 11891:Harry Daghlian 11888: 11883: 11881:John Cockcroft 11878: 11876:James Chadwick 11873: 11868: 11863: 11858: 11853: 11848: 11842: 11840: 11836: 11835: 11833: 11832: 11827: 11822: 11817: 11812: 11807: 11802: 11800:Charles Thomas 11797: 11795:Frank Spedding 11792: 11787: 11782: 11777: 11772: 11767: 11762: 11757: 11755:James Marshall 11752: 11747: 11742: 11737: 11735:Thomas Farrell 11732: 11727: 11722: 11720:Arthur Compton 11717: 11711: 11709: 11708:Administrators 11705: 11704: 11702: 11701: 11696: 11691: 11686: 11681: 11676: 11671: 11666: 11661: 11656: 11651: 11646: 11636: 11631: 11625: 11623: 11619: 11618: 11613: 11610: 11609: 11602: 11601: 11594: 11587: 11579: 11573: 11572: 11541: 11532: 11522:on 2 June 2016 11501: 11482: 11465: 11446: 11423: 11422: 11417: 11411: 11410: 11399: 11398: 11396: 11395:External links 11393: 11392: 11391: 11377: 11365:Wallace, Henry 11361: 11347: 11331: 11317: 11309:Uranium People 11301: 11287: 11271:Groves, Leslie 11267: 11253: 11237: 11213: 11199: 11183:Bethe, Hans A. 11177: 11174: 11173: 11172: 11134:. New Series. 11124: 11097: 11083: 11070: 11048: 11043:(Available on 11029: 11009:Serber, Robert 11005: 10986: 10957: 10939:(2): 272–305. 10928: 10916:10.1086/356550 10910:(3): 527–537. 10899: 10885: 10861: 10844: 10819: 10805: 10792: 10778: 10762: 10745: 10738: 10725: 10701: 10682: 10679: 10678: 10677: 10660: 10646: 10630: 10616: 10600: 10570: 10564: 10547: 10541: 10522: 10485: 10471: 10458: 10444: 10426: 10412: 10399: 10385: 10372: 10358: 10340: 10303: 10289: 10276: 10262: 10249: 10235: 10219:Howes, Ruth H. 10215: 10201: 10188: 10182: 10165: 10151: 10138: 10117: 10096: 10079: 10059: 10042: 10005: 9976: 9947: 9941: 9925:Conant, Jennet 9921: 9907: 9894: 9882:10.2307/448105 9863: 9860: 9857: 9856: 9834: 9832:, p. 655. 9822: 9800: 9798:, pp. 2–3 9788: 9776: 9764: 9752: 9740: 9738:, p. 161. 9728: 9716: 9704: 9692: 9663: 9644: 9617: 9593: 9576: 9564: 9548: 9533: 9507: 9505:, pp. 723 9495: 9469: 9457: 9442: 9430: 9428:, p. vii. 9418: 9406: 9400: 9378: 9376:, p. 594. 9366: 9364:, p. 234. 9354: 9352:, p. 625. 9342: 9330: 9328:, p. 624. 9318: 9306: 9294: 9282: 9270: 9255: 9253:, p. 600. 9243: 9241:, p. 226. 9231: 9220:on 18 May 2015 9201: 9189: 9177: 9150: 9128: 9116: 9114:, p. 537. 9104: 9092: 9073:(4): 149–173. 9052: 9040: 9014: 8992: 8963: 8948: 8936: 8924: 8902: 8879: 8841: 8809: 8797: 8785: 8770: 8748: 8733: 8711: 8699: 8688:on 14 May 2011 8673: 8661: 8659:, p. 308. 8649: 8637: 8635:, p. 184. 8625: 8623:, p. 341. 8613: 8601: 8589: 8574: 8562: 8550: 8538: 8526: 8514: 8512:, p. 237. 8502: 8490: 8478: 8466: 8454: 8442: 8440:, p. 282. 8430: 8428:, p. 285. 8418: 8416:, p. 191. 8406: 8404:, p. 281. 8394: 8382: 8370: 8355: 8343: 8332:. pp. 1–2 8314: 8312:, p. 472. 8302: 8290: 8278: 8266: 8254: 8252:, p. 267. 8242: 8230: 8218: 8206: 8194: 8182: 8148: 8121: 8110:. 25 June 2012 8095: 8068: 8039: 8037:, p. 140. 8027: 8012: 8010:, p. 430. 8000: 7998:, p. 410. 7988: 7986:, p. 123. 7976: 7974:, p. 361. 7964: 7962:, p. 358. 7952: 7940: 7914: 7912:, p. 353. 7902: 7894:Apollo Project 7882: 7860: 7834: 7832:, p. 344. 7822: 7810: 7791: 7763: 7724: 7702: 7700:, p. 201. 7690: 7678: 7666: 7654: 7642: 7630: 7618: 7616:, p. 512. 7603: 7596: 7576: 7559: 7547: 7535: 7533:, p. 465. 7523: 7493: 7481: 7469: 7467:, p. 541. 7454: 7442: 7430: 7418: 7406: 7394: 7382: 7370: 7358: 7356:, p. 235. 7346: 7334: 7332:, p. 203. 7322: 7310: 7298: 7281: 7269: 7254: 7242: 7240:, p. 311. 7230: 7218: 7206: 7194: 7192:, p. 246. 7182: 7170: 7158: 7146: 7134: 7122: 7120:, p. 212. 7110: 7098: 7086: 7074: 7072:, p. 141. 7059: 7047: 7035: 7023: 7011: 6999: 6987: 6985:, p. 1.16 6975: 6973:, p. 139. 6963: 6951: 6949:, p. 210. 6939: 6927: 6925:, p. 209. 6912: 6910:, p. 211. 6900: 6888: 6873: 6858: 6846: 6834: 6822: 6810: 6798: 6786: 6784:, p. 172. 6774: 6762: 6750: 6738: 6726: 6714: 6702: 6700:, p. 108. 6690: 6678: 6666: 6664:, p. 131. 6654: 6652:, p. 140. 6642: 6630: 6618: 6596: 6594:, p. 153. 6584: 6582:, p. 133. 6569: 6557: 6555:, p. 684. 6545: 6533: 6518: 6506: 6494: 6482: 6470: 6458: 6446: 6444:, p. 157. 6434: 6422: 6410: 6398: 6386: 6374: 6362: 6360:, p. 295. 6350: 6333: 6321: 6309: 6297: 6276: 6264: 6252: 6240: 6228: 6216: 6198: 6183: 6157: 6131: 6119: 6117:, p. 401. 6107: 6095: 6083: 6081:, p. 342. 6071: 6056: 6044: 6032: 6003: 6001:, p. 428. 5991: 5979: 5977:, p. 144. 5967: 5945: 5933: 5868: 5855:10.2172/770687 5835: 5800: 5788: 5776: 5764: 5752: 5740: 5718: 5693: 5681: 5669: 5647: 5635: 5623: 5610: 5595: 5583: 5571: 5559: 5547: 5535: 5509: 5497: 5485: 5473: 5461: 5449: 5434: 5432:, p. 408. 5422: 5410: 5406:Bernstein 1976 5398: 5396:, p. 372. 5386: 5374: 5362: 5350: 5336: 5334:, p. 296. 5324: 5320:Bernstein 1976 5312: 5300: 5296:Bernstein 1976 5288: 5262: 5260:, p. 211. 5258:Bernstein 1976 5250: 5248:, p. 517. 5238: 5226: 5222:Bernstein 1976 5214: 5202: 5190: 5188:, p. 238. 5178: 5166: 5154: 5142: 5130: 5118: 5106: 5091: 5079: 5051: 5049:, p. 657. 5036: 5024: 5022:, p. 654. 5012: 5000: 4988: 4986:, p. 174. 4976: 4974:, p. 652. 4964: 4952: 4937: 4909: 4897: 4877:Teller, Edward 4875:; Marvin, C.; 4864: 4862:, p. 419. 4852: 4840: 4828: 4826:, p. 417. 4816: 4804: 4792: 4780: 4765: 4763:, p. 103. 4753: 4751:, p. 416. 4741: 4729: 4727:, pp. 32. 4717: 4700: 4688: 4676: 4664: 4652: 4640: 4625: 4613: 4601: 4586: 4574: 4552: 4537: 4525: 4510: 4499:. 28 June 1941 4488: 4476: 4446: 4434: 4422: 4407: 4395: 4391:MeasuringWorth 4385:United States 4373:MeasuringWorth 4357: 4356: 4354: 4351: 4348: 4347: 4303:Styles Bridges 4290: 4264: 4247: 4238: 4220: 4210: 4197: 4185: 4177:Arthur Compton 4164: 4157: 4148: 4138: 4129: 4119: 4110: 4100: 4091: 4079: 4061: 4060: 4058: 4055: 4054: 4053: 4048: 4046:Cillian Murphy 4035: 4026: 4020: 4012: 4009: 3943:Alvin Weinberg 3851: 3848: 3794: 3793: 3788: 3783: 3777: 3776: 3773: 3770: 3767: 3763: 3762: 3759: 3756: 3753: 3749: 3748: 3745: 3742: 3739: 3735: 3734: 3731: 3728: 3725: 3721: 3720: 3717: 3714: 3711: 3707: 3706: 3703: 3700: 3697: 3693: 3692: 3689: 3686: 3683: 3679: 3678: 3675: 3672: 3669: 3659: 3656: 3532:, and over 20 3492: 3489: 3432:Kirtland Field 3388:Fifth Division 3373: 3370: 3310:plutonium core 3247:, Ohio, began 3229:Avro Lancaster 3216:Straight Flush 3203: 3200: 3195:Main article: 3192: 3189: 3039:Main article: 3036: 3033: 3004:Venona project 2968:Main article: 2965: 2962: 