Median kingdom - Knowledge

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Medes might have been in Anatolia for a brief period and even entered into a treaty with the Lydians but dismisses the idea of permanent Median control in eastern and central Anatolia in the 6th century BCE. The demise of the Urartian kingdom remains unclear due to the lack of written sources after the 640s BCE. However, there seems to be a consensus that the kingdom was destroyed by the Medes, given the accepted border at the Halys River by many scholars. It is assumed that the Medes somehow managed to extend their dominion to the west. The destruction of Urartu by external forces has conventionally been dated to around 590 BCE, based on references in the Hebrew Bible and in Neo-Babylonian chronicles. S. Kroll, however, observed that the relevant texts might refer to a geographical region rather than a political state, and he suggests instead that the Urartian state disintegrated around 640 BCE after a Scythian invasion. Without any regional structure to resist military incursions, Babylonians invaded Urartu in 608-607 BCE, and perhaps 609 BCE, and later the Medes must have asserted their authority over the region. The Nabonidus Chronicle reports a campaign of Cyrus the Great in 547 BCE to a land for which only the first character is still recognisable in the text. Although there is ongoing debate, the prevailing interpretation identifies it as Lydia, reading the damaged character as Lu-. However, in 1997,

2147:’s reign (r. 668–630 BCE), references to the Medes become very sparse. Ashurbanipal reports that three Median city lords had rebelled against Assyrian rule were defeated and brought to Nineveh during his fifth campaign in 656 BCE. This is the last mention of Medes in the Assyrian sources. The fact that the three Median rulers are described as city lords may indicate that the powers structure among the Medes at this time was the same as in the 8th century. It is unknown whether the Assyrian provinces in the Zagros, Parsua, Bīt-Hamban, Kišesim (Kār-Nergal) and Harhar (Kar-Sarrukin), were still part of the empire during Ashurbanipal's reign. Although the Assyrian sources maintain silence about the Iranians during this period, suggesting that Assyria was less concerned with them than during the reign of Esarhaddon, everything seems to indicate that the Assyrians were losing control over the provinces established in the Zagros. This could have created room for the development of a unified Median state and although Assyrian sources make no reference to a united Median territorial state that would be comparable to Assyria itself or other contemporary principalities such as Elam, Mannea or Urartu, many scholars remain reluctant to assign no historical relevance whatsoever to Herodotus' account. 1876:

Assyrian records. The Assyrian sources that provide information on the Medes never mention a unified Median state. Instead, these sources indicate a fragmented political landscape comprising small-scale entities headed by various city lords. While scholars have suggested connections between certain individuals in this milieu and the names mentioned in classical sources, all identifications based on name similarity are questionable. The Assyrian sources only offer a clear picture up to c. 650 BCE. For the subsequent period, there is a gap in quantity and quality of Assyrian sources. Historical evidence for a unified Median state comes only very late in the period, when in 615 BCE the Medes reappear in Babylonian sources led by Cyaxares. After this event, the Medes once more recede from history till 550 BCE when the Persian king Cyrus II defeats the Median king Astyages to become the paramount political figure in Iran. The history of the period c. 650–550 BCE — the apparent zenith of Median power — remains poorly understood. While Classical Greek sources claim the existence of a Median Empire during this period, tangible evidence supporting the existence of such an empire has not yet been found and contemporaneous sources from this period rarely reference the Medes.

3314:, in the articulation of the Achaemenid empire. The notion that the Median empire served as a conduit for transmitting Assyrian traditions to the Achaemenid empire, impacting various aspects of art, architecture, and administration, has been questioned due to the "nebulous nature of the Median polity." While art and architecture show less problematic evidence for this proposed transmission chain, the aspect of administration and government is where Median contributions are more doubtful. The purported transmission of Assyrian influences to the Achaemenids via the Median empire includes elements like the Assyrian postal service, the royal road, mass deportations, royal titles, the Assyrian system of provincial government, and a feudal system of land tenure. However, the Neo-Babylonian governmental and administrative system seems to have been very similar with the Neo-Assyrian system, making it a plausible link for Assyrian traditions influencing the Achaemenids. Assyrian cultural traits may have reached the Persians through north-western Iran even without the existence of a well-organized Median empire. 2704:

Babylonian sources contain two important pieces of information that align with Herodotus's account: in 615-610 BCE, the Medes, united under the leadership of Cyaxares, destroyed Assyrian capitals; in 550 BCE, the Median army, led by Astyages, defected to the Persian king Cyrus, followed by the conquest of Ecbatana. Thus, the beginning and end of an independent Median kingdom seem to be present, although the nature of such a kingdom is not necessarily equal to that described by Herodotus as a true empire foreshadowing the Achaemenid Empire. It is likely that a unified Median kingdom exerted control over a significant part of northern Iran, at least in the first half of the 6th century BCE. However, some scholars have also raised doubts about the existence of a unified, short-lived Median kingdom. Historian Mario Liverani proposed that there was no transition from city lords to regional rulers or kings; instead, there was a brief unification under a primary Median king, specifically to confront a weakened Assyria in the 610s BCE, followed by a rapid return to the previous

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and livestock economy. From Median territories, the Assyrians received tribute in the form of horses, cattle, sheep, Bactrian camels, lapis lazuli, bronze, gold, silver, and other metals, as well as linen and wool fabrics. In the favored regions of Media in the Zagros and Azerbaijan, the soil was almost entirely cultivable and capable of producing an excellent grain harvest. South of the Caspian Sea, there was a narrow strip of fertile soil covered by a dense forest, providing excellent-quality wood. The economy of the villages relied on crops such as barley, spelt, wheat bread, peas, lentils, and grapes. The densely forested mountains offered an extensive range of hunting, but animal husbandry remained noble. The sample of domestic bones in Nush-i Jan includes nine species, with sheep, goats, pigs, and cattle being the most common. There are also indications, in line with the millennia-old reputation of Media's pastures, that the aforementioned horse breeding played a significant role in the local economy.

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view suggests a loose confederation of tribes capable of causing devastating effects, such as the conquest of Assyria, but lacking centralized imperial structures, mechanisms, and bureaucracies of control. This confederation would operate through loose alliances and dependencies driven by momentarily overlapping goals and ambitions. If any organized and stable authority existed, it would likely be centered in the central Zagros region, between Lake Urmia and Elam. While this hypothesis is sustainable and plausible, it remains a probability since textual evidence is inconclusive. Although archaeological evidence supports many judgments based on textual sources, at least for the period until around 650 BCE, there is still enough uncertainty for the period after 650 BCE. Reconsidering the Medes as a confederation or coalition, rather than a "traditional" empire, aligns with the limited evidence, but such reconsideration does not necessarily diminish their importance in the history of the Ancient Near East.

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great Median families ”took him for a being of a different nature from themselves.” In normal circumstances, the monarch remained isolated in his palace, and no one could see him unless formally requesting an audience and being presented to the royal presence by an official. He was surrounded by bodyguards for personal security and rarely left his palace, relying on reports about the state of his kingdom transmitted to him occasionally by his officials. No one could laugh or spit in the royal presence or in the presence of anyone else, as such acts were considered unworthy and shameful. Having consolidated royal authority, Deioces proceeded to administer justice with severity. Legal cases were sent to him in writing, he judged them and returned them with the sentence. He established law and order by introducing "observers and listeners" throughout his kingdom, monitoring the actions of his subjects. Like other oriental rulers, the Median monarch had multiple wives and

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political counterbalance to the major powers in the west, Lydia and Babylon. The Persian victory over Media constituted a step toward glory for Cyrus II, who then achieved a series of victories and founded the Achaemenid Empire, the largest and most powerful Iranian state in history. According to classical sources, the Persian victory over the Medes in 550 BCE granted Cyrus an already established empire, extending from the Halys River to Central Asia. Thus, the Achaemenid Empire was established based on a direct inheritance from the Median Empire. Some historians, analyzing Achaemenid administrative and palace vocabulary, suggest that Median loanwords were particularly frequent in royal titulature and bureaucracy. Additionally, it is hypothesized that the Medes indirectly transmitted Assyro-Babylonian and Urartian traditions to the Persians. The inference is that Cyrus assimilated into Median traditions, given Media's previous political supremacy.

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nomads, were fierce warriors but incapable of ruling large territories for an extended period. This and other reasons lead to the conclusion that the Scythian domination was much shorter. It couldn't have been long after the Scythian attack for the Medes to begin recovering and clearing their territories of the Scythians. If the invasion occurred during the reign of Cyaxares, and not Phraortes, it is likely that less than a decade after its occurrence, the Medes were strong enough to resume their old plans and, for the second time, lead an army into Assyria. Although Herodotus's account of the Scythian interregnum is not implausible except for the duration of Scythian domination, his narrative has a legendary character and is not reliable. Despite the doubtful historicity of the Scythian interregnum, the Scythians are mentioned in Assyrian sources during the same period of the supposed interregnum.

2154:, launching an attack on the Assyrian heartland and allying with the Babylonians. Nothing in the existing Assyrian sources provide insights into how Cyaxares assumed leadership of a unified Median force since the preceding decades is marked by a scarcity of sources concerning Assyria's internal and foreign policies, creating a fragmented understanding of the second half of the 7th century BCE. Current reasoning suggests that the transition toward a unified state may have occurred in the period from 670 to 615 BCE, during the reign of Ashurbanipal or his successors. The lack of Assyrian records or other contemporary sources for this period left room for the acceptance of Herodotus's account. While the Greek historian's information about earlier periods lacks reliability, in the case of Cyaxares, his existence and role in the fall of Nineveh are corroborated by the 3034:. Their martial equipment included the spear, bow, sword, and dagger. The mountainous nature of their country and its martial character contributed to the development of suitable attire for cavalry: tight trousers typically made of leather with an extra belt for a short sword, a long tight leather tunic, a round felt helmet with cheek flaps and a neck protector, possibly covering the mouth, and a long variegated cloak thrown over the shoulders and fastened to the chest with empty sleeves hanging at the sides. The Median attire quickly gained popularity among other Iranian peoples. The presence of Median soldiers in Assyrian palaces evidently significantly influenced the restructuring of Median military tactics, adopting more advanced techniques. The Median cavalry was highly trained and well-equipped, playing a crucial role in battles against the Assyrians. 3216:(5. 52. 5) remain questionable in terms of historical Median control west of the Zagros. The primary evidence of Median presence in the Mesopotamian lowlands any time after 610 BCE revolves around Harran. The Nabonidus inscriptions indicates that Harran was vulnerable to incursions by the Medes in the 550s BCE, although this may have occurred at other times. The Medes are described by Nabonidus as responsible for the destruction of the Ehulhul in Harran and as an impediment to his desired reconstruction work there. This implies that the Medes controlled the temple and thus Harran itself. However, the Babylonian Chronicle records the conquest of Harran in 610 BCE, and implies Babylonian control there. Some scholars favors the chronicle’s account, emphasizing the propagandistic elements of Nabonidus’ inscriptions. Around 550 BCE, Cyrus conquered 2013:

begun their expansion northward according to Herodotus. A similar columned hall at Altıntepe, in eastern Turkey, may also be dated to this period. The spread of the columned hall form before the ascension of the Achaemenid Empire suggests some form of Median presence or influence in adjacent regions during the late 7th and early 6th centuries BCE. Evidence from recent excavations and surveys, suggests that permanent settlement in Media persisted beyond the late 7th century BCE. Monumental construction appears to have continued at various sites, and an early form of money was apparently in use in the heart of Media around 600 BCE. However, the Median Empire is still not a concrete archaeological fact, and its history is largely based on information provided by Herodotus and other texts directly or indirectly influenced by him.

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suggest that the organization of the Kingdom of Cyrus and his successors owes more to the Elamite legacy, which can be identified precisely, than to Median borrowings, which are very difficult to isolate. However, a major significance of the Median state, and its sway across Iran, however centralized or not, as a precursor to Achaemenid Persia cannot be overstressed. The role of Media in the Achaemenid Empire is quite peculiar. There is no definitive conclusion, but issues related to religious and social ideologies may have been the cause of this peculiarity. The Greeks tended to confuse Medes and Persians, and the term "Mede" was often used to refer to the "Persian." This terminology was the reaction of Anatolian Greeks to the successors of Cyrus II, later adopted by other Greeks, and is recurrent in the concept of

2063:(r. 745–728 BCE), Assyria began organizing provinces in conquered lands, ensuring a regular source of income and providing a base for further territorial conquests. The Assyrian borders approached Media proper when in 744 BCE, the Assyrians created, in addition to the already established province of Zamua, two more provinces called Bit Ḫamban and Parsua, where they installed governors and garrisons. In the same year, the Assyrians received tribute from the Medes and Manneans, and in 737 BCE, Tiglath-Pileser invaded Media, reaching its remote parts and demanding tribute from the "city lords" of the Medes up to the Salt Desert and Mount Bikni. In an account of this campaign, Tiglath-Pileser mentions "the provinces of the mighty Medes" and claims to have deported 6,500 people from northwest Iran to Syria and Phoenicia. 2179: 2164:. Herodotus may have advanced the events linked with the Median kings by one reign. Thus, the founder of the Median Kingdom, who united all Median tribes and build the new capital of Media, could have been Deioces' successor. Phraortes is commonly identified with Kaštaritu, who led the Median revolt against the Assyrians in 672 BCE, although some scholars tend to reject or consider this identification doubtful. Other scholars believe that the Medes were only unified under Cyaxares, who, according to Herodotus, was the son of Phraortes and began his reign around 625 BCE. From 627 BCE onward the Assyrians were definitely in serious trouble both at home and in Babylonia and, therefore, the Median kingdom most likely emerged after 627, or possibly already after 631 BCE. 2380:

had already subjugated Mannea and Urartu. Julian Reade proposed that the Babylonian Chronicle's entry for 609 BCE might refer to a Median assault on Urartu rather than a Babylonian one. This event, occurring shortly before Babylonian attacks in 608 and possibly 607 BCE, could indicate that the Babylonians provided support for Median expansion westward onto the Anatolian plateau. Another hypothesis is that, as early as 615 BCE, Cyaxares and Nabopolassar had forged a plan to destroy both Urartu and Assyria. Little is known about the end of Urartu as written sources end after 640 BCE. While the Cimmerians and the Medes are postulated as responsible for the end of Urartu, the general consensus is that Urartu was destroyed by the Medes in the late 7th century BCE.

2115:, Arbaces and Belesys rebelled against Assyria, and Arbaces emerged as the first king of Media. While names similar or identical to Deioces and Arbaces do appear in Assyrian sources, these names seem to have been common among the people on the Iranian Plateau during the Assyrian period. Thus, none of the individuals with these names can be conclusively identified as the protagonists described by the Greek historians. Although some characters in Herodotus and Ctesias can be identified with figures known in Assyrian and Babylonian sources, the narratives presented by these Greek historians deviate from the course of events found in Near Eastern sources. Consequently, it remains unknown to what extent many details in their stories reflect historical reality. 2391:, the kingdom of Lydia was emerging in Anatolia, with its capital in Sardis. The Lydian kings repelled the Cimmerian invasion and initiated an eastward offensive, gradually approaching Cappadocia. The Cimmerian power, once great and significant in Cappadocia, collapsed almost simultaneously with Urartu. This created an opportunity for the Medes, who, after conquering Urartu, entered Asia Minor, subjugating Cappadocia. This region might have been familiar to them, as Assyrian texts from the 7th century BCE describe the situation in Anatolia west of the Euphrates similarly to the Zagros region. Herodotus recounts that Cyaxares sent an embassy to Lydia to demand the extradition of Scythian fugitives from Media, but the Lydian monarch 2074:(r. 704-681 BCE) operated only on a very low-key level compared to his predecessors Tiglath-Pileser III and Sargon II. This may suggest that after the initial problems to control the new provinces Kar-Sarrukin and Kar-Nergal things proceeded smoothly in the eastern Assyrian territories after 713 BCE. The established dual system, involving the Assyrian provincial administration and local city lords, seems to have found an equilibrium that was mutually beneficial. The extant sources available shows the continued Assyrian control over the provinces founded by Tiglath-Pileser and Sargon, at least until the reign of Esarhaddon. In 702 BCE, Sennacherib engaged with the Medes during a campaign against the Zagros kingdom of 1976:, show significant commonalities in architecture, ceramics and small finds to be considered as arguably Median. Median settlement can be summarized as dispersed with fortified nodes controlling major plains, valley and passes. The largest sites identified in Media measure only 3-4 hectares, the size of small villages. Notably, monumental architecture found many Median sites does not appear to be integrated into larger settlements. It is difficult to reconcile this archaeological picture with the system of “city leaders” mentioned in the Assyrian sources. The capital of Media, Ecbatana, is a site of great interest for archaeological study, but excavations so far have revealed remains belonging to the 2070:(r. 722–705 BCE), Assyrian presence in Media reached its zenith. Sargon aimed to establish direct administrative control over these distant regions, following the provincial system already implemented in more accessible and nearby areas. Assyrian governors coexisted with local city lords: the former likely responsible for overseeing long-distance trade and tax collection, while the latter retained power for handling local affairs. In 716 BCE, Sargon made Harhar and Kišesim centers of new Assyrian provinces, adding to them some other territories of west Media, including Sagbita, and renamed these provinces Kar-Sarrukin and Kar-Nergal, respectively. Despite being active in the Zagros region, 1949:

Herodotus's observation about Deioces compelling the Median nobles to leave their small cities to live near the capital becomes relevant. One possible scenario suggests that Tepe Nush-i Jan underwent formal closure around 550 BCE, with informal or squatter occupation persisting until approximately 500 BCE. The revised dating implies that Tepe Nush-i Jan and potentially other sites from the Iron III period maintained formal occupation until the onset of the Achaemenid period. If this is the case, then there would be no interruption in the occupation of Median sites between 600 and 550 BCE, as suggested by some scholars, implying a breakdown of central authority in this period. According to

3281:, among others. It remains unknown how and when these areas were incorporated into the Persian Empire. An early Achaemenid list places Media in the tenth position, followed by Armenia, Cappadocia, and Eastern Iranian provinces (Parthia, Drangiana, Aria, etc.). The inclusion of Armenia and Cappadocia in a section starting with Media and then extending eastward may be interpreted as a hint in the former Median territorial extension. According to Ctesias, Cyrus’ victory over Astyages led to the submission of the Hyrcanians, Parthians, Scythians, and Bactrians to Cyrus. According to Herodotus, when Cyrus conquered Media he was confronted in the east with the task of conquering the 2122:(r. 680–669 BCE) conducted several expeditions into Iranian territory. Compared to Sargon's conquests, Esarhaddon's campaign results were rather insignificant. Most likely in 676 BCE, and certainly before 672 BCE, city lords Uppis of Partakka, Zanasana of Partukka, and Ramateia of Urakazabarna brought horses and lapis lazuli as tribute to Nineveh. These rulers who hailed from regions beyond the Assyrian Zagros provinces submitted to Esarhaddon and sought his assistance against rival city lords. This episode is followed by the deportation of two city lords from the country of Patušarri to Assyria, here Esarhaddon's activities against the "distant" Medes reached to the 2214:. A battle ensued, in which the Medes were defeated, losing their power in Asia, which was entirely taken over by the Scythians. The Scythian yoke was said to be unbearable, characterized by brutality, injustice, and high taxes. According to Herodotus, Cyaxares invited the Scythian leaders to a feast, induced them to drink until they were thoroughly intoxicated, attacked and easily killed them. Subsequently, a war ensued resulting in the defeat of the Scythians. However, it is more likely that, during this time, the Scythians voluntarily withdrew from western Iran to raid elsewhere or were simply absorbed by a rapidly developing confederation under Median hegemony. 2127:

that year, agreements were made between Esarhaddon and chiefs from various western regions of Media, ensuring their loyalty to the Assyrian king and the security of their possessions. Scholars generally view this agreement as a "vassal treaty" imposed by the Assyrian administration on recently subdued vassals. However, Mario Liverani argued that this agreement resulted from internal struggles among various Median groups and the presence of armed Median warriors in the Assyrian palace serving as bodyguards to the crown prince. The Median chiefs had to swear that their men in the Assyrian court would be loyal to Esarhaddon and his son, Ashurbanipal.

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the Assyrian heartland as claimed by later Greek sources. Herodotus (1, 106), writing about 450 BCE, that Cyaxares conquered all Assyria; whatever was meant by Assyria in this context, this may imply at most a remote suzerainty of the kind described by Herodotus (1, 134). Ctesias, around 400 BCE, mentions resettlement of Nineveh under Median rule. Xenophon, who travelled through the country in 401 BCE, regard metropolitan Assyria as part of Media. He also says that Nimrud and Nineveh were former Median cities conquered by the Persians. The relevance of these informations for the situation in the 6th century BCE is questionable. The

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administrative system introduced by the Assyrians may have persisted in the Median provinces even after the fall of Assyria. Instead of being a centralized monarchy, the Median state was more like a confederation with various rulers. The Median governance system favored a pyramidal structure of loyalty, where small rulers pledged allegiance to a provincial king, who, in turn, owed loyalty to the central court in Ecbatana. This system somewhat resembled the satrapal and feudal systems. The exercise of authority over various Iranian and non-Iranian peoples in the form of a confederation is implied by the ancient Iranian royal title "

2351: 2139:, who is prominently mentioned in oracle queries concerning Median affairs. The Assyrians perceived Kaštaritu as a political leader of substantial influence and a force to be reckoned with; Esarhaddon worried about Kaštaritu plotting with other Median city lords, mobilizing against Assyria and attacking the Assyrian strongholds and cities. The available sources don't reveal whether a peaceful or military resolution for the trouble with Kaštaritu was achieved, this silence may suggest a negative outcome. Attacks on Assyrian strongholds show that Assyria started to loose control of territory in the east under Esarhaddon's reign. 2107:

the Medes to assemble and decide to elect a king, ultimately resulting in Deioces becoming their ruler. Then, a fortress city named Ecbatana was constructed where all governing authority was centralized. However, this is not indicated in contemporary textual sources or archaeological findings. Judging by Assyrian sources, no unified Median state, as described by Herodotus for the reign of Deioces, existed in the early 7th century BCE. His account is at best a Median legend about the foundation of their kingdom. In contrast, Ctesias presents a different narrative centered around a Mede named

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evidence to indicate such. Relying on biblical sources, Zawadzki suggested Median dominance over Elam, as Elam would have been too weak after the Assyrian campaigns in the 640s. A similar conclusion, but with the acceptance of an earlier Babylonian domination, was reached by Dandamayev. Interpretations of passages from Jeremiah (Jer. 49:34-38) and Ezekiel (Ezek. 32:24-25), which hint at Elam being subjugated, are difficult and likely not intended as precise historical statements. Since textual and archaeological evidence from Iran does not lend any support to a Median domination of

3090:. This route connected the Eastern and Western worlds, linking Media to Babylon, Assyria, Armenia, and the Mediterranean in the west, as well as to Parthia, Aria, Bactria, Sogdiana, and China in the east. Another important road connected Ecbatana with the Persian capitals, Persepolis and Pasargadae. In addition to controlling east-west trade, Media was also rich in agricultural products. The valleys of the Zagros were fertile, and Media was well-known for its crops, sheep, and goats. The country could sustain a large population and boasted many villages and some cities like 2194:. In the late 8th and early 7th centuries BCE, groups of nomadic warriors entered western Iran. Among the dominant groups were the Scythians, and their involvement in the affairs of the western plateau during the 7th century BCE may mark one of the most significant turning points in Iron Age history. Herodotus provides some details about a Scythian dominance period, the so-called Scythian interregnum in the Median dynasty. The dating of this event remains uncertain but is traditionally seen as occurring between the reigns of Phraortes and Cyaxares. Russian Iranologist 2694:

force to such effective and devastating use. Currently, two contrasting academic views exist: the traditional perspective sees Cyaxares as the king of a unified Median state confronting Assyria as an equal power, while the alternative view considers the Medes as a military force that contributed to the fall of Assyria but lacked political cohesion. The absence of relevant Assyrian evidence after 650 BCE does not rule out the existence of a broader Median authority centered in Ecbatana. Some theories suggest that tribute demands and commercial exploitation along the

2686:, and pointed to gaps in non-classical sources, especially for the first half of the 6th century BCE. Sancisi-Weerdenburg highlighted that virtually only Greek classical sources were used by modern historiography to construct Median history, and that ancient Near Eastern sources were almost fully ignored. She argued that there is no direct or substantial indirect evidence, not from Herodotus, supporting the existence of a Median Empire, and that such an empire is a Greek construction. In 2001, an international symposium was held in 3067: 2600: 3294:

recent reassessment of historical evidence, both archaeological and textual, has led many scholars to question previous notions about the territorial extent of the Medes. As a result, some scholars are removing many supposed "provinces" and "dependent kingdoms" from the composition of the "Median Empire", such as Persia, Elam, Assyria, northern Syria, Armenia, Cappadocia, Drangiana, Parthia, and Aria. Thus, the influence and territorial extent of the Median state was reduced to the territory adjacent to Ecbatana.

