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abandoning
Beijing and moving their capital far away to a remote location for safety since Koxinga's iron troops were rumored to be invincible. The letter said it reflected the grim situation being felt in Qing Beijing. The official told his children in Nanjing to prepare to defect to Koxinga which he himself was preparing to do. Koxinga's forces intercepted these letters and after reading them Koxinga may have started to regret his deliberate delays allowing the Qing to prepare for a final massive battle instead of swiftly attacking Nanjing. When the emperor heard of this sudden attack he is said to have slashed his throne with a sword in anger. But the siege of Nanjing was relieved and Zheng Chenggong repelled, forcing Zheng to take refuge in the southeastern coastal province of
4421:
5593:
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2316:
3914:. As they advanced toward Xi'an they were flanked by recent Ming defectors under Meng Qiaofang, and overrun with Bannermen. He Zhen's rebels were mainly bandits, and they continued operating out of small stockades in the forested, mountainous regions with 10 to 15 rebel families in every stockade, usually centered around a temple. They generally enjoyed popular support, and would retreat to the higher mountain safehouses upon receiving locals' notice of any military movements in the area. Groups of stockades congregated around a "King", who would grant commissions of Colonel or Major to other stockade leaders. They were finally pacified by forces led by
5904:
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5016:
2749:. The Manchus had to create an entire "Jiu Han jun" (Old Han Army) due to the very large number of Han Chinese soldiers absorbed into the Eight Banners by both capture and defection. The Qing showed that the Manchus valued military skills in propaganda targeted towards the Ming military to get them to defect to the Qing, since the Ming civilian political system discriminated against the military. From 1618 to 1631 Manchus received Han Chinese defectors and their descendants became Han Bannermen and those killed in battle were commemorated as martyrs in biographies.
3558:
351:
6351:. Koxinga's Ming loyalists fought against a majority Han Chinese Bannermen Qing army when attacking Nanjing. The siege lasted almost three weeks, beginning on 24 August. Koxinga's forces were unable to maintain a complete encirclement, which enabled the city to obtain supplies and even reinforcements—though cavalry attacks by the city's forces were successful even before reinforcements arrived. Koxinga's forces were defeated and "slipped back" (Wakeman's phrase) to the ships which had brought them. Koxinga's forces were pursued to
403:
5109:
regional military commanders rather than a centralized fashion. This brought him at loggerheads with the Longwu
Emperor. Famine also struck after drought and crops failed all along the southeastern coastal region, while Qing attacks on the Yangzi river delta had cut access to raw silk. In response, the Longwu emperor wanted to reconquer Huguang and Jiangxi provinces which were major producers of rice to help boost the southern Ming, but Zheng Zhilong refused to expand out of Fujian for fear of losing control of the regime.
11263:
7817:
392:
3495:, and a strong factional rivalry between Northern and Southern scholars ensued. Ming dynasty officials in the finance, appointments and military departments largely joined the new dynasty and formed the core of the Qing civil service, but not the staff of rites, music and literature (the Qing may not have prioritised these either). These defectors were responsible for easing the transition of government without major setbacks. A large proportion of military officials and civilian officials in the
319:
240:
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1694:. Other factors include repeated military expeditions to the north, inflationary pressures caused by spending too much from the imperial treasury, natural disasters and epidemics of disease. Contributing further to the chaos was a peasant rebellion throughout the country in 1644 and a series of weak emperors. Ming power would hold out in what is now southern China for years, though eventually would be overtaken by the Qing forces. Other authors have linked the fall of the Ming with
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822:
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4448:, sometimes entire families. Those who did not collaborate or commit suicide would have to join with bandits to resist the new regime. With the news of the fall of the capital back in 1644 and skyrocketing food prices, poor peasants had revolted against the local elite and indentured servitude, calling that "master and servant should address each other as brothers". They ransacked the villas and forced the wealthy to flee to the cities. Although the
6899:
7147:) together with the "inner" Han Chinese, into "one family" united under the Qing state. To show that the diverse subjects of the Qing were all part of one family, the Qing used the phrase "Zhongwai yijia" (中外一家, "central areas and outer areas as one realm") or "neiwai yijia" (內外一家, "interior and exterior of great-walls as one family"), to convey this idea of "unification" of the different peoples. A Manchu language version of a treaty with the
1823:
1773:
6521:
6218:
7293:, and plague-infected corpses were the only food available to survivors. A massive drought in 1636 hit Huangpi amidst a series of natural disasters. Plague, locusts and famine spread all over. The plains and villages were hit by bandits and rebels, because starving refugees, orphans who had lost parents to disease as well as fired postal couriers and soldiers whose salary had been cut off turned into rebels in 1642 all over China.
3518:'s inner city and move to the outskirts, he resettled the inner city with the Bannermen, including Han Chinese bannermen. Later, some exceptions were made, allowing Han Chinese civilians who held government or commercial jobs to also reside in the inner city. The civilian government was flooded by Han Chinese Bannermen. The Six Boards President and other major positions were filled with Han Chinese Bannermen chosen by the Qing.
3866:) which organised households into "mutual responsibility" groups of 10 and 100, and appointing leaders who were responsible for arresting fugitives. It was also used, initially at least, to stop the populace from moving in restive zones, and to stop arms and horse trading. From 1648 to 1649 civilian arms and horses were seized outright, but afterwards these were allowed for approved households in mutual responsibility units.
1834:
5031:
3351:, to defect to his side in exchange for a high noble rank and title. Wu Sangui dallied for days before he decided to accept the rank and defect to Li Zicheng. Wu Sangui was on his way to formally capitulate and defect to Li Zicheng, but by that time Li Zicheng thought Wu Sangui's silence meant he had rejected the offer and ordered Wu Sangui's father to be beheaded. This caused Wu Sangui to defect to the Qing.
2895:
by an army that had only a fraction of
Manchus, being multi-ethnic, with Han Chinese Banners, Mongol Banners, and Manchu Banners. The political barrier was between the commoners made out of non-bannermen Han Chinese and the "conquest elite", made out of Han Chinese bannermen, nobles, and Mongols and Manchu. Ethnicity was not the determining factor. Han Chinese (Nikan) bannermen used banners of black color and
380:
6049:". Virtually all posts were filled by professional military officers of the Han Chinese Banners rather than Manchus or Han Chinese civilians. Han Chinese bannermen were the main force that subdued southern China. This made the Qing extremely dependent on the private armies of the autonomous Han Chinese banner nobles. The reliance on Han Chinese was made obvious in 1660 when the emperor ruled in favour of
7446:
36:
89:
2691:
7254:). However, the Qing encouraged settlements over larger portions of the empire since these regions offered the best opportunities to improve one's livelihood by clearing and farming large tracts. Economic growth in the middle and upper Yangtze regions complemented growth in the lower Yangtze, as more people began to move out of already crowded regions and into new lands of opportunity.
3335:, to agree with the decision and shoulder the responsibility of the decision. Wei Zaode refused to answer, so the Chongzhen Emperor rejected Li Zicheng's terms. Li Zicheng marched into the capital as Ming officials surrendered and defected. Li Zicheng still did not intend to kill the Chongzhen Emperor and the Ming Crown Prince, intending to recognise them as nobles of the new
6053:, a Han Chinese provincial censor who delivered a report criticizing Manchu military corruption, destroying the Manchu claim that Han Chinese officials should not be involved in military matters. This change was a reflection of the actual military importance of Han Chinese in the dynasty, as well as the determination of the Qing rulers not to allow the Manchu and Han Chinese
250:
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4384:, but now that he fled without a fight and listened to traitors his small army could not act as a guard for the emperor. Huang Degong then said "I am willing to devote my life to you" after the emperor said he could not rely on him as a minister resentfully. Then a group of Qing Han Chinese and Banner soldiers showed up to Huang Degong's camp in
3339:. Li Zicheng lamented the death of the Chongzhen Emperor after discovering he committed suicide, saying that he had come to share power and rule together with him. Li Zicheng distrusted the Ming officials who defected to his side when the Ming fell, viewing them as the reason for the Ming demise. After declaring his own Shun dynasty in
2303:. The defeat of Ligdan Khan in 1634, in addition to winning the allegiance of the Southern Mongol hordes, brought a vast supply of horses to the Qing, while denying the same supply to the Ming. The Qing also captured the Great Seal of the Mongol Khans, giving them the opportunity to portray themselves as heirs of the
6034:. Infighting broke out between the forces of Li Dingguo and Sun Kewang. The Ming emperor, fearful that Sun intended to make himself emperor, asked Li Dingguo to liberate him. After Sun's forces were routed, he and his surviving troops defected to Hong Chengchou's Qing armies, giving the Qing their opening to strike.
2047:, were all handed over to the Later Jin by traitors and defectors. Fushun's commander surrendered after a single attack when promised that his troops and their families would not be enslaved or forced to change any of their customs (including hairstyle), but rather given high office. Shenyang fell with the aid of
6422:
dutifully complied with the prescribed procedures for Ming officials by regularly presenting reports and paying tribute to the absent Ming
Emperor. His originally stated intentions for conquering Taiwan from the Dutch also included the desire to protect Chinese settlers in Taiwan from maltreatment by
2894:
Bannermen making up the rest. It was this multi-ethnic force in which
Manchus were only a minority, which unified China for the Qing. The Qing takeover was done by the multi-ethnic Han Chinese Banners, Mongol Banners, and Manchu Banners which made up the Qing military. In 1644, Ming China was invaded
3188:
later told his officials how "it was really very comical" reading captured Ming military reports, because most were fabricated stories of victory. Meanwhile, rebel "bandits" continued advancing. After the fall of
Songshan, amid the urging of his brother and sons (formerly also Ming generals) to join
5108:
in Japan quietly supported the Zheng clan's pro-Ming forces by quietly granting them access to mercenaries, weapons and other strategic materials. Zheng
Zhilong drafted a plan entitled "Grand Strategy for ordering the country", in which he argued for the Southern Ming to reconquer territory through
3854:
In order to pacify the population, the Qing authorities placed care to appoint good local officials. These were mainly ex-Ming non-Bannermen local magistrates who collaborated; virtually all county-level posts were filled by non-banner Han
Chinese, who outnumbered Bannermen officials 12-to-1. There
1802:
are sometimes described as a nomadic people, when in fact they were not nomads, but a sedentary agricultural people who lived in fixed villages, farmed crops, practiced hunting and mounted archery. Their main military formation was infantry wielding bows and arrows, swords, and pikes, while cavalry
6370:
executed his family causing him to defect to the Qing. Admiral Shi later led the Qing navy to victory over
Koxinga's descendants. Koxinga implemented extremely strict harsh discipline on his soldiers which caused many of them to defect to the Qing. Failure to listen to orders and failing in battle
2943:
did not behave as if they had lost, and were not abiding by the terms of the agreement. Joseon merchants and markets continued to trade with Ming and actively aided Ming subjects by providing them with grain and rations. Hong Taiji rebuked them, saying that the food of Joseon should only be fed to
7419:
sided with the Qing and prepared to attack the anti-Qing revolutionaries of Xi'an city. Only some wealthy
Manchus who were ransomed and Manchu females survived. Wealthy Han Chinese seized Manchu girls to become their slaves and Han Chinese troops seized young Manchu women to be their wives. Young
7072:
areas, proclaiming that both Han and non-Han peoples were part of "China", using "China" to refer to the Qing in official documents, international treaties, and foreign affairs, and the "Chinese language" (Dulimbai gurun i bithe) referred to Han Chinese, Manchu, and Mongol languages, and the term
5884:. They resisted an intense Banner assault with their long rifles, but Tan Qi abandoned Sun in July 1652, leading to Sun's defeat and death. A bandit gang, the "Pole bandits", who were plundering the local population, were also defeated shortly afterward by the betrayal of one of their two chiefs.