2946:Georgy Flyorov 2912: 2909: 2888:, head of the 2831: 2828: 2755: 2752: 2739: 2738: 2731: 2705:El Paso, Texas 2701:mushroom cloud 2684:at the nearby 2669:nuclear weapon 2617:Main article: 2614: 2611: 2539:Dayton Project 2442:shaped charges 2396:Main article: 2393: 2390: 2355: 2352: 2333:, which has a 2258:Main article: 2255: 2252: 2210:Main article: 2207: 2204: 2194:and then into 2178: 2175: 2133:Sydney Chapman 2125:Main article: 2122: 2119: 2071:molecular mass 2055:Main article: 2052: 2049: 2041:Calutron Girls 2025:Calutron Girls 2010:Daniel W. Bell 1971:Main article: 1968: 1965: 1937: 1934: 1912: 1909: 1881:uranyl nitrate 1783: 1780: 1778: 1775: 1727:Main article: 1724: 1721: 1708: 1705: 1668: 1665: 1661:Chicago Pile 3 1636: 1633: 1625:Main article: 1622: 1621:Canadian sites 1619: 1602:Columbia River 1563:Main article: 1560: 1557: 1545:Chicago Pile-3 1530:Chicago Pile-1 1507:Frank Spedding 1487:Arthur Compton 1466:in the second. 1444:Chicago Pile-1 1428:Main article: 1425: 1422: 1402:War Department 1362:Main article: 1359: 1356: 1317:eminent domain 1282:Main article: 1279: 1276: 1244: 1241: 1171:James Chadwick 1163:James Chadwick 1140:Main article: 1137: 1134: 1065: 1062: 1058:Lucius D. Clay 980:Eugene Reybold 971: 968: 966: 963: 959:Arthur Compton 947:nuclear fusion 907:Edwin McMillan 905:, Manley, and 903:Franco Rasetti 880:John Van Vleck 852:John H. Manley 827: 824: 773:and later the 763:Philip Abelson 687: 684: 682: 679: 619:John Cockcroft 615:Tizard Mission 611:MAUD Committee 591:Rudolf Peierls 408: 405: 323:Chicago Pile-1 222: 219: 218: 209: 202: 201: 197: 196: 194: 193: 188: 182: 180: 174: 173: 169: 168: 166: 165: 160: 155: 150: 145: 139: 137: 133: 132: 131:13 August 1942 129: 125: 124: 118: 114: 113: 108: 104: 103: 101: 100: 97: 96:United Kingdom 94: 90: 88: 84: 83: 82:15 August 1947 80: 76: 75: 72: 68: 67: 63:nuclear weapon 54: 46: 45: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 16091: 16080: 16077: 16075: 16072: 16070: 16067: 16065: 16062: 16060: 16057: 16055: 16052: 16050: 16047: 16045: 16042: 16040: 16037: 16035: 16032: 16030: 16027: 16025: 16022: 16020: 16017: 16015: 16012: 16011: 16009: 15997: 15996: 15984: 15980: 15979: 15967: 15963: 15962: 15950: 15949: 15946: 15940: 15932: 15927: 15922: 15920: 15910: 15908: 15903: 15898: 15896: 15886: 15884: 15874: 15873: 15870: 15857: 15854: 15852: 15851:Santa Fe Riot 15849: 15847: 15844: 15842: 15839: 15837: 15834: 15832: 15829: 15827: 15824: 15822: 15819: 15817: 15814: 15812: 15809: 15807: 15804: 15802: 15799: 15797: 15794: 15793: 15791: 15787: 15781: 15778: 15776: 15773: 15771: 15768: 15766: 15763: 15761: 15758: 15756: 15753: 15751: 15748: 15746: 15743: 15741: 15738: 15736: 15733: 15731: 15728: 15726: 15723: 15722: 15720: 15716: 15711: 15701: 15698: 15696: 15693: 15691: 15688: 15686: 15683: 15681: 15678: 15676: 15673: 15671: 15668: 15666: 15665:John E. Miles 15663: 15661: 15660:Leslie Groves 15658: 15656: 15653: 15651: 15648: 15646: 15643: 15641: 15638: 15636: 15633: 15632: 15630: 15626: 15622: 15615: 15610: 15608: 15603: 15601: 15596: 15595: 15592: 15579: 15575: 15572: 15568: 15565: 15564: 15559: 15552: 15551: 15548: 15535: 15531: 15528: 15524: 15521: 15517: 15516: 15514: 15510: 15505: 15501: 15500: 15498: 15497:Kuril Islands 15494: 15491: 15487: 15482: 15478: 15477: 15475: 15471: 15468: 15464: 15461: 15457: 15454: 15450: 15447: 15443: 15438: 15434: 15433: 15431: 15427: 15424: 15420: 15417: 15413: 15410: 15406: 15403: 15399: 15396: 15392: 15389: 15385: 15382: 15378: 15375: 15371: 15368: 15364: 15361: 15357: 15354: 15350: 15347: 15343: 15340: 15336: 15333: 15329: 15328: 15326: 15324: 15320: 15313: 15309: 15304: 15303: 15298: 15297: 15295: 15291: 15288: 15284: 15279: 15275: 15274: 15272: 15268: 15265: 15264:Syrmian Front 15261: 15258: 15254: 15251: 15247: 15244: 15240: 15237: 15236: 15231: 15228: 15227: 15222: 15219: 15215: 15212: 15211: 15210:Market Garden 15206: 15203: 15199: 15196: 15192: 15189: 15185: 15182: 15181: 15176: 15173: 15169: 15166: 15162: 15159: 15155: 15152: 15148: 15145: 15141: 15138: 15134: 15131: 15130: 15125: 15122: 15118: 15115: 15114: 15109: 15106: 15105: 15100: 15097: 15096: 15091: 15088: 15084: 15081: 15077: 15074: 15070: 15069:Monte Cassino 15066: 15063: 15062: 15057: 15056: 15054: 15052: 15048: 15041: 15037: 15032: 15028: 15025: 15021: 15020: 15018: 15014: 15011: 15007: 15004: 15000: 14997: 14993: 14990: 14986: 14981: 14977: 14976: 14974: 14970: 14967: 14963: 14960: 14959: 14954: 14951: 14947: 14944: 14940: 14937: 14933: 14930: 14926: 14923: 14919: 14916: 14912: 14909: 14905: 14902: 14898: 14897: 14895: 14893: 14889: 14882: 14878: 14875: 14874: 14869: 14866: 14862: 14859: 14855: 14852: 14851: 14846: 14843: 14839: 14836: 14832: 14829: 14825: 14822: 14821: 14816: 14811: 14807: 14804: 14800: 14799: 14797: 14793: 14790: 14786: 14783: 14779: 14776: 14772: 14769: 14765: 14762: 14758: 14755: 14751: 14748: 14744: 14741: 14737: 14734: 14730: 14727: 14723: 14722: 14720: 14718: 14714: 14707: 14703: 14700: 14696: 14693: 14689: 14686: 14682: 14679: 14675: 14672: 14668: 14665: 14661: 14658: 14654: 14651: 14647: 14644: 14640: 14637: 14633: 14630: 14626: 14623: 14619: 14616: 14612: 14609: 14605: 14602: 14598: 14595: 14591: 14588: 14584: 14581: 14577: 14573: 14572: 14567: 14563: 14558: 14554: 14553: 14551: 14547: 14544: 14540: 14537: 14533: 14530: 14526: 14523: 14519: 14514: 14510: 14509: 14507: 14503: 14500: 14496: 14493: 14489: 14486: 14482: 14481: 14479: 14477: 14473: 14466: 14465: 14460: 14457: 14453: 14450: 14446: 14443: 14439: 14436: 14435:Baltic states 14432: 14429: 14425: 14422: 14418: 14415: 14411: 14408: 14404: 14401: 14397: 14394: 14390: 14387: 14383: 14380: 14376: 14373: 14369: 14366: 14362: 14359: 14355: 14352: 14348: 14345: 14341: 14338: 14334: 14333: 14331: 14329: 14325: 14318: 14314: 14311: 14307: 14304: 14300: 14297: 14293: 14290: 14286: 14283: 14279: 14276: 14272: 14271: 14269: 14267: 14263: 14254: 14250: 14247: 14243: 14240: 14236: 14233: 14229: 14226: 14222: 14221: 14219: 14215: 14210: 14206: 14203: 14199: 14198: 14196: 14192: 14187: 14183: 14182: 14180: 14176: 14175: 14173: 14171: 14167: 14164: 14162: 14158: 14147: 14143: 14140: 14136: 14131: 14127: 14124: 14120: 14119: 14115: 14110: 14106: 14105: 14103: 14099: 14096: 14092: 14087: 14083: 14080: 14079:United States 14076: 14071: 14067: 14066: 