398: 3228: 1872:, consisting of 23 books supposedly based on Persian royal archives. Despite heavily criticizing Herodotus and accusing him of telling many lies, Ctesias follows Herodotus and also reports a long period during which the Medes ruled a vast empire. What has survived from his work is filled with romantic stories, exotic anecdotes, court gossip, and lists of questionable reliability making Ctesias one of the few ancient authors considered not very reliable. However, others have regarded him as an important source. 2332:

of the Tigris River, as well as the Harran region. This view is partially based on a text from the Babylonian king Nabonidus, indicating that the Medes dominated Harran for 54 years until the third year of his reign, and later classical sources. In this case, the Medes held Harran from 607 to 553 BCE. However, some scholars argue that the heart of Assyria and Harran remained under Babylonian control from 609 BCE until the fall of the Neo-Babylonian Empire in 539 BCE. It is true that, judging by the

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allies. Interestingly, Herodotus mentions that the Median king Phraortes was killed around 625 BCE during an unsuccessful invasion of Assyria. There is no evidence regarding the relations between the Medes and Assyrians from 624 to 617 BCE. It is unknown whether the Medes were still geographically separated from the Assyrian heartland by the Zagros mountains and surrounding peoples, or if they were already asserting themselves in the mountainous Assyrian provinces, particularly in Mazamua (modern

80: 2027: 2043:(r. 823–811 BCE) marched against Sagbita, the "royal city" of Median chief Hanaşiruka, and conquered it. According to the Assyrian inscription, 2,300 Medes were killed, and Sagbita, along with 1,200 settlements nearby, was destroyed. This campaign was significant as Assyria henceforth imposed regular tribute on the Median tribes in horses, cattle, and handicraft products. The Assyrians now shifted the main direction of their attacks to Media, partly influenced by events around 3058:, are simpler than Herodotus's description. The Median army seems to have been based on horse archery. Trained in a variety of equestrian exercises and the use of the bow, the Medes advanced against their enemies on horseback, similar to the Scythians, and achieved their victories primarily through their skill in shooting arrows while advancing or retreating. They also used swords and spears, but the terror inspired by the Medes arose from their exceptional archery abilities. 2571:

captured him, and handed him over to Cyrus. Subsequently, Cyrus captured the Median capital of Ecbatana. The basic details of this account align with the detailed narrative of the Median king's treachery and despotism in Herodotus. That the confrontation is likely to have been longer than the concise chronicle entry conveys is indicated by an inscription from Sippar where the Babylonian king Nabonidus seems to refer to a conflict between Persians and Medes already in 553 BCE.

1836: 2508:(r. 605–562 BCE) made him the brother-in-law of the latter as well. However, not everything was well with the alliance with Babylon, and there is some evidence suggesting that Babylon may have feared the power of the Medes. The relations between Babylonia and Media seem to have deteriorated since in the 590s BCE it was expected that the Medes would invade Babylonian territory, as can be seen from the speeches of Jeremiah. According to Herodotus, Astyages married his daughter 2654: 3111: 10593: 2972:. Therefore, the term "empire" to refer to the political entity constructed by the Medes might not be suitable. The Median kingdom was probably just a loose federation of western Iranian chieftains and kings and their unity was maintained by their personal ties with the Median king, who was less an absolute monarch than a first among equals. This fits the description of other rulers "who march at the side" of the Median king mentioned in Babylonian sources. 3326: 3322:. This phenomenon likely stems from the Median nature of the territory that the Lydian king Croesus attempted to conquer and his justification for doing so, perhaps reinforced by memories of the fearsome nature of the Medes with whom his predecessor had managed to make a treaty. Besides the Greeks, Jews, Egyptians, and other peoples of the ancient world also called the Persians "Medes" and considered Persian rule a continuation of that of the Medes. 2233: 10603: 3181:, which at that point was probably a fairly small state to the south of Media. The event is described as part of a broader wave of conquest, where Phraortes and his successors systematically subdued various princedoms along the Zagros range. However, the idea that Persia had been a "vassal" of Media rests on later classical sources only and is considered rather improbable by some scholars. In the Neo-Assyrian period, the main entity north of 3246:

reservations about the existence of a Median empire, Rollinger concludes that Urartu likely survived the Median "episode" only to be conquered by Cyrus. But there might have been a period of Median supremacy or overlordship since the Behistun inscription treats revolts in the first year of Darius' reign in this region as part of the revolts in Media, dividing 'Media' into at least three parts: Media proper, Sagartia, and Urartu (Armenia).

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Lesser Zab was controlled by the Persians suggesting previous Median control of the region, whereas the territory south of this river was Babylonian. However, it's possible that the Chronicle only mentions the route taken by Cyrus because he was passing through Babylonian territory, with or without permission. Xenophon's identification of the east bank of the Tigris north of Baghdad as 'Media' and Herodotus' mention of the lowland

2482: 2540:, although there is no hard evidence to back this up. Nevertheless, the reference to a war against the Sacae might indicate continued challenges from nomadic incursions, while the narrative about the war against the Cadusians might indicate that the Medes had limited control over the southern shores of the Caspian Sea, where the Cadusians lived. Apparently, Astyages's reign was relatively undisturbed until shortly before its end. 3022: 2745:, their country, and the kings who march at their side." Nabonidus is pointing to a unitary threat, composed of components that include a plurality of kings. Jeremiah's formula may be an alternative way of expressing this, especially since the Hebrew prophet is not concerned with the complexities of the situation. The descriptions by Nabonidus and Jeremiah are consistent with Herodotus's depiction of Median dominance in 1.134: 1627: 2282:, a city little to the north of the Assyrian capital Nineveh, and then moved down the Tigris to attack Assur, which they captured before the arrival of the Babylonian army that was coming to their assistance. This collaborative effort indicates a pre-existing alliance between Nabopolassar and the Median king Cyaxares (r. 625–585 a.C.), they then met personally and formalized their relationship. The Babylonian historian 1940:" in Phase 5. A similar story is also told by the results of excavations at Baba Jan, although the excavator supports a higher chronology with the flourishing Phase III in the 9th-8th centuries and irregular occupation in the 7th century - primarily for historical reasons (alleged Assyrian and Scythian attacks). In any case, the site appears to be completely abandoned in the first half of the 6th century BCE. 3030:

the previous mixed genders led to confusion in the army on the battlefield. Before Cyaxares, it appears that the Medes went to war in tribal organization, with each chief bringing and leading their infantry and mounted troops. The king trained the forces into an army divided into tactical groups with unified weapons. The Medes used chariots less frequently and relied mainly on cavalry equipped with

2741:)' (51:27-28). The plurality of "kings" is remarkable (although the Septuagint uses the singular "king"); whether the fact that Jeremiah (25:25) also lists "all the kings of Elam and Media" among the condemned nations shows that the plural and singular are rhetorically interchangeable is debatable. A possible explanation may be found in Nabonidus's references to the " 2985: 1893:). Furthermore, the lack of clarity in the archaeological record makes it challenging to determine whether certain archaeological materials should be attributed to the Median or Achaemenid culture. Modern archaeological activity in the central area of ancient Media was especially intense and fruitful in the 1960s and 1970s, with excavations at 2266:(modern Kirkuk). In the third month of 615 BCE, the Babylonians marched directly up the Tigris and attacked Assur but were driven back. In the eighth month, the Medes were active near Arrapha, which suggests a mutual arrangement between Medes and Babylonians. Since Arrapha was very close to the principal centers of the Assyrian heartland ( 3169:

extending from the vicinity of Tehran in the east to the Halys River in the west. Thus, the "Median Empire" would have ruled over Iran, Armenia, eastern Anatolia, and northern Mesopotamia, while the Babylonians controlled southern Mesopotamia and the Levant. However, there are doubts about this assumed extensive territorial expansion.

3075:

horses. In Assyrian reliefs, the Medes are sometimes depicted wearing what appears to be sheepskin cloaks over their tunics and high-laced boots, equipment necessary for pastoral work in the plateaus where winters brought snow and intense cold. Archaeological evidence shows that the Medes possessed skilled workers in bronze and gold.

2359:

ambiguous evidence. Some posit the existence of a highly developed empire, strongly influenced by Assyrian imperial practices. In contrast, others, underscoring the lack of concrete evidence, lean towards viewing the Medes as certainly a potent force, but never developing any state institutions. It is in the period between the

2111:. Arbaces served as a general in the Assyrian army and as the governor of the Medes on behalf of the Assyrian king. He met his later ally, the Babylonian Belesys, at Nineveh, where both commanded Assyria's Median and Babylonian auxiliary troops during a year of military service. Encouraged by the weakness of the Assyrian king 1980:. The early capital city at Ecbatana is simply buried or destroyed by the substantial subsequent occupation of the site. Identification of Median sites beyond Iran is challenging, but certain ceramic and architectural features may indicate dispersed Median presence or at least some influence at sites such as 3421:

as the fifth and final one. The Greeks considered the Median state as a universal empire, whose model corresponded to the Achaemenid and, in general, the Eastern model of the state. In the Hebrew tradition, the Babylonian Empire takes the place of the Assyrian Empire. However, neither Greco-Roman nor

3240:

acknowledges a Lydo-Median war. However, he questions the Halys frontier, pointing out Herodotus's problematic description of the course of the river and the absence of historical details in the account explaining how the Halys became the border between Lydian and Median domains. He concedes that the

3235:

According to Herodotus, the Median control extended as far west as the Halys River where they allegedly shared a border with the Lydians. In contrast to the problem of who held political control over Harran, there is no contemporary sources that would attest a Median presence extending as far west as

2579:

organized a conspiracy against Astyages, and during a battle, he defected with a large part of the troops to the side of Cyrus. Astyages himself commanded the army in the battle, but the Medes were defeated, and their king was taken prisoner. The deeper cause of the Median army's rebellion might have

2574:

In Herodotus's narrative, Cyrus, in addition to being a vassal of Media, was the grandson of Astyages. Babylonian sources, however, do not mention this; they refer to Cyrus only as "the king of Anshan" (i.e., Persia), while Astyages is called the "king of the Medes". Herodotus reports that the Median

2363:

in 612 BCE and the conquest of the Median capital Ecbatana by the Persians in 550 BCE that the existence of a powerful Median Empire is postulated. However, contemporary sources about the Medes in this period are scarce. In any case, the available evidence in Babylonian and biblical sources indicates

2331:

argues against the notion that the Medes and Babylonians shared Assyrian territory; instead, the Medes simply took over the Zagros, which Assyria had already lost earlier. Until recently, it was a common opinion that, following the fall of Assyria, the Medes took possession of the Assyrian lands east

2093:

learned by example how to organize and administer themselves politically and economically so as to achieve state-like status. Frequent Assyrian attacks compelled various inhabitants of Media to cooperate and develop more effective leadership. The Assyrians valued goods from the east, such as Bactrian

2012:

in Turkmenistan. The archaeological findings at the Urartian site of Erebuni, in Armenia, has shown that a columned hall initially dated to the Achaemenid period is now likely to have been constructed in the late 7th century. This is the period following the fall of Assyria, when the Medes would have

1831:

relied solely on classical and biblical sources. Information about the Medes, as well as about the Assyrians and Babylonians, was derived from the works of classical authors such as Herodotus and their successors. They gathered information from scholarly circles within the Achaemenid Empire, but this

3317:

Due to its localization, the Persians were very prone to Elamite influence, to the point that is thought that the Persians of the time of Cyrus comprised a population descended from a blending of Iranians and Elamites. The permanence of Elamites borrowing in every aspect of social and political life

3293:

By one estimate, the area of the Median Empire might have covered a territory of just over 2,800,000 square kilometers, making it one of the largest empires in history. However, it is possible that it never exceeded the size of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, which at its peak covered 1,400,000 km². A

3078:

The archaeological material from sites like Tepe Nush-i Jan and Godin Tepe, as well as Assyrian reliefs, demonstrate that in the first half of the first millennium BCE, there were urban-type settlements in various regions of Media, serving as centers for craft production and a sedentary agricultural

3029:

Little is known about the Median army, but it certainly played a significant role in Median history. In the late 7th century BCE, the Medes made notable military progress under Cyaxares, who, according to Herodotus, organized the army into special units: infantry, spearmen, archers, and horsemen, as

3012:

were a highly influential priestly caste at the court, considered honorable by both the king and the people. They served as interpreters of dreams, sorcerers, and advisors on various matters, including political affairs. They were responsible for the religious ceremonies, and high state offices were

2992:

Available information about the Median court is limited and not entirely reliable. In his charming account of the youth of Cyrus II, Herodotus suggests that the Median court included bodyguards, messengers, the "king's eye" (a kind of secret agent), and builders. Ctesias mentions the royal cupbearer

2964:

speeches dating from 593 BCE mentions "kings of Media" in the plural, alongside satraps and governors. Herodotus gives this characterization of the structure of the Median kingdom (1, 134): "... one people ruled another, but the Medes ruled over all and especially over those that dwelt nearest them,

2953:

Currently, there's a lack of direct information about the political, economic, and social structure of the Medes. However, it is likely that in many aspects, the Median administrative system resembled that of the Assyrians, under whose influence the Medes were for a long period. Some elements of the

2749:

When the Medes were in power, in the same way, the nations ruled one another. The Medes ruled all together, and (directly) those who lived closest; and these, in turn, ruled their neighbors and so on, following the same principle by which the Persians esteem others. Thus, indeed, it progressed, each

2720:

According to Matt Waters, the existing evidence shows a Median king exerting influence or authority directly or indirectly over many peoples through a hierarchical and informal system of governance, without the existence of a formal "Median Empire" — meaning a centralized and bureaucratic structure.

2698:

may have contributed to the accumulation of wealth by Median chiefs, prompting an ambitious individual to seek broader authority. Alternatively, conflicts among Median chiefs led to Assyrian intervention in 676 BCE and the oath of allegiance in 672 BCE. Assyrian concerns about potential threats from

2624:

made an attempt to seize power and restore Median independence. He claimed to be a descendant of Cyaxares and managed to seize Ecbatana in December 522 BCE. Around the same time, there was a new rebellion in Elam, and there were rebellions in adjacent provinces such as Armenia, Assyria, and Parthia.

2607:

After Astyages's defeat, the Lydian king Croesus crossed the Halys River in hopes of expanding his borders to the east. This resulted in a war, leading Lydia to be conquered by the Persians. Subsequently, Cyrus conquered Babylon, putting an end to three powers in the Ancient Near East: Media, Lydia,

2587:

and took the city's valuables to Anshan. As the extent of the territory the Medes controlled is disputed, we do not know what exactly Cyrus gained by his victory. Taking control of Media may have implied taking control of vassal states like Armenia, Cappadocia, Parthia, Drangiana, and Aria. If Cyrus

2570:

against his Median overlord. However, the notion of Median overlordship over Persia lacks support from contemporary evidence. According to the Nabonidus Chronicle, in 550 BCE, the Median king Astyages marched with his troops against Cyrus of Persia "for conquest". However, his own soldiers revolted,

2379:

The Medes seem soon to have established a common frontier with Lydia in central Anatolia. According to Herodotus, hostilities between the Medes and Lydians began five years before a battle precisely dated by an eclipse to 585 BCE. If this account holds true, it implies that before 590 BCE, the Medes

2298:

appears on the scene; he is surely identical with the king of the Medes, although it is strange that a single cuneiform tablet should describe one people by two different terms. The combined military forces of Cyaxares and Nabopolassar laid siege to Nineveh, resulting in its fall after three months.

2244:

against Assyrian domination. Nabopolassar, governor of southern regions and leader of the revolt, was soon recognized as king of Babylon. Nabopolassar gained control of Babylon but not all of Babylonia from the Assyrians and was engaged in serious fighting, he must have been looking for any possible

2130:

Judging by Assyrian texts from the time of Esarhaddon, the situation on the Assyrian eastern borders was extremely tense. While going into the Assyrian provinces in the Zagros in order to collect tribute is routine of the various governors after 713 BCE, such missions were fraught with danger in the

1930:

conjectured that the collapse of Assyria and the gradual erosion of Scythian power might have influenced the abandonment of various fortresses, especially those located near the territorial core of Media. In another report, it was suggested that the various buildings were abandoned in different ways

3289:

in present-day Northern Afghanistan and Tajikistan. This suggest that the regions situated further west, Hyrcania, Parthia, Aria, Drangiana must have already belonged to the Medes. That Hyrcania and Parthia were possession of the Median empire is suggested by the fact that during the revolts of 522

3206:

posits that the Assyrian provinces within the Zagros, like Mazamua, and perhaps the upper Tigris regions of Tušhan and Šupria, were the only ones more suitable for Median expansion due to their familiarity to the Median territory. Nonetheless it is sometimes suggested that the Medes took control of

3101:

Assyrian texts mention wealthy Median cities, but the recorded plunder mainly consisted of weapons, cattle, donkeys, horses, camels, and occasionally lapis lazuli, obtained through Median trade further east. Around the time of their unification or shortly afterward, it seems that the Medes acquired

2612:, Media retained a privileged position, ranking second after Persia itself. Media was a large province, and its capital, Ecbatana, became one of the Achaemenid capitals and the summer residence of the Persian kings. Persian rule in Media was shaken by a major revolt at the beginning of the reign of 2205:

According to Herodotus, king Phraortes led an attack against Assyria, but the Assyrian king managed to repel the invasion, and Phraortes, along with much of his army, died in the battle. Herodotus reports that Cyaxares, wanting to avenge his father's death, marched with the army toward the Assyrian

2106:

strategically plotted to establish autocratic rule over the Medes. In a time of widespread lawlessness in Media, Deioces diligently worked to establish justice, earning a reputation as an impartial and fair judge. Eventually, he ceased administering justice, leading to chaos in Media. This prompted

1921:

The Nush-i Jan I phase, with an approximate date of 750-600 BCE, uncovered a sequence of several buildings on the site. The "Central Building" was constructed early in this phase, in the 8th century BCE, while the "Fort" and the "Western Building," the latter featuring a notable columned hall, were

1822:

Not only during the Neo-Assyrian period of the 9th through 7th centuries BCE but also for the following Neo-Babylonian and early Persian times the sources exhibit an external view of the Medes. There is not a single Median source representing a Median perspective on their own history. The available

3245:

identified the sign as Ú, the first sign of Urartu. It is likely that Cyrus, after he had conquered Media, spent several years to establish his power under regions that had been previously under Median control. However, considering the view of fragility of the Median power on its western flank and

3074:

The Medes had a pastoral lifestyle, with their primary economic activity being animal husbandry, including cattle, sheep, goats, donkeys, mules, and horses. Horses were particularly prized, as Assyrian cuneiform texts on Assyrian incursions into Media show that the Medes bred an excellent breed of

2716:

concluded that, without Herodotus and the Greek tradition, it is "highly doubtful" that modern researchers would posit the existence of a Median Empire. Heleen Sancisi-Weerdenburg expressed this view when she said that "the Median Empire exists for us because Herodotus says it did". An alternative

2711:

While some scholars still consider Media a powerful and structured empire that would have influenced the Achaemenid Empire, concrete archaeological evidence for such an empire is lacking. Others view the Median Empire as a fiction created by Herodotus to fill a gap between the Assyrian and Persian

2693:

Around 650 BCE, information about the Assyrian provinces in the Zagros was considerably reduced, and Assyrian sources no longer mention the Medes. When the Medes reappear in contemporary records in 615 BCE, they are attacking Assyria. There is no indication of how Cyaxares brought a unified Median

2358:

By the late 7th century BCE, the Medes appear to have coalesced into a significant political entity under a monarch, as evidenced by the Medo-Babylonian conquest of Assyria. Nothing is known about the Median socio-political structure, and scholars differ sharply in what they infer from some rather

2315:

sent help to the Assyrian army that had entrenched itself in Harran. So Nabopolassar seems to have asked the Medes for help. The Medes reappeared on the scene in 610 BCE, when they joined the Babylonians for an assault on Harran. Faced with the formidable alliance, the Assyrians and their Egyptian

2034:

At the end of the 2nd millennium BCE, Median tribes began settling in the territory of future Media in western Iran. From the 9th century BCE, the Assyrians regularly invaded and plundered regions in northwest Iran, where numerous small principalities existed at that time. The first mention of the

1875:

The Assyrian royal inscriptions, dating from Shalmaneser to Esarhaddon (circa 850-670 BCE), contain the most significant set of historical information about the Medes. The Herodotean account dealing with the period before the Median king Cyaxares has been largely dismissed in favor of contemporary

3168:

In the 6th century and later, much of northern Iran and some neighboring territories were attributed to Media. This was the result of Median conquests in the second half of the 7th century BCE. It is commonly assumed that after the fall of Assyria in 612 BCE, the Medes took control of a vast area

3085:

see the Median state as a “dominant economic force” in control of the trade routes of the northern Zagros in the late 7th and 6th centuries. As Medes, being the most powerful people on the Iranian plateau in the first half of the 6th century BCE, may have demanded tribute from peoples such as the

2217:

Herodotus believed that the period from the Scythian victory over the Medes to the assassination of the Scythian leaders was exactly 28 years, but this chronology is problematic. It is highly unlikely that the Scythians could have dominated the Medes for nearly three decades. The Scythians, being

2126:

and the Salt Desert near Mount Bikni. However, unlike his predecessors, Esarhaddon does not seem to have expanded Assyrian territory in Iran. Ramateia is also mentioned in the so-called "oaths of loyalty" concluded on the occasion of the appointment of the Assyrian throne successor in 672 BCE. In

1884:

The Median period is one of the least understood periods in Iranian archaeology, and the geography of Media remains largely obscure. Any effort to identify distinctive elements of the Median material culture from the Iron Age III (c. 800-550 BCE) in the western region of Iran primarily focuses on

3118:

The borders of Media changed gradually over time, resulting in a geographical extension whose precise details remain unknown. The original territory of Media, as known by the Assyrians from the late 9th century to the early 7th century BCE, was bordered to the north by Gizilbunda, located in the

2996:

According to Herodotus, as soon as he ascended the throne, Deioces ordered the construction of a fortress city to be his capital; all governmental authority was centralized in this city, Ecbatana. He established a royal guard, and a very strict court protocol, in such a way that the heads of the

2395:

refused, leading to war between the two kingdoms. The war between the Medes and Lydians resulted in a series of conflicts over five years, with both sides experiencing alternating victories. In the sixth year of the conflict, a solar eclipse interrupted a battle, leading both sides to conclude a

3211:

records that in 547 the Persian king Cyrus passed through Arbela (modern Erbil) on his way to attack a kingdom whose name is damaged but which is often supposed to have been Lydia. It has been argued that the crossing of the Tigris downstream from Arbela is evidence that this region towards the

2588:

was indeed the grandson of Astyages as Herodotus claims, then this would explain why the Medes accepted his reign. However, it is also possible that the connection between Cyrus and Astyages was invented to justify Persian rule over the Medes. According to Ctesias, Astyages had a daughter named

1943:

The archaeological developments in Mannae appear to have been exactly the same as those in Media: flourishing settlements with public buildings in the second half of the 8th century BCE and throughout the 7th century BCE, followed by a period of irregular occupation in the first half of the 6th

2580:

been dissatisfaction with Astyages's policies. In the 6th century BCE, Iranian tribes became increasingly settled, and their leaders no longer resembled early tribal chiefs but began to behave like kings. When Astyages started punishing some of these tribal leaders, a revolt became inevitable.

1917:

also yielded productive results. The archaeological activity revealed that, during the 8th and 7th centuries BCE, Median sites experienced significant growth but were depopulated in the first half of the 6th century BCE, a period presumed to be the zenith of development for the supposed Median

1808:

While it is generally accepted that the Medes played a significant role in the ancient Near East after the fall of Assyria, historians debate the existence of a Median empire or even a kingdom. Some scholars accept the existence of a powerful and organized empire that would have influenced the

3185:

was the kingdom of Ellipi, but its power seems to have declined, and it disappeared from historical records around 660 BCE. It's possible that, perhaps after the fall of Assyria, the Medes and Elamites might have filled the vacuum left by diminishing Ellipian power, but there is no historical

3302:

The formation of the Median kingdom is one of the decisive moments in Iranian history. It heralded the Aryan rise to dynastic power, shaping cultural and political life on the Iranian plateau and in other territories occupied by Iranians. Iranian peoples united for the first time, creating a

1948:

argues that the archaeological evidence from these Median sites aligns well with the evidence from Mesopotamian sources. Some scholars suggest that the abandonment of Tepe Nush-i Jan and other sites in northwest Iran may be related to the centralization of power in Ecbatana. In this context,

2703:

argues that there is not enough reason to posit the existence of a robust, independent, and unified Median kingdom at any date before 615 BCE. However, he disagrees with extending this negative assessment to the period from 615 to the mid-6th century BCE. For the period from 615 to 550 BCE,

1857:

and a geographical reach as far west as the Halys river in central Turkey. Although what he describes happened centuries earlier and he probably relied on unreliable oral accounts, his description can be correlated to some degree with the Assyrian and Babylonian sources. The Greek historian

3450:, is the year when the reign of Phraortes begins. Phraortes would have overthrown the Assyrian rule in Media and, as Herodotus states, subjugated the Persians and other peoples. As for Deioces, if he existed, he was likely a chief who began consolidating the unity of the Median tribes. 3037:

Occupying the second most important position in the Achaemenid Empire, the Medes paid less tribute but provided more soldiers to the Achaemenid army than other peoples. This is evidenced by the reliefs of Persepolis and Herodotus, as well as the fact that many Median generals, such as

3013:

likely granted to them. The court's primary entertainment was hunting, often taking place in a forest where lions, leopards, bears, boars, antelopes, gazelles, wild asses, and deer could be found. As usual, these animals were pursued on horseback and targeted with bows or spears.