3425:
After Wu formally surrendered to the Qing in the morning of 27 May, his elite troops charged the rebel army repeatedly, but were unable to break the enemy lines. Dorgon waited until both sides were weakened before ordering his cavalry to gallop around Wu's right wing to charge Li's left flank. Li
2930:
had brought economic hardship and starvation to Jin subjects. Joseon was also forced to transfer suzerainty of the Warka tribe to Jin. Furthermore, a tribute of 100 horses, 100 tiger and leopard skins, 400 bolts of cotton, and 15,000 pieces of cloth was to be extracted and gifted to the Jin Khan.
2721:
were also allowed to keep their personal armies. The warlord Shen Zhixiang, who had unlawfully taken over command of his deceased uncle Shen Shikui's troops as his private army, was unable to attain recognition from the Ming court. He then proceeded to lead his forces to switch allegiance to the
6132:
in 1659 amid a massacre of 100,000 people, and the next year was spent putting down the rest of the rebels. As the city fell Nayan bowed in the direction of the emperor and declared "Your minister has exerted himself to the utmost. I have nothing else to report to Your Highness." He then burned
3769:
groups of martial artist acolytes calling themselves the "Supreme Heaven's Clear and Pure Good Friends" and the "Society of Good Friends" respectively rose up in rebellion in 1645 against the new regime. These were suppressed by slaughtering anyone suspected of membership in such popular sects.
2378:
in 1631, the most capable army officers of the Ming became faithful followers of the new dynasty who would take over the preparation and planning of much of the war. From this episode onward, the transition ceased to be an inter-nation conflict between Chinese and Manchus but rather a civil war
6346:
The commoners and officials in Beijing and Nanjing were waiting to support whichever side won. An official from Qing Beijing sent letters to family and another official in Nanjing, telling them all communication and news from Nanjing to Beijing had been cut off, that the Qing were considering
3521:
It was Han Chinese Bannermen who were responsible for the successful Qing takeover. They made up the majority of governors in the early Qing and were the ones who governed and administered China, stabilizing Qing rule. Han Chinese Bannermen dominated governor-general posts in the time of the
2763:, gunpowder weapons like muskets and artillery were specifically used by the Han Chinese Banners. The Manchus established an artillery corps made out of Han Chinese soldiers in 1641. The use of artillery by Han Bannermen may have led to them being known as "heavy" soldiers (ujen cooha). The "
3969:. Milayin and Ding Guodong negotiated a truce in which they would become Qing commanders in April 1649, but less than four weeks later they rose up in revolt again. Milayan was swiftly killed when he attempted to break out of the Qing encirclement, while Ding Guodong holed up for a siege in
7589:
is cited to say that "a person's body and hair, being gifts from one's parents, are not to be damaged: this is the beginning of filial piety" (身體髮膚,受之父母,不敢毀傷,孝之始也). Prior to the Qing dynasty, adult Han Chinese men customarily did not cut their hair, but instead wore it in the form of a
4123:
to defend the city against the Qing. These Ming loyalist non-Han Chinese "barbarian" fierce tribal warriors were slaughtered by the Han Chinese citizens of Nanjing after the Han Chinese people of Nanjing had peacefully defected and turned the city to Qing rule when the Southern Ming
2625:
if they were registered daughters of officials or commoners or the permission of their banner company captain if they were unregistered commoners, and it was only later in the dynasty that these policies allowing intermarriage were done away with. The decree was formulated by Prince
2107:(clan name). The irregularities over Jurchen and Manchu clan origin led to the Qing trying to document and systemize the creation of histories for Manchu clans, including manufacturing an entire legend around the origin of the Aisin Gioro clan by taking mythology from the northeast.
3832:
Other texts translated into Manchu by Dahai included the Ming penal code. The Manchus placed great significance on Chinese texts relating to military affairs and governance, and further Chinese texts of history, law and military theory were translated into Manchu during the rule of
4496:
directive to preserve one's body intact), whereas for common folk cutting their hair "was tantamount to the loss of their manhood." Because it united Chinese of all social backgrounds into resistance against Qing rule, the hair-cutting command "broke the momentum of the Qing ."
3062:
conquered by the Qing like the Nanais. The Amur peoples already wore the queue on the back of their heads but did not shave the front until the Qing subjected them and ordered them to shave. The Qing married off Manchu princesses to Amur chiefs who submitted to their rule. The
7599:"The hair-cutting order, more than any other act, engendered the Kiangnan resistance of 1645. The rulers' effort to make Manchus and Han one unified 'body' initially had the effect of unifying upper- and lower-class natives in central and south China against the interlopers."
3636:, it was Han Bannermen who were the ones carrying out the fighting and killing for the Qing and this disproves the claim that "fear of water" on part of the Manchus had to do with the coastal evacuation to move inland and declare the sea ban. Most of the coastal population of
4457:, resisted compromise, but most gentry and urban elites proceeded to collaborate with the Qing in order to acquire their help to suppress the revolt or other threats such as bandits. However, with the introduction of the queue order, anti-Qing resistance exploded once more.
5623:
regime, cooperating with them against the bandits who now grew into sizeable rebel armies complete with guns and cannons, and whose leaders had declared themselves "kings". These were held off by the local gentry, who organised the local population into a defence force.
2373:
education, and Ming-style government ministries. When Zhang Chun, a Ming commander, was captured but refused to defect, Hong Taiji personally served him with food to show his sincerity (Zhang still refused but was kept in a temple until his death). With the surrender of
6876:. Địch was murdered by his assistant Hoàng Tiến in 1688, who then revolted against the Nguyễn lord but was put down. In 1679, Trần Thượng Xuyên submitted to the Nguyễn lord and became a Nguyễn general and the Chinese community was allowed to settle in Đông Phố (modern
3997:
4651:, who had been ordered to "fill the city with corpses before you sheathe your swords," massacred the entire population, killing between 74,000 and 100,000 people. Hundreds of thousands of people were killed before all of China was brought into compliance. Although
7156:
3421:
for the Qing. Therefore, when Dorgon received Wu's letter, he was already about to lead an expedition to attack northern China and had no intention to restore the Ming. When Dorgon asked Wu to work for the Qing instead, Wu had little choice but to accept.
3855:
were in fact so many collaborators that the Qing court had to cut down on their numbers. The court also placed great attention to clamping down on administrative corruption through intensified inspections, and implemented a system of bureaucratic review (
1814:
frontier often mixed with non-Han tribesmen and were largely acculturated to their ways. The Jurchen Manchus accepted and assimilated Han soldiers who went over to them, and Han Chinese soldiers from Liaodong often adopted and used Manchu names. Indeed
4476:. The punishment for non-compliance was death. In the queue order edict, Dorgon specifically emphasized the fact that Manchus and the Qing emperor himself all wore the queue and shaved their foreheads so that by following the queue order and shaving,
12691:
5979:. Now the Mu family were still in power in Yunnan and remained loyal to the Ming. However, due to discontent against their rule, local revolts broke out against them. Mu joined with the few remaining Ming officials and Sun Kewang to restore order.
3484:
pretenders would suffer from infighting due to their weak claims on the throne. A large émigré elite of northerners in the south would also have increased the probability of an aggressive policy of reconquest to regain their northern homelands.
2677:
gave a Manchu woman as a wife to the Han Chinese official Feng Quan, who had defected from the Ming to the Qing. Feng Quan willingly adopted the Manchu queue hairstyle before it was enforced on the Han Chinese population and he also learned the
1849:, Ming army units had become dominated by officers who would spend long periods of 10 or 12 years in command instead of the usual practice of constant rotation, and the Central Military Command had lost much of its control over regional armies.
3597:, composed of Han Chinese (Ming) military forces who defected to the Qing, in order to help rule northern China. It was these troops who provided day-to-day military governance in China, and supplied the forces used in the front-line fighting.