14064: 14060: 14059: 14055: 14052: 14048: 14047: 14045: 14043: 14039: 14032: 14028: 14023: 14019: 14016: 14015:Quốc dân Đảng 14012: 14011: 14007: 14004: 14000: 13997: 13993: 13990: 13986: 13983: 13979: 13976: 13972: 13969: 13965: 13962: 13958: 13955: 13951: 13948: 13944: 13941: 13937: 13934: 13930: 13927: 13923: 13920: 13916: 13913: 13909: 13904: 13900: 13897: 13893: 13892: 13890: 13886: 13883: 13879: 13876: 13872: 13869: 13865: 13862: 13858: 13855: 13851: 13848: 13844: 13841: 13837: 13834: 13830: 13827: 13823: 13820: 13816: 13813: 13809: 13806: 13802: 13799: 13795: 13792: 13788: 13785: 13781: 13778: 13774: 13773: 13771: 13769: 13765: 13758: 13754: 13751: 13747: 13744: 13740: 13737: 13733: 13730: 13726: 13723: 13719: 13716: 13715:Liechtenstein 13712: 13709: 13705: 13702: 13698: 13695: 13691: 13688: 13684: 13683: 13681: 13679: 13675: 13668: 13667:Collaboration 13664: 13661: 13657: 13654: 13650: 13647: 13643: 13639: 13635: 13632: 13628: 13625: 13621: 13618: 13614: 13609: 13605: 13604: 13601: 13597: 13594: 13590: 13587: 13583: 13580: 13576: 13573: 13569: 13566: 13562: 13558: 13554: 13551: 13547: 13544: 13540: 13536: 13532: 13529: 13525: 13524: 13522: 13520: 13516: 13509: 13505: 13500: 13496: 13495: 13493: 13492:United States 13489: 13484: 13480: 13479: 13477: 13473: 13470: 13466: 13463: 13459: 13456: 13452: 13449: 13445: 13442: 13438: 13434: 13430: 13426: 13423: 13419: 13416: 13412: 13409: 13405: 13402: 13398: 13395: 13391: 13388: 13384: 13381: 13377: 13374: 13370: 13366: 13362: 13358: 13355: 13351: 13348: 13344: 13341: 13337: 13334: 13330: 13326: 13322: 13318: 13314: 13310: 13307: 13303: 13300: 13296: 13293: 13289: 13286: 13282: 13279: 13275: 13272: 13268: 13264: 13260: 13256: 13253: 13249: 13246: 13242: 13239: 13235: 13232: 13228: 13227: 13225: 13223: 13219: 13216: 13214: 13210: 13197: 13193: 13190: 13186: 13183: 13182:Comfort women 13179: 13176: 13172: 13169: 13166: / 13165: 13161: 13158: 13155: / 13154: 13151: / 13150: 13146: 13143: 13142:Camp brothels 13139: 13136: 13132: 13131: 13127: 13124: 13120: 13115: 13111: 13108: 13104: 13103: 13101: 13097: 13092: 13088: 13085: 13081: 13078: 13074: 13073: 13071: 13067: 13064: 13060: 13055: 13051: 13046: 13042: 13039: 13035: 13034: 13032: 13031:The Holocaust 13028: 13025: 13021: 13018: 13017:forced labour 13014: 13013: 13011: 13007: 13002: 12998: 12995: 12991: 12988: 12984: 12983: 12981: 12977: 12976: 12974: 12972: 12968: 12961: 12957: 12954: 12950: 12947: 12943: 12938: 12934: 12931: 12927: 12924: 12920: 12917: 12913: 12912: 12910: 12906: 12903: 12902: 12897: 12894: 12893: 12888: 12885: 12881: 12878: 12874: 12871: 12870:Marshall Plan 12867: 12864: 12863: 12858: 12855: 12851: 12848: 12844: 12841: 12837: 12834: 12830: 12827: 12823: 12820: 12816: 12813: 12809: 12806: 12802: 12801: 12799: 12797: 12793: 12786: 12782: 12777: 12773: 12772: 12770: 12766: 12763: 12759: 12754: 12750: 12747: 12743: 12740: 12736: 12735: 12733: 12729: 12724: 12723:Eastern Front 12720: 12717: 12716:Western Front 12713: 12712: 12710: 12706: 12701: 12697: 12694: 12690: 12687: 12683: 12680: 12676: 12673: 12669: 12666: 12662: 12661: 12659: 12655: 12654: 12652: 12650: 12646: 12639: 12635: 12632: 12628: 12625: 12621: 12618: 12614: 12611: 12610:Puppet states 12607: 12604: 12600: 12597: 12593: 12588: 12584: 12581: 12577: 12576: 12574: 12570: 12567: 12563: 12560: 12556: 12553: 12552:Naval history 12549: 12546: 12542: 12539: 12535: 12532: 12528: 12523: 12519: 12518: 12516: 12512: 12509: 12505: 12500: 12499:United States 12496: 12493: 12489: 12486: 12482: 12481: 12479: 12475: 12472: 12468: 12465: 12461: 12458: 12454: 12451: 12447: 12444: 12440: 12437: 12433: 12428: 12424: 12423: 12421: 12417: 12416: 12414: 12412: 12408: 12405: 12401: 12394: 12390: 12387: 12383: 12378: 12374: 12371: 12367: 12364: 12360: 12359: 12355: 12350: 12346: 12345: 12343: 12339: 12336: 12332: 12331: 12328: 12324: 12317: 12312: 12310: 12305: 12303: 12298: 12297: 12294: 12284: 12274: 12268: 12265: 12263: 12260: 12258: 12255: 12253: 12250: 12248: 12245: 12243: 12240: 12238: 12235: 12233: 12230: 12228: 12225: 12223: 12220: 12218: 12215: 12213: 12212: 12208: 12206: 12203: 12201: 12198: 12196: 12195:Franck Report 12193: 12191: 12188: 12186: 12183: 12181: 12178: 12176: 12173: 12171: 12168: 12166: 12163: 12161: 12158: 12156: 12153: 12152: 12150: 12146: 12140: 12137: 12135: 12132: 12130: 12127: 12125: 12122: 12121: 12119: 12115: 12109: 12108: 12104: 12102: 12101: 12097: 12095: 12094: 12090: 12088: 12085: 12083: 12080: 12078: 12075: 12073: 12070: 12068: 12065: 12063: 12060: 12058: 12057:Alsos Mission 12055: 12054: 12052: 12048: 12042: 12039: 12037: 12034: 12032: 12031:Robert Wilson 12029: 12027: 12026:Eugene Wigner 12024: 12022: 12019: 12017: 12014: 12012: 12009: 12007: 12006:Edward Teller 12004: 12002: 11999: 11997: 11994: 11992: 11989: 11987: 11984: 11982: 11981:Glenn Seaborg 11979: 11977: 11974: 11972: 11969: 11967: 11964: 11962: 11959: 11957: 11954: 11952: 11951:Mark Oliphant 11949: 11947: 11944: 11942: 11941:Willard Libby 11939: 11937: 11934: 11932: 11929: 11927: 11924: 11922: 11919: 11917: 11914: 11912: 11909: 11907: 11904: 11902: 11899: 11897: 11894: 11892: 11889: 11887: 11884: 11882: 11879: 11877: 11874: 11872: 11869: 11867: 11864: 11862: 11859: 11857: 11854: 11852: 11851:Robert Bacher 11849: 11847: 11844: 11843: 11841: 11837: 11831: 11830:Roscoe Wilson 11828: 11826: 11823: 11821: 11818: 11816: 11813: 11811: 11808: 11806: 11803: 11801: 11798: 11796: 11793: 11791: 11788: 11786: 11783: 11781: 11778: 11776: 11773: 11771: 11768: 11766: 11763: 11761: 11758: 11756: 11753: 11751: 11748: 11746: 11745:John Lansdale 11743: 11741: 11740:Leslie Groves 11738: 11736: 11733: 11731: 11728: 11726: 11723: 11721: 11718: 11716: 11715:Vannevar Bush 11713: 11712: 11710: 11706: 11700: 11697: 11695: 11692: 11690: 11687: 11685: 11682: 11680: 11677: 11675: 11672: 11670: 11667: 11665: 11662: 11660: 11657: 11655: 11652: 11650: 11647: 11644: 11640: 11637: 11635: 11632: 11630: 11627: 11626: 11624: 11620: 11616: 11611: 11607: 11600: 11595: 11593: 11588: 11586: 11581: 11580: 11577: 11569: 11565: 11560: 11555: 11551: 11547: 11542: 11540: 11536: 11533: 11521: 11517: 11513: 11511: 11506: 11502: 11491: 11487: 11483: 11470: 11466: 11455: 11451: 11447: 11436: 11432: 11428: 11427: 11421: 11418: 11416: 11413: 11412: 11407: 11402: 11388: 11384: 11380: 