3161:. If this identification is correct, it means that the Assyrians never crossed this mountain, and all the Media territory they conquered or knew was west of Hamadan. The archaeological evidence available is limited, but the easternmost site with potentially Median pottery is 2261:

In 616 BCE, the Babylonians defeated an Assyrian army on the middle Euphrates and captured Mannean forces who were helping the Assyrians. Whether the Kingdom of Mannea still existed by this time remains uncertain. In the same year, the Babylonians defeated the Assyrians near

3054:, Median soldiers did not differ much from the Persians. Both fought on horseback and on foot using spears, bows, and daggers, large wicker shields, and carrying quivers on their backs. The original characteristics of the Median army, as indicated in the Hebrew Bible and by 2596:, who then became the presumptive successor to his father-in-law. After killing Spitamas, Cyrus would have married Amytis to gain legitimacy. Although the authenticity of Ctesias's account is questionable, it is very likely that Cyrus married a daughter of the Median king. 2039:(r. 858–824 BCE) returned from a military campaign, passing through the Median territory in the Hamadan plain. The Medes formed numerous small entities under tribal chiefs, and despite subduing several Median chiefs, Assyrian kings never conquered all of Media. In 815 BCE, 2993:

as one of the positions at the Median court. When founding the Achaemenid Empire, Cyrus likely continued the organization and practices of the Median court, including forms of etiquette, ceremony, and diplomatic protocol that the Medes, in turn, inherited from Assyria.

2419:

In a few words, Herodotus states that Cyaxares subjugated all of Asia east of the river Halys, suggesting that he engaged in a series of battles with various peoples in the region to subdue them. This assertion may imply that, in addition to Cappadocia and Urartu, the

3397:

There is little doubt about this interpretation, but the problem lies precisely with the interpretation of the Median Empire, which never conquered Babylon and is only mentioned as a significant world empire in Greek texts. The book of Daniel mentions a ruler called

3144:

desert. Patusarra and Mount Bikni were probably the remotest territories of Media that the Assyrians penetrated during their greatest expansion in the second half of the 8th century and the early decades of the 7th century BCE. Scholars typically identify Bikni with

1827:, works by later Greek authors such as Herodotus and Ctesias, and some biblical texts. Before the archaeological discoveries of Assyrian and Babylonian ruins and cuneiform archives in the mid-19th century, the history of civilizations in the Near East prior to the 3402:, who supposedly conquered Babylon, but this figure is unknown in other historical sources. It is highly probable that the author of Daniel, who wrote around 165 BCE, was influenced by the Greek view of history and therefore gave Media an exaggerated importance. 3201:

from 615 to 610 is marked by three, possibly four, campaigns, each of which concluded with the sack of an important city. The Medes' departure after each conquest suggests a lack of interest in political control over the heartland of the former Assyrian empire.

2531:

During his reign, Astyages may have worked to strengthen and centralize the Median state, contrary to the will of the tribal nobility. This may have contributed to the downfall of the kingdom. According to Ctesias, the Median kings also fought wars against the

3269:, for example, are treated as separate entities. Many eastern areas that appear as parts of the Achaemenid Empire in the Behistun inscription find little or no mention in the sources relevant to the political history of the preceding fifty years, for example, 1832:

information was neither direct nor contemporary, nor was it based on solid archives or historical materials. Although no contemporary textual source has been discovered in Media, the information available in Assyrian and Babylonian sources is quite relevant.

2637:, who also claimed to be a descendant of Cyaxares, continued the rebellion but was also defeated. This is the last Median rebellion against Achaemenid rule. After the end of the Achaemenid Empire, Media continued to have great importance under the later 3102:

means to supply themselves with more substantial wealth. This is inferred from a passage in the Babylonian Chronicle from the 6th century BCE, which mentions that king Cyrus II took silver, gold, goods, and properties from Ecbatana as spoils to Anshan.

3422:

Hebrew traditions deprived Media of its prominent role in history. It's only in late Jewish and Christian literature that the second state was identified as the Medo-Persian Empire, thereby depriving the Medes of an independent role in world history.

2681:

questioned the existence of a Median Empire as a political entity possessing structures comparable to the Neo-Assyrian, Neo-Babylonian, or Achaemenid Empires. She cast doubts on the overall validity of our most important source, namely Herodotus's

2699:

the Medes, Scythians, and Cimmerians during this period may have created an opportunity for the emergence of a dominant leader. The attack on Assyria from 615 to 610 BCE likely played a crucial role in consolidating the authority of this leader.

1801:(r. 585–550 BCE) worked to strengthen and centralize the Median state, going against the will of tribal nobility, which may have contributed to the kingdom's downfall. In 550 BCE, the Median capital, Ecbatana, was conquered by the Persian king 2495:

Cyaxares died shortly after the treaty with the Lydians, leaving the throne to his son Astyages. Compared to Cyaxares, little is known about the reign of Astyages. His marriage to Aryenis made him the brother-in-law of the future Lydian king

1922:

added to the site throughout the 7th century BCE. These public buildings were later abandoned, and in the first half of the 6th century BCE, the site was occupied by less institutionalized populations. In one of their reports, the excavators

3123:

north of the Hamadan plain. To the west and northwest, Media did not extend beyond the Hamadan plain and was bordered by the Zagros Mountains, except in the southwest, where Media occupied the Zagros Valley, and its border extended to the

2690:, Italy, focused on the issue of the Median Empire. While no consensus was reached on the existence of a Median Empire, it was generally agreed that there was no conclusive proof for its existence. The debate continues to the present day. 2253:

is preserved and provides reasonably reliable account of events. The source is not a complete record of the history of the period, and is focused exclusively on events in Mesopotamia. After securing full control of Babylonian territory,

1935:

and Louis Levine, contains architectural structures similar to those of Nush-i Jan I and presents a similar narrative: the progressive growth of public buildings during Phases 1 to 4, followed by a period of "peaceful abandonment" and

2131:

time of Esarhaddon. This increased risk stemmed not only from traditional adversaries like the Medes and Manneans but also from the Cimmerians and Scythians active in Iran. The primary threat in the east emanated from the actions of

2965:

and these ruled over their neighbours, and they again over theirs". Some scholars assume that the later Median administrative structure evolved into a more developed form in the administrative system of the Achaemenid Empire.

2278:), all of the empire's positions in western Iran had likely already been lost. The Medes reached Nineveh by the fifth month of 614 BCE, ravaging the territory between Arrapha and Nineveh. In mid-614 BCE, the Medes captured 1773:. Media's territorial expansion led to the formation of the first Iranian empire, which at its height would have exercised authority over more than two million square kilometers, stretching from the eastern banks of the 5479: 4617: 2143:, which was made part of the province of Harhar in 716 BCE, was not under Assyrian control anymore and its city lord Dusanni is mentioned, alongside Kaštaritu, as an enemy of Assyria in several oracle queries. In 2468:, becoming an empire that stretched from Anatolia in the west to Central Asia in the east. Whatever the political role of the Medes in the east, the representation of an Indian embassy at the court of Cyaxares ( 3409:, Media comes after Assyria and before Persia, covering the period between 612 and 550 BCE. In Greek historiography, this scheme included the Assyrian Empire, Median Empire, Achaemenid Empire, and later, the 2633:). Later, the rebel was tortured and crucified in Ecbatana. After his victory, Darius could send troops to Armenia and Parthia, where his generals managed to defeat the remaining rebels. A Sagartian named 2316:

allies abandoned Harran, which was captured. After that, the Medes then departed for the last time and we know of their activities largely from classical sources. In 605 BCE, the Babylonians marched to

2094:

lapis lazuli, and the east-west trade route through Media became increasingly crucial. Trade might explain Ecbatana's rise as the central city of Media and could have triggered the unification process.

2336:, Harran remained under Babylonian rule while the Medes returned to their land. However, it is possible that some time after 609 BCE, the Medes took Harran again and remained there for a long period. 4134: 3446:

in 700 BCE. However, Herodotus also states that the Medes ruled Asia for 128 years. Therefore, the start of these 128 years would be in 678 BCE, which, according to the chronology proposed by

3086:

Persians, Armenians, Parthians, Drangians, and Arians. The importance of Media is primarily related to controlling a substantial portion of the east-west route known in the Middle Ages as the

10662: 9095: 2625:

In the spring, the Persian leader invaded Media from the west, and in May 521 BCE, defeated Phraortes. The Persian victory was complete, and Phraortes fled to Parthia but was captured in

2160:. Thus, other details regarding the chronology of his reign and his status as the king of a unified state have more credibility. According to Herodotus, Deioces was succeeded by his son 10657: 2311:. The Medes appear to be absent from the account of 611 BCE, while the Babylonians are militarily active advancing towards Syria and the upper Euphrates. The Egyptian pharaoh 9085: 2078:. This marked his only recorded direct contact with the Medes in their own territory, receiving tribute from the Medes residing outside regions controlled by the Assyrians. 3220:, which suggests that there was a region in the Western Zagros not under Median control at that time, although the exact location of Gutium remains elusive. The role of 3924: 356: 331: 317: 5211:"R. Rollinger, The Median "Empire", the End of Urartu and Cyrus' the Great Campaign in 547 BC (Nabonidus Chronicle II 16). In: Ancient West & East 7, 2009, 49-63" 3261:

seems reasonable enough, the inscription differentiates eastern regions that many would postulate as having been under Median authority based on classical sources.

3249:

Herodotus and Ctesias suggest that Median authority extended eastward, but the exact extent of the Medes' sway to the east remains uncertain. While reading Darius'

1843:

Due to the absence of written records from pre-Achaemenid Media and, until recently, the lack of archaeological evidence, the 'Median logos' of the Greek historian

2364:

that the Medes played a significant political role in the ancient Near East after the fall of Assyria. Four powers dominated the ancient Near East from then on:

2665:

was followed by the emergence of a Median empire. The Median empire was said to resemble the later Achaemenid Empire and to have ruled over a vast chunk of the

2320:

and conquered it, completely defeating the Assyrians and Egyptians. It is not clear whether the Medes also participated in this final defeat of the Assyrians.

4770:

M. Dandamaiev e È. Grantovski, “ASSYRIA i. The Kingdom of Assyria and its Relations with Iran,” Encyclopaedia Iranica, II/8, pp. 806-815, available online at

2976:

envisions Media as a territory of chiefdoms that, between 614 and 550 BCE, united their military forces under a city lord, with Ecbatana as their power base.

6643: 2803: 2089:. The application of a model of secondary state formation to the case of Media proposes that, stimulated by decades of aggressive Assyrian intrusion, Median 3005:

was commonly practiced among the wealthier and prominent classes. The main characteristics of the Median court may have been similar to the Assyrian court.

10692: 3120: 2620:. This event was followed by a series of rebellions in the Achaemenid satrapies. When Darius suppressed these rebellions and stayed in Babylon, a certain 2795: 2621: 2199: 1809:

political structures of the later Achaemenid Empire. Others argue that the Medes formed a loose confederation of tribes rather than a centralized state.

10254: 9107: 2195: 5769:

Ehsan Yarshater, “IRAN ii. IRANIAN HISTORY (1) Pre-Islamic Times,” Encyclopædia Iranica, XIII/2, pp. 212-224 and XIII/3, p. 225, disponível online em

2206:

capital, Nineveh, with the aim of destroying the city. While besieging Nineveh, the Medes were attacked by a large Scythian army under the command of

10687: 10360: 3826:

Prods Oktor Skjærvø, “IRAN vi. IRANIAN LANGUAGES AND SCRIPTS (1) Earliest Evidence,” Encyclopaedia Iranica, XIII/4, pp. 345-348, available online at

3242: 1932: 1898: 1847:(1. 95-106) was for a long time the primary and generally accepted historical account of the ancient Medes. In his account in the first book of his 9774: 9765: 9509: 9021: 3082: 2973: 2634: 2227: 6345:

B. Kienast, « The So-Called ‘Median Empire’ », dans Bulletin of the Canadian Society for Mesopotamian Studies 34, 1999, p. 59-67.

2085:(“city lords”). The coalescence of broader authoritative power presumably had its origins in the interpersonal relationships among these Median 9006: 5497: 4635: 3203: 3125: 7230: 5967:

Iranica in the Achaemenid Period (ca. 550-330 B.C.): Linguistic Study of Old Iranian Proper Names and Loanwords, Attested in Non-Iranian Texts

2299:

After the sack of the Assyrian capital, only the Babylonians seem to have continued the campaign and a part of the Babylonian army marched on

3306:

Recently, several scholars have emphasized instead the crucial formative role played by the developed empires of the Near East, particularly

3162: 2401: 1973: 9297: 2294:. Afterwards Cyaxares and his army went home. In 613 BCE, the Medes are not mentioned in the chronicle. However, in 612 BCE, a king of the 2005: 1965: 9075: 576: 9443: 8959: 2593: 1985: 1969: 1765:(r. 625–585 BCE), the kingdom's borders were expanded to the east and west through the subjugation of neighboring peoples, such as the 2047:, where, by the late 9th century BCE, the Urartians had conquered the west and south shores of Lake Urmia and began advancing towards 1956: 1953:, the rise of Persian dominance may have been a contributing factor to the abandonment of various Median sites, including Godin Tepe. 6636: 5888:

The Routledge Handbook of the Peoples and Places of Ancient Western Asia. From the Early Bronze Age to the Fall of the Persian Empire

5680: 2421: 2055:. The Assyrians could not secure victories in the six campaigns (in 809, 800, 799, 793, 792, and 788 BCE) waged against the Medes by 1655: 79: 10682: 4151: 3442:

attributes to the four Median kings (Deioces, Phraortes, Cyaxares, and Astyages) add up to 150 years, placing the beginning of the

3190:

and both biblical and Babylonian sources do not explicitly mention Media's overlordship over Elam, the idea faces much skepticism.

2178: 1944:

century BCE. Such a picture does not align with the reconstruction of a Median Empire based on classical historians. The historian

1715:

that existed from the 7th century BCE until the mid-6th century BCE and is believed to have dominated a significant portion of the

8994: 6371: 3095: 1549: 9619: 9470: 9233: 2408:. As a result, the Halys River was established as the border between the two powers. The treaty was sealed by the marriage of 10667: 10642: 9965: 9795: 9740: 9609: 9475: 8373: 8183: 7565: 6337: 6310: 6256: 6202: 6154: 6041: 6023: 5992: 5974: 5956: 5916: 5877: 5837: 5423: 5328: 5256: 5084: 4827: 4795: 4470: 4242: 4200: 4106: 3907: 3811: 3750: 3633: 3546: 9127: 9117: 6629: 3231:

In a way, the extent of the supposed Median Empire was inferred from the territorial extent of the later Achaemenid Empire.

2240:

After the death of Ashurbanipal in 631 BCE, the Assyrian Empire entered a period of political instability. In 626 BCE, the

8089: 2307:, while Cyaxares and his army returned to Media. Meanwhile the Assyrians were regrouping under a new king further west at 1754:, our knowledge of them is scant, as no inscriptions or coins have been found to throw light on their history or society. 10325: 10275: 10001: 9535: 2657:

Map of the Median Empire as generally conceived during the period of its maximum extent, but in reality very hypothetical

1727:

led to the process of unifying the Median tribes. By 612 BCE, the Medes became strong enough to overthrow the declining

9550: 9539: 9484: 9432: 9287: 9090: 8235: 7235: 5935: 5895: 5858: 9980: 9924: 9904: 9720: 9695: 9591: 9515: 9417: 9047: 8889: 6879: 6184: 5655: 9814: 6164: 10445: 10011: 6211:

Zadok, Ran (2002), "The Ethno-Linguistic Character of Northwestern Iran and Kurdistan in the Neo-Assyrian Period",

4375:

A. Panaino, « Herodotus I, 96-101: Deioces' conquest of power and the foundation of sacred royalty », in

3417:'s victory over the Seleucids in 63 BCE, Roman historians completed the concept of the four empires, including the 2059:(r. 810–781 BCE), and subsequently a long political crisis began to develop in Assyria. Later, during the reign of 1703: 10652: 10647: 10637: 9955: 9495: 9331: 9326: 9065: 8692: 7861: 3357: 1823:

textual sources on Media primarily consist of contemporary Assyrian and Babylonian texts, as well as the Persian

1016: 31: 7023: 4486: 10560: 10385: 10265: 10249: 9735: 9670: 9571: 9520: 9292: 9243: 9228: 9132: 9122: 9102: 8894: 8553: 3197:

to its territory in the aftermath of the Assyrians' defeat in a battle in 616 BCE. The Median involvement with

1583: 758: 10193: 8964: 8904: 5390: 2566:

Both Herodotus and Ctesias depict the Medo-Persian conflict as a protracted rebellion led by the Persian king

10677: 10419: 9860: 9843: 9750: 9725: 9581: 9489: 9479: 8299: 2589: 2373: 2051:. Assyria failed to halt the Urartian advance and gradually became an ally of Mannea in its struggle against 1648: 17: 5537:

A. Sh. Shahbazi, “ASB i. In Pre-Islamic Iran,” Encyclopedia Iranica, 2/7, pp. 724-730, disponível online em

10423: 10259: 9975: 9715: 9705: 9453: 9309: 8909: 8294: 8178: 6470: 6056: 5127: 2405: 10189: 3929:

Brill's New Pauly Supplements I - Volume 1: Chronologies of the Ancient World - Names, Dates and Dynasties

10214: 10208: 10159: 9970: 9800: 9679: 9304: 8304: 7341: 6364: 1620: 1608: 447: 10632: 10429: 9890: 9755: 9223: 9001: 8899: 2678: 2241: 2150:

The Medes reappear in contemporary sources about forty years later in 615 BCE, under the leadership of

1578: 1539: 6036:, Hanbuch Der Orientalistik – Abeteilung – Der Nahe Und Der Mittlere Osten, vol. 1, 1–30: Brill, 4549: 2528:. This marriage would have taken place before 576 BCE, but there is some doubt about its historicity. 10533: 10124: 9894: 9675: 9601: 9463: 9438: 9361: 9112: 9011: 8954: 8366: 8262: 7410: 6974: 2350: 1520: 1424: 683: 6165:"The early history of the Medes and the Persians and the Achaemenid empire to the death of Cambyses" 5488: 4626: 3165:, situated 75 km west of Tehran, so it is probable that Media extended at least that far east. 10672: 10244: 10034: 9914: 9865: 9837: 9700: 9238: 9152: 8881: 8220: 8195: 8045: 7704: 7699: 5770: 3827: 3801: 3613: 2327:

and other evidence imply that most of the former Assyrian territory came under Babylonian control.

1641: 1603: 1598: 1588: 377: 113: 5494: 10475: 10449: 10440: 10310: 10270: 9874: 9810: 9770: 9505: 9356: 9213: 9172: 8430: 8287: 8168: 7709: 7662: 7605: 7304: 7248: 6996: 5552: 5413: 4952: 1824: 1166: 922: 503: 4684: 3565: 2603:

Achaemenid bas-relief from the 5th century BCE showing a Median soldier behind a Persian soldier

10565: 10204: 9945: 9900: 9624: 9586: 9314: 9070: 8309: 8210: 8205: 7893: 7841: 7761: 7694: 7598: 7583: 7476: 7243: 7197: 7038: 6925: 6666: 6357: 5709: 4632: 1931:

during the period when Median power was still on the rise. Godin Tepe's Level II, excavated by

1853:, Herodotus traces the development of a unified Median state or empire with a major capital at 1483: 986: 460: 5476: 5246: 5074: 4902:"Medes in Media, Mesopotamia and Anatolia: empire, hegemony, devolved domination or illusion?" 4614: 4460: 4190: 3536: 3224:

as a supporter of Cyrus may arise from Gutium having only recently rejected Median authority.

2599: 9853: 9805: 9780: 9500: 9248: 9026: 8944: 8561: 8518: 8240: 8200: 8013: 7888: 6952: 6942: 6901: 6872: 6011: 5906: 5619: 5538: 5467: 4605: 4096: 3369: 2557: 2444:

were subdued by Cyaxares. Later indirect evidence suggests that the Medes may have conquered

2365: 2345: 1849: 1786: 864: 784: 722: 261: 8128: 5847:

Rollinger, Robert (2021). "The Median Dilemma". In Jacobs, Bruno; Rollinger, Robert (eds.).