7014:
The emperors, in order to legitimize their rule, encouraged Qing officials and literary figures to organize and appropriate the legacy of Chinese literature, producing anthologies and critical works. They also patronized the development of
4492:. This policy of symbolic submission to the new dynasty helped the Manchus in telling friend from foe. However, for Han Chinese officials and literati, the new hairstyle was "a humiliating act of degradation" (because it breached a common
4226:
had already fled. The city surrendered without a fight on 16 June 1645 after its last defenders had made Dodo promise he would not hurt the population. Within less than a month, the Qing had captured the fleeing Ming emperor (he died in
7052:(中國 Zhongguo; "Middle Kingdom"). After extinguishing the Ming, the Qing identified their state as "China" (Zhongguo), and referred to it as "Dulimbai Gurun" in Manchu. The Qing equated the lands of the Qing state (including present day
4998:
Anti-Qing forces including Great Shun and Zhang Xianzhong loyalists remained active in the mountainous regions between Chongqing and Hubei. Forces led by Li Laiheng, a nephew of Li Zicheng, established a base in the Maolu Mountain of
4975:, who moved to crush banditry, called for supplies to be shipped in and recultivated the land to relieve the famine-like conditions. After he was attacked and defeated by Li Zhanchun and Yu Dahai in 1647 in a land-riverine battle at
3326:
and confirm Li Zicheng's noble rank of Prince. Li Zicheng did not intend to overthrow the Ming Emperor or kill him. The Ming Emperor, however, fearful that accepting such political expediency would ruin his reputation tried to get
3321:
of the Ming dynasty that Li Zicheng would fight the Qing dynasty and eradicate all other rebels on behalf of the Ming, if the Ming dynasty would recognize Li Zicheng's control over his Shaanxi-Shanxi fief, pay him 1 million
1615:. Nurhaci's demand that the Ming pay tribute to him to redress the Seven Grievances was effectively a declaration of war, as the Ming were not willing to pay money to a former vassal. Shortly afterwards, Nurhaci rebelled against
7245:
in China during the entire period. Some scholars estimate that the Chinese economy did not regain the level reached in the late Ming until the mid-Qing dynasty. According to economic historian Robert Allen, family income in the
6169:, who went on the offensive against the Ming loyalists. Under the guise of a 'spirit water' ritual during the king's enthronement, most of the men in the Ming imperial retinue were ambushed and killed. The Burmese contacted the
4452:
regime managed to restore order, the discontent persisted and coalesced as the Black Dragon Society, which immediately resumed their revolt once the Qing crushed the Southern Ming forces. Some of the gentry, associated with the
1953:
During much of his early life Nurhaci considered himself a guardian of the Ming border and a local representative of imperial Ming power. Upon the advice of an Erdeni, most likely a Chinese transfrontiersman, he proclaimed the
6245:
quickly moved to suppress him, and launched a surprise attack which defeated him. Qian was hunted down and captured by March 1648. Only one year later did Koxinga launch an offensive, too late to join up with existing forces.
4555:. The region's bandits were infamous for kidnapping rich people and threatening to blind or bury them alive unless ransom was paid, while distributing food and money to the poor. Now their river craft were converted into an
2455:) urged him to declare himself as Emperor of China. On 14 May 1636, he accepted this advice, changing the name of his regime from Jin to Qing, and enthroning himself as Emperor of China in an elaborate Confucian ceremony.
13332:
Xiao, Lingbo; Fang, Xiuqi; Zheng, Jingyun; Zhao, Wanyi (20 April 2015). "Famine, migration and war: Comparison of climate change impacts and social responses in North China between the late Ming and late Qing dynasties".
1603:, was originally a Ming vassal who officially considered himself a local representative of imperial Ming power, but he broke his relationship with the Ming with the establishment of the Later Jin dynasty in 1616 after he
3305:
The Qing made a proposal to Li Zicheng's Shun forces on 6 March 1644 that they should ally and divide northern China between the Shun and Qing, sending a delegation to propose a joint attack on the Ming to take over the
3393:
when he heard that the city had fallen, whereupon he returned to the Shanhai Pass. Li Zicheng sent two armies to attack the pass but Wu's battle-hardened troops defeated them easily on 5 May and 10 May. Then on 18 May,
2602:. Meanwhile, the ordinary soldiers who defected were often given non-royal Manchu women as wives, and a mass marriage of Han Chinese officers and officials to Manchu women numbering 1,000 couples was arranged by Prince
1853:, or Supreme Commanders, were appointed throughout the empire to oversee the fiscal and military affairs in the area of their jurisdiction. In the frontier areas these became increasingly autonomous, and especially in
7363:
who later became the Fushun Nikan and Tai Nikan defected to the Jurchens (Manchus). These Han Chinese-origin Manchu clans continue to use their original Han Chinese surnames and are marked as of Han Chinese origin on
2774:
Ming officers who defected to the Qing were allowed to retain their previous military rank. The Qing received the defection of Shen Zhixiang in 1638. Among the other Han Chinese officers who defected to the Qing were
7570:"From the Manchus' perspective, the command to cut one's hair or lose one's head not only brought rulers and subjects together into a single physical resemblance; it also provided them with a perfect loyalty test."
4484:
notion that the people were like the sons of the emperor who was like the father, so the father and sons could not look different and to decrease differences in physical appearance between Manchus and Han Chinese.
3480:'s refusal to move southward when his capital had been under rebel threat. This allowed the Qing dynasty to capture an entire corps of qualified civil servants to administer the country, and also ensured that the
4741:, mainly local fishermen and smugglers, which posed a problem for Qing forces who lacked competent sailors. These linked up gentry resistance all over the region, dealing severe losses on Qing forces of governor
4152:
city and its people were unharmed by the Qing and only the Ming palace suffered destruction. The damage inflicted to the Ming palace was largely done by the Han Chinese locals of Nanjing, and not the Qing army.
2075:
princess in marriage and a noble title. The princess was one of Nurhaci's granddaughters. In April 1625, Nurhaci designated Shenyang the new capital city, which would hold that status until the Qing conquest of
16324:
5647:. The Qing was forced to send in "heavy troops" (artillery), as well as extra reinforcements. The Qing succeeded in subduing the rebellion in 1649, but with heavy losses. Further south, in the forests between
5057:, but lived in Zhejiang where he came into contact with Chinese Catholic scholars who, claiming that Europe was an ideal society and that all nations shared one morality, argued that Chinese culture was too
2015:
of the Ula, chieftains would attempt to reassert their independence and war would break out, but the Jianzhou Jurchens would defeat and assimilate all the tribes eventually (Hada 1601, Hoifa 1607, Ula 1613,
7326:
river delta's urban regions, the coastal southeast and the northwest were all hit by massive famine as the grain producing regions lost productivity. Massive deflation blew up as silver bullion remained in
6152:
between 1660 and 1661. They opened fire with cannon on the Burmese army of 150,000 men with war elephants. The Burmese broke after a rear attack from Bai. The loyalists built boats and bridges to cross the
5571:
gunners, and massacred the city's population, killing as many as 70,000 people. In Guangzhou, massacres of Ming loyalists and civilians in 1650 were carried out by Qing forces under the command of northern
4663:
Bannermen. Ming defector Li Chengdong's Han Chinese soldiers, who were mostly former revolted refugees, peasants and bandits from the north called the Han Chinese anti-queue resisters and Ming loyalists in
1681:
The fall of the Ming dynasty was largely caused by a combination of factors. Scholars have argued that the fall of the Ming dynasty may have been partially caused by the droughts and famines caused by the
7335:
from 1640 to 1642, killing 50% of the population, forcing the impoverished to eat cocoons and silkworms, and forcing the rich to eat rice gruel. In multiple counties only three out of ten survived when
4559:
naval raiding force and joined forces with their former gentry enemies. The gentry united these elements into the "White Headed Army" since they wore white turbans. East of the lake, loyalist gentry in
5371:
led other loyalists to believe that he had abandoned them and they proceeded to enthrone the Shaowu emperor. The situation was complicated by the fact that the Shaowu court mainly consisted of local
3443:
The conquest of the Empire, after the Manchus had securely seated themselves in Peking, had to be undertaken largely with Chinese troops, "stiffened" a little with a Manchu regiment here and there
7127:
territorial lands were absorbed into "China" (Dulimbai Gurun) realm in a Manchu language memorial. They expounded the ideology that they were bringing together the "outer" non-Han Chinese like the
7193:, in which some 800,000 people, (although this number is now considered an exaggeration) including women and children, were massacred. The Qing carried out massacres in cities which resisted like
6209:
for an alliance, before finally dying of disease in August 1662. His final words were to tell his son to never surrender to the Qing (his son still did surrender, with the remainder of the army).
4536:
had been mostly unsuccessful until the queue order was passed, when they experienced a surge in popular support and succeeded in killing the local collaborationist magistrate. However the army of
4111:'s northern frontiers. The betrayal of these commanders handed over the entire northwestern zone of the Southern Ming, helping the Qing forces to link up. Ming loyalist Ma Shiying had brought to
4278:
after Nanjing peacefully surrendered, corralling the women into the city and whipping them hard with their hair containing a tag showing the price of the ransom, which was cheap at only 3 to 4
4128:
left the city. The people also yelled "These are the son and daughter-in-law of the traitorous minister Ma Shiying!" when they paraded the daughter-in-law and son of Ma Shiying after storming
6006:
province) from the Qing. Within a month, most of the commanders who had been supporting the Qing in Guangxi reverted to the Ming side. Despite occasionally successful military campaigns in
4843:, splitting his troops into four divisions that were ordered to act independently if something were to happen to him. Before leaving, he ordered a massacre of the population of his capital
2630:. In the beginning of the Qing dynasty the Qing government supported Han Chinese defectors weddings to Manchu girls. Han Chinese Bannermen wedded Manchus and there was no law against this.
3298:
requested the urgent help of any military commandant in the empire. On 24 April, Li Zicheng breached the walls of Beijing, and the emperor hanged himself the next day on a hill behind the
17293:
16388:
7375:
to fuel massacres against Manchus. Manchu bannermen and their families were massacred in several banner garrisons across China during the revolution, one of the massacres taking place in
7273:, disease, famine, starvation and bandits ravaged the population of China. A disease killed half of the population in cities across China from 1640 to 1642 and three out of ten people in
4877:
at Mount Fenghuang, after being betrayed by one of his officers. Refusing to believe the scout's report, he rode out to see for himself and was killed by an arrow. This was witnessed by
1880:
in 1621 against the Ming, requiring suppression, which was completed in 1629. In the early 1640s, mass rebellions led by many rebel leaders broke out in northwestern China's province of
3906:
fought against Li's forces after 1644 they quickly joined the Qing side. Meanwhile, Ming loyalist forces numbering 70,000 well-equipped troops were coalescing in the mountains south of
5805:
and crushed them with ease in December 1649. Ding Guodong was killed. The population was appeased by strengthening judicial protections and, at the suggestion of supervisory secretary
4175:, the Qing implemented peaceful takeovers for districts and cities who surrendered without any violent resistance, leaving the local Ming officials who defected in charge and the Qing
1240:
764:
6201:
to start the Qing expansion. Bai Wenxuan surrendered and was inducted into the Han Chinese banners. Li Dingguo, wrongly informed that the emperor had escaped, attempted to march for
3628:, forcing people to evacuate the coast in order to deprive Koxinga's Ming loyalists of resources: this led to a myth that it was because Manchus were "afraid of water". In fact, in
6633:
The rebellion was defeated mainly due to the refusal of most Han Chinese commanders to turn against the Qing dynasty. Particularly repulsive to many was the blatant opportunism of
3730:
won consecutive engagements against Shun forces in Shanxi and Shaanxi, forcing Li Zicheng to leave his Xi'an headquarters in February 1645. Pursued by Ajige, Li retreated down the
3430:, the Shun troops looted Beijing for several days until Li Zicheng left the capital on 4 June with all the wealth he could carry, one day after he had defiantly proclaimed himself
3125:
emperor insisted on concentrating all efforts at fighting the rebel armies instead, likening the Qing to be a mere "skin rash" while the rebels were a "visceral disease". In 1641,
11312:
Social Life of the Chinese: With Some Account of Their Religious, Governmental, Educational, and Business Customs and Opinions. With Special But Not Exclusive Reference to Fuhchau
7302:
China's population growth led to devastating death tolls due to famine from cold weather, drought and floods. Soil and anything that was consumable was eaten by people in 1637 in
6383:, inviting and allowing them back into Qing ranks without punishment even after they initially betrayed the Qing and defected, and this policy was able to secure mass defections.