11374: 11370: 11366: 11362: 11358: 11354: 11350: 11348:0-688-06910-X 11344: 11340: 11336: 11332: 11328: 11324: 11320: 11318:0-684-16242-3 11314: 11310: 11306: 11302: 11298: 11294: 11290: 11288:0-306-70738-1 11284: 11279: 11278: 11272: 11268: 11264: 11260: 11256: 11254:0-938228-09-9 11250: 11246: 11242: 11238: 11234: 11230: 11225: 11224: 11218: 11214: 11210: 11206: 11202: 11200:0-671-74012-1 11196: 11191: 11190: 11184: 11180: 11179: 11169: 11165: 11161: 11157: 11153: 11149: 11145: 11141: 11137: 11133: 11129: 11125: 11121: 11117: 11112: 11107: 11103: 11098: 11094: 11090: 11086: 11080: 11076: 11071: 11067: 11063: 11059: 11058: 11053: 11049: 11046: 11040: 11036: 11032: 11026: 11022: 11018: 11014: 11010: 11006: 10994: 10993: 10987: 10975: 10971: 10967: 10963: 10958: 10954: 10950: 10946: 10942: 10938: 10934: 10929: 10925: 10921: 10917: 10913: 10909: 10905: 10900: 10896: 10892: 10888: 10882: 10877: 10876: 10870: 10866: 10862: 10859: 10855: 10851: 10847: 10841: 10837: 10833: 10828: 10827: 10820: 10816: 10812: 10808: 10802: 10798: 10793: 10789: 10785: 10781: 10775: 10771: 10767: 10766:Hansen, Chuck 10763: 10759: 10755: 10751: 10746: 10741: 10735: 10731: 10726: 10714: 10707: 10702: 10698: 10694: 10690: 10685: 10684: 10674: 10670: 10666: 10661: 10657: 10653: 10649: 10643: 10639: 10635: 10631: 10627: 10623: 10619: 10613: 10609: 10605: 10601: 10590: 10586: 10582: 10581: 10576: 10575:Sidney, Aster 10571: 10567: 10565:0-8078-2598-0 10561: 10556: 10555: 10548: 10544: 10538: 10534: 10530: 10529: 10523: 10508: 10504: 10500: 10493: 10492: 10486: 10482: 10478: 10474: 10468: 10464: 10459: 10455: 10451: 10447: 10445:0-671-44133-7 10441: 10437: 10436: 10431: 10427: 10423: 10419: 10415: 10409: 10405: 10400: 10396: 10392: 10388: 10382: 10378: 10373: 10369: 10365: 10361: 10359:0-15-614150-7 10355: 10351: 10350: 10345: 10344:Jungk, Robert 10341: 10326: 10322: 10318: 10311: 10310: 10304: 10300: 10296: 10292: 10290:0-87049-303-5 10286: 10282: 10277: 10273: 10269: 10265: 10259: 10255: 10250: 10246: 10242: 10238: 10236:1-56639-719-7 10232: 10228: 10224: 10220: 10216: 10212: 10208: 10204: 10202:0-300-06056-4 10198: 10194: 10189: 10185: 10179: 10175: 10171: 10166: 10162: 10158: 10154: 10152:0-520-07187-5 10148: 10144: 10139: 10128: 10124: 10120: 10118:0-520-07186-7 10114: 10107: 10106: 10101: 10097: 10093: 10089: 10085: 10080: 10076: 10072: 10068: 10064: 10060: 10056: 10052: 10048: 10043: 10028: 10024: 10020: 10013: 10012: 10006: 10002: 9998: 9994: 9990: 9986: 9982: 9977: 9966: 9962: 9955: 9954: 9948: 9944: 9942:0-7432-5007-9 9938: 9933: 9932: 9926: 9922: 9918: 9914: 9910: 9908:0-7864-2139-8 9904: 9900: 9895: 9891: 9887: 9883: 9879: 9875: 9871: 9866: 9865: 9844: 9838: 9831: 9826: 9811: 9804: 9797: 9792: 9785: 9780: 9773: 9768: 9761: 9756: 9749: 9744: 9737: 9736:Weinberg 1961 9732: 9725: 9720: 9713: 9712:Holloway 1994 9708: 9701: 9696: 9681: 9677: 9673: 9667: 9659: 9655: 9648: 9640: 9636: 9632: 9628: 9621: 9610: 9603: 9597: 9586: 9580: 9573: 9568: 9560: 9559: 9552: 9545: 9540: 9538: 9521: 9517: 9511: 9504: 9499: 9483: 9479: 9473: 9466: 9461: 9454: 9449: 9447: 9439: 9434: 9427: 9422: 9415: 9410: 9403: 9397: 9392: 9391: 9382: 9375: 9370: 9363: 9358: 9351: 9346: 9339: 9334: 9327: 9322: 9315: 9310: 9303: 9298: 9291: 9286: 9280:, p. 11. 9279: 9274: 9267: 9262: 9260: 9252: 9247: 9240: 9235: 9219: 9215: 9211: 9205: 9198: 9193: 9186: 9181: 9165: 9161: 9154: 9146: 9142: 9138: 9132: 9125: 9120: 9113: 9108: 9101: 9100:Ahnfeldt 1966 9096: 9088: 9084: 9080: 9076: 9072: 9068: 9067: 9062: 9056: 9050:, p. 474 9049: 9044: 9028: 9024: 9018: 9002: 8996: 8980: 8973: 8967: 8960: 8955: 8953: 8945: 8940: 8933: 8928: 8912: 8906: 8890: 8883: 8864: 8860: 8859: 8851: 8845: 8830: 8826: 8822: 8816: 8814: 8806: 8801: 8794: 8789: 8781: 8774: 8758: 8752: 8744: 8737: 8721: 8715: 8708: 8707:Holloway 1994 8703: 8687: 8683: 8677: 8670: 8665: 8658: 8653: 8646: 8641: 8634: 8629: 8622: 8617: 8610: 8609:Campbell 2005 8605: 8598: 8593: 8586: 8581: 8579: 8571: 8566: 8559: 8554: 8547: 8542: 8535: 8534:Goudsmit 1947 8530: 8523: 8518: 8511: 8506: 8499: 8494: 8487: 8486:Goudsmit 1947 8482: 8475: 8470: 8463: 8458: 8451: 8446: 8439: 8434: 8427: 8422: 8415: 8410: 8403: 8398: 8391: 8386: 8379: 8374: 8366: 8359: 8352: 8351:Holloway 1994 8347: 8331: 8330: 8325: 8318: 8311: 8306: 8299: 8294: 8287: 8282: 8275: 8270: 8263: 8258: 8251: 8246: 8239: 8234: 8227: 8222: 8215: 8210: 8203: 8202:Holloway 1994 8198: 8191: 8186: 8171: 8167: 8163: 8159: 8152: 8136: 8132: 8125: 8109: 8105: 8099: 8083: 8079: 8072: 8056: 8052: 8046: 8044: 8036: 8031: 8024: 8019: 8017: 8009: 8004: 7997: 7992: 7985: 7980: 7973: 7968: 7961: 7956: 7949: 7944: 7928: 7924: 7918: 7911: 7906: 7899: 7895: 7891: 7886: 7870: 7864: 7848: 7844: 7838: 7831: 7826: 7819: 7814: 7807:(2): 123–167. 7806: 7802: 7795: 7779: 7778: 7773: 7767: 7752: 7748: 7744: 7743: 7738: 7734: 7728: 7712: 7706: 7699: 7694: 7687: 7682: 7675: 7670: 7663: 7658: 7651: 7646: 7639: 7634: 7627: 7622: 7615: 7610: 7608: 7599: 7593: 7589: 7588: 7580: 7572: 7571: 7563: 7556: 7551: 7544: 7539: 7532: 7527: 7511: 7507: 7503: 7497: 7490: 7485: 7478: 7473: 7466: 7461: 7459: 7451: 7446: 7439: 7434: 7428:, p. 290 7427: 7422: 7416:, p. 288 7415: 7410: 7403: 7398: 7391: 7386: 7379: 7374: 7367: 7362: 7355: 7350: 7343: 7338: 7331: 7326: 7319: 7314: 7307: 7302: 7295: 7290: 7288: 7286: 7279:, p. 299 7278: 7273: 7266: 7261: 7259: 7252:, p. 245 7251: 7246: 7239: 7234: 7227: 7222: 7215: 7210: 7203: 7198: 7191: 7186: 7179: 7174: 7167: 7162: 7155: 7150: 7143: 7138: 7132:, p. 11. 7131: 7126: 7119: 7114: 7107: 7102: 7095: 7090: 7083: 7078: 7071: 7066: 7064: 7057:, p. 10. 7056: 7051: 7044: 7039: 7033:, p. 45. 7032: 7027: 7020: 7015: 7008: 7003: 6996: 6991: 6984: 6979: 6972: 6967: 6960: 6955: 6948: 6943: 6936: 6931: 6924: 6919: 6917: 6909: 6904: 6897: 6892: 6885: 6880: 6878: 6870: 6865: 6863: 6855: 6850: 6843: 6838: 6831: 6826: 6819: 6814: 6807: 6802: 6795: 6790: 6783: 6778: 6771: 6766: 6759: 6754: 6747: 6742: 6735: 6730: 6723: 6718: 6711: 6706: 6699: 6694: 6687: 6682: 6675: 6670: 6663: 6658: 6651: 6646: 6639: 6634: 6627: 6622: 6606: 6600: 6593: 6588: 6581: 6576: 6574: 6567:, p. 42. 6566: 6561: 6554: 6549: 6542: 6537: 6530: 6525: 6523: 6515: 6510: 6504:, p. 64. 6503: 6498: 6491: 6486: 6480:, p. 64. 6479: 6474: 6468:, p. 30. 