5485: 5439: 5318: 4817: 4623: 3897: 3845: 1902: 494: 10404: 10306: 10199: 10139: 10114: 10093: 10073: 10046: 9848: 9790: 9685: 9448: 9413: 9177: 8359: 8333: 8163: 8133: 8008: 7939: 7910: 7829: 7163: 7001: 6991: 5827: 4033: 3250: 2545: 2317: 2190:

In ancient times, the vast areas north of the Black and Caspian Seas were inhabited by the

2156: 1747: 1593: 8113: 5647: 5103: 2940: 1735:. However, contemporary scholarship tends to be skeptical about the existence of a united 8: 10144: 9833: 9566: 9458: 9057: 9052: 9016: 8949: 8798: 8486: 8025: 7905: 7871: 7773: 7593: 7588: 7400: 7119: 7055: 6930: 6915: 4546: 4264: 3390: 2695: 2136: 2060: 1326: 1196: 625: 421: 322: 7741: 7731: 6301:

Stronach, David (1982), "Archeology ii. Median and Achaemenid", in Yarshater, E. (ed.),

5178: 3136:. To the south, it bordered the Elamite region of Simaški, corresponding to the current 2725:

mentions 'the kings of the Medes' (51:11) and 'the kings of the Medes, their governors (

2323:

The outcome of the fall of Assyria for Median territorial expansion is unknown, but the

10508: 10470: 10415: 10410: 10315: 10230: 9870: 9730: 9690: 9530: 9525: 9423: 9408: 9167: 8969: 8790: 8759: 8652: 8409: 8138: 8118: 8101: 8052: 7917: 7726: 7677: 7610: 7528: 7469: 7464: 7459: 7415: 7385: 7277: 7175: 7043: 7018: 6290: 6236: 6125: 6089: 5734: 4402: 4168: 3406: 3254: 3187: 3051: 2525: 1529: 1316: 936: 407: 3360:, representing the ancient monarchies of the Ancient Near East that ruled the city of 2416:, son of Cyaxares, establishing a new balance of power among the Near Eastern states. 2286:

mentions that this alliance between Babylon and Media was sealed with the marriage of

10602: 10518: 10435: 10341: 10331: 10240: 10149: 10134: 10129: 10098: 10088: 10078: 10068: 10055: 9910: 9614: 9428: 9366: 9341: 9321: 9271: 9191: 9039: 8668: 8660: 8585: 8537: 8247: 8143: 8079: 8074: 8003: 7900: 7615: 7543: 7538: 7380: 7309: 7292: 7287: 7282: 7082: 7033: 6717: 6656: 6558: 6543: 6444: 6333: 6306: 6282: 6252: 6228: 6198: 6180: 6150: 6117: 6100:

Levine, Louis D. (1974-01-01), "Geographical Studies in the Neo-Assyrian Zagros-II",

6081: 6064:

Levine, Louis D. (1973-01-01), "Geographical Studies in the Neo-Assyrian Zagros: I",

6050: 6037: 6019: 5988: 5970: 5952: 5931: 5912: 5891: 5873: 5854: 5833: 5785:"Observations on the Problem of the Median Empire on the Basis of Babylonian Sources" 5726: 5672: 5574: 5419: 5324: 5252: 5080: 4823: 4791: 4466: 4238: 4196: 4160: 4102: 3903: 3807: 3746: 3629: 3542: 3386: 3379: 3221: 3198: 3137: 2811: 2666: 2609: 2505: 2291: 1868: 1828: 1758: 1720: 1698: 1356: 1256: 1246: 956: 946: 904: 804: 748: 349: 5151: 4925: 3066: 10489: 10480: 10390: 10380: 10336: 10176: 10164: 10118: 10063: 9880: 9745: 9576: 9545: 9390: 9371: 9080: 8700: 8096: 7883: 7878: 7834: 7821: 7751: 7719: 7714: 7578: 7573: 7555: 7516: 7449: 7432: 7373: 7363: 7358: 7299: 7255: 7225: 7185: 7168: 7151: 7114: 6865: 6786: 6578: 6399: 6274: 6220: 6172: 6109: 6073: 5718: 5664: 5564: 5344: 5046: 4976: 4660: 4142: 4060: 3734: 3723: 3621: 3447: 3330: 3237: 3177:

According to Herodotus, Phraortes was able extend the Median kingdom by conquering

2722: 2661:

Until the late 20th-century, scholarship generally agreed that the collapse of the

2613: 2541: 2081:

The Assyrians consistently referred to the Medes as living in settlements ruled by

1997: 1977: 1724: 1708: 1386: 1076: 1046: 6176: 4771: 10523: 10460: 10395: 10370: 10355: 10294: 10083: 9935: 9825: 9647: 9346: 9282: 9186: 9034: 8936: 8708: 8684: 8620: 8601: 8593: 8569: 8454: 8396: 8314: 8282: 8155: 8123: 8106: 8062: 8057: 8035: 8030: 7988: 7981: 7956: 7816: 7811: 7652: 7533: 7427: 7422: 7390: 7215: 7205: 7099: 7092: 7087: 7072: 7028: 6910: 6896: 6826: 6766: 6527: 6465: 6395: 5848: 5000: 4785: 4294: 3561: 3410: 3399: 3352:

portray the Medes as a potentially vicious and destructive enemy of Babylon. The

2674: 2662: 2642: 2638: 2501: 2387:

invaded the Caucasus and Anatolia. While the Cimmerians settled in the plains of

2360: 2287: 2056: 2036: 1728: 1716: 1266: 1216: 1116: 1086: 1026: 966: 884: 854: 824: 794: 589: 434: 397: 386: 274: 103: 7736: 6018:, vol. 2, Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, pp. 36–148, 5946: 5482: 4620: 4426: 3662: 2653: 10627: 10365: 9885: 9710: 9198: 9162: 8825: 8743: 8676: 8257: 8252: 8215: 8190: 8173: 8084: 8069: 8040: 7998: 7846: 7806: 7801: 7756: 7682: 7642: 7632: 7622: 7437: 7316: 7210: 6959: 6821: 6594: 6460: 3872: 3719: 3443: 3353: 3270: 3146: 2760: 2700: 2561: 2521: 2328: 2040: 1945: 1923: 1757:

According to classical historiography, Media emerged as one major power of the

1376: 1056: 1036: 976: 612: 523: 130: 6621: 3625: 10621: 10596: 10500: 10485: 10455: 10400: 10280: 10235: 10184: 10154: 8857: 8751: 8716: 8438: 8338: 8225: 8020: 7993: 7966: 7944: 7922: 7689: 7672: 7657: 7501: 7454: 7442: 7368: 7260: 7134: 7129: 7104: 6986: 6816: 6286: 6232: 6121: 6085: 5730: 5676: 5643: 5578: 4352: 4164: 3141: 2955: 2461: 2433: 2183: 1863: 1794: 1685: 1455: 1444: 1186: 1106: 1066: 513: 473: 7766: 7746: 5513: 50: 10528: 10513: 10465: 10374: 9919: 9785: 9208: 9157: 8865: 8849: 8833: 8775: 8230: 7971: 7961: 7927: 7856: 7851: 7778: 7568: 7550: 7511: 7506: 7486: 7481: 7353: 7346: 7336: 7331: 7326: 7220: 7158: 7139: 7124: 7060: 6796: 5814: 5706:"Size and Duration of Empires: Growth-Decline Curves, 600 B.C. to 600 A.D." 4138: 3730: 3418: 3227: 3154: 3031: 2713: 2255: 2144: 2112: 1950: 1927: 1778: 1573: 1502: 1465: 1433: 1396: 1366: 1286: 1126: 692: 6167:, in Boardman, John; Hammond, N. G. L.; Lewis, D. M.; Ostwald, M. (eds.), 5751: 5668: 5491: 4629: 4462:

The Oxford History of the Ancient Near East: Volume IV: the Age of Assyria

2132: 1989: 10606: 10570: 10321: 10006: 9929: 9760: 7949: 7934: 7783: 7496: 7405: 7395: 7321: 6969: 6964: 6771: 6522: 5983:

Dandamaev, M. A.; Lukonin, V. G.; Kohl, Philip L.; Dadson, D. J. (2004),

5569: 4305:. Escritura-Mísia. Sociedade Torre de Vigia de Bíblias e Tratados (1998). 2246: 2123: 2071: 2026: 1993: 1981: 1835: 1774: 1732: 1672: 1631: 1276: 1236: 996: 874: 6328:

Windfuhr, Gernot L. (1991), "Central dialects", in Yarshater, E. (ed.),

5280: 4708: 4685:"IRAN vi. IRANIAN LANGUAGES AND SCRIPTS (1) Ear – Encyclopaedia Iranica" 4172: 3110: 9960: 9351: 8873: 8841: 8767: 8735: 8545: 7976: 7793: 7667: 7627: 7560: 6831: 6761: 6738: 6731: 6548: 6478: 6294: 6240: 6129: 6093: 5738: 5705: 4330: 3344:

The biblical texts consider Media as a significant power. The books of

3325: 3282: 3258: 3140:. To the east and southeast, Media seems to have been delimited by the 3133: 2513: 2474: 2453: 2437: 2388: 2384: 2119: 2044: 1894: 1492: 1406: 1226: 1206: 1176: 1136: 1096: 928: 894: 814: 768: 413: 3803:

The Archaeology of Iran from the Palaeolithic to the Achaemenid Empire

2544:

claims that he engaged in a long struggle with an Armenian king named

1866:

and wrote about Assyria, Media, and the Achaemenid Empire in his work

9086:

International military intervention against the Islamic State (2014–)

8806: 8783: 8577: 8510: 8478: 7866: 7637: 7521: 7491: 7272: 7146: 6937: 6811: 6806: 6801: 6692: 6502: 6147:

The aura of kings: legitimacy and divine sanction in Iranian kingship

5462: 5374:

Persians, Medes and Elamites, Acculturation in the Neo-Elamite Period

4600: 3990:"Notes on the Medes and Their 'Empire' from Jer. 25.25 to Hdt. 1.134" 3923:

Rollinger, Robert; Wiesehöfer, Josef; Schottky, Martin (2011-12-01).

3439: 3334: 3307: 3278: 3274: 3087: 2998: 2844: 2787: 2533: 2457: 2397: 2191: 2173: 2161: 2067: 2035:

Medes in Assyrian texts dates back to 834 BCE when the Assyrian king

2009: 1937: 1844: 1770: 1336: 1306: 1296: 1006: 844: 702: 161: 6278: 6247:

Schmitt, Rüdiger (2008), "Old Persian", in Woodard, Roger D. (ed.),

6224: 6113: 6077: 5722: 5210: 4860: 4748: 4232: 4013: 3989: 3515: 3513: 3511: 3509: 3507: 3505: 3503: 3501: 3499: 3497: 3495: 3493: 3491: 3489: 3487: 2232: 1676: 44: 9996: 9336: 9218: 8470: 7267: 7050: 7008: 6947: 6791: 6707: 6702: 6568: 6517: 6512: 6427: 6415: 5599: 5373: 4901: 4146: 3485: 3483: 3481: 3479: 3477: 3475: 3473: 3471: 3469: 3467: 3349: 3266: 3055: 3039: 3021: 3002: 2961: 2916: 2892: 2670: 2584: 2576: 2567: 2517: 2481: 2469: 2445: 2441: 2425: 2413: 2392: 2312: 2300: 2290:, probably the daughter of Cyaxares, with the son of Nabopolassar, 2283: 2211: 2151: 2001: 1886: 1854: 1802: 1798: 1766: 1762: 1712: 1156: 1146: 712: 599: 199: 185: 173: 123: 93: 6319:

Lanfranchi, Giovanni B.; Roaf, Michael; Rollinger, Robert (2003).

5784: 4819:

The Persian Empire: A Corpus of Sources from the Achaemenid Period

4192:

Discovering Cyrus: The Persian Conqueror Astride the Ancient World

3961: 2249:). However, for the subsequent years from 616 to 595, much of the 10539: 8462: 7180: 7109: 7065: 6920: 6781: 6776: 6756: 6751: 6745: 6687: 6573: 6563: 6497: 3572:. Vol. XIII, Fasc. 2, pp. 212–224 and Vol. XIII, Fasc. 3, p. 225. 3361: 3338: 3286: 3262: 3213: 3194: 3158: 3070:

Horse breeding was one of the main branches of the Median economy

3050:, served in the Persian army. According to Herodotus, during the 3043: 2820: 2617: 2509: 2497: 2465: 2449: 2409: 2304: 2279: 2271: 2263: 2140: 2108: 2103: 1910: 1905:. Additionally, in the adjacent region of the ancient kingdom of 1890: 1859: 1751: 1346: 834: 665: 655: 645: 563: 536: 248: 149: 6981: 6349: 5771:

http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/iran-ii1-pre-islamic-times

5245:

Rollinger, Robert; Degen, Julian; Gehler, Michael (2020-06-04).

3828:

http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/iran-vi1-earliest-evidence

3464: 10345: 9665: 8494: 7013: 6888: 6850:

indicate kings not directly attested and so possibly legendary.

6836: 6697: 6610: 6507: 6421: 6005:(in German). Vol. 7. Berlin: De Gruyter. pp. 619–623. 5987:, Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, p. 480, 5557:

Asia Anteriore Antica. Journal of Ancient Near Eastern Cultures

5300: 5298: 5296: 5228: 5226: 5024: 5022: 5020: 4459:

Radner, Karen; Moeller, Nadine; Potts, Daniel T. (2023-04-14).

3770: 3768: 3766: 3764: 3762: 3618:

Archaeology, Artifacts and Antiquities of the Ancient Near East

3414: 3345: 3319: 3217: 3178: 3150: 3129: 2868: 2630: 2429: 2308: 2207: 2075: 2052: 2048: 1914: 1906: 1785:

was one of the great powers in the ancient Near East alongside

732: 635: 336: 8351: 6003:

Reallexicon der Assyriologie und Vorderasiatischen Archäologie

5440:"COURTS AND COURTIERS I. In the Median and Achaemenid periods" 4861:

The Western Expansion of the Median “Empire”: A Re-Examination

4061:"ARCHEOLOGY ii. Median and Achaemenid – Encyclopaedia Iranica" 3253:

to reconstruct a Media that under Astyages encompassed Media,

9203: 7647: 6553: 6380: 6265:

Stronach, David (1968), "Tepe Nush-i Jan: A Mound in Media",

3742: 3091: 3047: 2687: 2626: 2537: 2369: 2275: 2267: 1964:

Several excavated sites such as Godin Tepe, Tepe Nush-i Jan,

1790: 1743: 540: 6305:, vol. 2, Routledge & Kegan Paul, pp. 288–96, 6193:

Young, T. Cuyler (1997), "Medes", in Meyers, Eric M. (ed.),

5293: 5223: 5017: 3759: 1862:

worked as a physician in the service of the Achaemenid king

84:

Hypothetical map of the Median kingdom at its maximum extent

10663:

States and territories disestablished in the 6th century BC

8983: 8446: 8382: 3922: 3590: 3311: 3182: 3009: 2984: 2354:

Hypothetical map of the maximum extent of the Median Empire

553: 6857: 6197:, vol. 3, Oxford University Press, pp. 448–450, 6171:, vol. 4, Cambridge University Press, pp. 1–52, 5982: 5539:

http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/asb-pre-islamic-iran

5076:

A Companion to the Achaemenid Persian Empire, 2 Volume Set

3745:, Italy: S.a.r.g.o.n. Editrice e Libreria. pp. 1–12. 3025:

Achaemenid relief of a Median soldier, found in Persepolis

2198:

dates this event between 635 and 615 BCE, while historian

1839:

Image of the world according to Herodotus, 5th century BCE

9961:

Industrial Development and Renovation Organization (IDRO)

4584: 4582: 4580: 4578: 2478:

2.4.1) seems a plausible outcome of commercial contacts.

10658:

States and territories established in the 7th century BC

4576: 4574: 4572: 4570: 4568: 4566: 4564: 4562: 4560: 4558: 4515: 4098:

From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire

2712:

Empires in his vision of a sequence of Eastern empires.

6318: 6195:

The Oxford encyclopedia of archaeology in the Near East

5829:

The Seven Great Monarchies of the Ancient Eastern World

5757: 5646:; Adams, Jonathan M.; Hall, Thomas D. (December 2006). 5377: 4864: 4376: 4334: 3580: 3578: 3290:

BCE both regions supported the Median rebel Phraortes.

3114:

Original territory of the Medes before their expansion

2548:, but little credit can be given to these statements. 5812: 4555: 3800:

Matthews, Roger; Nashli, Hassan Fazeli (2022-06-30).

3535:

Curtis, Vesta Sarkhosh; Stewart, Sarah (2010-01-08).

3519: 5244: 3575: 1739:

or state, at least for most of the 7th century BCE.

1723:. The frequent interference of the Assyrians in the 6138:

A History of the Ancient Near East, ca. 3000-323 BC

5985:

The Culture and Social Institutions of Ancient Iran

1746:managed to form a powerful kingdom stretching from 6032:Gershevitch, I. (1968), "Old Iranian Literature", 5415:A History of Ancient Persia: The Achaemenid Empire 4458: 2708:. Nevertheless, this view is not widely accepted. 1805:, marking the beginning of the Achaemenid Empire. 10619: 6323:. Padoue: S.a.r.g.o.n. Editrice e Libreria. CON. 5642: 5553:"An Archaeological View to the Mannaean Kingdom" 2750:nation ruling and being ruled (by its neighbor). 2583:After the capture of Astyages, Cyrus marched to 9022:December 1979 Iranian constitutional referendum 6651: 6332:, Routledge & Kegan Paul, pp. 242–51, 6321:Continuity of Empire (?) Assyria, Media, Persia 6251:, Cambridge University Press, pp. 76–100, 5281:"Тюрки Передней Азии в эпоху Мидийской империи" 5073:Jacobs, Bruno; Rollinger, Robert (2021-08-31). 5072: 4772:http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/assyria-i 4403:"Historic Personalities of Iran: Median Empire" 3739:Continuity of Empire (?) Assyria, Media, Persia 2228:Medo-Babylonian conquest of the Assyrian Empire 9108:2018–2019 Iranian general strikes and protests 9007:March 1979 Iranian Islamic Republic referendum 6249:The Ancient Languages of Asia and the Americas 6135: 5870:Zoroastrianism under Macedonian and Roman rule 5832:. Vol. 7. New York: John B. Eldan Press. 4787:Excavations at Qasrij Cliff and Khirbet Qasrij 3925:"VII. Iranian Empires and their vassal states" 3799: 3566:IRAN ii. IRANIAN HISTORY (1) Pre-Islamic Times 2221: 2021: 8890:Persian Constitutional Revolution (1905–1911) 8367: 6873: 6637: 6365: 5648:"East-West Orientation of Historical Empires" 4034:"ART IN IRAN ii. Median Art and Architecture" 3534: 2941:Encyclopedia Iranica (Media - Median Dynasty) 2616:, who seized power after killing the usurper 1649: 9966:Iran Aviation Industries Organization (IAIO) 8330:"Empire" as a description of foreign policy 5945:Henrickson, R. C. (1988), "Baba Jan Teppe", 5908:A Political History of the Achaemenid Empire 5850:A Companion to the Achaemenid Persian Empire 4783: 3899:Ctesias' Persica in Its Near Eastern Context 3329:A handwritten Bible in Latin, on display at 2948: 10693:1st-millennium BC disestablishments in Iran 9076:2009 Iranian presidential election protests 6031: 6001:Brown, Stuart C. (1990). "Medien (Media)". 5951:, vol. 2, Routledge & Kegan Paul, 5867: 5853:. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 457–473. 5600:"Urartu and the Medikos Logos of Herodotus" 5550: 2551: 1689: 9582:Islamic Consultative Assembly (parliament) 9444:Government of the Islamic Republic of Iran 8960:1949 Iranian Constituent Assembly election 8374: 8360: 6880: 6866: 6644: 6630: 6372: 6358: 5944: 4906:Ancient West & East 3 (2004) , 223-251 3611: 2968:Probably, there never was a Median empire 2258:(r. 626–605 BCE) marched against Assyria. 1656: 1642: 78: 9091:Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (2015) 6009: 5964: 5904: 5846: 5825: 5703: 5568: 5304: 5232: 5028: 4953:"IRAN v. PEOPLES OF IRAN (2) Pre-Islamic" 4749:"2003. Why did the Medes invade Assyria?" 4588: 4521: 3873:"Ctesias | Greek physician and historian" 3774: 3596: 3584: 3385:The beast with ten horns and iron teeth: 2608:and Babylon, all within a decade. In the 1885:sites near the ancient capital of Media, 1879: 10688:1st-millennium BC establishments in Iran 8910:Arab separatism in Khuzestan (1922–2020) 6327: 6300: 6264: 6144: 5925: 5813:Dandamayev, M.; Medvedskaya, I. (2006). 4784:Curtis, John; Collon, Dominique (1989). 4188: 4152:Journal of the American Oriental Society 3718: 3324: 3226: 3109: 3105: 3065: 3020: 2983: 2669:for half a century until its last king, 2652: 2598: 2480: 2349: 2231: 2177: 2025: 1955: 1834: 9696:Economic Cooperation Organization (ECO) 8154: 6267:The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin 6246: 5411: 5128:"Amytis median and persian female name" 2167: 14: 10620: 9234:History of democracy in classical Iran 6099: 6063: 5368: 5366: 5364: 5274: 5272: 5270: 5268: 5204: 5202: 5200: 5198: 5098: 5096: 5068: 5066: 4947: 4945: 4895: 4893: 4811: 4809: 4807: 4766: 4764: 4742: 4740: 4738: 4736: 4734: 4732: 4730: 4728: 4655: 4653: 4651: 4649: 4647: 4645: 4643: 4487:"AŠŠURBANIPAL – Encyclopaedia Iranica" 4454: 4452: 4450: 4448: 4446: 4347: 4345: 4343: 4325: 4323: 4321: 4319: 4317: 4315: 4313: 4311: 4230: 4226: 4224: 4222: 4220: 4218: 4216: 4214: 4212: 4184: 4182: 4132: 4128: 4126: 4124: 4122: 4120: 4118: 4094: 4090: 4088: 4086: 4084: 4082: 4080: 4055: 4053: 4007: 4005: 3983: 3981: 3979: 3977: 3955: 3953: 3951: 3949: 3947: 3945: 3895: 3867: 3865: 3795: 3793: 3791: 3789: 3787: 3785: 3783: 3714: 3712: 3710: 3708: 3706: 3704: 3702: 3612:Muscarella, Oscar White (2013-01-01). 3285:, a nomad people of Central Asia, and 2988:Artistic representation of noble Medes 10032: 9956:Defense Industries Organization (DIO) 9741:Iran and the World Trade Organization 9645: 9388: 9269: 8394: 8355: 6861: 6625: 6353: 6210: 6192: 6162: 6000: 5885: 5782: 5758:Lanfranchi, Roaf & Rollinger 2003 5507: 5505: 5378:Lanfranchi, Roaf & Rollinger 2003 5208: 5173: 5171: 5041: 5039: 5037: 4891: 4889: 4887: 4885: 4883: 4881: 4879: 4877: 4875: 4873: 4865:Lanfranchi, Roaf & Rollinger 2003 4855: 4853: 4851: 4849: 4847: 4845: 4843: 4841: 4839: 4815: 4540: 4534: 4509: 4397: 4395: 4393: 4391: 4389: 4387: 4385: 4377:Lanfranchi, Roaf & Rollinger 2003 4335:Lanfranchi, Roaf & Rollinger 2003 4290: 4288: 4286: 4284: 3840: 3838: 3836: 3700: 3698: 3696: 3694: 3692: 3690: 3688: 3686: 3684: 3682: 3614:"Median Art and Medizing Scholarship" 3607: 3605: 3530: 3528: 2939:All chronological estimates are from 2677:. In 1988, 1994, and 1995, historian 1812: 1761:after the collapse of Assyria. Under 247:• Medes and Babylonians conquer 227:• Median revolt against Assyria 9128:2021 Sistan and Baluchestan protests 9118:2019 Sistan and Baluchestan protests 5868:Boyce, Mary; Grenet, Frantz (1991), 5511: 5316: 5278: 3657: 3655: 3653: 3651: 3649: 3647: 3645: 3193:The Median kingdom probably annexed 3128:, separating it from the kingdom of 2673:, was overthrown by his own vassal, 10361:Chicago Persian antiquities dispute 10002:Chabahar Free Trade-Industrial Zone 9976:National Iranian Oil Company (NIOC) 9775:UN Security Council Resolution 1747 9510:UN Security Council Resolution 1747 5776: 5697: 5591: 5361: 5310: 5265: 5248:Short-term Empires in World History 5195: 5093: 5063: 4993: 4969: 4942: 4804: 4761: 4725: 4640: 4443: 4340: 4308: 4209: 4179: 4115: 4077: 4050: 4011: 4002: 3974: 3942: 3862: 3780: 3438:The dates that the Greek historian 3172: 3153:. However, others identify it with 24: 8900:Kurdish separatism in Iran (1918–) 5597: 5551:Hassanzadeh, Yousef (2023-01-25). 5502: 5168: 5034: 4899: 4870: 4836: 4479: 4382: 4281: 3987: 3959: 3833: 3679: 3602: 3525: 2516:, with whom she would have a son, 2383:In the early 7th century BCE, the 2202:dates it between 653 and 625 BCE. 2186:, Kerch, Ukraine, 4th century BCE. 1817: 25: 10704: 9971:Iran Electronics Industries (IEI) 9592:Supreme National Security Council 9418:Persian Constitutional Revolution 9048:Interim Government of Iran (1981) 8955:Insurgency in Balochistan (1948–) 8945:Shatt al-Arab dispute (1936–1975) 6379: 5656:Journal of World-Systems Research 5620:"The End of Lydia: 547? - Livius" 5391:"BC 788 - 550 BC - Empire Median" 4746: 4353:"DEIOCES – Encyclopaedia Iranica" 3642: 3520:Dandamayev & Medvedskaya 2006 2500:, and the marriage of his sister 2182:Scythian archers shooting with a 10601: 10592: 10591: 9567:Assembly (or Council) of Experts 4774:(accessed on September 2, 2021). 4237:. Academia.edu. pp. 39–62. 3902:. University of Wisconsin Pres. 3378:The four-headed winged leopard: 1625: 396: 354: 329: 315: 32:Middle Kingdom (disambiguation) 10683:Ancient history of the Caucasus 9766:Military equipment manufactured 9332:Caspian Hyrcanian mixed forests 9096:United States withdrawal (2018) 9017:Iran hostage crisis (1979–1981) 8381: 5805: 5789:Lanfranchi, Roaf, and Rollinger 5773:(accessed on October 25, 2021). 5763: 5686:from the original on 2020-07-07 5636: 5612: 5544: 5541:(accessed on November 5, 2021). 5531: 5456: 5432: 5405: 5383: 5337: 5238: 5144: 5120: 4918: 4790:. British Museum Publications. 4777: 4701: 4677: 4594: 4527: 4503: 4419: 4369: 4299:Estudo Perspicaz das Escrituras 4257: 4026: 3916: 3889: 3830:(accessed on 30 December 2012). 3820: 2754: 10326:modern / contemporary 9572:Expediency Discernment Council 8895:1908 bombardment of the Majlis 8884:Caucasus (18th–20th centuries) 8408: 6595:Monarchs of the Median dynasty 6014:, in Gershevitch, Ilya (ed.), 4547:"Media (ancient region, Iran)" 3729:. In Lanfranchi, Giovanni B.; 3555: 3432: 2979: 2648: 2236:Map of the Neo-Assyrian Empire 2097: 2030:Map of the Neo-Assyrian Empire 1742:In spite of the fact that the 211:• Accession of Phraortes 13: 1: 9540:state-sponsorship allegations 9270: 6177:10.1017/CHOL9780521228046.002 6169:The Cambridge Ancient History 6163:Young, T. Cuyler Jr. (1988), 6136:Van De Mieroop, Marc (2015), 6016:The Cambridge History of Iran 5783:Jursa, Michael (2004-01-01). 5412:Brosius, Maria (2020-10-29). 5317:Frye, Richard Nelson (1984). 4331:An Assyrian View of the Medes 4231:Gopnik, Hilary (2021-01-22). 4189:Zaghamee, Reza (2015-09-25). 4095:Briant, Pierre (2002-01-01). 3457: 3407:theory of imperial succession 3368:The lion with eagle's wings: 2486: 773: 737: 617: 604: 581: 568: 545: 528: 478: 465: 452: 439: 426: 280: 237:• Accession of Cyaxares 215: 67: 60: 10668:Historical geography of Iran 10643:Empires and kingdoms of Iran 9997:Asaluyeh industrial corridor 9389: 9298:twin towns and sister cities 8604:Persis (after 132 BC–AD 224) 8481:Mannai (10th–7th century BC) 8457:Empire (c.2334 BC–c.2154 BC) 6471:Battle of the Persian Border 5928:Splendeurs de I'Empire perse 5345:"Ancient Persian Government" 4816:Kuhrt, Amélie (2013-04-15). 3724:"The Rise and Fall of Media" 3620:. Brill. pp. 999–1023. 3008:According to Herodotus, the 2412:, daughter of Alyattes, and 51: 7: 10276:Water supply and sanitation 10033: 10007:Kish Island Free Trade Zone 9646: 9066:KDPI insurgency (1989–1996) 8441:civilization (3100–2700 BC) 8395: 6887: 6792:Xerxes the Great (Xerxes I) 6787:Darius the Great (Darius I) 5930:(in French). Paris: Grund. 5826:Rawlinson, George (2007) . 5320:The History of Ancient Iran 4465:. Oxford University Press. 4147:"Media and Its Discontents" 3896:Waters, Matt (2017-01-24). 3538:Birth of the Persian Empire 3236:the Halys River. Historian 2222:Fall of the Assyrian Empire 2022:Assyrian campaigns in Media 10: 10709: 9756:Economy of the Middle East 9133:2021–2022 Iranian protests 9123:2019–2020 Iranian protests 9103:2017–2018 Iranian protests 8564:Cappadocia (320s BC–AD 17) 6767:Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II) 6145:Soudavar, Abolala (2003), 5514:"ARMY i. Pre-Islamic Iran" 5349:World History Encyclopedia 4713:World History Encyclopedia 3061: 2758: 2679:Heleen Sancisi-Weerdenburg 2555: 2343: 2339: 2225: 2171: 2016: 1677: 45: 29: 10587: 10553: 10499: 10302: 10293: 10223: 10175: 10107: 10054: 10045: 10041: 10028: 9989: 9981:National Development Fund 9944: 9901:Telecommunications and IT 9895:Anglo-Persian Oil Company 9824: 9721:Foreign direct investment 9666:Bonyad (charitable trust) 9658: 9654: 9641: 9600: 9559: 9401: 9397: 9384: 9278: 9265: 9145: 9012:1979 Khuzestan insurgency 9002:Interim Government (1979) 8981: 8929: 8922: 8818: 8728: 8645: 8636: 8613: 8530: 8423: 8416: 8407: 8403: 8390: 8323: 8275: 7792: 7196: 6895: 6845: 6716: 6673: 6664: 6603: 6587: 6536: 6490: 6453: 6437: 6408: 6388: 5905:Dandamaev, M. A. (1989). 5418:. John Wiley & Sons. 5079:. John Wiley & Sons. 3626:10.1163/9789004236691_040 3541:. Bloomsbury Publishing. 3358:vision of the four beasts 3297: 2949:Administrative management 2938: 2777: 2772: 2767: 2396:peace treaty mediated by 1719:, preceding the powerful 1690: 294: 290: 271: 258: 245: 235: 225: 209: 205: 195: 191: 179: 167: 155: 143: 139: 129: 119: 109: 99: 89: 77: 59: 39: 9731:International oil bourse 9496:Ministry of Intelligence 9081:Syrian civil war (2011–) 8905:1921 Persian coup d'état 6475:Siege of Pasargadae Hill 6454:Battles involving Persia 6055:: CS1 maint: location ( 6010:Diakonoff, I.M. (1985), 5926:Stierlin, Henri (2006). 5890:. Taylor & Francis. 5704:Taagepera, Rein (1979). 4133:Waters, Matthew (2005). 3806:. Taylor & Francis. 3425: 3375:The bear: Median Empire; 2729:), all their officials ( 2552:Conquest by the Persians 2102:According to Herodotus, 114:Ancient Iranian religion 30:Not to be confused with 10255:scientists and scholars 9761:Milad Tower and complex 9551:Women's rights movement 9546:White Revolution (1963) 9214:Peoples of the Caucasus 8556:Armenia (321 BC–AD 428) 8449:dynasties (2700–540 BC) 6438:Battles involving Lydia 5965:Tavernier, Jan (2007), 4550:Encyclopædia Britannica 4431:Encyclopedia Britannica 4135:Lanfranchi, Giovanni B. 3877:Encyclopedia Britannica 3413:was added to it. After 3016: 2504:to the Babylonian king 1960:Map of Media, from 1839 1825:inscription of Behistun 448:Shulaveri–Shomu culture 10653:6th century BC in Iran 10648:7th century BC in Iran 10638:Former empires in Asia 10566:Anti-Iranian sentiment 10561:Science and technology 10386:Intellectual movements 10266:International rankings 10250:Intellectual movements 9736:International rankings 9229:Heads of state of Iran 9035:Nojeh coup plot (1980) 8596:Empire (247 BC–AD 224) 8433:culture (3400–2000 BC) 5969:, Peeters Publishers, 5886:Bryce, Trevor (2009). 5710:Social Science History 4552:. Pesquisa em 28/04/17 4234:The Median Confederacy 3341: 3232: 3157:, immediately west of 3115: 3071: 3026: 2989: 2752: 2733:), and all the lands ( 2658: 2604: 2492: 2372:, and, further south, 2355: 2237: 2187: 2031: 1961: 1880:Archaeological sources 1840: 1781:. In this period, the 987:Masmughans of Damavand 461:Zayandeh River Culture 9854:Shetab Banking System 9844:Banking and insurance 9806:Tehran Stock Exchange 9726:Intellectual property 9071:PJAK conflict (2004–) 8844:Turcomans (1378–1508) 8836:Turcomans (1374–1468) 8785:Ilkhanate (1256–1335) 8588:Pontus (281 BC–AD 62) 8300:Medieval great powers 6832:Darius III Codomannus 5948:Encyclopaedia Iranica 5669:10.5195/jwsr.2006.369 5518:Encyclopaedia Iranica 5444:Encyclopaedia Iranica 5372:W. Henkelman, « 4957:Encyclopaedia Iranica 4900:Tuplin, Christopher. 4859:R. Rollinger, « 4038:Encyclopaedia Iranica 4014:"The Median Dark Age" 3962:"Cyrus and the Medes" 3370:Neo-Babylonian Empire 3328: 3310:and more importantly 3230: 3113: 3106:Territorial extension 3069: 3024: 2987: 2886:Scythian interregnum 2747: 2737:) of their dominion ( 2656: 2602: 2592:, who was married to 2558:Medo-Persian conflict 2485:Ancient Near East in 2484: 2353: 2346:Battle of the Eclipse 2235: 2181: 2029: 1959: 1838: 1731:in alliance with the 865:Indo-Parthian Kingdom 819:3rd-century BC–132 BC 785:Kingdom of Cappadocia 741: 6th century BC 723:Neo-Babylonian Empire 262:Battle of the Eclipse 100:Common languages 27:Ancient Iranian state 10678:History of Kurdistan 9815:Technology start-ups 9716:Environmental issues 9706:Economic Reform Plan 9620:Provincial governors 9310:Environmental issues 9058:Iran Air Flight 655 8799:Jalayirid Sultanate 8671:Caliphate (750–1258) 8513:Kingdom (652–625 BC) 8310:European colonialism 8295:Ancient great powers 6822:Artaxerxes III Ochus 6817:Artaxerxes II Mnemon 6479:Battle of Pasargadae 6424:(Shahre Rey, Tehran) 6330:Encyclopædia Iranica 6303:Encyclopædia Iranica 6149:, Mazda Publishers, 5570:10.36253/asiana-1746 5393:. globalsecurity.org 5279:Гумбатов, Гахраман. 3570:Encyclopædia Iranica 3251:Behistun Inscription 3209:Babylonian Chronicle 2512:to the Persian king 2334:Babylonian Chronicle 2325:Babylonian Chronicle 2251:Babylonian Chronicle 2242:Babylonians rebelled 2168:Scythian interregnum 2157:Babylonian Chronicle 1797:. During his reign, 1748:northern Mesopotamia 273:• Conquered by 10215:Freedom of religion 9801:Supreme Audit Court 9680:Automotive industry 9327:Iranian Balochistan 9053:1987 Mecca incident 8950:Iran crisis of 1946 8939:dynasty (1925–1979) 8868:Dynasty (1751–1794) 8809:dynasty (1338–1357) 8801:dynasty (1335–1432) 8793:dynasty (1314–1393) 8778:dynasty (1244–1381) 8762:dynasty (1077–1231) 8746:dynasty (1011–1215) 8663:Caliphate (661–750) 8655:Caliphate (632–661) 8623:Empire (AD 224–651) 8540:Empire (550–330 BC) 8521:Empire (626–539 BC) 8505:Empire (678–549 BC) 8489:Empire (911–609 BC) 8305:Modern great powers 6837:Artaxerxes V Bessus 6827:Artaxerxes IV Arses 5760:, pp. 397–406. 5251:. Springer Nature. 5209:Rollinger, Robert. 4195:. Mage Publishers. 3846:"Ctesias of Cnidus" 3391:Alexander the Great 3132:, located south of 3121:Qaflankuh Mountains 2804:Edvin A. Grantovski 2696:Great Khurasan Road 2135:, the city lord of 2061:Tiglath-Pileser III 1938:squatter occupation 1521:Contemporary period 1425:Early modern period 1327:Jalayirid Sultanate 1197:Khwarazmian dynasty 626:Neo-Assyrian Empire 504:Kura–Araxes culture 422:Baradostian culture 323:Neo-Assyrian Empire 181:• 585–550 BCE 169:• 625–585 BCE 157:• 678–625 BCE 145:• 700–678 BCE 10346:Persian New Year ( 9751:Main economic laws 9322:Iranian Azerbaijan 9224:Monarchs of Persia 9168:Persianate society 8876:Empire (1789–1925) 8860:Empire (1736–1796) 8852:Empire (1501–1736) 8828:Empire (1370–1507) 8754:Empire (1037–1194) 8719:dynasty (934–1062) 8711:dynasty (931–1090) 8703:dynasty (861–1003) 8572:Empire (312–63 BC) 8473:(c.1595–c.1155 BC) 5520:. pp. 489–499 5380:, pp. 181–231 5307:, p. 344-345. 5235:, p. 337–338. 5031:, p. 125-127. 4867:, pp. 289–320 4512:, pp. 621–622 4379:, pp. 327–338 4329:K. Radner, « 3777:, p. 213-214. 3599:, p. 338-344. 