16944:
4164:, over his battle strategy in 1645, telling him that the Southern Ming would have defeated the Qing if only the Southern Ming assaulted the Qing military before they forded the
7237:
caused the deaths of more than 200,000 people in Beijing in the year 1643 alone. Coastal China was also devastated by the Qing coastal evacuation order while fighting with the
2513:, to be part of Ming China, as the "superior country" (sangguk), the name they used to refer to Ming China. The Qing deliberately excluded references and information from the
1810:-style agriculture well before the Qing conquest of the Ming, and there was an established tradition of Han Chinese-Manchu mixing before 1644. The Han Chinese soldiers on the
11658:
6041:
were not able to conquer southern China by their own accord; they only did so by delegating to Han Chinese. During the fighting to extinguish Ming loyalism in the south, the
4995:. These groups started fighting among each other, which helped the Qing secure the northern and western parts of the province by 1652, and the rest of the province by 1658.
2759:
leniently. Hong Taiji understood that the Ming would not be easily defeated unless Han Chinese troops wielding musket and cannon were included in the army. Indeed, among the
5710:
might be attempting to restrict his authority and rebelled, switching allegiance back to the Ming. Dorgon travelled to personally intervene against the rebels. The generals
4577:
6686:, made out of defected Ming soldiers. In the Three Feudatories rebellion, Han Chinese bannermen who stayed on the Qing side and died in battle were categorized as martyrs.
6057:
class to dominate the government. Through this compromise, the bureaucracy versus military conflict that had helped to cause the downfall of the Ming dynasty was resolved.
4839:
who had lost the succession struggle of 1643) reached Sichuan in October 1646. Hearing that a Qing army led by a major general was approaching, Zhang Xianzhong fled toward
4305:, almost the entire army of Zuo Liangyu defected to the Qing. This provided the Qing with a critical new pool of military leaders and troops. These were also officers from
3710:
back in February 1644. In October of that year Dorgon sent several armies to root out Li Zicheng from his Shaanxi stronghold, after repressing revolts against Qing rule in
16222:
4897:, but found it in a state of desolation he had not expected. Unable to find food in the countryside, his soldiers looted the area, killing resisters, and even resorted to
4647:
also held out against about 10,000 Qing troops for 83 days. When the city wall was finally breached on 9 October 1645, the Qing army led by northern Chinese Ming defector
4401:
16983:
5336:
province, taking the reign title Shaowu (紹武) on 11 December 1646. Short of official costumes, the court had to purchase robes from local theater troops. On 24 December,
6050:
15465:
15012:
Zhang Hongsheng (2002). "Gong Dingzi and the Courtesan Gu Mei: Their Romance and the Revival of the Song Lyric in the Ming-Qing Transition". In Fong, Grace S. (ed.).
11079:
6466:, who strongly objected to cession of Taiwan to the Dutch, offered to launch his own expedition instead. The Dutch looted relics and killed monks after attacking a
3773:
Other sectarian millenarian movements in Shanxi province broke out in rebellion in 1646–1648. Court fears of insurrection led them to crackdown on the sects led by
12627:
7120:
5061:
and called for appreciation and imitation of foreign nations, and cooperation with them, whether Europeans or Manchus. This group therefore supported Manchu rule.
4338:
5433:, who was also discontented at being appointed a regional commander after conquering Jiangxi province, helped the Yongli regime to retake most of southern China.
2369:. Hong Taiji responded by arresting and imprisoning Amin, who later died in prison. He then implemented, on the urging of his Han Chinese advisors, Chinese-style
15022:
6973:
are attracting modern academic interest. Some of the most important first generation of Qing thinkers were Ming loyalists, at least in their hearts, including
6077:
6045:
came to rely increasingly on Han Chinese bannermen, some second or even third generation, to fill governor and governor-general posts as a kind of "provincial
4858:. Fearing Zhang's murderous tendencies, and with his Sichuanese troops unwilling to carry out Zhang's massacres on their fellow provincials, Zhang's commander
4330:
4326:
1233:
15448:
5659:
provinces, 20 Ming loyalist brigades of 1,000 men each were amassing. This force was known as the "Elm Garden Army", equipped with Western cannons. Commander
57:
6462:. However, the Qing grew suspicious of Dutch ambitions to maintain a colony in Taiwan and to push for trading privileges, so the alliance collapsed. Admiral
6311:
ahead of time giving plenty of time for the Qing to prepare because he wanted a decisive, single grand showdown like his father successfully did against the
2812:
2024:
united with the forces of the Ming dynasty to combat the rise of Nurhaci but Gintaisi was defeated and died in 1619. The fur-trapping Warka peoples near the
12969:
12953:
6849:
16317:
12704:
5182:, the Longwu court left their Fujian base in late September 1646, but the Qing army caught up with them. Longwu and his empress were summarily executed in
4513:
2229:
By this time news of the invasion had reached the Ming court, which immediately dispatched a relief contingent to Joseon, slowing the Jurchen advance into
6319:, throwing away the surprise and initiative which led to its failure. Koxinga's attack on Qing held Nanjing which would interrupt the supply route of the
3750:
until he was killed in September 1645, either by his own hand or by a peasant group that had organized for self-defense in this time of rampant banditry.
2899:
was guarded by Han Chinese soldiers. Other banners became a minority compared to the Han Chinese (Nikan) Black Banner detachments during Nurhaci's reign.
16988:
16824:
9049:
6615:. Slaves revolted in Beijing as it was widely believed that the Qing would fall. The Kangxi Emperor called it the most harrowing experience in his life.
6117:
5877:
5536:
4972:
4874:
3941:. These rebels' willingness to collaborate with non-Muslim Chinese suggests that they were not only driven by religion, and were not aiming to create an
2353:
were forbidden to trespass. Hong Taiji curtailed the power of the Manchu princes by relying on Han Chinese officials. He personally welcomed surrendered
12979:
12963:
6841:
5104:", as his son is known to Westerners; it is a distortion of the title "Lord of the Imperial Surname" (Guoxingye 國姓爺). Upon Zheng Zhilong's request, the
15485:
12905:
7068:
and other areas) as "China" in both the Chinese and Manchu languages, defining China as a multi-ethnic state, rejecting the idea that China only meant
5688:
15212:
13534:
6299:
was preparing to hold a special examination to celebrate the glories of his reign and the success of the southwestern campaigns, Zheng sailed up the
5218:
4468:
issued "the most untimely promulgation of his career": he ordered all Chinese men to shave their forehead and to braid the rest of their hair into a
2755:
recognized that Ming defectors were needed in order to defeat the Ming, explaining to other Manchus why he needed to treat the Ming defector general
1713:
However, the victory was far from complete as it required almost 40 more years before all of China was securely united under Qing rule. In 1661, the
1226:
12857:
7174:, the "people of the Central Kingdom" (dulimba-i gurun 中國 Zhongguo) were like the Torghuts, and the "people of the Central Kingdom" referred to the
6237:
regime, and he therefore managed to become legitimized as a Ming loyalist fighter. He organised a marine resistance unit and established links with
4628:
fell after being deceived into opening the gates by Qing forces covering up their shaved heads. A group of loyalists fled to join the resistance in
16663:
14813:(1975b). "Localism and Loyalism During the Ch'ing Conquest of Kiangnan: The Tragedy of Chiang-yin". In Frederic Wakeman Jr.; Carolyn Grant (eds.).
7221:
had spurred Zhang Xianzhong and Li Zicheng to revolt and brutality by the rebels was widespread across northern China. This period saw innumerable
6273:
5841:
5719:
5465:
5233:, but Zhoushan fell to the Qing in 1651 after being betrayed by Huang Binqing's former officers. Zhang Mingzhen, with all his family, fled to join
5214:
2808:
12313:
Wills, John E. Jr. (2006). "The Seventeenth-century Transformation: Taiwan under the Dutch and the Cheng Regime". In Rubinstein, Murray A. (ed.).
6414:
to name departments, since the latter is reserved for central government, whereas Taiwan was to be a regional office of the rightful Ming rule of
3797:. The first works translated were all Chinese military texts dedicated to the arts of war due to the Manchu interests in the topic. They were the
16403:
12671:
5636:
5222:
4342:
4309:, or had previously served there, who in the 1630s had been withdrawn to fight rebels in the interior provinces. The most important of these was
3946:
3903:
2856:
2852:
2832:
938:
733:
669:
12873:
6917:
suggests that Shitao used a poem inscribed on this "Self-Portrait Supervising the Planting of Pines" (1674) to allude to the restoration of the
6026:
province), he patiently built up his forces; only in late 1658 did well-fed and well-supplied Qing troops mount a multipronged campaign to take
5943:
province. The Ming emperor, in urgent need of reinforcements, requested the aid of the Xi dynasty's followers. Zhang Xianzhong's former deputy,
5786:
in 1649, but was driven off. He continued marauding the province until he was killed in February 1655 when his headquarters was discovered by a
4404:. Huang Degong rejected their demand to turn over the Hongguang Emperor but Zhang Tianlu then shot an arrow into Huang's throat and killed him.