6467: 6462: 6455: 6450: 6443: 6438: 6431: 6426: 6419: 6414: 6407: 6402: 6395: 6390: 6383: 6378: 6371: 6366: 6359: 6354: 6345: 6344: 6337: 6330: 6325: 6318: 6313: 6306: 6301: 6294: 6293:Alsos Mission 6288: 6287: 6280: 6274:, p. 92. 6273: 6268: 6262:, p. 39. 6261: 6256: 6249: 6244: 6237: 6232: 6225: 6220: 6212: 6208: 6202: 6195: 6190: 6188: 6172: 6171:National Post 6168: 6161: 6146: 6142: 6135: 6128: 6123: 6116: 6111: 6105:, p. 16. 6104: 6099: 6092: 6087: 6080: 6075: 6068: 6063: 6061: 6053: 6048: 6041: 6036: 6028: 6024: 6020: 6016: 6015: 6007: 6000: 5995: 5988: 5983: 5976: 5971: 5955: 5949: 5942: 5937: 5922: 5918: 5914: 5910: 5906: 5902: 5898: 5894: 5890: 5886: 5879: 5872: 5864: 5860: 5856: 5852: 5845: 5839: 5820: 5813: 5807: 5805: 5797: 5792: 5785: 5780: 5773: 5768: 5762:, p. 29. 5761: 5756: 5749: 5744: 5728: 5722: 5703: 5697: 5690: 5685: 5678: 5673: 5657: 5651: 5644: 5639: 5632: 5627: 5620: 5614: 5607: 5602: 5600: 5593:, p. 88. 5592: 5587: 5580: 5575: 5568: 5563: 5557:, p. 49. 5556: 5551: 5544: 5539: 5523: 5519: 5513: 5506: 5501: 5494: 5489: 5483:, p. 78. 5482: 5477: 5470: 5465: 5458: 5453: 5446: 5441: 5439: 5431: 5426: 5419: 5414: 5407: 5402: 5395: 5390: 5384:, p. 26. 5383: 5378: 5371: 5366: 5359: 5358:Gowing (1964) 5354: 5346: 5340: 5333: 5328: 5321: 5316: 5309: 5304: 5297: 5292: 5285:(7): 186–189. 5284: 5280: 5273: 5271: 5269: 5267: 5259: 5254: 5247: 5242: 5235: 5230: 5223: 5218: 5211: 5206: 5199: 5194: 5187: 5182: 5175: 5170: 5163: 5158: 5151: 5146: 5139: 5134: 5127: 5122: 5115: 5110: 5103: 5098: 5096: 5089:, p. 81. 5088: 5083: 5067: 5066: 5061: 5055: 5048: 5043: 5041: 5033: 5028: 5021: 5016: 5009: 5004: 4998:, p. 40. 4997: 4992: 4985: 4980: 4973: 4968: 4961: 4960:Sullivan 2016 4956: 4949: 4944: 4942: 4926: 4925: 4920: 4913: 4906: 4901: 4882: 4878: 4874: 4868: 4861: 4856: 4850:, p. 30. 4849: 4844: 4837: 4832: 4825: 4820: 4813: 4808: 4802:, p. 21. 4801: 4796: 4790:, p. 41. 4789: 4784: 4777: 4772: 4770: 4762: 4757: 4750: 4745: 4738: 4733: 4726: 4721: 4714: 4709: 4707: 4705: 4697: 4696:Williams 1960 4692: 4686:, p. 35. 4685: 4680: 4673: 4668: 4661: 4656: 4649: 4644: 4637: 4632: 4630: 4622: 4617: 4610: 4605: 4599:, p. 42. 4598: 4593: 4591: 4583: 4578: 4562: 4556: 4549: 4544: 4542: 4535:, p. 33. 4534: 4529: 4522: 4517: 4515: 4498: 4492: 4485: 4480: 4464: 4460: 4456: 4450: 4444:, p. 21. 4443: 4438: 4432:, p. 20. 4431: 4426: 4419: 4414: 4412: 4405:, p. 12. 4404: 4399: 4392: 4388: 4375: 4374: 4369: 4362: 4358: 4344: 4340: 4336: 4332: 4328: 4324: 4320: 4316: 4312: 4308: 4304: 4300: 4294: 4287: 4283: 4279: 4274: 4268: 4261: 4260:Composition B 4257: 4251: 4242: 4235: 4230: 4224: 4214: 4207: 4201: 4194: 4189: 4182: 4178: 4174: 4168: 4083: 4076: 4072: 4066: 4062: 4052: 4049: 4047: 4043: 4039: 4036: 4034: 4030: 4027: 4024: 4021: 4018: 4015: 4014: 4008: 4006: 4000: 3995: 3992: 3988: 3986: 3985:phosphorus-32 3982: 3978: 3973: 3971: 3967: 3963: 3959: 3955: 3950: 3948: 3944: 3940: 3936: 3932: 3928: 3924: 3920: 3916: 3912: 3908: 3903: 3901: 3897: 3896: 3891: 3883: 3879: 3875: 3871: 3870:Niagara Falls 3867: 3862: 3857: 3847: 3845: 3839: 3837: 3831: 3829: 3825: 3819: 3817: 3813: 3804: 3800: 3792: 3789: 3787: 3784: 3782: 3779: 3778: 3774: 3771: 3768: 3765: 3764: 3760: 3757: 3754: 3751: 3750: 3746: 3743: 3740: 3737: 3736: 3732: 3729: 3726: 3723: 3722: 3718: 3715: 3712: 3709: 3708: 3704: 3701: 3698: 3695: 3694: 3690: 3687: 3684: 3681: 3680: 3676: 3673: 3670: 3667: 3666: 3655: 3653: 3649: 3645: 3641: 3637: 3633: 3632: 3626: 3624: 3620: 3616: 3611: 3608: 3604: 3599: 3592: 3588: 3584: 3579: 3575: 3571: 3569: 3565: 3560: 3558: 3554: 3550: 3549:Wigner effect 3545: 3541: 3539: 3535: 3531: 3522: 3518: 3514: 3513:Leslie Groves 3510: 3506: 3502: 3497: 3491:After the war 3488: 3486: 3482: 3481:Franck Report 3478: 3474: 3470: 3466: 3464: 3459: 3454: 3452: 3446: 3444: 3439: 3437: 3433: 3428: 3425: 3421: 3417: 3416: 3407: 3401: 3396: 3392: 3389: 3385: 3381: 3380: 3369: 3366: 3362: 3357: 3354: 3350: 3345: 3342: 3338: 3334: 3330: 3326: 3322: 3318: 3313: 3311: 3307: 3303: 3302: 3297: 3293: 3289: 3285: 3281: 3277: 3273: 3269: 3264: 3262: 3261:pumpkin bombs 3258: 3254: 3250: 3246: 3242: 3238: 3234: 3230: 3222: 3218: 3217: 3212: 3208: 3198: 3188: 3186: 3182: 3178: 3174: 3170: 3166: 3161: 3159: 3155: 3151: 3147: 3143: 3139: 3135: 3131: 3127: 3122: 3118: 3116: 3112: 3108: 3104: 3100: 3096: 3092: 3084: 3079: 3075: 3073: 3069: 3065: 3061: 3057: 3052: 3048: 3042: 3041:Alsos Mission 3032: 3029: 3025: 3024:Theodore Hall 3021: 3017: 3013: 3009: 3005: 3001: 2996: 2994: 2990: 2986: 2985:Boris T. Pash 2982: 2978: 2971: 2961: 2957: 2955: 2951: 2950:Joseph Stalin 2947: 2943: 2942: 2937: 2936: 2931: 2927: 2917: 2908: 2904: 2897: 2896: 2891: 2887: 2882: 2880: 2876: 2872: 2868: 2864: 2857: 2852: 2850: 2846: 2836: 2827: 2824: 2820: 2816: 2812: 2808: 2803: 2801: 2797: 2788: 2784: 2781: 2777: 2772: 2770: 2760: 2751: 2749: 2744: 2736: 2732: 2729: 2725: 2724: 2721: 2719: 2718: 2717:Bhagavad Gita 2713: 2708: 2706: 2702: 2698: 2694: 2689: 2687: 2683: 2679: 2670: 2666: 2661: 2657: 2655: 2645: 2641: 2639: 2634: 2630: 2626: 2620: 2610: 2607: 2601: 2599: 2598:Francis Birch 2596: 2590: 2588: 2582: 2580: 2576: 2572: 2568: 2560:at Los Alamos 2559: 2554: 2550: 2548: 2544: 2540: 2536: 2532: 2528: 2523: 2518: 2516: 2515:David Hawkins 2512: 2508: 2504: 2503:lanthanum-140 2501: 2497: 2493: 2488: 2486: 2482: 2478: 2474: 2470: 2469:composition B 2466: 2462: 2458: 2449: 2445: 2443: 2439: 2435: 2430: 2428: 2424: 2423:predetonation 2419: 2417: 2413: 2404: 2399: 2392:Weapon design 2389: 2385: 2381: 2377: 2375: 2371: 2360: 2351: 2348: 2344: 2340: 2336: 2332: 2328: 2324: 2319: 2316: 2311: 2307: 2302: 2298: 2296: 2291: 2287: 2283: 2275: 2270: 2266: 2261: 2251: 2247: 2245: 2240: 2236: 2230: 2228: 2218: 2213: 2203: 2201: 2197: 2196:plutonium-239 2193: 2192:neptunium-239 2189: 2185: 2174: 2172: 2166: 2164: 2155: 2151: 2149: 2146: 2142: 2138: 2134: 2128: 2118: 2114: 2112: 2111:Union Carbide 2106: 2104: 2100: 2095: 2094:M. W. Kellogg 2086: 2082: 2080: 2076: 2075:Karl P. Cohen 2072: 2068: 2064: 2058: 2048: 2044: 2042: 2038: 2034: 2026: 2021: 2017: 2015: 2011: 2008: 1998: 1994: 1992: 1988: 1984: 1980: 1974: 1964: 1962: 1957: 1953: 1951: 1950:Karl P. Cohen 1947: 1943: 1928: 1924: 1922: 1918: 1908: 1906: 1902: 1898: 1894: 1890: 1886: 1882: 1878: 1873: 1871: 1866: 1862: 1858: 1857:Edgar Sengier 1854: 1845: 1841: 1836: 1832: 1830: 