3342: 3233: 3116: 3072: 3052:Greco-Persian Wars 3027: 2990: 2659: 2605: 2526:Achaemenid dynasty 2493: 2356: 2238: 2188: 2118:The Assyrian king 2032: 1962: 1841: 1813:Historical sources 1540:Interim Government 1530:Iranian Revolution 1317:Muzaffarid dynasty 1021:864 – 14th century 1011:791 – 11th century 937:Rashidun Caliphate 759:Kingdom of Armenia 408:Prehistoric period 10633:Ancient Near East 10615: 10614: 10583: 10582: 10579: 10578: 10549: 10548: 10456:Opium consumption 10289: 10288: 10125:Ethnic minorities 10099:Iranian languages 10024: 10023: 10020: 10019: 9637: 9636: 9633: 9632: 9516:Political parties 9454:Children's rights 9439:Foreign relations 9433:2009 presidential 9380: 9379: 9342:Iranian Kurdistan 9261: 9260: 9257: 9256: 9141: 9140: 9113:COVID-19 pandemic 8972:Revolution (1979) 8918: 8917: 8738:Empire (977–1186) 8695:dynasty (864–928) 8687:dynasty (821–873) 8679:dynasty (819–999) 8632: 8631: 8548:(c.323 BC–AD 226) 8349: 8348: 8271: 8270: 8236:Polish–Lithuanian 7411:Gurjara-Pratihara 6855: 6854: 6619: 6618: 6544:Amytis of Babylon 6445:Eclipse of Thales 6339:978-0-939214-79-2 6312:978-0-933273-67-2 6258:978-0-521-68494-1 6204:978-0-19-511217-7 6156:978-1-56859-109-4 6140:, Wiley Blackwell 6043:978-90-04-00857-1 6025:978-0-521-20091-2 5994:978-0-521-61191-6 5976:978-90-429-1833-7 5958:978-0-933273-67-2 5918:978-90-04-09172-6 5879:978-90-04-09271-6 5839:978-1-931956-46-8 5819:Iranicaonline.org 5512:Shahbazi, A. Sh. 5425:978-1-119-70253-5 5330:978-3-406-09397-5 5258:978-3-658-29435-9 5132:iranicaonline.org 5104:"Cyrus the Great" 5086:978-1-119-17428-8 4829:978-1-136-01694-3 4797:978-0-7141-1123-0 4747:Reade, Julian E. 4689:iranicaonline.org 4537:, pp. 19–21) 4491:iranicaonline.org 4472:978-0-19-068763-2 4357:iranicaonline.org 4265:"Tepe Nush-e Jan" 4244:978-90-04-46064-5 4202:978-1-933823-79-9 4143:Rollinger, Robert 4108:978-1-57506-120-7 4065:iranicaonline.org 3909:978-0-299-31090-5 3813:978-1-000-57091-5 3752:978-9-990-93968-2 3735:Rollinger, Robert 3635:978-90-04-23669-1 3548:978-0-85771-092-5 3387:Macedonian Empire 3380:Achaemenid Empire 3138:Lorestan province 2946: 2945: 2910:Son of Phraortes 2838:Son of Phraortes 2721:In the 590s BCE, 2667:Ancient Near East 2610:Achaemenid Empire 2520:, connecting the 2506:Nebuchadnezzar II 2292:Nebuchadnezzar II 1909:, excavations at 1829:Achaemenid Empire 1759:ancient Near East 1721:Achaemenid Empire 1666: 1665: 1558: 1557: 1511: 1510: 1474: 1473: 1415: 1414: 1357:Afrasiyab dynasty 1257:Khorshidi dynasty 1247:Pishkinid dynasty 1137:Ghaznavid dynasty 957:Abbasid Caliphate 947:Umayyad Caliphate 913: 912: 909:550s–11th century 805:Kingdom of Pontus 749:Achaemenid Empire 713:Anshanite Kingdom 674: 673: 577:Oxus Civilization 485: 484: 370: 369: 366: 365: 362: 361: 350:Achaemenid Empire 342: 341: 16:(Redirected from 10700: 10605: 10595: 10594: 10446:National symbols 10300: 10299: 10115:Iranian citizens 10052: 10051: 10043: 10042: 10030: 10029: 10012:Research centers 9701:Economic history 9656: 9655: 9643: 9642: 9577:Guardian Council 9399: 9398: 9386: 9385: 9267: 9266: 9244:Electric history 9239:Military history 9153:Ancient Persians 9061: 9060:shootdown (1988) 9043: 9030: 9027:Iranian Embassy 8997: 8986: 8984:Islamic Republic 8973: 8965:1953 coup d'état 8940: 8927: 8926: 8885: 8882:Khanates of the 8877: 8869: 8861: 8853: 8845: 8837: 8829: 8810: 8802: 8794: 8786: 8779: 8771: 8763: 8755: 8747: 8739: 8720: 8712: 8704: 8696: 8688: 8680: 8672: 8664: 8656: 8643: 8642: 8624: 8605: 8597: 8589: 8581: 8573: 8565: 8557: 8549: 8541: 8522: 8514: 8506: 8498: 8490: 8482: 8474: 8466: 8458: 8450: 8442: 8434: 8421: 8420: 8405: 8404: 8392: 8391: 8376: 8369: 8362: 8353: 8352: 8152: 8151: 7817:Austro-Hungarian 7517:Chagatai Khanate 6882: 6875: 6868: 6859: 6858: 6812:Darius II Nothus 6724: 6723: 6681: 6680: 6646: 6639: 6632: 6623: 6622: 6483:Fall of Ecbatana 6400:Iranian language 6374: 6367: 6360: 6351: 6350: 6342: 6324: 6315: 6297: 6261: 6243: 6207: 6189: 6159: 6141: 6132: 6096: 6060: 6054: 6046: 6028: 6006: 5997: 5979: 5961: 5941: 5922: 5901: 5882: 5864: 5843: 5822: 5799: 5798: 5796: 5795: 5780: 5774: 5767: 5761: 5755: 5749: 5748: 5746: 5745: 5717:(3/4): 115–138. 5701: 5695: 5694: 5692: 5691: 5685: 5652: 5640: 5634: 5633: 5631: 5630: 5616: 5610: 5609: 5607: 5606: 5595: 5589: 5588: 5586: 5585: 5572: 5548: 5542: 5535: 5529: 5528: 5526: 5525: 5509: 5500: 5460: 5454: 5453: 5451: 5450: 5436: 5430: 5429: 5409: 5403: 5402: 5400: 5398: 5387: 5381: 5370: 5359: 5358: 5356: 5355: 5341: 5335: 5334: 5314: 5308: 5302: 5291: 5290: 5288: 5287: 5276: 5263: 5262: 5242: 5236: 5230: 5221: 5220: 5218: 5217: 5206: 5193: 5192: 5190: 5189: 5175: 5166: 5165: 5163: 5162: 5148: 5142: 5141: 5139: 5138: 5124: 5118: 5117: 5115: 5114: 5100: 5091: 5090: 5070: 5061: 5060: 5058: 5057: 5043: 5032: 5026: 5015: 5014: 5012: 5011: 4997: 4991: 4990: 4988: 4987: 4973: 4967: 4966: 4964: 4963: 4949: 4940: 4939: 4937: 4936: 4922: 4916: 4915: 4913: 4912: 4897: 4868: 4857: 4834: 4833: 4813: 4802: 4801: 4781: 4775: 4768: 4759: 4758: 4756: 4755: 4744: 4723: 4722: 4720: 4719: 4705: 4699: 4698: 4696: 4695: 4681: 4675: 4674: 4672: 4671: 4657: 4638: 4598: 4592: 4586: 4553: 4544: 4538: 4531: 4525: 4519: 4513: 4507: 4501: 4500: 4498: 4497: 4483: 4477: 4476: 4456: 4441: 4440: 4438: 4437: 4423: 4417: 4416: 4414: 4413: 4399: 4380: 4373: 4367: 4366: 4364: 4363: 4349: 4338: 4337:, pp. 37–64 4327: 4306: 4292: 4279: 4278: 4276: 4275: 4261: 4255: 4254: 4252: 4251: 4228: 4207: 4206: 4186: 4177: 4176: 4130: 4113: 4112: 4092: 4075: 4074: 4072: 4071: 4057: 4048: 4047: 4045: 4044: 4030: 4024: 4023: 4021: 4020: 4009: 4000: 3999: 3997: 3996: 3985: 3972: 3971: 3969: 3968: 3957: 3940: 3939: 3937: 3936: 3920: 3914: 3913: 3893: 3887: 3886: 3884: 3883: 3869: 3860: 3859: 3857: 3856: 3842: 3831: 3824: 3818: 3817: 3797: 3778: 3772: 3757: 3756: 3728: 3716: 3677: 3676: 3674: 3673: 3659: 3640: 3639: 3609: 3600: 3594: 3588: 3582: 3573: 3562:Yarshater, Ehsan 3559: 3553: 3552: 3532: 3523: 3517: 3451: 3448:George Rawlinson 3436: 3331:Malmesbury Abbey 3238:Robert Rollinger 3222:Ugbaru of Gutium 3173:Median expansion 2934:Son of Cyaxares 2765: 2764: 2643:Parthian empires 2614:Darius the Great 2542:Moses of Chorene 2491: 2488: 2196:Edvin Grantovsky 1978:Sassanian period 1709:political entity 1693: 1692: 1680: 1679: 1658: 1651: 1644: 1630: 1629: 1628: 1599:Military history 1589:Economic history 1567:Related articles 1550:Islamic Republic 1526: 1525: 1489: 1488: 1430: 1429: 1387:Kar-Kiya dynasty 1307:Chobanid dynasty 1297:Ilkhanate Empire 1077:Sallarid dynasty 1047:Saffarid dynasty 933: 932: 778: 775: 743:–11th century AD 742: 739: 703:Scythian Kingdom 689: 688: 619: 606: 583: 570: 547: 530: 500: 499: 480: 467: 454: 441: 428: 418: 417: 400: 390: 372: 371: 358: 357: 346: 345: 333: 332: 319: 318: 312: 311: 296: 295: 285: 282: 220: 217: 82: 72: 69: 65: 62: 54: 48: 47: 37: 36: 21: 10708: 10707: 10703: 10702: 10701: 10699: 10698: 10697: 10673:Ancient Armenia 10618: 10617: 10616: 10611: 10575: 10545: 10524:Rap and hip-hop 10495: 10476:Public holidays 10461:Persian gardens 10450:Imperial Anthem 10441:National Jewels 10396:Iranian studies 10285: 10219: 10171: 10103: 10064:Persian (Farsi) 10037: 10016: 9985: 9947: 9940: 9875:Pharmaceuticals 9820: 9811:Venture capital 9786:Rial (currency) 9771:Nuclear program 9650: 9629: 9596: 9555: 9506:Nuclear program 9471:Judicial system 9393: 9376: 9347:Iranian plateau 9274: 9253: 9137: 9059: 9041: 9028: 8996:History (1979–) 8995: 8987: 8982: 8977: 8971: 8938: 8914: 8883: 8875: 8867: 8859: 8851: 8843: 8835: 8827: 8814: 8808: 8800: 8792: 8784: 8777: 8769: 8761: 8753: 8745: 8737: 8724: 8718: 8710: 8702: 8694: 8686: 8678: 8670: 8662: 8654: 8638: 8628: 8622: 8609: 8603: 8595: 8587: 8579: 8571: 8563: 8555: 8547: 8539: 8526: 8520: 8519:Neo-Babylonian 8512: 8504: 8497:(860 BC–590 BC) 8496: 8488: 8480: 8472: 8465:(c.2300–675 BC) 8464: 8456: 8448: 8440: 8432: 8412: 8399: 8386: 8380: 8350: 8345: 8334:American Empire 8319: 8315:African empires 8267: 8150: 7842:Central African 7788: 7606:Romano-Germanic 7192: 6926:Middle Assyrian 6899: 6891: 6886: 6856: 6851: 6841: 6721: 6720: 6712: 6678: 6677: 6669: 6660: 6650: 6620: 6615: 6599: 6583: 6532: 6528:Darius the Mede 6486: 6466:Battle of Hyrba 6449: 6433: 6404: 6396:Median language 6384: 6378: 6348: 6340: 6313: 6279:10.2307/3258384 6259: 6225:10.2307/4300620 6205: 6187: 6157: 6114:10.2307/4300506 6078:10.2307/4300482 6048: 6047: 6044: 6034:Iranian Studies 6026: 5995: 5977: 5959: 5938: 5919: 5898: 5880: 5861: 5840: 5808: 5803: 5802: 5793: 5791: 5781: 5777: 5768: 5764: 5756: 5752: 5743: 5741: 5723:10.2307/1170959 5702: 5698: 5689: 5687: 5683: 5650: 5641: 5637: 5628: 5626: 5618: 5617: 5613: 5604: 5602: 5598:Steele, Laura. 5596: 5592: 5583: 5581: 5549: 5545: 5536: 5532: 5523: 5521: 5510: 5503: 5461: 5457: 5448: 5446: 5438: 5437: 5433: 5426: 5410: 5406: 5396: 5394: 5389: 5388: 5384: 5371: 5362: 5353: 5351: 5343: 5342: 5338: 5331: 5315: 5311: 5303: 5294: 5285: 5283: 5277: 5266: 5259: 5243: 5239: 5231: 5224: 5215: 5213: 5207: 5196: 5187: 5185: 5177: 5176: 5169: 5160: 5158: 5150: 5149: 5145: 5136: 5134: 5126: 5125: 5121: 5112: 5110: 5102: 5101: 5094: 5087: 5071: 5064: 5055: 5053: 5045: 5044: 5035: 5027: 5018: 5009: 5007: 4999: 4998: 4994: 4985: 4983: 4975: 4974: 4970: 4961: 4959: 4951: 4950: 4943: 4934: 4932: 4924: 4923: 4919: 4910: 4908: 4898: 4871: 4858: 4837: 4830: 4814: 4805: 4798: 4782: 4778: 4769: 4762: 4753: 4751: 4745: 4726: 4717: 4715: 4707: 4706: 4702: 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Eisenbrauns. 4093: 4078: 4069: 4067: 4059: 4058: 4051: 4042: 4040: 4032: 4031: 4027: 4018: 4016: 4012:Nijssen, Daan. 4010: 4003: 3994: 3992: 3986: 3975: 3966: 3964: 3958: 3943: 3934: 3932: 3921: 3917: 3910: 3894: 3890: 3881: 3879: 3871: 3870: 3863: 3854: 3852: 3844: 3843: 3834: 3825: 3821: 3814: 3798: 3781: 3773: 3760: 3753: 3726: 3720:Liverani, Mario 3717: 3680: 3671: 3669: 3661: 3660: 3643: 3636: 3610: 3603: 3595: 3591: 3583: 3576: 3560: 3556: 3549: 3533: 3526: 3518: 3465: 3460: 3455: 3454: 3437: 3433: 3428: 3411:Seleucid Empire 3400:Darius the Mede 3300: 3243:Joachim Oelsner 3175: 3149:, northeast of 3108: 3064: 3019: 2982: 2951: 2862:Son of Deioces 2812:I. M. Diakonoff 2763: 2757: 2675:Cyrus the Great 2663:Assyrian Empire 2651: 2564: 2556:Main articles: 2554: 2489: 2400:of Babylon and 2361:fall of Nineveh 2348: 2342: 2230: 2224: 2176: 2170: 2100: 2057:Adad-nirari III 2037:Shalmaneser III 2024: 2019: 1972:, Baba Jan and 1933:T. Cuyler Young 1899:Tepe Nush-i Jan 1882: 1820: 1818:Textual sources 1815: 1777:in Anatolia to 1729:Assyrian Empire 1717:Iranian plateau 1662: 1632:Iran portal 1626: 1624: 1623: 1615: 1614: 1613: 1604:Women's history 1568: 1560: 1559: 1523: 1513: 1512: 1486: 1476: 1475: 1427: 1417: 1416: 1267:Qutlugh-Khanids 1217:Atabegs of Yazd 1117:Rawadid dynasty 1087:Ziyarid dynasty 1027:Tahirid dynasty 925: 923:Medieval period 915: 914: 899:6th century–785 885:Sasanian Empire 855:Kings of Persis 825:Parthian Empire 795:Seleucid Empire 776: 740: 686: 684:Imperial period 676: 675: 590:Akkadian Empire 537:Lullubi Kingdom 497: 487: 486: 435:Zarzian culture 410: 388: 381: 355: 330: 316: 283: 277: 275:Cyrus the Great 264: 251: 238: 228: 218: 212: 182: 170: 158: 146: 85: 70: 63: 55: 49: 42: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 10706: 10696: 10695: 10690: 10685: 10680: 10675: 10670: 10665: 10660: 10655: 10650: 10645: 10640: 10635: 10630: 10613: 10612: 10610: 10609: 10599: 10588: 10585: 10584: 10581: 10580: 10577: 10576: 10574: 10573: 10568: 10563: 10557: 10555: 10551: 10550: 10547: 10546: 10544: 10543: 10536: 10531: 10526: 10521: 10516: 10511: 10505: 10503: 10497: 10496: 10494: 10493: 10483: 10478: 10473: 10468: 10463: 10458: 10453: 10443: 10438: 10433: 10427: 10413: 10408: 10398: 10393: 10388: 10383: 10378: 10368: 10363: 10358: 10353: 10339: 10334: 10329: 10319: 10313: 10303: 10297: 10291: 10290: 10287: 10286: 10284: 10283: 10278: 10273: 10268: 10263: 10257: 10252: 10247: 10238: 10233: 10227: 10225: 10221: 10220: 10218: 10217: 10212: 10202: 10197: 10187: 10181: 10179: 10173: 10172: 10170: 10169: 10168: 10167: 10162: 10157: 10152: 10147: 10142: 10137: 10132: 10122: 10111: 10109: 10105: 10104: 10102: 10101: 10096: 10091: 10086: 10081: 10076: 10071: 10066: 10060: 10058: 10049: 10039: 10038: 10026: 10025: 10022: 10021: 10018: 10017: 10015: 10014: 10009: 10004: 9999: 9993: 9991: 9987: 9986: 9984: 9983: 9978: 9973: 9968: 9963: 9958: 9952: 9950: 9942: 9941: 9939: 9938: 9933: 9927: 9922: 9917: 9908: 9898: 9888: 9883: 9878: 9868: 9863: 9858: 9857: 9856: 9851: 9841: 9830: 9828: 9822: 9821: 9819: 9818: 9808: 9803: 9798: 9793: 9788: 9783: 9778: 9768: 9763: 9758: 9753: 9748: 9743: 9738: 9733: 9728: 9723: 9718: 9713: 9708: 9703: 9698: 9693: 9688: 9683: 9673: 9668: 9662: 9660: 9652: 9651: 9639: 9638: 9635: 9634: 9631: 9630: 9628: 9627: 9625:Supreme Leader 9622: 9617: 9612: 9606: 9604: 9598: 9597: 9595: 9594: 9589: 9587:Local councils 9584: 9579: 9574: 9569: 9563: 9561: 9557: 9556: 9554: 9553: 9548: 9543: 9533: 9528: 9523: 9518: 9513: 9503: 9498: 9493: 9487: 9482: 9473: 9468: 9467: 9466: 9464:Women's rights 9461: 9456: 9446: 9441: 9436: 9426: 9421: 9411: 9405: 9403: 9395: 9394: 9382: 9381: 9378: 9377: 9375: 9374: 9369: 9364: 9359: 9354: 9349: 9344: 9339: 9334: 9329: 9324: 9319: 9318: 9317: 9315:Climate change 9307: 9302: 9301: 9300: 9295: 9285: 9279: 9276: 9275: 9263: 9262: 9259: 9258: 9255: 9254: 9252: 9251: 9246: 9241: 9236: 9231: 9226: 9221: 9216: 9211: 9206: 9201: 9199:Jiroft culture 9196: 9195: 9194: 9187:Iranic peoples 9184: 9183: 9182: 9181: 9180: 9175: 9163:Persianization 9160: 9155: 9149: 9147: 9143: 9142: 9139: 9138: 9136: 9135: 9130: 9125: 9120: 9115: 9110: 9105: 9100: 9099: 9098: 9088: 9083: 9078: 9073: 9068: 9063: 9055: 9050: 9045: 9037: 9032: 9024: 9019: 9014: 9009: 9004: 8999: 8991: 8989: 8979: 8978: 8976: 8975: 8967: 8962: 8957: 8952: 8947: 8942: 8933: 8931: 8924: 8920: 8919: 8916: 8915: 8913: 8912: 8907: 8902: 8897: 8892: 8887: 8879: 8871: 8863: 8855: 8847: 8839: 8831: 8822: 8820: 8816: 8815: 8813: 8812: 8804: 8796: 8788: 8781: 8773: 8770:(1135/36-1225) 8765: 8757: 8749: 8741: 8732: 8730: 8726: 8725: 8723: 8722: 8714: 8706: 8698: 8690: 8682: 8674: 8666: 8658: 8649: 8647: 8640: 8634: 8633: 8630: 8629: 8627: 8626: 8617: 8615: 8611: 8610: 8608: 8607: 8599: 8591: 8583: 8580:(c.295–220 BC) 8575: 8567: 8559: 8551: 8543: 8534: 8532: 8528: 8527: 8525: 8524: 8516: 8508: 8500: 8492: 8484: 8476: 8468: 8460: 8452: 8444: 8439:Proto-Elamite 8436: 8427: 8425: 8418: 8414: 8413: 8401: 8400: 8388: 8387: 8379: 8378: 8371: 8364: 8356: 8347: 8346: 8344: 8343: 8342: 8341: 8336: 8327: 8325: 8321: 8320: 8318: 8317: 8312: 8307: 8302: 8297: 8292: 8291: 8290: 8279: 8277: 8273: 8272: 8269: 8268: 8266: 8265: 8260: 8255: 8250: 8245: 8244: 8243: 8233: 8228: 8223: 8218: 8213: 8208: 8203: 8198: 8193: 8188: 8187: 8186: 8181: 8171: 8166: 8160: 8158: 8149: 8148: 8147: 8146: 8141: 8136: 8131: 8126: 8116: 8111: 8110: 8109: 8099: 8094: 8093: 8092: 8087: 8082: 8072: 8067: 8066: 8065: 8060: 8050: 8049: 8048: 8043: 8038: 8033: 8028: 8018: 8017: 8016: 8011: 8001: 7996: 7991: 7986: 7985: 7984: 7979: 7974: 7969: 7964: 7954: 7953: 7952: 7947: 7937: 7932: 7931: 7930: 7925: 7915: 7914: 7913: 7908: 7898: 7897: 7896: 7891: 7881: 7876: 7875: 7874: 7869: 7864: 7859: 7854: 7844: 7839: 7838: 7837: 7832: 7824: 7819: 7814: 7809: 7804: 7798: 7796: 7790: 7789: 7787: 7786: 7781: 7776: 7771: 7770: 7769: 7764: 7759: 7754: 7749: 7744: 7739: 7729: 7724: 7723: 7722: 7717: 7712: 7707: 7702: 7697: 7687: 7686: 7685: 7680: 7675: 7670: 7660: 7655: 7650: 7645: 7640: 7635: 7630: 7625: 7620: 7619: 7618: 7613: 7603: 7602: 7601: 7596: 7591: 7586: 7581: 7576: 7563: 7558: 7553: 7548: 7547: 7546: 7541: 7536: 7526: 7525: 7524: 7519: 7514: 7509: 7499: 7494: 7489: 7484: 7479: 7474: 7473: 7472: 7467: 7462: 7457: 7447: 7446: 7445: 7440: 7435: 7430: 7420: 7419: 7418: 7413: 7408: 7398: 7393: 7388: 7383: 7378: 7377: 7376: 7371: 7366: 7356: 7351: 7350: 7349: 7344: 7339: 7334: 7329: 7324: 7314: 7313: 7312: 7307: 7297: 7296: 7295: 7290: 7285: 7280: 7270: 7265: 7264: 7263: 7253: 7252: 7251: 7246: 7238: 7233: 7228: 7223: 7218: 7213: 7208: 7202: 7200: 7198:Post-classical 7194: 7193: 7191: 7190: 7189: 7188: 7178: 7173: 7172: 7171: 7166: 7156: 7155: 7154: 7144: 7143: 7142: 7137: 7132: 7127: 7122: 7117: 7107: 7102: 7097: 7096: 7095: 7090: 7085: 7080: 7070: 7069: 7068: 7063: 7053: 7048: 7047: 7046: 7041: 7036: 7031: 7026: 7016: 7011: 7006: 7005: 7004: 6999: 6997:Middle Kingdom 6994: 6984: 6979: 6978: 6977: 6972: 6967: 6957: 6956: 6955: 6953:Neo-Babylonian 6950: 6945: 6943:Old Babylonian 6935: 6934: 6933: 6928: 6918: 6913: 6907: 6905: 6893: 6892: 6885: 6884: 6877: 6870: 6862: 6853: 6852: 6846: 6843: 6842: 6840: 6839: 6834: 6829: 6824: 6819: 6814: 6809: 6804: 6799: 6794: 6789: 6784: 6779: 6774: 6769: 6764: 6759: 6754: 6749: 6742: 6735: 6727: 6725: 6714: 6713: 6711: 6710: 6705: 6700: 6695: 6690: 6684: 6682: 6671: 6670: 6665: 6662: 6661: 6649: 6648: 6641: 6634: 6626: 6617: 6616: 6614: 6613: 6607: 6605: 6601: 6600: 6598: 6597: 6591: 6589: 6585: 6584: 6582: 6581: 6576: 6571: 6566: 6561: 6556: 6551: 6546: 6540: 6538: 6534: 6533: 6531: 6530: 6525: 6520: 6515: 6510: 6505: 6500: 6494: 6492: 6488: 6487: 6485: 6484: 6481: 6476: 6473: 6468: 6463: 6461:Persian Revolt 6457: 6455: 6451: 6450: 6448: 6447: 6441: 6439: 6435: 6434: 6432: 6431: 6425: 6419: 6412: 6410: 6406: 6405: 6403: 6402: 6392: 6390: 6386: 6385: 6377: 6376: 6369: 6362: 6354: 6347: 6346: 6343: 6338: 6325: 6316: 6311: 6298: 6273:(3): 177–186, 6269:, New Series, 6262: 6257: 6244: 6208: 6203: 6190: 6185: 6160: 6155: 6142: 6133: 6097: 6061: 6042: 6029: 6024: 6007: 5998: 5993: 5980: 5975: 5962: 5957: 5942: 5937:978-2700015249 5936: 5923: 5917: 5902: 5897:978-0415394857 5896: 5883: 5878: 5865: 5860:978-1119174288 5859: 5844: 5838: 5823: 5809: 5807: 5804: 5801: 5800: 5775: 5762: 5750: 5696: 5663:(2): 219–229. 5644:Turchin, Peter 5635: 5611: 5590: 5543: 5530: 5501: 5455: 5431: 5424: 5404: 5382: 5360: 5336: 5329: 5309: 5305:Rollinger 2021 5292: 5264: 5257: 5237: 5233:Rollinger 2021 5222: 5194: 5167: 5143: 5119: 5092: 5085: 5062: 5033: 5029:Diakonoff 1985 5016: 4992: 4968: 4941: 4917: 4869: 4835: 4828: 4803: 4796: 4776: 4760: 4724: 4700: 4676: 4639: 4593: 4589:Rawlinson 2007 4554: 4539: 4526: 4524:, p. 109. 4522:Diakonoff 1985 4514: 4502: 4478: 4471: 4442: 4427:"Ancient Iran" 4418: 4381: 4368: 4339: 4307: 4295:"Medos, Média" 4280: 4256: 4243: 4208: 4201: 4178: 4159:(4): 517–533. 