4031:, which had been the auxiliary capital of the Ming dynasty. Agreeing that the Ming needed an imperial figure to rally support in the south, the
3417:, urged the Manchu prince to seize the opportunity of the fall of Beijing to present themselves as avengers of the fallen Ming and to claim the
14008:
Fong, Grace S. (2001). "Writing from a Side Room of Her Own: The Literary Vocation of Concubines in Ming-Qing China". In Fong, Grace S. (ed.).
9360:
Wars of the Age of Louis XIV, 1650–1715: An Encyclopedia of Global Warfare and Civilization: An Encyclopedia of Global Warfare and Civilization
6608:
6568:
6428:
6242:
5798:
5767:
5418:
5391:
5203:
5172:
5168:
4890:
4859:
4734:
4687:, although former-Ming subjects were initially compensated with silver for complying to the Queue Order, the defected southern Chinese general
4648:
4609:
4525:
4389:
4373:
4318:
4088:
4084:
3934:
3774:
2848:
2840:
2776:
790:
7281:, entire parts of the countryside in the middle of China were abandoned. Theft and begging by hungry peasants became widespread in cities and
16808:
16779:
16398:
15854:
15692:
15094:
14060:
7331:
and stopped grain and payments for famine relief from reaching famine victims. The rebellions broke out because of these famines. Famine hit
6644:
6141:
5865:
5775:
5711:
5695:
5221:, between Zhejiang and Fujian. By July 1649 their base of operations shifted northward to Jiantiaosuo. After killing a rival naval commander
4988:
4940:
4672:) threatening them, telling them "southern barbarian, hand over your valuables", raping, torturing and massacring. When the Qing imposed the
4621:
4533:
4529:
3727:
1122:
1041:
1001:
996:
7189:, and the subsequent expansion by the Qing was one of the most devastating wars in Chinese history. Examples of the devastation include the
7151:
concerning criminal jurisdiction over bandits called Qing subjects "people of the Central Kingdom (Dulimbai Gurun)". In the Manchu official
1950:
and Hada. When the other tribes attacked him to check his power in 1591, he succeeded in defeating them and seized many of their warhorses.
16480:
6982:
5944:
5660:
5628:
5046:
4916:
4904:
4405:
3937:(丁國棟). Proclaiming that they wanted to restore the fallen Ming, they occupied a number of towns in Gansu, including the provincial capital
3554:
as provincial governors and governors-general, with not a single Manchu governor until 1658, and not a single governor-general until 1668.
3181:
2975:
Banners against Joseon. Chinese support was particularly evident in the army's artillery and naval contingents. The defected Ming mutineer
2824:
1104:
1099:
1052:
1017:
681:
6696:
2202:. The Jurchens met sharp resistance at the border towns but Joseon border garrisons were quickly defeated. The Jurchen army advanced into
16019:
15344:
6307:. Despite capturing many counties in his initial attack due to surprise and having the initiative, Koxinga announced the final battle in
5849:
5751:
5508:
4948:
4912:
4742:
4605:
4501:
3328:
2860:
2796:
1109:
1030:
14964:
Die Eroberung von Qinghai unter Berücksichtigung von Tibet und Khams 1717–1727: anhand der Throneingaben des Grossfeldherrn Nian Gengyao
7277:
died of plague and starvation. As the rural areas were hit by famine, peasants abandoned their homes by the millions, bandits took over
5986:'s leadership had successfully pushed the Southern Ming deep into southern China, Ming loyalism was not dead yet. In early August 1652,
4761:, but this was a trap; he was captured and executed. Resistance still carried on as the gentry continued near-open protest. In 1645, in
3010:. The princess' name in Korean was Uisun and she was Prince Yi Kaeyoon's (Kumrimgoon) daughter. Dorgon married two Korean princesses at
14217:
9632:
8999:
8827:
8729:
6371:
could bring death sentences with no leniency from Koxinga. The Qing implemented a lenient policy towards defectors who defected to the
6230:
5857:
4944:
4738:
4601:
4409:
3915:
2872:
2804:
2788:
2780:
943:
16361:
7314:) from 1641 to 1642 hitting the region twice, leaving corpses from the disease all over Zhili and killing 9 out of 10 across northern
6764:
The Qing sent most of the 17 Ming princes still living on Taiwan back to mainland China where they spent the rest of their lives. The
3491:
started being organised almost immediately upon the Qing capture of Beijing. The early Qing government was dominated by scholars from
2519:
that showed the Jurchens (Manchus) as subservient to the Ming dynasty, to hide their former subservient relationship to the Ming. The
44:
16468:
16453:
15497:
14568:
Translation of the Ts'ing Wan K'e Mung, A Chinese Grammar of the Manchu Tartar Language; with Introductory Notes on Manchu Literature
14558:
Translation of the Ts'ing wan k'e mung, a Chinese grammar of the Manchu Tartar language; with Introductory Notes on Manchu literature
5731:
5680:
4831:
regime: the first expedition did not reach Sichuan because it was caught up against remnants; the second one, under the direction of
3926:
3691:
2868:
2864:
2800:
777:
4210:
of Yangzhou's entire population to terrorize other Jiangnan cities into surrendering to the Qing. On 1 June Qing armies crossed the
17288:
17283:
16155:
6157:
but these were burned by Burmese commandos. A long siege of Ava ensued but the Burmese increased their defenses after tricking the
5873:
5202:
with his fleet. When news arrived of the Longwu emperor's demise, the fortress of Ganzhou in southern Jiangxi under the command of
4206:'s artillery: on 20 May Qing cannon wielded by the Han Chinese Bannermen (Ujen Coohai) breached the city wall and Dodo ordered the
3848:
3314:
2357:
commanders, eating side-by-side with them so as to build a rapport that was impossible with the Ming emperors. The Manchus, led by
17:
10417:
2590:
was wedded to Sun Cheng'en, son of the Han Chinese Sun Sike. Other Aisin-Gioro women married the sons of the Han Chinese generals
2218:. When it became clear that defeat was inevitable, the Anju garrisons committed suicide by blowing up their gunpowder storehouse.
1764:
military establishment and other defectors, with the Manchu military playing a very minor role (see below for specific examples).
14212:
9627:
8994:
8822:
8724:
5806:
3847:. As well as the translations by Dahai, other Chinese literature, military theory and legal texts were translated into Manchu by
3794:
3146:
9482:
6738:. Having lost this battle, Zheng Keshuang surrendered and was rewarded by the Kangxi Emperor with the title "Duke of Haicheng" (
5663:
had declared a distant relative of the Ming imperial family as the "Tianzheng Emperor", and besieged and captured the cities of
3247:
in the 1640s. Historians estimated that up to one million people were killed in this self-proclaimed emperor's reign of terror.
1861:-like personal bonds of loyalty grew between officers, their subordinates and troops. This military caste gravitated toward the
17191:
16530:
15643:
15550:
4695:
by 1645. The Han Chinese Banners were repeatedly assigned to enforce the Queue Order, often resulting in massacres such as the
2349:, and adopted Chinese legal forms. He formed autonomous Han Chinese military colonies governed by Han Chinese officials, where
6989:, which emphasized careful textual study and critical thinking. Another important group in this transitional period were the "
3184:
refused to engage in battle, while fabricating reports of victory and extorting bribes to cover up for defeats. Prince-Regent
2276:
Mongols. Seven Khorchin nobles died at the hands of Khalkhas and Chahars in 1625. This started the Khorchin alliance with the
1733:
in southern China, starting in 1673, and then countered by launching a series of campaigns that expanded his empire. In 1662,
17298:
17222:
16463:
15538:
15386:
15147:
14951:
14932:
14913:
14890:
14869:
14847:
14713:
14545:
14501:
14459:
14435:
14404:
14346:
14288:
14190:
14145:
14049:
13998:
13973:
13909:
13822:
13758:
13737:
13716:
13695:
13675:
13175:
12937:
12921:
11891:
11864:
11678:
11458:
10535:
10451:
10165:
9368:
8144:
8067:
7952:
7924:
7765:
7234:
5476:
as the populace did not side with the loyalists, and Qing forces advanced again. Xu Yong was later present at the capture of
5436:
The Yongli emperor was encouraged by these developments and saw hope in a Ming reconquest, likening it to the revival of the
1471:
12801:
12783:]. Volume XII. Chinas religionen (in German). Aschendorff (Druck und Verlag der Aschendorffschen Buchhandlung). p.
11283:
6965:, which explored the moral decay of the Ming in order to explain its fall. Poets whose lives bridged the transition between
4991:
to organise the Ming forces in Sichuan who instead became yet another warlord, establishing himself as a "Prince of Chu" at
4931:
was supposed to be enthroned as the next ruler but he died on the journey. The remnants of the Ming force moved eastward to
16692:
16443:
16356:
16080:
15588:
15443:
6860:, where Địch served as chief of a small Chinese community. The Nguyễn court allowed these resistance forces to resettle in
4676:
in China, many Han Chinese defectors were appointed in the massacre of dissidents. Li Chengdong oversaw three massacres in
4412:, the brigade commanders under Huang Degong then defected to the Qing and gave general Liu Liangzuo the Hongguang Emperor.
3977:
by inviting Prince Sa'id Baba to rule in Suzhou. The Qing counterattack was interrupted by the Jiang Xiang mutiny (below).
3953:, a former Ming official who had surrendered to the Qing in 1631. The rebel leaders persuaded Zhu Shichuan, Ming Prince of
2637:, a Han Chinese bannerman, was awarded the title of Prince Jingnan, and his son Geng Jingmao managed to have both his sons
2622:
15023:"Reinventing China Imperial Qing Ideology and the Rise of Modern Chinese National Identity in the Early Twentieth Century"
13020:
5100:(also known as "Nicholas Iquan"). The childless emperor adopted Zheng's eldest son and granted him the imperial surname. "
3197:, also defected on 8 April 1642, handing them the city. With the fall of Songshan and Jinzhou, the Ming defense system in
16265:
16095:
15258:
15152:
14575:
12817:
12590:
10836:
7209:. Nanjing surrendered to the Qing without a violence as all officials surrendered and defected. Whole provinces, such as
6486:. Zheng Jing's navy executed 34 Dutch sailors and drowned 8 Dutch sailors after looting, ambushing and sinking the Dutch
5601:
4680:
that occurred within the same month; together which resulted in tens of thousands of deaths and left cities depopulated.