1826: 1825:Staten Island 1822: 1821:uranium oxide 1818: 1814: 1813:Belgian Congo 1810: 1801: 1800:Belgian Congo 1797: 1793: 1788: 1774: 1771: 1767: 1763: 1759: 1756:; and at the 1755: 1751: 1747: 1743: 1738: 1737: 1730: 1720: 1718: 1714: 1713:Eldorado Mine 1704: 1702: 1698: 1694: 1693:Bennett Lewis 1690: 1686: 1685:Camp Petawawa 1682: 1678: 1674: 1664: 1662: 1657: 1653: 1649: 1645: 1641: 1632: 1628: 1618: 1614: 1611: 1605: 1603: 1599: 1595: 1591: 1582: 1578: 1576: 1572: 1566: 1556: 1554: 1550: 1549:DuPage County 1546: 1542: 1538: 1533: 1531: 1526: 1524: 1523:Goodyear Tire 1520: 1516: 1512: 1508: 1504: 1500: 1496: 1492: 1488: 1483: 1481: 1477: 1473: 1465: 1461: 1457: 1453: 1449: 1445: 1441: 1436: 1431: 1421: 1419: 1414: 1410: 1409:Robert Bacher 1405: 1403: 1399: 1395: 1392: 1386: 1384: 1380: 1370: 1365: 1355: 1352: 1347: 1343: 1339: 1334: 1332: 1328: 1323: 1322:U.S. Marshals 1318: 1314: 1311: 1303: 1299: 1295: 1290: 1285: 1243:Project sites 1240: 1238: 1234: 1228: 1226: 1221: 1217: 1216:Belgian Congo 1213: 1209: 1204: 1202: 1198: 1194: 1188: 1186: 1181: 1177: 1172: 1164: 1159: 1155: 1153: 1152:war in Europe 1149: 1143: 1133: 1131: 1127: 1123: 1119: 1115: 1110: 1108: 1107:Donald Nelson 1103: 1101: 1098: 1094: 1088: 1086: 1078: 1074: 1070: 1061: 1059: 1053: 1051: 1047: 1043: 1039: 1035: 1030: 1025: 1023: 1022:Leslie Groves 1019: 1010: 1006: 1004: 1001: 997: 993: 989: 985: 981: 977: 962: 960: 956: 952: 948: 944: 943:hydrogen bomb 938: 936: 932: 928: 924: 920: 915: 914:Glenn Seaborg 910: 908: 904: 900: 896: 893: 889: 885: 881: 877: 871: 869: 868:hydrodynamics 865: 861: 857: 856:Robert Serber 853: 849: 848:Gregory Breit 845: 841: 832: 823: 821: 816: 814: 811: 807: 803: 799: 795: 791: 787: 782: 780: 776: 772: 768: 764: 760: 756: 752: 748: 747:Eger Murphree 744: 741:investigated 740: 736: 732: 728: 724: 717: 713: 709: 705: 704:Vannevar Bush 701: 697: 692: 678: 676: 672: 669: 665: 661: 658: 654: 649: 647: 643: 639: 635: 631: 627: 626:Mark Oliphant 622: 620: 616: 612: 608: 604: 600: 599:critical mass 596: 592: 587: 585: 581: 578:isotope, and 577: 573: 572:Vannevar Bush 569: 564: 562: 558: 554: 550: 546: 542: 538: 534: 526: 522: 518: 514: 510: 506: 504: 503:Edward Teller 500: 496: 492: 488: 484: 479: 477: 473: 469: 465: 461: 460:Eugene Wigner 457: 453: 449: 445: 441: 437: 433: 429: 425: 421: 414: 404: 402: 398: 394: 390: 386: 382: 378: 374: 370: 365: 363: 359: 355: 350: 348: 344: 340: 336: 332: 328: 324: 320: 316: 312: 308: 304: 300: 296: 292: 288: 284: 279: 277: 273: 269: 265: 261: 257: 253: 249: 245: 241: 240:Leslie Groves 237: 233: 229: 223:Military unit 214: 210: 208: 203: 198: 192: 189: 187: 184: 183: 181: 175: 170: 164: 161: 159: 156: 154: 151: 149: 146: 144: 141: 140: 138: 134: 130: 128:Anniversaries 126: 122: 119: 115: 112: 109: 105: 98: 95: 93:United States 92: 91: 89: 85: 81: 77: 73: 69: 64: 60: 59: 52: 47: 42: 39: 37: 33: 19: 15993: 15976: 15964:from Commons 15959: 15938: 15830: 15750:Fort Stanton 15675:Lloyd Oliver 15655:Enrico Fermi 15571:Bibliography 15554: 15367:Project Hula 15332:Vistula–Oder 15301: 15234: 15225: 15209: 15179: 15128: 15112: 15103: 15094: 15060: 14957: 14872: 14848: 14818: 14569: 14462: 14407:North Africa 14109:Soviet Union 14063:Soviet Union 13989:Soviet Union 13757:Vatican City 13660:Vichy France 13565:German Reich 13462:Soviet Union 13448:South Africa 13441:Sierra Leone 13394:Newfoundland 13213:Participants 13196:Marocchinate 12900: 12891: 12861: 12739:North Africa 12700:Indian Ocean 12559:Nazi plunder 12514: 12450:Cryptography 12323:World War II 12267:Y-12 Project 12252:Smyth Report 12247:S-50 Project 12209: 12205:K-25 Project 12134:Pumpkin bomb 12105: 12098: 12091: 12021:John Wheeler 11991:Louis Slotin 11986:Emilio Segrè 11936:George Koval 11916:James Franck 11901:Enrico Fermi 11846:Luis Alvarez 11805:Paul Tibbets 11780:Deak Parsons 11605: 11549: 11545: 11524:. 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Lincoln: 10516:6 September 9849:10 November 9796:Walker 2009 9633:(77): 552. 9414:Groves 1962 9278:Sandia 1967 9185:Frisch 1970 9124:Groves 1962 9033:27 February 9007:27 February 8944:Groves 1962 8793:Groves 1962 8657:Groves 1962 8645:Groves 1962 8633:Groves 1962 8621:Groves 1962 8585:Groves 1962 8546:Groves 1962 8510:Groves 1962 8462:Groves 1962 8450:Groves 1962 8414:Groves 1962 8390:Groves 1962 8378:Groves 1962 8286:Groves 1962 8088:25 November 8035:Groves 1962 7818:Groves 1962 7465:Rhodes 1986 7130:Thayer 1996 7070:Thayer 1996 7055:Thayer 1996 6971:Thayer 1996 6935:Groves 1962 6607:. SmithDRay 6103:Thayer 1996 6052:Groves 1962 6040:Groves 1962 5784:Conant 2005 5760:Hunner 2004 5748:Hunner 2004 5677:Groves 1962 5469:Groves 1962 5430:Groves 1962 5394:Gowing 1964 5382:Hunner 2004 5370:Gowing 1964 5308:Gowing 1964 5246:Stacey 1970 5198:Groves 1962 5186:Ermenc 1989 5162:Groves 1962 5150:Groves 1962 5138:Groves 1962 5114:Groves 1962 4996:Groves 1962 4890:23 November 4860:Rhodes 1986 4824:Rhodes 1986 4788:Groves 1962 4749:Rhodes 1986 4648:Rhodes 1986 4636:Phelps 2010 4621:Phelps 2010 4582:Rhodes 1986 4484:Rhodes 1986 4379:30 November 4315:Sam Rayburn 4229:Shinkolobwe 4033:Paul Newman 3947:Big Science 3724:Los Alamos 3677:% of total 3648:Baruch Plan 3634:(1945) and 3568:Sandia Base 3365:Carl Spaatz 3363:to General 3288:North Field 3249:Silverplate 3211:Silverplate 3126:Oranienburg 3000:Klaus Fuchs 2886:Byron Price 2579:hot pressed 2492:shock waves 2310:Leona Woods 2290:arc welding 2188:uranium-239 1942:Jesse Beams 1936:Centrifuges 1931:production. 