4114: 4107: 4076: 4049: 4025: 4001: 3988:Waters, Matt. 3973: 3960:Waters, Matt. 3941: 3915: 3908: 3888: 3861: 3832: 3819: 3812: 3779: 3775:Rollinger 2021 3758: 3751: 3678: 3641: 3634: 3601: 3597:Rollinger 2021 3589: 3585:Dandamaev 1989 3574: 3554: 3547: 3524: 3462: 3461: 3459: 3456: 3453: 3452: 3444:Median dynasty 3430: 3429: 3427: 3424: 3395: 3394: 3383: 3376: 3373: 3354:book of Daniel 3299: 3296: 3174: 3171: 3147:Mount Damavand 3107: 3104: 3063: 3060: 3018: 3015: 2981: 2978: 2950: 2947: 2944: 2943: 2936: 2935: 2932: 2929: 2926: 2923: 2920: 2912: 2911: 2908: 2905: 2902: 2899: 2896: 2888: 2887: 2884: 2881: 2878: 2875: 2872: 2864: 2863: 2860: 2857: 2854: 2851: 2848: 2840: 2839: 2836: 2833: 2830: 2827: 2824: 2816: 2815: 2807: 2799: 2796:George Cameron 2791: 2782: 2781: 2776: 2771: 2761:Median dynasty 2759:Main article: 2756: 2753: 2701:David Stronach 2650: 2647: 2562:Media (region) 2553: 2550: 2522:Median dynasty 2490: 600 BCE 2341: 2338: 2329:Mario Liverani 2226:Main article: 2223: 2220: 2200:George Cameron 2169: 2166: 2099: 2096: 2041:Shamshi-Adad V 2023: 2020: 2018: 2015: 1946:Mario Liverani 1924:David Stronach 1881: 1878: 1819: 1816: 1814: 1811: 1737:Median kingdom 1664: 1663: 1661: 1660: 1653: 1646: 1638: 1635: 1634: 1617: 1616: 1612: 1611: 1606: 1601: 1596: 1591: 1586: 1584:Heads of state 1581: 1576: 1570: 1569: 1566: 1565: 1562: 1561: 1556: 1555: 1552: 1546: 1545: 1542: 1536: 1535: 1532: 1524: 1519: 1518: 1515: 1514: 1509: 1508: 1505: 1499: 1498: 1495: 1487: 1482: 1481: 1478: 1477: 1472: 1471: 1468: 1462: 1461: 1458: 1452: 1451: 1448: 1440: 1439: 1436: 1428: 1423: 1422: 1419: 1418: 1413: 1412: 1409: 1403: 1402: 1399: 1393: 1392: 1389: 1383: 1382: 1379: 1377:Timurid Empire 1373: 1372: 1369: 1363: 1362: 1359: 1353: 1352: 1349: 1343: 1342: 1339: 1333: 1332: 1329: 1323: 1322: 1319: 1313: 1312: 1309: 1303: 1302: 1299: 1293: 1292: 1289: 1283: 1282: 1279: 1273: 1272: 1269: 1263: 1262: 1259: 1253: 1252: 1249: 1243: 1242: 1239: 1233: 1232: 1229: 1223: 1222: 1219: 1213: 1212: 1209: 1203: 1202: 1199: 1193: 1192: 1189: 1183: 1182: 1179: 1173: 1172: 1169: 1167:Nasrid dynasty 1163: 1162: 1159: 1153: 1152: 1149: 1143: 1142: 1139: 1133: 1132: 1129: 1123: 1122: 1119: 1113: 1112: 1109: 1103: 1102: 1099: 1093: 1092: 1089: 1083: 1082: 1079: 1073: 1072: 1069: 1063: 1062: 1061:pre-879 – 1215 1059: 1057:Ghurid dynasty 1053: 1052: 1049: 1043: 1042: 1039: 1037:Samanid Empire 1033: 1032: 1029: 1023: 1022: 1019: 1017:Alid dynasties 1013: 1012: 1009: 1003: 1002: 999: 993: 992: 989: 983: 982: 979: 973: 972: 969: 963: 962: 959: 953: 952: 949: 943: 942: 939: 926: 921: 920: 917: 916: 911: 910: 907: 901: 900: 897: 891: 890: 887: 881: 880: 877: 871: 870: 867: 861: 860: 857: 851: 850: 847: 841: 840: 837: 831: 830: 827: 821: 820: 817: 811: 810: 807: 801: 800: 797: 791: 790: 787: 781: 780: 771: 765: 764: 761: 755: 754: 751: 745: 744: 735: 729: 728: 725: 719: 718: 715: 709: 708: 705: 699: 698: 695: 687: 682: 681: 678: 677: 672: 671: 668: 662: 661: 658: 652: 651: 648: 642: 641: 638: 632: 631: 628: 622: 621: 615: 613:Avestan period 609: 608: 602: 596: 595: 592: 586: 585: 579: 573: 572: 566: 560: 559: 556: 550: 549: 543: 533: 532: 526: 524:Jiroft culture 520: 519: 516: 510: 509: 506: 498: 495:Ancient period 493: 492: 489: 488: 483: 482: 481:5th millennium 476: 470: 469: 468:6th millennium 463: 457: 456: 450: 444: 443: 437: 431: 430: 424: 411: 406: 405: 402: 401: 393: 392: 383: 382: 375: 368: 367: 364: 363: 360: 359: 352: 343: 340: 339: 334: 326: 325: 320: 308: 307: 302: 292: 291: 288: 287: 278: 272: 269: 268: 265: 259: 256: 255: 252: 246: 243: 242: 239: 236: 233: 232: 229: 226: 223: 222: 213: 210: 207: 206: 203: 202: 197: 196:Historical era 193: 192: 189: 188: 183: 180: 177: 176: 171: 168: 165: 164: 159: 156: 153: 152: 147: 144: 141: 140: 137: 136: 133: 127: 126: 121: 117: 116: 111: 107: 106: 101: 97: 96: 91: 87: 86: 83: 75: 74: 57: 56: 43: 41:Median kingdom 40: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 10705: 10694: 10691: 10689: 10686: 10684: 10681: 10679: 10676: 10674: 10671: 10669: 10666: 10664: 10661: 10659: 10656: 10654: 10651: 10649: 10646: 10644: 10641: 10639: 10636: 10634: 10631: 10629: 10626: 10625: 10623: 10608: 10604: 10600: 10598: 10590: 10589: 10586: 10572: 10569: 10567: 10564: 10562: 10559: 10558: 10556: 10552: 10542: 10541: 10537: 10535: 10532: 10530: 10527: 10525: 10522: 10520: 10517: 10515: 10512: 10510: 10507: 10506: 10504: 10502: 10498: 10491: 10487: 10484: 10482: 10479: 10477: 10474: 10472: 10469: 10467: 10464: 10462: 10459: 10457: 10454: 10451: 10447: 10444: 10442: 10439: 10437: 10434: 10431: 10428: 10425: 10421: 10420:news agencies 10417: 10414: 10412: 10409: 10406: 10402: 10399: 10397: 10394: 10392: 10389: 10387: 10384: 10382: 10379: 10376: 10372: 10369: 10367: 10364: 10362: 10359: 10357: 10354: 10351: 10349: 10343: 10340: 10338: 10335: 10333: 10330: 10327: 10323: 10320: 10317: 10314: 10312: 10308: 10305: 10304: 10301: 10298: 10296: 10292: 10282: 10279: 10277: 10274: 10272: 10269: 10267: 10264: 10261: 10258: 10256: 10253: 10251: 10248: 10246: 10242: 10239: 10237: 10234: 10232: 10229: 10228: 10226: 10222: 10216: 10213: 10210: 10206: 10203: 10201: 10198: 10195: 10191: 10188: 10186: 10183: 10182: 10180: 10178: 10174: 10166: 10163: 10161: 10158: 10156: 10153: 10151: 10148: 10146: 10143: 10141: 10138: 10136: 10133: 10131: 10128: 10127: 10126: 10123: 10120: 10116: 10113: 10112: 10110: 10106: 10100: 10097: 10095: 10092: 10090: 10087: 10085: 10082: 10080: 10077: 10075: 10072: 10070: 10067: 10065: 10062: 10061: 10059: 10057: 10053: 10050: 10048: 10044: 10040: 10036: 10031: 10027: 10013: 10010: 10008: 10005: 10003: 10000: 9998: 9995: 9994: 9992: 9988: 9982: 9979: 9977: 9974: 9972: 9969: 9967: 9964: 9962: 9959: 9957: 9954: 9953: 9951: 9949: 9943: 9937: 9934: 9931: 9928: 9926: 9923: 9921: 9918: 9916: 9912: 9909: 9906: 9902: 9899: 9896: 9892: 9889: 9887: 9884: 9882: 9879: 9876: 9872: 9869: 9867: 9864: 9862: 9859: 9855: 9852: 9850: 9847: 9846: 9845: 9842: 9839: 9835: 9832: 9831: 9829: 9827: 9823: 9816: 9812: 9809: 9807: 9804: 9802: 9799: 9797: 9794: 9792: 9789: 9787: 9784: 9782: 9781:Privatization 9779: 9776: 9772: 9769: 9767: 9764: 9762: 9759: 9757: 9754: 9752: 9749: 9747: 9744: 9742: 9739: 9737: 9734: 9732: 9729: 9727: 9724: 9722: 9719: 9717: 9714: 9712: 9709: 9707: 9704: 9702: 9699: 9697: 9694: 9692: 9689: 9687: 9684: 9681: 9677: 9674: 9672: 9669: 9667: 9664: 9663: 9661: 9657: 9653: 9649: 9644: 9640: 9626: 9623: 9621: 9618: 9616: 9613: 9611: 9608: 9607: 9605: 9603: 9599: 9593: 9590: 9588: 9585: 9583: 9580: 9578: 9575: 9573: 9570: 9568: 9565: 9564: 9562: 9558: 9552: 9549: 9547: 9544: 9541: 9537: 9534: 9532: 9529: 9527: 9524: 9522: 9519: 9517: 9514: 9511: 9507: 9504: 9502: 9499: 9497: 9494: 9491: 9488: 9486: 9483: 9481: 9477: 9474: 9472: 9469: 9465: 9462: 9460: 9457: 9455: 9452: 9451: 9450: 9447: 9445: 9442: 9440: 9437: 9434: 9430: 9427: 9425: 9422: 9419: 9415: 9412: 9410: 9407: 9406: 9404: 9400: 9396: 9392: 9387: 9383: 9373: 9370: 9368: 9365: 9363: 9360: 9358: 9355: 9353: 9350: 9348: 9345: 9343: 9340: 9338: 9335: 9333: 9330: 9328: 9325: 9323: 9320: 9316: 9313: 9312: 9311: 9308: 9306: 9303: 9299: 9296: 9294: 9291: 9290: 9289: 9286: 9284: 9281: 9280: 9277: 9273: 9268: 9264: 9250: 9249:Years in Iran 9247: 9245: 9242: 9240: 9237: 9235: 9232: 9230: 9227: 9225: 9222: 9220: 9217: 9215: 9212: 9210: 9207: 9205: 9202: 9200: 9197: 9193: 9190: 9189: 9188: 9185: 9179: 9176: 9174: 9173:Turco-Persian 9171: 9170: 9169: 9166: 9165: 9164: 9161: 9159: 9156: 9154: 9151: 9150: 9148: 9144: 9134: 9131: 9129: 9126: 9124: 9121: 9119: 9116: 9114: 9111: 9109: 9106: 9104: 9101: 9097: 9094: 9093: 9092: 9089: 9087: 9084: 9082: 9079: 9077: 9074: 9072: 9069: 9067: 9064: 9062: 9056: 9054: 9051: 9049: 9046: 9044: 9042:War (1980–88) 9038: 9036: 9033: 9031: 9025: 9023: 9020: 9018: 9015: 9013: 9010: 9008: 9005: 9003: 9000: 8998: 8993: 8992: 8990: 8985: 8980: 8974: 8968: 8966: 8963: 8961: 8958: 8956: 8953: 8951: 8948: 8946: 8943: 8941: 8935: 8934: 8932: 8928: 8925: 8921: 8911: 8908: 8906: 8903: 8901: 8898: 8896: 8893: 8891: 8888: 8886: 8880: 8878: 8872: 8870: 8864: 8862: 8856: 8854: 8848: 8846: 8840: 8838: 8834:Qara Qoyunlu 8832: 8830: 8824: 8823: 8821: 8817: 8811: 8805: 8803: 8797: 8795: 8789: 8787: 8782: 8780: 8774: 8772: 8766: 8764: 8758: 8756: 8750: 8748: 8742: 8740: 8734: 8733: 8731: 8727: 8721: 8715: 8713: 8707: 8705: 8699: 8697: 8691: 8689: 8683: 8681: 8675: 8673: 8667: 8665: 8659: 8657: 8651: 8650: 8648: 8644: 8641: 8635: 8625: 8619: 8618: 8616: 8612: 8606: 8600: 8598: 8592: 8590: 8584: 8582: 8576: 8574: 8568: 8566: 8560: 8558: 8552: 8550: 8544: 8542: 8536: 8535: 8533: 8531:550 BC–AD 224 8529: 8523: 8517: 8515: 8509: 8507: 8501: 8499: 8493: 8491: 8487:Neo-Assyrian 8485: 8483: 8477: 8475: 8469: 8467: 8461: 8459: 8453: 8451: 8445: 8443: 8437: 8435: 8429: 8428: 8426: 8422: 8419: 8415: 8411: 8406: 8402: 8398: 8393: 8389: 8384: 8377: 8372: 8370: 8365: 8363: 8358: 8357: 8354: 8340: 8339:Soviet empire 8337: 8335: 8332: 8331: 8329: 8328: 8326: 8324:Miscellaneous 8322: 8316: 8313: 8311: 8308: 8306: 8303: 8301: 8298: 8296: 8293: 8289: 8286: 8285: 8284: 8281: 8280: 8278: 8274: 8264: 8261: 8259: 8256: 8254: 8251: 8249: 8246: 8242: 8239: 8238: 8237: 8234: 8232: 8229: 8227: 8224: 8222: 8219: 8217: 8214: 8212: 8209: 8207: 8204: 8202: 8199: 8197: 8194: 8192: 8189: 8185: 8182: 8180: 8177: 8176: 8175: 8172: 8170: 8167: 8165: 8162: 8161: 8159: 8157: 8153: 8145: 8142: 8140: 8137: 8135: 8132: 8130: 8127: 8125: 8122: 8121: 8120: 8117: 8115: 8112: 8108: 8105: 8104: 8103: 8100: 8098: 8095: 8091: 8088: 8086: 8083: 8081: 8078: 8077: 8076: 8073: 8071: 8068: 8064: 8061: 8059: 8056: 8055: 8054: 8051: 8047: 8044: 8042: 8039: 8037: 8034: 8032: 8029: 8027: 8024: 8023: 8022: 8019: 8015: 8012: 8010: 8007: 8006: 8005: 8002: 8000: 7997: 7995: 7992: 7990: 7987: 7983: 7980: 7978: 7975: 7973: 7970: 7968: 7965: 7963: 7960: 7959: 7958: 7955: 7951: 7948: 7946: 7943: 7942: 7941: 7938: 7936: 7933: 7929: 7926: 7924: 7923:German Empire 7921: 7920: 7919: 7916: 7912: 7909: 7907: 7904: 7903: 7902: 7899: 7895: 7892: 7890: 7887: 7886: 7885: 7882: 7880: 7877: 7873: 7870: 7868: 7865: 7863: 7860: 7858: 7855: 7853: 7850: 7849: 7848: 7845: 7843: 7840: 7836: 7833: 7831: 7828: 7827: 7825: 7823: 7820: 7818: 7815: 7813: 7810: 7808: 7805: 7803: 7800: 7799: 7797: 7795: 7791: 7785: 7782: 7780: 7777: 7775: 7772: 7768: 7765: 7763: 7760: 7758: 7755: 7753: 7750: 7748: 7745: 7743: 7740: 7738: 7735: 7734: 7733: 7730: 7728: 7725: 7721: 7718: 7716: 7713: 7711: 7708: 7706: 7703: 7701: 7698: 7696: 7693: 7692: 7691: 7688: 7684: 7681: 7679: 7676: 7674: 7671: 7669: 7666: 7665: 7664: 7663:Turco-Persian 7661: 7659: 7656: 7654: 7651: 7649: 7646: 7644: 7641: 7639: 7636: 7634: 7631: 7629: 7626: 7624: 7621: 7617: 7614: 7612: 7609: 7608: 7607: 7604: 7600: 7597: 7595: 7592: 7590: 7587: 7585: 7582: 7580: 7577: 7575: 7572: 7571: 7570: 7567: 7564: 7562: 7559: 7557: 7554: 7552: 7549: 7545: 7542: 7540: 7537: 7535: 7532: 7531: 7530: 7527: 7523: 7520: 7518: 7515: 7513: 7510: 7508: 7505: 7504: 7503: 7500: 7498: 7495: 7493: 7490: 7488: 7485: 7483: 7480: 7478: 7475: 7471: 7468: 7466: 7463: 7461: 7458: 7456: 7453: 7452: 7451: 7448: 7444: 7441: 7439: 7436: 7434: 7431: 7429: 7426: 7425: 7424: 7421: 7417: 7414: 7412: 7409: 7407: 7404: 7403: 7402: 7399: 7397: 7394: 7392: 7389: 7387: 7384: 7382: 7379: 7375: 7372: 7370: 7367: 7365: 7362: 7361: 7360: 7357: 7355: 7352: 7348: 7345: 7343: 7340: 7338: 7335: 7333: 7330: 7328: 7325: 7323: 7320: 7319: 7318: 7315: 7311: 7308: 7306: 7303: 7302: 7301: 7298: 7294: 7291: 7289: 7286: 7284: 7281: 7279: 7276: 7275: 7274: 7271: 7269: 7266: 7262: 7259: 7258: 7257: 7254: 7250: 7247: 7245: 7242: 7241: 7239: 7237: 7234: 7232: 7229: 7227: 7224: 7222: 7219: 7217: 7214: 7212: 7209: 7207: 7204: 7203: 7201: 7199: 7195: 7187: 7184: 7183: 7182: 7179: 7177: 7174: 7170: 7167: 7165: 7162: 7161: 7160: 7157: 7153: 7150: 7149: 7148: 7145: 7141: 7138: 7136: 7133: 7131: 7128: 7126: 7123: 7121: 7118: 7116: 7113: 7112: 7111: 7108: 7106: 7103: 7101: 7098: 7094: 7091: 7089: 7086: 7084: 7081: 7079: 7076: 7075: 7074: 7071: 7067: 7064: 7062: 7059: 7058: 7057: 7054: 7052: 7049: 7045: 7042: 7040: 7037: 7035: 7032: 7030: 7027: 7025: 7022: 7021: 7020: 7017: 7015: 7012: 7010: 7007: 7003: 7000: 6998: 6995: 6993: 6990: 6989: 6988: 6985: 6983: 6980: 6976: 6973: 6971: 6968: 6966: 6963: 6962: 6961: 6958: 6954: 6951: 6949: 6946: 6944: 6941: 6940: 6939: 6936: 6932: 6929: 6927: 6924: 6923: 6922: 6919: 6917: 6914: 6912: 6909: 6908: 6906: 6903: 6898: 6894: 6890: 6883: 6878: 6876: 6871: 6869: 6864: 6863: 6860: 6849: 6844: 6838: 6835: 6833: 6830: 6828: 6825: 6823: 6820: 6818: 6815: 6813: 6810: 6808: 6805: 6803: 6800: 6798: 6795: 6793: 6790: 6788: 6785: 6783: 6780: 6778: 6775: 6773: 6770: 6768: 6765: 6763: 6760: 6758: 6755: 6753: 6750: 6748: 6747: 6743: 6741: 6740: 6736: 6734: 6733: 6729: 6728: 6726: 6719: 6715: 6709: 6706: 6704: 6701: 6699: 6696: 6694: 6691: 6689: 6686: 6685: 6683: 6676: 6672: 6668: 6663: 6658: 6654: 6647: 6642: 6640: 6635: 6633: 6628: 6627: 6624: 6612: 6609: 6608: 6606: 6602: 6596: 6593: 6592: 6590: 6586: 6580: 6577: 6575: 6572: 6570: 6567: 6565: 6562: 6560: 6557: 6555: 6552: 6550: 6547: 6545: 6542: 6541: 6539: 6537:Other Medians 6535: 6529: 6526: 6524: 6521: 6519: 6516: 6514: 6511: 6509: 6506: 6504: 6501: 6499: 6496: 6495: 6493: 6491:Kings/Satraps 6489: 6482: 6480: 6477: 6474: 6472: 6469: 6467: 6464: 6462: 6459: 6458: 6456: 6452: 6446: 6443: 6442: 6440: 6436: 6429: 6426: 6423: 6420: 6417: 6414: 6413: 6411: 6407: 6401: 6397: 6394: 6393: 6391: 6387: 6382: 6375: 6370: 6368: 6363: 6361: 6356: 6355: 6352: 6344: 6341: 6335: 6331: 6326: 6322: 6317: 6314: 6308: 6304: 6299: 6296: 6292: 6288: 6284: 6280: 6276: 6272: 6268: 6263: 6260: 6254: 6250: 6245: 6242: 6238: 6234: 6230: 6226: 6222: 6218: 6214: 6209: 6206: 6200: 6196: 6191: 6188: 6186:9781139054317 6182: 6178: 6174: 6170: 6166: 6161: 6158: 6152: 6148: 6143: 6139: 6134: 6131: 6127: 6123: 6119: 6115: 6111: 6107: 6103: 6098: 6095: 6091: 6087: 6083: 6079: 6075: 6071: 6067: 6062: 6058: 6052: 6045: 6039: 6035: 6030: 6027: 6021: 6017: 6013: 6008: 6004: 5999: 5996: 5990: 5986: 5981: 5978: 5972: 5968: 5963: 5960: 5954: 5950: 5949: 5943: 5939: 5933: 5929: 5924: 5920: 5914: 5910: 5909: 5903: 5899: 5893: 5889: 5884: 5881: 5875: 5871: 5866: 5862: 5856: 5852: 5851: 5845: 5841: 5835: 5831: 5830: 5824: 5820: 5816: 5811: 5810: 5790: 5786: 5779: 5772: 5766: 5759: 5754: 5740: 5736: 5732: 5728: 5724: 5720: 5716: 5712: 5711: 5707: 5700: 5682: 5678: 5674: 5670: 5666: 5662: 5658: 5657: 5649: 5645: 5639: 5625: 5621: 5615: 5601: 5594: 5580: 5576: 5571: 5566: 5562: 5558: 5554: 5547: 5540: 5534: 5519: 5515: 5508: 5506: 5499: 5496: 5493: 5490: 5487: 5484: 5481: 5478: 5474: 5470: 5469: 5464: 5459: 5445: 5441: 5435: 5427: 5421: 5417: 5416: 5408: 5392: 5386: 5379: 5375: 5369: 5367: 5365: 5350: 5346: 5340: 5332: 5326: 5322: 5321: 5313: 5306: 5301: 5299: 5297: 5282: 5275: 5273: 5271: 5269: 5260: 5254: 5250: 5249: 5241: 5234: 5229: 5227: 5212: 5205: 5203: 5201: 5199: 5184: 5180: 5174: 5172: 5157: 5153: 5147: 5133: 5129: 5123: 5109: 5105: 5099: 5097: 5088: 5082: 5078: 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Routledge. 4821: 4820: 4812: 4810: 4808: 4799: 4793: 4789: 4788: 4780: 4773: 4767: 4765: 4750: 4743: 4741: 4739: 4737: 4735: 4733: 4731: 4729: 4714: 4710: 4704: 4690: 4686: 4680: 4666: 4662: 4656: 4654: 4652: 4650: 4648: 4646: 4644: 4637: 4634: 4631: 4628: 4625: 4622: 4619: 4616: 4612: 4608: 4607: 4602: 4597: 4590: 4585: 4583: 4581: 4579: 4577: 4575: 4573: 4571: 4569: 4567: 4565: 4563: 4561: 4559: 4551: 4548: 4543: 4536: 4530: 4523: 4518: 4511: 4506: 4492: 4488: 4482: 4474: 4468: 4464: 4463: 4455: 4453: 4451: 4449: 4447: 4432: 4428: 4422: 4408: 4404: 4398: 4396: 4394: 4392: 4390: 4388: 4386: 4378: 4372: 4358: 4354: 4348: 4346: 4344: 4336: 4332: 4326: 4324: 4322: 4320: 4318: 4316: 4314: 4312: 4304: 4300: 4296: 4291: 4289: 4287: 4285: 4270: 4266: 4260: 4246: 4240: 4236: 4235: 4227: 4225: 4223: 4221: 4219: 4217: 4215: 4213: 4204: 4198: 4194: 4193: 4185: 4183: 4174: 4170: 4166: 4162: 4158: 4154: 4153: 4148: 4144: 4140: 4139:Roaf, Michael 4136: 4129: 4127: 4125: 4123: 4121: 4119: 4110: 4104: 4100: 4099: 4091: 4089: 4087: 4085: 4083: 4081: 4066: 4062: 4056: 4054: 4039: 4035: 4029: 4015: 4008: 4006: 3991: 3984: 3982: 3980: 3978: 3963: 3956: 3954: 3952: 3950: 3948: 3946: 3930: 3926: 3919: 3911: 3905: 3901: 3900: 3892: 3878: 3874: 3868: 3866: 3851: 3847: 3841: 3839: 3837: 3829: 3823: 3815: 3809: 3805: 3804: 3796: 3794: 3792: 3790: 3788: 3786: 3784: 3776: 3771: 3769: 3767: 3765: 3763: 3754: 3748: 3744: 3740: 3736: 3732: 3731:Roaf, Michael 3725: 3721: 3715: 3713: 3711: 3709: 3707: 3705: 3703: 3701: 3699: 3697: 3695: 3693: 3691: 3689: 3687: 3685: 3683: 3668: 3664: 3658: 3656: 3654: 3652: 3650: 3648: 3646: 3637: 3631: 3627: 3623: 3619: 3615: 3608: 3606: 3598: 3593: 3586: 3581: 3579: 3571: 3567: 3563: 3558: 3550: 3544: 3540: 3539: 3531: 3529: 3521: 3516: 3514: 3512: 3510: 3508: 3506: 3504: 3502: 3500: 3498: 3496: 3494: 3492: 3490: 3488: 3486: 3484: 3482: 3480: 3478: 3476: 3474: 3472: 3470: 3468: 3463: 3449: 3445: 3441: 3435: 3431: 3423: 3420: 3416: 3412: 3408: 3403: 3401: 3392: 3388: 3384: 3381: 3377: 3374: 3371: 3367: 3366: 3365: 3363: 3359: 3356:mentions the 3355: 3351: 3347: 3340: 3336: 3332: 3327: 3323: 3321: 3315: 3313: 3309: 3304: 3295: 3291: 3288: 3284: 3280: 3276: 3272: 3268: 3264: 3260: 3256: 3252: 3247: 3244: 3239: 3229: 3225: 3223: 3219: 3215: 3210: 3205: 3200: 3196: 3191: 3189: 3184: 3180: 3170: 3166: 3164: 3160: 3156: 3152: 3148: 3143: 3142:Dasht-e Kavir 3139: 3135: 3131: 3127: 3122: 3112: 3103: 3099: 3097: 3093: 3089: 3084: 3083:Hilary Gopnik 3080: 3076: 3068: 3059: 3057: 3053: 3049: 3045: 3041: 3035: 3033: 3032:Nisean horses 3023: 3014: 3011: 3006: 3004: 3000: 2994: 2986: 2977: 2975: 2974:Maria Brosius 2971: 2970:strictu sensu 2966: 2963: 2959: 2957: 2956:king of kings 2942: 2937: 2933: 2930: 2927: 2924: 2921: 2919: 2918: 2914: 2913: 2909: 2906: 2903: 2900: 2897: 2895: 2894: 2890: 2889: 2885: 2882: 2879: 2876: 2873: 2871: 2870: 2866: 2865: 2861: 2858: 2855: 2852: 2849: 2847: 2846: 2842: 2841: 2837: 2834: 2831: 2828: 2825: 2823: 2822: 2818: 2817: 2814: 2813: 2808: 2806: 2805: 2800: 2798: 2797: 2792: 2790: 2789: 2784: 2783: 2780: 2775: 2770: 2766: 2762: 2751: 2746: 2744: 2740: 2736: 2732: 2728: 2724: 2718: 2715: 2709: 2707: 2702: 2697: 2691: 2689: 2685: 2684:Medikos Logos 2680: 2676: 2672: 2668: 2664: 2655: 2646: 2644: 2640: 2636: 2635:Tritantechmes 2632: 2628: 2623: 2619: 2615: 2611: 2601: 2597: 2595: 2591: 2586: 2581: 2578: 2572: 2569: 2563: 2559: 2549: 2547: 2543: 2539: 2535: 2529: 2527: 2523: 2519: 2515: 2511: 2507: 2503: 2499: 2483: 2479: 2477: 2476: 2471: 2467: 2463: 2459: 2455: 2451: 2447: 2443: 2439: 2435: 2431: 2427: 2423: 2417: 2415: 2411: 2407: 2403: 2399: 2394: 2390: 2386: 2381: 2377: 2375: 2371: 2367: 2362: 2352: 2347: 2337: 2335: 2330: 2326: 2321: 2319: 2314: 2310: 2306: 2302: 2297: 2293: 2289: 2285: 2281: 2277: 2273: 2269: 2265: 2259: 2257: 2252: 2248: 2243: 2234: 2229: 2219: 2215: 2213: 2209: 2203: 2201: 2197: 2193: 2185: 2184:composite bow 2180: 2175: 2165: 2163: 2159: 2158: 2153: 2148: 2146: 2142: 2138: 2134: 2128: 2125: 2121: 2116: 2114: 2110: 2105: 2095: 2092: 2088: 2084: 2079: 2077: 2073: 2069: 2064: 2062: 2058: 2054: 2050: 2046: 2042: 2038: 2028: 2014: 2011: 2007: 2003: 1999: 1995: 1991: 1987: 1983: 1979: 1975: 1971: 1967: 1958: 1954: 1952: 1947: 1941: 1939: 1934: 1929: 1925: 1919: 1916: 1912: 1908: 1904: 1900: 1896: 1892: 1888: 1877: 1873: 1871: 1870: 1865: 1864:Artaxerxes II 1861: 1856: 1852: 1851: 1846: 1837: 1833: 1830: 1826: 1810: 1806: 1804: 1800: 1796: 1792: 1788: 1784: 1783:Median empire 1780: 1776: 1772: 1768: 1764: 1760: 1755: 1753: 1749: 1745: 1740: 1738: 1734: 1730: 1726: 1725:Zagros region 1722: 1718: 1714: 1710: 1706: 1705: 1700: 1696: 1687: 1683: 1674: 1670: 1659: 1654: 1652: 1647: 1645: 1640: 1639: 1637: 1636: 1633: 1622: 1619: 1618: 1610: 1607: 1605: 1602: 1600: 1597: 1595: 1592: 1590: 1587: 1585: 1582: 1580: 1577: 1575: 1572: 1571: 1564: 1563: 1553: 1551: 1548: 1547: 1543: 1541: 1538: 1537: 1533: 1531: 1528: 1527: 1522: 1517: 1516: 1506: 1504: 1501: 1500: 1496: 1494: 1491: 1490: 1485: 1484:Modern period 1480: 1479: 1469: 1467: 1464: 1463: 1459: 1457: 1456:Afsharid Iran 1454: 1453: 1449: 1446: 1445:Hotak dynasty 1442: 1441: 1437: 1435: 1432: 1431: 1426: 1421: 1420: 1410: 1408: 1405: 1404: 1400: 1398: 1395: 1394: 1390: 1388: 1385: 1384: 1380: 1378: 1375: 1374: 1370: 1368: 1365: 1364: 1360: 1358: 1355: 1354: 1350: 1348: 1345: 1344: 1340: 1338: 1335: 1334: 1330: 1328: 1325: 1324: 1320: 1318: 1315: 1314: 1310: 1308: 1305: 1304: 1300: 1298: 1295: 1294: 1290: 1288: 1285: 1284: 1280: 1278: 1275: 1274: 1270: 1268: 1265: 1264: 1260: 1258: 1255: 1254: 1250: 1248: 1245: 1244: 1240: 1238: 1235: 1234: 1230: 1228: 1225: 1224: 1220: 1218: 1215: 1214: 1210: 1208: 1205: 1204: 1200: 1198: 1195: 1194: 1190: 1188: 1187:Seljuk Empire 1185: 