4190:
on 13 May 1645. The majority of the Qing army which marched on the city were Ming defectors and they far outnumbered the
2237:
then dispatched an envoy to negotiate a peace treaty, but by the time the messenger returned, Injo had already fled from
966:
14767:
On the Trail of the Yellow Tiger: War, Trauma, and Social Dislocation in Southwest China During the Ming-Qing Transition
14298:
Parsons, James B. (May 1957). "The Culmination of a Chinese Peasant Rebellion: Chang Hsien-chung in Szechwan, 1644–46".
12915:
12867:
12638:
7722:
On the Trail of the Yellow Tiger: War, Trauma, and Social Dislocation in Southwest China During the Ming-Qing Transition
2175:
he also hoped to extract much-needed resources for his army and subjects, who had suffered in the war against the Ming.
1980:
defectors as well as Ming produced firearms. In 1618, Nurhaci openly renounced the Ming overlordship and proclaimed his
16908:
16277:
16150:
15974:
15555:
14993:
14972:
14822:
14800:
14774:
14755:
14734:
14673:
14649:
14628:
14607:
14480:
14166:
14084:
14028:
13954:
13930:
13801:
13637:
13618:
13597:
13132:
12792:
12573:
12511:
12217:
11070:
10574:
9930:
9780:
9548:
8892:
8609:
8553:
8510:
8467:
8381:
8354:
7982:
5124:, but the two loyalist regimes failed to cooperate, making their chances of success even lower than they already were.
4120:
4059:
who had been next in line for succession after the dead emperor's sons, whose fates were still unknown. The Prince was
3409:
had left all the territory outside the Great Wall under Qing control. Two of Dorgon's most prominent Chinese advisors,
2011:
tribes, started recognizing the authority of Nurhaci by the beginning of the 17th century. In some cases, such as with
10262:
9006:
6662:
from 1673 to 1674. The Qing had the support of the majority of Han Chinese soldiers and Han Chinese elite against the
3038:
and beheaded Bombogor in 1640, with Qing armies massacring and deporting Evenkis and absorbing the survivors into the
17197:
17038:
16913:
16270:
15847:
15087:
15061:
14522:
14373:
14236:
13780:
13512:
13435:
13214:
12714:
12322:
11095:
9153:
8935:
8795:
7729:
7662:
4721:. The Qing authorities were only able to maintain control through working with corrupt former Ming officials such as
3812:
13401:
12947:
12931:
12827:
12811:
8153:
6108:; many of the Ming retinue were killed or enslaved, and the remainder were housed in huts opposite the capital city
17008:
15723:
13026:
12883:
12495:
12479:
10959:
10627:
9939:
9896:
9848:
6651:, remained loyal to the Qing despite imprisonment and eventually death, and as one of leading military families of
6450:. The Dutch intended to take a colonial outpost in Taiwan. In October 1663, the joint fleet succeeded in capturing
4444:
scholars committed suicide by drowning, hanging, self-immolation, or hunger strike on the news of the death of the
3496:
3222:
1993:
13652:(2001). "Gender and Canonicity: Ming-Qing Women Poets in the Eyes of the Male Literati". In Fong, Grace S. (ed.).
13277:
10305:
9450:
9334:
8027:
7890:
7347:
bannermen were transferred en masse into Manchu Banners by the Qing, changing their ethnicity from Han Chinese to
5425:
province, mutinied against the Qing and rejoined the Ming. The reversion of another dissatisfied Ming defector in
4083:
in April 1645. He set out from Xi'an on that very day. Greatly aided by the surrender of Southern Ming commanders
2843:. Aristocratic and military ranks, silver, horses and official positions were given to Han Chinese defectors like
17125:
16368:
16055:
15941:
15278:
13148:
12427:
12411:
10131:
9880:
7371:
Accounts of atrocities during the transition from the Ming to Qing were used by revolutionaries in the anti-Qing
7297:
6829:
6525:
6515:
4659:
Massacre which targeted the Ming loyalists, the majority of those who had participated in Jiangyin Massacre were
1726:
1466:
15187:
13385:
12686:
12666:
12250:
11235:
10820:
9864:
9198:
9182:
7544:
Dorgon's brother Dodo, who led the Qing army, received "the imperial command to conduct a southern expedition" (
6805:
4643:
was massacred by former Ming northern Chinese general Li Chengdong, respectively on 24 August and 22 September.
3499:
were given promotions after defecting. The top positions were mainly in the hands of Han Chinese Bannermen from
17253:
16709:
16575:
16343:
16090:
16029:
15999:
15989:
15238:
12889:
12527:
12347:
12266:
11335:
11319:
11219:
10931:
10868:
10801:
10246:
10230:
9581:
9145:
9090:
9025:
8944:
8927:
The historian's castrated slave: the textual eunuch and the creation of historical identity in the Ming history
8390:
7322:
from northwestern China. Due to the loss in people, crops were not farmed further exacerbating the famine. The
6945:), but the question arose as to whether Confucians should be loyal to the fallen Ming or to the new power, the
6845:
6780:
as a propaganda measure in quieting remaining resistance on Taiwan. The emperor approved its dedication as the
3609:
Bannermen were only deployed to respond to emergency situations where there was sustained military resistance.
14985:
Conflict and Commerce in Maritime East Asia: The Zheng Family and the Shaping of the Modern World, c.1620–1720
13478:
13462:
13058:
12985:
10852:
10501:
9246:
9230:
9214:
9106:
8618:
7676:
6674:
officers fared poorly against Wu Sangui, so the Qing responded with using a massive army of more than 900,000
2287:
in 1628 and 1635. An expedition against the Chahar Mongols in 1632 was ordered to establish a trading post at
17263:
17143:
16918:
16774:
16458:
16448:
16433:
16428:
16260:
16210:
16190:
16130:
15964:
15770:
15492:
13369:
13309:
13293:
13261:
13245:
13042:
9498:
9318:
8476:
8418:
8169:
7469:
6758:
5916:
4801:
for an assault on Nanjing in September 1646, but the Qing collaborators discovered the plan and defeated it.
4774:
3843:
3731:
3385:
and started marching toward the capital. On 26 April, his armies had moved through the fortifications of the
2112:
288:
14202:
10785:
10190:
10174:
9514:
9302:
9080:
8901:
8233:
8217:
8201:
8185:
7420:
pretty Manchu girls were also seized by Hui Muslims of Xi'an during the massacre and brought up as Muslims.
3546:. They governed southern China autonomously as viceroys for the Qing. The Qing deliberately avoided placing
3448:
E.H. Parker, The Financial Capacity of China; Journal of the North-China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society
16902:
16680:
16547:
16413:
16307:
15907:
15840:
15750:
15528:
15396:
15080:
13229:
9466:
9286:
8960:
7092:
later found themselves in positions of power and influence in Manchu administration and even had their own
4425:
2959:
to secure the coastal approaches to Korea, so that Ming could not send reinforcements. On 9 December 1636,
2138:
1793:
1627:
1502:
1451:
1299:
891:
294:
276:
13575:
8519:
6406:. Great care was taken to symbolise support for the Ming legitimacy, an example being the use of the term
6112:, under a Burmese guard. In Yunnan, the banner troops had engaged in pillage and rape when moving through
4709:
estuary continued to harbour pirates and resistance forces, threatening to link up with the resistance in
2402:. Undersupplied and underpaid soldiers mutinied against the Ming dynasty. They subsequently sailed across
282:
16819:
16802:
16312:
16287:
16250:
16160:
16120:
15872:
15760:
15745:
15480:
15112:
14664:
7474:
7111:
2315:
1959:
1749:, a Ming loyalist state with the goal of reunifying China. However, Tungning was defeated in 1683 at the
14472:
Manchus and Han: Ethnic Relations and Political Power in Late Qing and Early Republican China, 1861–1928
17202:
16648:
15571:
15293:
15192:
14705:
14427:
14396:
7501:
7242:
7036:
6990:
6503:
3894:'s rebels in 1642. They were unable to resist Li Zicheng and many tusi chiefs were massacred. When the
3777:, which in turn caused a major rebellion. The rebels were pacified through generous grants of amnesty.
1784:. The Manchus and Qing dynasty started from northeastern China and spread throughout the rest of China.
869:
858:
407:
15329:
8459:
The Headless State: Aristocratic Orders, Kinship Society, and Misrepresentations of Nomadic Inner Asia
7878:
7250:, China's richest province, was actually below Ming levels in 1820 (but equal to that of contemporary
6853:
4168:
instead of tarrying. The Prince of Fu could find no words to respond when he tried to defend himself.
3398:
personally led 60,000 of his troops out of Beijing to attack Wu. At the same time, Wu Sangui wrote to
1525:). It ended with the consolidation of Qing rule, and the fall of the Ming and several other factions.
17212:
16931:
16860:
16653:
16185:
16110:
15979:
15897:
15740:
15576:
15502:
15273:
15263:
12385:
7491:
7459:
7032:
4432:'s July 1645 edict ordering all men to shave their forehead and tie their hair into a queue like the
4420:
4067:
on 19 June 1644 under the protection of Ma Shiying and his large war fleet. He would reign under the
2919:
2521:
2338:
2144:
1955:
1789:
1616:
1588:
1441:
1292:
977:
880:
13554:
9922:
Cultural Centrality and Political Change in Chinese History: Northeast Henan in the Fall of the Ming
4440:
Resistance in the region was originally muted. As the heartland of the scholarly class, hundreds of
3002:
was forced to give several of their royal princesses as concubines to the Qing Manchu regent Prince
2552:. Manchu Aisin-Gioro princesses were also married to Han Chinese officials' sons. The Manchu leader
2482:(Taizu Shilu Tu) in the Qing palace, forbidding them from public view, because they showed that the
17133:
16953:
16687:
16658:
16408:
15803:
15682:
15581:
15268:
15182:
7525:
7515:
7464:
6880:). Xuyên participated in various Nguyễn campaigns against Cambodia in 1689, 1699-1700 and in 1717.