1879:to produce 1877:nitric acid 1865:John Winant 1853:Shinkolobwe 1796:Shinkolobwe 1794:) from the 1736:P-9 Project 1729:P-9 Project 1717:Port Radium 1648:Hugh Taylor 1495:Stagg Field 1472:pilot plant 1464:Leó Szilárd 1460:Leona Woods 1452:Walter Zinn 1413:Isidor Rabi 1302:Ed Westcott 1237:McMahon Act 1197:Klaus Fuchs 1148:Tube Alloys 1073:Oppenheimer 1034:survey team 899:Felix Bloch 794:heavy water 792:researched 790:Harold Urey 681:Feasibility 576:uranium-235 497:to head an 468:uranium ore 456:Leo Szilard 440:atomic bomb 436:Otto Frisch 383:as part of 303:uranium-235 268:Tube Alloys 136:Engagements 117:Garrison/HQ 16008:Categories 15978:Quotations 15402:West Hunan 15235:Pointblank 14571:Silver Fox 14557:Summer War 14310:Winter War 14289:Phoney War 14070:Azerbaijan 14031:Yugoslavia 13926:Luxembourg 13768:Resistance 13508:Yugoslavia 13373:Luxembourg 13175:Sook Ching 12971:War crimes 12573:Technology 12566:Opposition 12508:Lend-Lease 12485:Australian 12478:Home front 12436:Blitzkrieg 12386:Casualties 12377:Commanders 12349:Operations 12185:Demon core 12129:Little Boy 12050:Operations 11866:Niels Bohr 11856:Hans Bethe 11839:Scientists 11785:Boris Pash 11664:Los Alamos 11559:2103.05727 11526:13 October 10980:30 October 10656:1178870332 10594:8 December 10036:31 October 9862:References 9815:23 January 9374:Jones 1985 9266:Jones 1985 9251:Jones 1985 9224:20 October 9170:23 January 8985:23 January 8932:Sklar 1984 8834:23 January 8763:24 January 8726:24 January 8669:Jones 1985 8522:Jones 1985 8498:Jones 1985 8474:Jones 1985 8438:Jones 1985 8426:Jones 1985 8402:Jones 1985 8274:Jones 1985 8262:Jones 1985 8250:Jones 1985 8238:Jones 1985 8214:Jones 1985 8008:Jones 1985 7996:Jones 1985 7972:Jones 1985 7960:Jones 1985 7948:Jones 1985 7933:24 October 7910:Jones 1985 7830:Jones 1985 7698:Jungk 1958 7686:Jones 1985 7614:Jones 1985 7555:Jones 1985 7531:Jones 1985 7118:Jones 1985 7106:Jones 1985 7043:Libby 1979 7019:Jones 1985 6947:Jones 1985 6923:Jones 1985 6884:Jones 1985 6869:Smyth 1945 6830:Jones 1985 6818:Jones 1985 6794:Jones 1985 6782:Jones 1985 6770:Smyth 1945 6758:Jones 1985 6746:Jones 1985 6722:Jones 1985 6710:Jones 1985 6674:Jones 1985 6650:Jones 1985 6638:Jones 1985 6626:Jones 1985 6580:Jones 1985 6541:Smyth 1945 6529:Jones 1985 6442:Jones 1985 6430:Smyth 1945 6358:Jones 1985 6272:Smyth 1945 6260:Smyth 1945 6236:Jones 1985 6224:Jones 1985 6127:Jones 1985 6115:Jones 1985 6091:Jones 1985 6079:Jones 1985 6067:Jones 1985 5987:Jones 1985 5941:Libby 1979 5828:3 December 5796:Jones 1985 5689:Jones 1985 5631:Jones 1985 5606:Jones 1985 5591:Jones 1985 5543:Jones 1985 5481:Jones 1985 5418:Jones 1985 5332:Jones 1985 5234:Villa 1981 5174:Jones 1985 5102:Jones 1985 5072:19 January 5032:Jones 1985 4948:Jones 1985 4930:27 October 4905:Bethe 1991 4848:Bethe 1991 4737:Jones 1985 4713:Jones 1985 4684:Jones 1985 4672:Jones 1985 4533:Jones 1985 4403:Jones 1985 4343:John Taber 4173:Pearl Buck 3981:iodine-131 3937:, and the 3900:Atomic Age 3854:See also: 3824:boondoggle 3682:Oak Ridge 3585:signs the 3581:President 3158:Haigerloch 3068:Boris Pash 3008:Harry Gold 2911:Censorship 2901:US$ 10,000 2477:detonators 2184:transmuted 2171:Little Boy 1987:university 1983:California 1961:Zippe-type 1903:, and its 1897:Ames, Iowa 1515:short tons 1358:Los Alamos 1193:Niels Bohr 1118:communists 919:cyclotrons 876:Hans Bethe 731:on Germany 662:, and the 557:Pupin Hall 521:Pupin Hall 450:and other 438:, made an 356:. Through 343:transmuted 299:Little Boy 179:commanders 172:Commanders 15995:Textbooks 15895:Chemistry 15635:Jack Aeby 15467:Manchuria 15353:Indochina 15129:Bagration 14580:Lithuania 14225:Anschluss 14022:Viet Minh 13919:Lithuania 13861:Hong Kong 13624:Manchukuo 13579:Azad Hind 13238:Australia 13038:Aftermath 12901:Paperclip 12796:Aftermath 12596:Total war 12464:Diplomacy 12427:In Europe 12227:Plutonium 12093:Enola Gay 11911:Val Fitch 11861:Aage Bohr 11810:Bud Uanna 11679:Oak Ridge 10953:0040-165X 10815:231585284 10788:231585284 10768:(1995a). 10626:276274684 10503:610317261 10481:973585699 10422:642846903 10395:907550561 10334:25 August 10272:154690200 10127:637004643 10055:637052193 10023:650540359 10001:0096-3402 9970:25 August 9685:1 October 9488:1 January 9079:0162-2889 8917:11 August 8170:0362-4331 7784:29 August 7756:29 August 7751:0024-3019 7516:28 August 6514:Kemp 2012 5913:0036-8075 4353:Citations 4280:teacher, 4044:starring 3688:$ 15,949 3625:(AFSWP). 3400:Hiroshima 3379:Enola Gay 3325:Hiroshima 3299:USS 3237:bomb bays 3185:Farm Hall 3169:Otto Hahn 3150:Hechingen 3134:Stassfurt 2948:wrote to 2863:espionage 2851:policy): 2807:Radiology 2754:Personnel 2720:(XI,12): 2697:trinitite 2606:deuterium 2547:duralumin 2398:Project Y 2335:half-life 2331:xenon-135 2295:Reactor B 2274:B-Reactor 2177:Plutonium 2163:Cleveland 1991:cyclotron 1979:calutrons 1840:reduction 1792:Tobernite 1744:; at the 1491:bleachers 1364:Project Y 1346:Oak Ridge 1278:Oak Ridge 1114:Project Y 951:deuterium 927:implosion 923:spheroids 686:Proposals 580:plutonium 533:U.S. Navy 424:Otto Hahn 393:radiology 295:plutonium 260:Manhattan 79:Disbanded 74:1942–1946 15931:Politics 15811:Bat bomb 15789:See also 15578:Category 15527:document 15437:document 15294:Ardennes 15278:Budapest 15226:Crossbow 15104:Overlord 14943:Smolensk 14161:Timeline 13996:Slovakia 13982:Thailand 13833:Ethiopia 13798:Bulgaria 13722:Portugal 13653:Thailand 13535:Bulgaria 13313:Eswatini 13306:Ethiopia 13259:Bulgaria 13084:Unit 731 13045:Response 12862:Keelhaul 12812:Cold War 12785:Americas 12776:timeline 12769:Atlantic 12649:Theaters 12283:Category 12139:Thin Man 12100:Bockscar 11694:Wendover 11674:New York 11669:Montreal 11659:Inyokern 11634:Berkeley 11615:Timeline 11367:(1973). 11357:15223648 11337:(1987). 11307:(1979). 11273:(1962). 11243:(1947). 11219:(1956). 11209:22661282 11185:(1991). 11168:17818712 11093:34323402 11054:(1945). 11039:23693470 11015:(1992). 10895:26764320 10871:(1993). 10758:52282810 10636:(2021). 10606:(2009). 10589:11646807 10454:13793436 10432:(1986). 10346:(1958). 10321:10913875 10245:49569088 10225:(1999). 10211:29911222 10132:26 March 10092:15058256 10065:(1964). 9927:(2005). 9917:58554961 8872:15 March 8135:Archived 8061:15 April 7875:12 April 7853:28 March 7510:Archived 5960:12 April 5926:23 March 5921:17746246 5733:1 August 4879:(1946). 4567:16 April 4393:series. 4278:Sanskrit 4234:vanadium 4075:Berkeley 4011:See also 3968:. Their 3791:$ 25,361 3716:$ 1,387 3702:$ 5,236 3696:Hanford 3685:$ 1,188 3415:Bockscar 3406:Nagasaki 3372:Bombings 3337:Nagasaki 3255:and the 3154:Bisingen 2867:sabotage 2416:Thin Man 2103:Bakelite 2101:and the 2067:effusion 1798:mine in 1652:catalyst 1499:graphite 802:graphite 725:and the 541:graphite 535:awarded 291:Thin Man 200:Insignia 15907:Physics 15869:Portals 15856:Trinity 15504:Shumshu 15271:Hungary 15218:Estonia 15202:Lapland 15180:Dragoon 15113:Neptune 15095:Ichi-Go 15061:Tempest 15003:Changde 14958:Cottage 14850:Jubilee 14566:Finland 14464:Compass 14170:Prelude 14123:Finland 14009:Vietnam 13975:Romania 13847:Germany 13826:Estonia 13812:Denmark 13791:Belgium 13784:Austria 13777:Albania 13708:Ireland 13694:Andorra 13678:Neutral 13638:Romania 13572:Hungary 13557:Finland 13429:Romania 13321:Finland 13299:Denmark 13245:Belgium 13231:Algeria 12937:Romania 12923:Hungary 12679:Pacific 12403:General 12357:Leaders 12342:Battles 12335:Outline 12257:Uranium 12124:Fat Man 12117:Weapons 11689:Trinity 11654:Hanford 11639:Chicago 11537:at the 11495:27 July 11459:27 July 11440:27 July 11327:4665032 11263:8805725 11160:1708292 11140:Bibcode 11132:Science 11116:Bibcode 10854:1087645 10673:1358166 10577:(ed.). 