1184: 1180: 1178: 1175: 1174: 1170: 1168: 1165: 1164: 1160: 1158: 1155: 1154: 1150: 1148: 1145: 1144: 1140: 1138: 1135: 1134: 1130: 1128: 1125: 1124: 1120: 1118: 1115: 1114: 1110: 1108: 1107:Buyid dynasty 1105: 1104: 1100: 1098: 1095: 1094: 1090: 1088: 1085: 1084: 1080: 1078: 1075: 1074: 1070: 1068: 1067:Sajid dynasty 1065: 1064: 1060: 1058: 1055: 1054: 1050: 1048: 1045: 1044: 1040: 1038: 1035: 1034: 1030: 1028: 1025: 1024: 1020: 1018: 1015: 1014: 1010: 1008: 1005: 1004: 1000: 998: 995: 994: 990: 988: 985: 984: 980: 978: 975: 974: 970: 968: 965: 964: 960: 958: 955: 954: 950: 948: 945: 944: 940: 938: 935: 934: 931: 930: 924: 919: 918: 908: 906: 903: 902: 898: 896: 893: 892: 888: 886: 883: 882: 878: 876: 873: 872: 868: 866: 863: 862: 859:132 BC–224 AD 858: 856: 853: 852: 849:141 BC–222 AD 848: 846: 843: 842: 839:147 BC–224 AD 838: 836: 833: 832: 829:247 BC–224 AD 828: 826: 823: 822: 818: 816: 813: 812: 808: 806: 803: 802: 798: 796: 793: 792: 789:320s BC–17 AD 788: 786: 783: 782: 777: 323 BC 772: 770: 767: 766: 763:331 BC–428 AD 762: 760: 757: 756: 753:550 BC–330 BC 752: 750: 747: 746: 736: 734: 731: 730: 727:626 BC–539 BC 726: 724: 721: 720: 717:635 BC–550 BC 716: 714: 711: 710: 706: 704: 701: 700: 696: 694: 693:Median Empire 691: 690: 685: 680: 679: 669: 667: 664: 663: 659: 657: 654: 653: 649: 647: 644: 643: 639: 637: 634: 633: 629: 627: 624: 623: 616: 614: 611: 610: 603: 601: 598: 597: 593: 591: 588: 587: 580: 578: 575: 574: 567: 565: 562: 561: 557: 555: 552: 551: 544: 542: 538: 535: 534: 527: 525: 522: 521: 517: 515: 514:Proto-Elamite 512: 511: 507: 505: 502: 501: 496: 491: 490: 477: 475: 474:Dalma culture 472: 471: 464: 462: 459: 458: 451: 449: 446: 445: 442:20,000–10,000 438: 436: 433: 432: 429:36,000–18,000 425: 423: 420: 419: 416: 415: 409: 404: 403: 399: 395: 394: 391: 385: 384: 379: 374: 373: 353: 351: 348: 347: 344: 338: 335: 328: 327: 324: 321: 314: 313: 310: 309: 306: 303: 301: 298: 297: 293: 289: 279: 276: 270: 266: 263: 257: 253: 250: 244: 240: 234: 230: 224: 214: 208: 204: 201: 198: 194: 190: 187: 184: 178: 175: 172: 166: 163: 160: 154: 151: 148: 142: 138: 134: 132: 128: 125: 122: 118: 115: 112: 108: 105: 102: 98: 95: 92: 88: 81: 76: 58: 53: 38: 33: 19: 18:Median empire 10554:Other topics 10538: 10466:Persian name 10405:Islamization 10347: 10307:Architecture 10260:universities 10205:Zoroastrians 10200:Christianity 10190:Baháʼí Faith 10140:Azerbaijanis 10047:Demographics 9861:Construction 9849:Central Bank 9791:Space Agency 9686:Child labour 9521:Principlists 9501:Cyberwarfare 9449:Human rights 9414:Constitution 9209:Azerbaijanis 9178:Indo-Persian 9158:Greater Iran 9029:siege (1980) 8988:1979–present 8639:early modern 8637:Medieval and 8502: 8431:Kura-Araxes 8090:Contemporary 7940:Indo-Persian 7928:Nazi Germany 7872:Contemporary 7774:Vijayanagara 7673:Great Seljuk 7584:Thessalonica 7512:Golden Horde 7152:Carthaginian 7077: 6931:Neo-Assyrian 6916:Neo-Sumerian 6847: 6797:Artaxerxes I 6744: 6737: 6730: 6722:(550–330 BC) 6679:(728–550 BC) 6674: 6652: 6329: 6320: 6302: 6270: 6266: 6248: 6216: 6212: 6194: 6168: 6146: 6137: 6105: 6101: 6069: 6065: 6033: 6015: 6002: 5984: 5966: 5947: 5927: 5907: 5887: 5869: 5849: 5828: 5818: 5806:Bibliography 5792:. Retrieved 5788: 5778: 5765: 5753: 5742:. Retrieved 5714: 5708: 5699: 5688:. Retrieved 5660: 5654: 5638: 5627:. Retrieved 5623: 5614: 5603:. Retrieved 5593: 5582:. Retrieved 5560: 5556: 5546: 5533: 5522:. Retrieved 5517: 5472: 5466: 5458: 5447:. Retrieved 5443: 5434: 5414: 5407: 5395:. Retrieved 5385: 5376: », in 5352:. Retrieved 5348: 5339: 5323:. C.H.Beck. 5319: 5312: 5284:. Retrieved 5247: 5240: 5214:. Retrieved 5186:. Retrieved 5182: 5159:. Retrieved 5155: 5146: 5135:. Retrieved 5131: 5122: 5111:. Retrieved 5107: 5075: 5054:. Retrieved 5050: 5008:. Retrieved 5004: 4995: 4984:. Retrieved 4980: 4971: 4960:. Retrieved 4956: 4933:. Retrieved 4929: 4926:"Cappadocia" 4920: 4909:. Retrieved 4905: 4863: », in 4818: 4786: 4779: 4752:. Retrieved 4716:. Retrieved 4712: 4703: 4692:. Retrieved 4688: 4679: 4668:. Retrieved 4664: 4610: 4604: 4596: 4542: 4529: 4517: 4505: 4494:. Retrieved 4490: 4481: 4461: 4434:. Retrieved 4430: 4421: 4410:. Retrieved 4406: 4371: 4360:. 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Retrieved 3666: 3617: 3592: 3569: 3557: 3537: 3434: 3419:Roman Empire 3404: 3396: 3343: 3316: 3305: 3301: 3292: 3248: 3234: 3208: 3204:Julian Reade 3192: 3176: 3167: 3155:Mount Alvand 3126:Garrin range 3117: 3100: 3081: 3077: 3073: 3036: 3028: 3007: 2995: 2991: 2969: 2967: 2960: 2952: 2931:585−550 BCE 2928:584−550 BCE 2925:585−550 BCE 2922:585−550 BCE 2915: 2907:625−585 BCE 2904:620−584 BCE 2901:625−585 BCE 2898:625−585 BCE 2891: 2880:635−615 BCE 2877:653−625 BCE 2867: 2859:678−625 BCE 2856:640−620 BCE 2853:675−653 BCE 2850:647−625 BCE 2843: 2835:700−678 BCE 2832:672−640 BCE 2829:728−675 BCE 2826:700−647 BCE 2819: 2810: 2802: 2793: 2786: 2778: 2773: 2768: 2755:Organization 2748: 2742: 2738: 2734: 2730: 2726: 2719: 2714:Karen Radner 2710: 2705: 2692: 2683: 2660: 2606: 2582: 2573: 2565: 2530: 2494: 2473: 2418: 2382: 2378: 2357: 2333: 2324: 2322: 2295: 2260: 2256:Nabopolassar 2250: 2239: 2216: 2204: 2189: 2155: 2149: 2145:Ashurbanipal 2129: 2117: 2113:Sardanapalus 2101: 2090: 2086: 2082: 2080: 2065: 2033: 2008:in Iraq and 1988:in Armenia, 1963: 1951:Stuart Brown 1942: 1928:Michael Roaf 1920: 1883: 1874: 1867: 1848: 1842: 1821: 1807: 1782: 1779:Central Asia 1756: 1741: 1736: 1711:centered in 1702: 1694: 1681: 1668: 1667: 1594:LGBT history 1554:1979–present 1503:Pahlavi Iran 1466:Zand dynasty 1434:Safavid Iran 1397:Qara Qoyunlu 1287:Kurt dynasty 1127:Hasanwayhids 927: 905:Qarinvandids 809:281 BC–62 BC 799:312 BC–63 BC 412: 305:Succeeded by 304: 299: 10571:Tehrangeles 10534:Traditional 10271:Nationality 10209:persecution 10194:persecution 10145:Circassians 10094:Neo-Aramaic 10074:Azerbaijani 9946:State-owned 9871:Health care 9834:Agriculture 9671:Brain drain 9610:Ambassadors 9305:Earthquakes 8842:Aq Qoyunlu 8791:Muzaffarid 8768:Eldiguzids 8760:Anushtegin 8586:Kingdom of 8562:Kingdom of 8554:Kingdom of 8546:Atropatene 8538:Achaemenid 8479:Kingdom of 8424:3400–539 BC 7678:Khwarezmian 7611:Carolingian 7416:Rashtrakuta 7120:Shaishunaga 7019:Hellenistic 7002:New Kingdom 6992:Old Kingdom 6772:Cambyses II 6667:Family tree 6523:Cyaxares II 5471:, Livro I, 5179:"Medes (2)" 5152:"Phraortes" 4977:"Drangiana" 4609:, Livro I, 3163:Tepe Ozbaki 2980:Royal court 2743:Ummān-manda 2649:Historicity 2402:Syennesis I 2296:ummān-manda 2247:Suleimaniya 2124:Caspian Sea 2098:Unification 2072:Sennacherib 2000:in Turkey, 1998:Tille Höyük 1982:Nor Armavir 1974:Tepe Ozbaki 1775:Halys River 1733:Babylonians 1673:Old Persian 1277:Mihrabanids 1237:Hazaraspids 997:Baduspanids 875:Paratarajas 869:19 AD–224/5 387:History of 300:Preceded by 10622:Categories 10471:Philosophy 10430:newspapers 10411:Literature 10316:architects 10311:Achaemenid 10231:Corruption 9691:Corruption 9531:Reformists 9526:Propaganda 9424:Corruption 9409:Censorship 9352:Lake Urmia 9040:Iran–Iraq 8736:Ghaznavid 8614:AD 224–651 8578:Frataraka 8410:Prehistory 8248:Portuguese 8129:Revival Le 8119:Vietnamese 7762:Later Tran 7732:Vietnamese 7628:Singhasari 7616:Holy Roman 7240:Bulgarian 7176:Satavahana 7147:Phoenician 7083:Achaemenid 7044:Indo-Greek 7024:Macedonian 6938:Babylonian 6762:Cambyses I 6739:Ariaramnes 6732:Achaemenes 6718:Achaemenid 6657:Achaemenid 6549:Artembares 6430:(Nahavand) 6219:: 89–151, 6108:: 99–124, 5794:2024-01-19 5744:2020-10-11 5690:2020-07-07 5629:2024-01-19 5624:Livius.org 5605:2024-01-28 5584:2024-01-21 5524:2021-08-15 5449:2021-10-07 5354:2021-10-26 5286:2023-01-08 5216:2023-12-16 5188:2020-06-02 5183:Livius.org 5161:2020-08-09 5156:Livius.org 5137:2021-04-07 5113:2020-12-28 5108:Livius.org 5056:2020-06-05 5051:Livius.org 5047:"Astyages" 5010:2020-12-03 5005:Livius.org 4986:2020-12-03 4981:Livius.org 4962:2021-10-07 4935:2020-11-11 4930:Livius.org 4911:2020-10-18 4754:2024-01-12 4718:2021-09-23 4694:2020-08-05 4670:2020-06-08 4665:Livius.org 4661:"Cyaxares" 4535:Young 1988 4510:Brown 1990 4496:2020-11-07 4436:2020-08-07 4412:2020-06-05 4362:2020-08-09 4274:2021-11-29 4269:Livius.org 4250:2023-12-19 4070:2020-07-30 4043:2022-10-08 4019:2024-01-18 3995:2024-01-09 3967:2024-01-09 3935:2024-02-06 3882:2020-06-30 3855:2021-07-18 3850:Livius.org 3672:2020-06-15 3667:Livius.org 3458:References 3283:Massagetae 3134:Kermanshah 2999:concubines 2706:status quo 2514:Cambyses I 2475:Cyropaedia 2438:Mossynoeci 2389:Cappadocia 2385:Cimmerians 2344:See also: 2318:Carchemish 2172:See also: 2120:Esarhaddon 2045:Lake Urmia 2006:Tell Gubba 1966:Moush Tepe 1895:Godin Tepe 1493:Qajar Iran 1407:Aq Qoyunlu 1391:1370s–1592 1227:Salghurids 1207:Eldiguzids 1177:Shabankara 1151:990/1–1117 895:Zarmihrids 815:Fratarakas 769:Atropatene 707:652–625 BC 697:678–550 BC 284: 550 219: 678 120:Government 71: 550 64: 678 10436:Mythology 10342:Calendars 10332:Astronomy 10241:Education 10150:Georgians 10135:Assyrians 10130:Armenians 10056:Languages 9948:companies 9911:Transport 9891:Petroleum 9676:Companies 9615:President 9602:Officials 9536:Terrorism 9485:Air Force 9429:Elections 9367:Provinces 9362:Mountains 9272:Geography 9192:languages 8930:1925–1979 8858:Afsharid 8819:1370–1925 8807:Chobanid 8701:Saffarid 8653:Rashidun 8621:Sasanian 8602:Kings of 8594:Parthian 8570:Seleucid 8511:Scythian 8471:Kassites 8455:Akkadian 8241:Couronian 7879:Ethiopian 7867:Manchukuo 7822:Brazilian 7668:Ghaznavid 7638:Srivijaya 7589:Trebizond 7574:Byzantine 7556:North Sea 7551:Norwegian 7539:Almoravid 7522:Ilkhanate 7492:Majapahit 7465:Muromachi 7374:Solomonic 7359:Ethiopian 7273:Caliphate 7206:Aragonese 7034:Ptolemaic 6807:Sogdianus 6802:Xerxes II 6693:Phraortes 6503:Phraortes 6418:(Hamadan) 6287:0026-1521 6233:0578-6967 6122:0578-6967 6086:0578-6967 5911:. BRILL. 5872:, BRILL, 5731:0145-5532 5677:1076-156X 5579:2611-8912 5563:: 13–46. 5475:, 99-100 5468:Histories 5463:Herodotus 4709:"Assyria" 4606:Histories 4601:Herodotus 4165:0003-0279 3440:Herodotus 3335:Wiltshire 3308:Babylonia 3279:Arachosia 3275:Drangiana 3188:Khuzestan 3088:Silk Road 2845:Phraortes 2788:Herodotus 2739:memshalah 2622:Phraortes 2534:Cadusians 2458:Drangiana 2398:Labynetus 2368:, Media, 2210:, son of 2192:Scythians 2174:Scythians 2162:Phraortes 2137:Kār-Kaššî 2133:Kaštaritu 2091:bēl ālāni 2087:bēl ālāni 2083:bēl ālāni 2068:Sargon II 2010:Ulug Depe 1990:Altıntepe 1850:Histories 1845:Herodotus 1771:Armenians 1507:1925–1979 1497:1789–1925 1470:1751–1794 1460:1736–1796 1450:1722–1729 1438:1501–1736 1411:1468–1508 1401:1406–1468 1381:1370–1507 1371:1359–1596 1367:Mar'ashis 1361:1349–1504 1351:1335–1357 1341:1337–1376 1337:Sarbadars 1331:1337–1376 1321:1335–1393 1311:1335–1357 1301:1256–1335 1291:1244–1396 1281:1236–1537 1271:1223-1306 1261:1184-1597 1251:1155–1231 1241:1155–1424 1231:1148–1282 1221:1141–1319 1211:1135–1225 1201:1077–1231 1191:1037–1194 1181:1030–1355 1171:1029–1236 1161:1008–1141 1007:Justanids 977:Bavandids 845:Characene 607:1500–1155 594:2400–2150 584:2400–1700 571:2550-2020 531:3100–2200 518:3200–2700 508:3400–2000 455:6000–5000 162:Phraortes 110:Religion 10597:Category 10490:football 10481:Scouting 10391:Iranians 10381:Folklore 10177:Religion 10089:Georgian 10069:Armenian 9930:shipping 9925:railways 9915:airlines 9881:Industry 9746:Taxation 9560:Councils 9476:Military 9391:Politics 9372:Wildlife 9337:Caucasus 9219:Persians 9146:See also 8970:Iranian 8937:Pahlavi 8850:Safavid 8826:Timurid 8729:977–1432 8709:Ziyarid 8685:Tahirid 8677:Samanid 8669:Abbasid 8661:Umayyad 8646:632–1090 8463:Lullubi 8447:Elamite 8221:Japanese 8184:Scottish 8164:American 8156:Colonial 8085:Imperial 8053:Moroccan 7989:Japanese 7967:Afsharid 7826:Burmese 7812:Austrian 7767:Later Le 7742:Early Le 7727:Venetian 7653:Tiwanaku 7566:Hellenic 7529:Moroccan 7460:Kamakura 7450:Japanese 7433:Saffarid 7386:Georgian 7300:Chalukya 7278:Rashidun 7268:Calakmul 7236:Bruneian 7115:Haryanka 7093:Sasanian 7088:Parthian 7039:Bactrian 7029:Seleucid 7009:Goguryeo 6987:Egyptian 6921:Assyrian 6911:Akkadian 6902:Colonies 6708:Astyages 6703:Cyaxares 6569:Harpagus 6518:Astyages 6513:Cyaxares 6428:Laodicea 6416:Ecbatana 6389:Language 6072:: 1–27, 6051:citation 5681:Archived 5486:(ael/fr) 5397:July 30, 5001:"Arians" 4624:(ael/fr) 4173:20064424 4145:(eds.). 3737:(eds.). 3722:(2003). 3564:(2004). 3350:Jeremiah 3267:Hyrcania 3259:Sagartia 3056:Xenophon 3040:Harpagus 3003:polygamy 2962:Jeremiah 2917:Astyages 2893:Cyaxares 2723:Jeremiah 2671:Astyages 2639:Seleucid 2629:(modern 2594:Spitamas 2585:Ecbatana 2577:Harpagus 2575:general 2568:Cyrus II 2546:Tigranes 2536:and the 2518:Cyrus II 2470:Xenophon 2454:Sagartia 2446:Hyrcania 2442:Tibareni 2426:Macrones 2414:Astyages 2393:Alyattes 2313:Necho II 2301:Nasibina 2284:Berossus 2212:Bartatua 2152:Cyaxares 2002:Qizkapan 1986:Arinberd 1970:Gunespan 1918:Empire. 1903:Baba Jan 1889:(modern 1887:Ecbatana 1855:Ecbatana 1803:Cyrus II 1799:Astyages 1767:Persians 1763:Cyaxares 1713:Ecbatana 1707:) was a 1699:Akkadian 1621:Timeline 1579:Monarchs 1157:Kakuyids 1147:Annazids 1141:977–1186 1131:959–1095 1121:955–1070 1111:934–1062 1097:Ilyasids 1091:930–1090 1081:919–1062 1051:861–1003 1001:665–1598 981:651–1349 967:Dabuyids 961:750–1258 620:1500–500 600:Kassites 558:2700–539 548:3100-675 414:BCE / BC 378:a series 376:Part of 200:Iron Age 186:Astyages 174:Cyaxares 124:Monarchy 94:Ecbatana 10540:Ey Iran 10488: ( 10448: ( 10424:student 10422: ( 10418: ( 10403: ( 10371:Cuisine 10356:Fashion 10344: ( 10324: ( 10309: ( 10295:Culture 10243: ( 10207: ( 10192: ( 10165:Turkmen 10117: ( 10108:Peoples 10079:Kurdish 10035:Society 9936:Tourism 9913: ( 9903: ( 9893: ( 9873: ( 9866:Defense 9836: ( 9826:Sectors 9813: ( 9773: ( 9678: ( 9659:General 9648:Economy 9538: ( 9508: ( 9478: ( 9431: ( 9416: ( 9402:General 9357:Islands 9293:largest 9283:Borders 8752:Seljuk 8744:Ghurid 8693:Alavid 8503:Median 8495:Urartu 8417:Ancient 8397:History 8288:largest 8283:Empires 8263:Swedish 8258:Spanish 8253:Russian 8216:Italian 8191:Chinese 8179:English 8174:British 8169:Belgian 8144:Vietnam 8134:Tay son 8080:Tsarist 8075:Russian 8070:Ottoman 8036:Dzungar 8031:Khoshut 8004:Mexican 7999:Maratha 7982:Pahlavi 7962:Safavid 7957:Iranian 7884:Haitian 7847:Chinese 7807:Ashanti 7779:Wagadou 7705:Eastern 7700:Western 7683:Timurid 7643:Tibetan 7633:Songhai 7623:Serbian 7544:Almohad 7534:Idrisid 7438:Samanid 7428:Tahirid 7423:Iranian 7401:Kannauj 7381:Genoese 7317:Chinese 7310:Eastern 7305:Western 7293:Fatimid 7288:Abbasid 7283:Umayyad 7256:Burmese 7216:Ayyubid 7211:Angevin 7181:Xianbei 7169:Eastern 7164:Western 7110:Magadha 7073:Iranian 7066:Xiongnu 7051:Hittite 6960:Chinese 6948:Kassite 6897:Ancient 6889:Empires 6848:Italics 6782:Gaumata 6777:Smerdis 6757:Cyrus I 6752:Teispes 6746:Arsames 6688:Deioces 6604:Related 6579:Mandane 6574:Aryenis 6564:Mazares 6498:Deioces 6295:3258384 6241:4300620 6130:4300506 6094:4300482 6012:"Media" 5815:"Media" 5739:1170959 5483:(el/en) 4621:(el/en) 3931:. Brill 3663:"Medes" 3405:In the 3362:Babylon 3339:England 3287:Bactria 3263:Parthia 3255:Armenia 3214:Matiene 3199:Assyria 3195:Mannaea 3159:Hamadan 3062:Economy 3044:Mazares 2821:Deioces 2618:Gaumata 2524:to the 2510:Mandane 2498:Croesus 2466:Bactria 2450:Parthia 2422:Ibenans 2410:Aryenis 2406:Cilicia 2366:Babylon 2340:Empire? 2305:Rasappa 2280:Tarbisu 2272:Nineveh 2264:Arrapha 2141:Saparda 2109:Arbaces 2104:Deioces 2017:History 1911:Hasanlu 1891:Hamadan 1869:Persica 1860:Ctesias 1787:Babylon 1752:Bactria 1347:Injuids 1101:932–968 1071:889–929 1041:819–999 1031:821–873 991:651–760 971:642–760 951:661–750 941:632-661 929:CE / AD 889:224–651 879:125–300 835:Elymais 779:–226 AD 670:720-670 666:Saparda 660:750-521 656:Zikirti 650:850–616 646:Mannaea 640:860–590 630:911–609 564:Marhaši 267:585 BCE 260:• 254:612 BCE 249:Nineveh 241:625 BCE 231:672 BCE 150:Deioces 90:Capital 10607:Portal 10366:Cinema 10348:Nowruz 10245:higher 10119:abroad 10084:Hebrew 9990:Places 9886:Mining 9711:Energy 9288:Cities 9204:Aryans 8923:Modern 8874:Qajar 8717:Buyid 8385:topics 8226:Mongol 8211:German 8206:French 8196:Danish 8139:Dainam 8114:Tongan 8102:Somali 8097:Sokoto 8063:'Alawi 8041:Kalmyk 8021:Mongol 8014:Second 7994:Korean 7945:Mughal 7935:Indian 7918:German 7911:Second 7901:French 7894:Second 7830:Second 7802:Afghan 7794:Modern 7720:Kyrgyz 7715:Uighur 7710:Second 7690:Turkic 7658:Toltec 7594:Epirus 7579:Nicaea 7502:Mongol 7455:Yamato 7391:Huetar 7249:Second 7186:Rouran 7135:Shunga 7130:Maurya 7105:Kushan 7078:Median 7056:Hunnic 7014:Harsha 6698:Madyes 6675:Median 6653:Median 6611:Medism 6559:Gubaru 6508:Madyes 6422:Rhagae 6409:Cities 6383:topics 6381:Median 6336: 6309: 6293: 6285: 6255: 6239: 6231: 6201: 6183: 6153: 6128: 6120: 6092: 6084: 6040: 6022: 5991: 5973: 5955: 5934: 5915: 5894: 5876: 5857: 5836: 5737: 5729: 5675: 5577: 5422: 5327: 5255: 5083: 4826: 4794: 4613:, 102 4469: 4241: 4199: 4171: 4163: 4105: 3906: 3810: 3749: 3632: 3545: 3415:Pompey 3346:Isaiah 3320:Medism 3298:Legacy 3218:Gutium 3179:Persia 3151:Tehran 3130:Ellipi 3046:, and 3001:, and 2869:Madyes 2774:Period 2727:pechah 2631:Tehran 2590:Amytis 2502:Amytis 2434:Marres 2430:Mushki 2309:Harran 2288:Amytis 2276:Arbela 2274:, and 2208:Madyes 2076:Ellipi 2066:Under 2053:Urartu 2049:Mannea 1915:Ziwiye 1907:Mannea 1901:, and 1793:, and 1704:Mādāya 1678:𐎶𐎠𐎭 733:Sogdia 636:Urartu 380:on the 337:Urartu 135: 104:Median 46:𐎶𐎠𐎭 10628:Medes 10501:Music 10486:Sport 10416:Media 10401:Islam 10337:Blogs 10281:Women 10236:Crime 10224:Other 10185:Islam 10155:Kurds 9920:metro 9838:fruit 9796:Setad 8866:Zand 8776:Kart 8276:Lists 8231:Omani 8201:Dutch 8107:Isaaq 8058:Saadi 8026:Oirat 8009:First 7977:Qajar 7906:First 7889:First 7862:China 7835:Third 7695:First 7648:Tikal 7599:Morea 7569:Roman 7487:Latin 7482:Khmer 7477:Kanem 7443:Buyid 7369:Zagwe 7364:Aksum 7354:Chola 7261:First 7244:First 7231:Bornu 7226:Benin 7221:Aztec 7159:Roman 7140:Gupta 7125:Nanda 7061:White 6659:kings 6588:Lists 6554:Datis 6291:JSTOR 6237:JSTOR 6126:JSTOR 6090:JSTOR 5735:JSTOR 5684:(PDF) 5651:(PDF) 4169:JSTOR 3743:Padua 3727:(PDF) 3426:Notes 3096:Gabae 3092:Rages 3048:Datis 2769:Ruler 2735:eretz 2731:sagan 2688:Padua 2627:Rages 2538:Sacae 2374:Egypt 2370:Lydia 2268:Assur 1795:Egypt 1791:Lydia 1744:Medes 1695:Mēdía 1691:Μηδία 1686:Greek 1669:Media 541:Zamua 131:Kings 10529:Rock 10514:Jazz 10509:Folk 10375:wine 10160:Jews 9490:Navy 9480:Army 9459:LGBT 8383:Iran 8046:Bogd 7972:Zand 7950:Sikh 7857:Qing 7852:Ming 7784:Wari 7752:Tran 7737:Dinh 7507:Yuan 7497:Mali 7406:Pala 7396:Inca 7347:Yuan 7337:Song 7332:Liao 7327:Tang 7100:Kush 6982:Dʿmt 6655:and 6334:ISBN 6307:ISBN 6283:ISSN 6253:ISBN 6229:ISSN 6213:Iran 6199:ISBN 6181:ISBN 6151:ISBN 6118:ISSN 6102:Iran 6082:ISSN 6066:Iran 6057:link 6038:ISBN 6020:ISBN 5989:ISBN 5971:ISBN 5953:ISBN 5932:ISBN 5913:ISBN 5892:ISBN 5874:ISBN 5855:ISBN 5834:ISBN 5727:ISSN 5673:ISSN 5575:ISSN 5498:(es) 5495:(en) 5492:(en) 5489:(en) 5480:(el) 5477:(pt) 5473:Clio 5420:ISBN 5399:2020 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