6439:
4141:
2661:) daughter marrying Geng Jingzhong. A daughter of the Manchu Aisin-Gioro Prince Yolo was wedded to
2099:
clans were artificially created from groups of unrelated people who would found a new Manchu clan (
1691:
1650:, a former minor Ming official who became the leader of the peasant revolt and then proclaimed the
1368:
253:
15765:
11310:
9540:
Events that formed the modern world : from the European Renaissance through the War on Terror
9538:
6768:
and his five concubines committed suicide rather than submit to capture. Their palace was used as
6551:
loyalist forces in 1650 and organized a massacre of the city's population. His son was one of the
5833:
Muslims. By 1650 the Muslim rebels had been crushed in campaigns that inflicted heavy casualties.
2533:
that the Qing founders were Ming China's subjects was meant to avoid the accusation of rebellion.
16729:
16195:
16180:
16014:
15912:
15713:
15622:
15288:
15142:
13793:
The Diary of a Manchu Soldier in Seventeenth-Century China: "My Service in the Army", by Dzengseo
13630:
Grounds of Judgment: Extraterritoriality and Imperial Power in Nineteenth-Century China and Japan
13610:
Grounds of Judgment: Extraterritoriality and Imperial Power in Nineteenth-Century China and Japan
7581:
6399:
6014:
in the next two years, Li Dingguo failed to retake important cities. In 1653, the Qing court put
5754:, a man who claimed to be related to the Ming Imperial family, declared himself Prince of Qin in
4770:
4137:
2913:
2613:
This policy, which began before the invasion of 1644, was continued after it. A 1648 decree from
2366:
1901:
1456:
902:
49:
14097:
Sealords Live in Vain: Fujian and the Making of a Maritime Frontier in Seventeenth-century China
8988:
6869:
5774:'s forces. In the chaos, many bandit groups expanded their raids. A local outlaw by the name of
5293:
subdued Hunan in 1646. After the fall of the Longwu regime, He Tengjiao swore allegiance to the
4882:
4488:
The queue order was proposed by a number of Han Chinese officials in order to curry favour with
4071:"Hongguang" (弘光). The Hongguang regime was ridden with factional bickering that facilitated the
3789:
in 1629, a number of Chinese works considered to be of critical importance were translated into
2417:
Hong Taiji was reluctant to become Emperor of China. However, Han Chinese officials Ning Wanwo (
17278:
17258:
17110:
16998:
16879:
16704:
15922:
15650:
15598:
15406:
15298:
13549:
13019:
Wang Shochu, Records of the Ten Day massacre in Yangzhou. Available in Chinese at Wikisource:
12608:
10275:
10141:
10005:
9208:
9192:
7496:
6773:
5739:
4889:
in central Sichuan on 1 February 1647. In one account, he was betrayed by one of his officers,
3687:
3427:
3307:
1671:
1424:
557:
93:
14839:
The Great Enterprise: The Manchu Reconstruction of Imperial Order in Seventeenth-Century China
14512:
14470:
14415:
13984:
13944:
13488:
13472:
13451:
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13411:
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13319:
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10511:
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10240:
9949:
9920:
9906:
9890:
9858:
9770:
9697:
9591:
9524:
9460:
9385:
9344:
9256:
9240:
9119:
9100:
9035:
9019:
8954:
8911:
8628:
8543:
8500:
8457:
8400:
8134:
8040:
7972:
7903:
7781:
Fan, Ka-wai (2010). "Climatic change and dynastic cycles in Chinese history: A review essay".
7708:
7689:
5726:, Shaanxi, contacted Jiang Xiang, rebelled and switched back to the Ming. They were joined by
4955:
commander of Sichuan, moved south towards Guizhou and unsuccessfully attempted to contact the
4600:. The loyalists splintered over strategy disagreements. The loyalist navy, trying to sail for
3313:
When Li Zicheng and his army reached Beijing, he had made an offer via the former Ming eunuch
17273:
17268:
17184:
17043:
17003:
16670:
16632:
16520:
16500:
16418:
16217:
16200:
16065:
16034:
15969:
15755:
15733:
15718:
15359:
15339:
15217:
15177:
15167:
14384:
13535:"Agricultural productivity and rural incomes in England and the Yangtze Delta, c.1620–c.1820"
13379:
13287:
13239:
13068:
12784:
12628:""Righteous Yang": Pirate, Rebel, and Hero on the Sino-Vietnamese Water Frontier, 1644– 1684"
12276:
11448:
11089:
10941:
10862:
10814:
10795:
10564:
10525:
10492:
10441:
10427:
9874:
9664:
9508:
9492:
9476:
9358:
9328:
9312:
9224:
9133:
8970:
8882:
8599:
8529:
8486:
8431:
8371:
8344:
8246:
8227:
8211:
8195:
8179:
8163:
8089:
8057:
7942:
7855:
7520:
7486:
7201:
but did not carry out violence in cities which surrendered and capitulated to Qing rule like
6962:
6938:
6316:
6303:
with a well-armed fleet, took several cities from Qing hands, and went so far as to threaten
3530:
emperors, as well as governor posts, largely excluding ordinary Han Chinese civilians. Three
3488:
3426:
Zicheng's troops were quickly routed and fled back toward Beijing. After their defeat at the
2586:) title. Li Yongfang was the great-great-great-grandfather of Li Shiyao. The 4th daughter of
355:
10200:
10184:
9296:
8816:
8346:
A World Trimmed with Fur: Wild Things, Pristine Places, and the Natural Fringes of Qing Rule
8108:
7654:
6788:
for her supposed assistance during the Qing expansion, promoted her to "Empress of Heaven" (
5947:, exterminated all his opponents in the Southern Ming court and kept the Ming emperor under
5615:
broke out in March 1647. Shandong had been plagued by brigandage before the collapse of the
3534:
Han Chinese Bannermen officers who played a major role in southern China from the Ming were
2081:
1626:
At the same time, the Ming dynasty was fighting for its survival against fiscal turmoil and
17115:
17082:
17048:
16993:
16873:
16855:
16565:
16495:
16302:
16085:
15786:
15354:
15253:
15132:
14817:. Berkeley: Center of Chinese Studies, University of California, Berkeley. pp. 43–85.
14207:
13342:
12404:
9621:
9616:
8983:
8811:
8718:
8713:
7790:
7365:
6985:. Partly in reaction and to protest the laxity and excess of the late Ming, they turned to
3798:
3266:, the peasant rebellions ravaging northern China were approaching dangerously close to the
2935:'s brother was sent to deliver this tribute. However, in later letters to the Joseon king,
2486:
2342:
1546:
1316:
14967:. Tunguso Sibirica (in German). Vol. 2 (reprint ed.). Otto Harrassowitz Verlag.
14247:
11059:"6 politics of the queue: agitation and resistance in the beginning and end of qing china"
5953:
imprisonment, all the while continuing to refer to Zhang Xianzhong as a deceased emperor.
5015:
8:
17168:
17018:
16958:
16890:
16570:
16423:
16378:
16125:
16004:
15984:
15892:
15636:
15475:
15418:
15371:
15303:
15157:
14419:
14388:
10566:
Bannermen Tales (Zidishu): Manchu Storytelling and Cultural Hybridity in the Qing Dynasty
7319:
7238:
6719:
6683:
6627:
6403:
6320:
5869:
4967:. Qing forces mainly left the province due to starvation and the remainder garrisoned at
4862:
defected to the Qing and guided them to Zhang. Liu was later granted the title of Baron.
3594:
3344:
3149:. The Koreans, however, were incapacitated by outbreaks of disease. The fortress city of
3118:
2358:
2215:
2179:
1969:
1918:
1742:
1604:
1446:
1373:
1363:
1280:
1171:
547:
396:
343:
187:
15207:
13346:
13104:"The Epidemics in Ming Beijing and the Responses from the Empire's Public Health System"
8016:
7794:
6173:
to negotiate handing the emperor over. Subsequently, 100,000 Qing soldiers crossed into
3910:, under former Ming commanders Sun Shoufa, He Zhen and Wu Dading, capturing the city of
17053:
16764:
16759:
16585:
16525:
16515:
16510:
16505:
16329:
16175:
15994:
15248:
15202:
15162:
15053:
15045:
14323:
14315:
14201:
13940:
13886:
13857:
13849:
13567:
13358:
9072:
7806:
7748:
Li, Gertraude Roth (2002). "State Building before 1644". In Willard J. Peterson (ed.).
7360:
6781:
6652:
5747:
5738:. The revolt was defeated by the end of the year by a Banner force commanded by Prince
5105:
5054:
4640:
4625:
4561:
4306:
3962:
3531:
3500:
3406:
3154:
3150:
3096:
2768:
2576:
to the Manchus in 1618. The offspring of Li Yongfang received the "Third Class Baron" (
2432:
2420:
2148:
2126:
2085:
2032:
1854:
1826:
1811:
1761:
1703:
1695:
1414:
1394:
1384:
1379:
1358:
384:
15381:
13103:
10011:(paper). EAI Fellows Program Working Paper Series. The East Asia Institute. p. 12
7073:"Chinese people" (中國人 Zhongguo ren; Manchu: Dulimbai gurun i niyalma) referred to all
6423:
the Dutch. The Ming dynasty princes who accompanied Koxinga to Taiwan were the Prince
3620:. The Manchus sent Han Chinese Bannermen to fight against Koxinga's Ming loyalists in
1760:
The Qing victory was overwhelmingly the result of the defection of the Ming dynasty's
1404:
1338:
17063:
17058:
17033:
16978:
16973:
16896:
16844:
16749:
16580:
16485:
16383:
16282:
16245:
16170:
16100:
16070:
16024:
15460:
15197:
15137:
15057:
14989:
14968:
14947:
14928:
14909:
14886:
14865:
14843:
14818:
14796:
14789:
14770:
14751:
14730:
14709:
14691:
14669:
14645:
14624:
14603:
14541:
14518:
14497:
14476:
14455:
14431:
14400:
14369:
14342:
14327:
14284:
14274:
14232:
14186:
14162:
14141:
14080:
14045:
14024:
13994:
13969:
13950:
13926:
13905:
13899:
13861:
13818:
13797:
13776:
13754:
13733:
13712:
13691:
13671:
13633:
13614:
13593:
13571:
13563:
13508:
13431:
13362:
13210:
13171:
13128:
13081:
12788:
12710:
12569:
12343:
12318:
12213:
11887:
11860:
11674:
11503:
11454:
11291:
11066:
10580:
10570:
10531:
10447:
10161:
9926:
9776:
9544:
9364:
9149:
9076:
8931:
8888:
8791:
8605:
8549:
8506:
8463:
8377:
8350:
8140:
8063:
7978:
7948:
7810:
7761:
7725:
7384:
7372:
7282:
7190:
7016:
6930:
6663:
6575:, and they were forced to grant these generals vast autonomy and subsidies. In 1673,
6552:
6380:
6281:
4898:
4696:
4516:
and the local gentry mobilised militia and revolted, but they failed in an attack on
4469:
4445:
4357:
4223:
4207:
4056:
4016:
3747:
3679:
3574:
3477:
3468:. However, his hopes to restore the former were dashed after he rebelled against the
3418:
3318:
3295:
3286:
and proclaimed himself king. In March, his armies had captured the important city of
3011:
2875:. Han Chinese defectors were primarily responsible for military strategy after 1631.