10299:6331350 10161:3717478 10075:3195209 9526:7 April 9087:2539014 8895:15 June 8692:2 March 8141:7 April 8114:25 June 7717:19 July 6611:22 June 6027:3301034 5893:Bibcode 5885:Science 5711:6 April 5662:6 April 5528:9 March 4503:28 June 4469:29 July 4286:Krishna 3878:uranium 3874:thorium 3786:$ 1,890 3424:Urakami 3347:At the 3329:Niigata 3296:cruiser 3136:in the 2830:Secrecy 2809:at the 2613:Trinity 2533:of the 2473:baratol 2457:Fat Man 2282:pickled 2145:Captain 1917:fissile 1777:Uranium 1760:, near 1748:, near 1667:Ontario 1656:chromia 1640:Cominco 1610:Wanapum 1559:Hanford 1505:metal; 1503:uranium 1424:Chicago 955:tritium 864:neutron 858:of the 769:at the 668:General 593:at the 493:of the 452:fascist 407:Origins 347:Fat Man 329:in the 319:thermal 315:gaseous 242:of the 177:Notable 87:Country 58:Trinity 15628:People 15481:Debate 15453:Taipei 15446:Borneo 15024:Tarawa 14218:Europe 14179:Africa 13968:Poland 13954:Norway 13933:Malaya 13912:Latvia 13854:Greece 13840:France 13736:Sweden 13701:Bhutan 13422:Poland 13408:Norway 13380:Mexico 13347:Greece 13333:France 13271:Canada 13252:Brazil 13222:Allies 13168:Serbia 13157:Poland 12930:Poland 12916:Baltic 12709:Europe 12411:Topics 12363:Allied 11649:Dayton 11643:Site A 11512:Review 11403:about 11387:627817 11385: 11375: 11355: 11345: 11325: 11315: 11297:537684 11295: 11285: 11261: 11251: 11233:173307 11231: 11207: 11197: 11166: 11158: 11091: 11081: 11066:770285 11064: 11037: 11027: 10951: 10924:235645 10922: 10893: 10883: 10852: 10842: 10813: 10803: 10786: 10776: 10756: 10736: 10697:630225 10695: 10671: 10654: 10644: 10624: 10614: 10587: 10562: 10539: 10501: 10479: 10469: 10452: 10442: 10420: 10410: 10393: 10383: 10368:181321 10366: 10356: 10319: 10297: 10287: 10270: 10260: 10243: 10233: 10209: 10199: 10180: 10159: 10149: 10125: 10115: 10090: 10073: 10053: 10021: 9999: 9965:834187 9963: 9939: 9915: 9905: 9890:448105 9888: 9398: 9085: 9077: 8336:2 July 8168: 7749: 7594: 6176:25 May 6150:23 May 6025: 5919: 5911: 5863:770687 5861: 4341:, and 3925:, and 3909:: the 3882:radium 3850:Legacy 3772:$ 359 3758:$ 500 3744:$ 935 3730:$ 994 3713:$ 103 3705:20.6% 3699:$ 390 3691:62.9% 3646:. 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The 123:, U.S. 107:Branch 99:Canada 71:Active 15961:Media 15257:Leyte 15087:Narva 15073:Anzio 15031:Makin 14989:Burma 14873:Torch 14842:Rzhev 14803:Kiska 13889:Korea 13875:Japan 13868:Italy 13750:Tibet 13729:Spain 13600:Italy 13361:Italy 13354:India 13278:China 13153:Japan 12753:Italy 12665:China 12617:Women 11622:Sites 11554:arXiv 11245:Alsos 11156:JSTOR 11106:arXiv 10920:JSTOR 10709:(PDF) 10510:(PDF) 10495:(PDF) 10328:(PDF) 10313:(PDF) 10109:(PDF) 10030:(PDF) 10015:(PDF) 9957:(PDF) 9886:JSTOR 9612:(PDF) 9605:(PDF) 9588:(PDF) 9083:JSTOR 8975:(PDF) 8866:(PDF) 8853:(PDF) 8175:6 May 6023:JSTOR 5881:(PDF) 5847:(PDF) 5822:(PDF) 5815:(PDF) 5705:(PDF) 4884:(PDF) 4057:Notes 3781:Total 3775:1.4% 3769:$ 27 3761:2.0% 3755:$ 37 3747:3.7% 3741:$ 70 3733:3.9% 3727:$ 74 3719:5.5% 3668:Site 3553:redox 3333:Kyoto 3213:B-29 2847:(the 2712:Hindu 2363:area. 2329:from 2239:Alcoa 2186:into 1596:near 1130:Frank 1122:Kitty 804:as a 15323:1945 15051:1944 14892:1943 14820:Blue 14810:Attu 14717:1942 14476:1941 14328:1940 14266:1939 14195:Asia 14042:POWs 13882:Jews 13593:Iraq 13519:Axis 13469:Tuva 13285:Cuba 12370:Axis 11629:Ames 11528:2015 11510:ORNL 11497:2011 11477:2015 11461:2011 11442:2011 11383:OCLC 11373:ISBN 11353:OCLC 11343:ISBN 11323:OCLC 11313:ISBN 11293:OCLC 11283:ISBN 11259:OCLC 11249:ISBN 11229:OCLC 11205:OCLC 11195:ISBN 11164:PMID 11089:OCLC 11079:ISBN 11062:OCLC 11035:OCLC 11025:ISBN 11001:2019 10982:2010 10949:ISSN 10904:Isis 10891:OCLC 10881:ISBN 10850:OSTI 10840:ISBN 10811:OCLC 10801:ISBN 10784:OCLC 10774:ISBN 10754:OCLC 10734:ISBN 10721:2010 10693:OCLC 10669:OCLC 10652:OCLC 10642:ISBN 10622:OCLC 10612:ISBN 10596:2014 10585:OCLC 10560:ISBN 10537:ISBN 10518:2012 10499:OCLC 10477:OCLC 10467:ISBN 10450:OCLC 10440:ISBN 10418:OCLC 10408:ISBN 10391:OCLC 10381:ISBN 10364:OCLC 10354:ISBN 10336:2013 10317:OCLC 10295:OCLC 10285:ISBN 10268:OCLC 10258:ISBN 10241:OCLC 10231:ISBN 10207:OCLC 10197:ISBN 10178:ISBN 10157:OCLC 10147:ISBN 10134:2013 10123:OCLC 10113:ISBN 10088:OCLC 10071:OCLC 10051:OCLC 10038:2014 10019:OCLC 9997:ISSN 9972:2013 9961:OCLC 9937:ISBN 9913:OCLC 9903:ISBN 9851:2015 9817:2024 9687:2012 9528:2013 9490:2012 9396:ISBN 9226:2012 9172:2024 9075:ISSN 9035:2015 9009:2015 8987:2024 8919:2013 8897:2016 8874:2009 8836:2024 8765:2024 8728:2024 8694:2011 8338:2011 8177:2020 8166:ISSN 8143:2013 8116:2012 8090:2011 8082:Life 8063:2012 7935:2022 7898:NASA 7877:2024 7855:2023 7786:2023 7777:Time 7758:2023 7747:ISSN 7742:Life 7719:2013 7592:ISBN 7518:2016 6613:2011 6178:2024 6152:2024 5962:2013 5928:2013 5917:PMID 5909:ISSN 5859:OSTI 5830:2012 5735:2024 5713:2011 5664:2011 5530:2010 5074:2022 5065:Time 4932:2010 4892:2008 4569:2018 4505:2011 4471:2019 4381:2023 4273:Gita 4003:The 3983:and 3864:The 3658:Cost 3386:and 3266:The 3142:WIFO 3022:and 2895:Life 2865:and 2663:The 2471:and 2341:and 2135:and 2057:K-25 2033:Y-12 2023:The 1989:and 1764:and 1752:and 1750:Dana 1711:The 1697:ZEEP 1671:The 1543:'. 1462:and 1450:and 1411:and 974:The 953:and 749:and 729:and 644:and 547:and 458:and 434:and 426:and 418:The 226:The 55:The 11564:doi 11550:207 11148:doi 11136:134 10941:doi 10912:doi 10832:doi 9989:doi 9878:doi 9635:doi 7805:144 7506:PBS 5901:doi 5889:212 5851:doi 4256:TNT 4073:at 3933:at 3892:of 3290:on 3243:at 2932:of 2871:FBI 2587:pit 2139:'s 1895:in 1782:Ore 1715:at 1701:NRX 1509:of 1493:of 1296:in 1029:TNT 757:at 617:'s 523:at 422:by 16010:: 15071:/ 11562:. 11548:. 11516:25 11514:. 11507:. 11488:. 11452:. 11433:. 11381:. 11351:. 11321:. 11291:. 11257:. 11203:. 11162:. 11154:. 11146:. 11114:. 11087:. 11033:. 11023:. 11011:; 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