2467:
2362:
1924:
1707:
1655:
1600:
1353:
1348:
1343:
704:
638:
519:
487:
465:
15003:
Yu, Pauline (2002). "Chinese Poetry and Its Institutions". In Fong, Grace S. (ed.).
10443:
A Chronology of Translation in China and the West: From the Legendary Period to 2004
7023:. Yet the phrase "defeat the Qing and restore the Ming" remained a byword for many.
6710:(Koxinga) had died in 1662. His descendants resisted Qing rule until 1683, when the
6626:
surrendered in 1681 after a massive Qing counteroffensive, in which the Han Chinese
3690:. Wu managed to engage Li's rearguard many times, but Li still managed to cross the
3153:
fell next after a major battle, due to the defection and betrayal of Ming commander
1690:
argues that one key factor was deteriorating relations between Ming royalty and the
1533:
The transition from the Ming to Qing was a decades-long period of conflict between:
17217:
17100:
17023:
16963:
16769:
16490:
16351:
16297:
16140:
16105:
16009:
15934:
15902:
15629:
15438:
15401:
15391:
15376:
15349:
15334:
15172:
15037:
14833:
14810:
14784:
14361:
14307:
13878:
13841:
13649:
13559:
13350:
11666:
9068:
9064:
7798:
7753:
7356:
7290:
7222:
7093:
6735:
6682:, to fight and crush the Three Feudatories. Wu Sangui's forces were crushed by the
5915:
dynasty—from 1647 to 1661. The provincial and national boundaries are those of the
5755:
5372:
5088:, managed to escape by land to the southeastern province of Fujian. Crowned as the
4885:, who reported it. Zhang Xianzhong was killed in a battle against Qing forces near
4878:
4702:
4636:
4573:
4454:
4393:
4183:
army would not attack them nor kill or do any violence against peaceful defectors.
4064:
3966:
3958:
3930:
3743:
3431:
3068:
3035:
2502:
2411:
2319:
2167:
was busy fortifying the border garrisons and training new musketeers. The new khan
2004:
1989:
1981:
1962:
that had ruled over northern China several centuries earlier, and declared himself
1869:
1777:
1750:
1639:
1608:
1607:. Many of the grievances he presented dealt with conflicts against the Ming-backed
1596:
1461:
1429:
1419:
1333:
1328:
1141:
1113:
1085:
1064:
1021:
1005:
947:
807:
794:
781:
768:
750:
737:
713:
613:
527:
428:
226:
175:
14620:
Giulio Aleni, Kouduo richao, and Christian–Confucian Dialogism in Late Ming Fujian
14538:
From Ming to Ch'ing: Conquest, Region, and Continuity in Seventeenth-Century China
7757:
7351:. Han Chinese bannermen of Tai Nikan 台尼堪 (watchpost Chinese) and Fusi Nikan 抚顺尼堪 (
7217:. Zhang Xianzhong killed 600,000 to 6 million civilians. A massive famine in
6909:, was one of many artists and writers who refused to give their allegiance to the
5592:
3402:
to request the Qing's help in ousting the bandits and restoring the Ming dynasty.
2122:, learning all he knew about Chinese military and political strategies from them.
1177:
By 1648, Han Bannermen made up 75% of the Eight Banners while Manchus at only 16%.
17232:
17178:
17028:
17013:
16837:
16292:
16255:
16205:
16165:
16115:
16060:
15929:
15820:
15672:
15615:
15533:
15308:
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14983:
14962:
14903:
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14837:
14745:
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14695:
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14659:
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14597:
14556:
14533:
14491:
14449:
14336:
14278:
14226:
14156:
14135:
14124:
14074:
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14018:
13988:
13920:
13812:
13791:
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13706:
13685:
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13587:
13502:
13204:
12774:
12378:
11881:
11670:
10569:. Harvard-Yenching Institute monograph series. Vol. 105. Brill. p. 24.
10155:
9647:
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and managed to hold out until suppressed by a large-scale Qing campaign in 1664.
5000:
4932:
4928:
4866:
4824:
4810:
4778:
4537:
4397:
4376:'s military camp. Huang Degong told him that if he died fighting to the death in
4203:
4157:
4040:
3970:
3954:
3790:
3625:
3523:
3476:
The easy transition between the Ming and Qing dynasties has been ascribed to the
3332:
3240:
3178:
3158:
2679:
2642:
2614:
2515:
1893:
1734:
1718:
1678:. On 6 June, the mainly Han Chinese forces of Dorgon and Wu entered the capital.
1572:
1550:
1506:
1476:
1081:
510:
361:
13427:
Annals & Memoirs of the Court of Peking: (from the 16th to the 20th Century)
7940:
5782:
and began handing out Ming ranks and documents, assembling an army. He attacked
3612:
It was such a Qing army composed mostly of Han Chinese Bannermen which attacked
3231:
faced a number of famines and floods as well as economic chaos, and rebellions.
1884:
and spread throughout China in the 1640s. Major battles included the sacking of
17095:
16968:
16734:
16697:
16145:
16135:
16075:
15796:
15791:
15667:
14178:
7557:
For examples of the factional struggles that weakened the Hongguang court, see
7451:
7251:
7226:
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7132:
6731:
6727:
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6588:
6253:
6015:
5995:
5908:
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5691:
led elite multi-ethnic Banner forces to crush the insurrection by 18 November.
5672:
5668:
5632:
5552:
5544:
5403:
5313:
5294:
5164:
5132:
5089:
4980:
4936:
4886:
4870:
4832:
4758:
4688:
4588:. The loyalists aimed to serve as a linkage between the upstream resistance in
4509:
4252:
3887:
3875:
3825:
3766:
3562:
3539:
3527:
3469:
3410:
3299:
3007:
2988:
2980:
2932:
2816:
2792:
2756:
2718:
2654:
2638:
2634:
2587:
2459:
2407:
2399:
2361:, expressed their displeasure at the situation by massacring the population of
2265:
2242:
2234:
2171:
was eager for a quick victory to consolidate his position as khan. By invading
2164:
2160:
2052:
2051:
Ming soldiers in the city; Liaoyang fell after traitors let down ropes for the
2008:
1973:
1927:
1862:
1781:
1714:
1699:
1683:
1663:
1612:
722:
646:
603:
587:
552:
138:
14566:
14365:
14231:. Translated by David Kwan (1st ed.). Beijing: Chinese Literature Press.
13845:
10584:
10527:
Literary Migrations: Traditional Chinese Fiction in Asia (17th–20th Centuries)
8987:
7802:
5619:, and most Ming officials and their gentry-organised militia welcomed the new
2665:, who was another son of Geng Jingmao. Aisin-Gioro women were also offered to
17247:
17207:
17173:
17138:
16754:
16744:
16560:
15951:
15677:
15470:
15413:
15041:
14701:
The Cambridge History of China, Volume 7: The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 1
14424:
The Cambridge History of China, Volume 9: The Ch'ing Empire to 1800, Part One
14393:
The Cambridge History of China, Volume 9: The Ch'ing Empire to 1800, Part One
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Dunnell, Ruth W.; Elliott, Mark C.; Foret, Philip; Millward, James A (2004).
13354:
11295:
7944:
Empire at the Margins: Culture, Ethnicity, and Frontier in Early Modern China
7408:
7348:
7247:
7175:
7078:
6954:
6877:
6745:
6679:
6671:
6667:
6548:
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6372:
6340:
6328:
6300:
6261:
6194:
6158:
6065:
6054:
6038:
5936:
5912:
5893:
5860:. Other rebels, given the ready access to the Ming loyalists in neighbouring
5845:
5826:
5802:
5787:
5597:
5492:
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5387:
5337:
5207:
5191:
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Manchus were living in cities with walls surrounded by villages and adopting
1799:
1687:
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1409:
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1389:
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803:
727:
709:
686:
663:
658:
483:
366:
318:
270:
239:
169:
14644:. Yale Historical Publications Series. Vol. 85. Yale University Press.
13922:
The Manchu Way: The Eight Banners and Ethnic Identity in Late Imperial China
7099:
5631:, and a woman by the surname of Zhang claimed to be the Crown Prince of the
5147:, the last Ming bastion in Jiangxi. In July, a new southern campaign led by
4380:
then all the ministers would have followed his lead in fighting against the
1912:
537:
17227:
16924:
16866:
16555:
16537:
16393:
15863:
15453:
15103:
15016:. Vol. 2. Montreal: Center for East Asian Research, McGill University.
14684:
14095:
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Durrant, Stephen (Fall 1977). "Manchu Translations of Chou Dynasty Texts".
13814:
New Qing Imperial History: The Making of Inner Asian Empire at Qing Chengde
13661:
12833:
12401:
China's Conquest of Taiwan in the Seventeenth Century: Victory at Full Moon
8601:
Our Great Qing: The Mongols, Buddhism, And the State in Late Imperial China
7750:
The Cambridge History of China: Volume 9, The Ch'ing Empire to 1800, Part 1
7509:
7437:
7270:
7266:
7258:
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6978:
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6648:
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6580:
6556:
6395:
6312:
6170:
6145:
6113:
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5903:
5783:
5635:
and his consort, respectively. With the aid of another bandit chief called
5620:
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5441:
5383:
5379:
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3255:
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3122:
3102:
3080:
3023:
2927:
2844:
2828:
2723:
2706:
2694:
2662:
2561:
2490:
2474:. The Qing dynasty carefully hid the two original editions of the books of
2426:
2370:
2354:
2323:
2304:
2296:
2277:
2156:
2118:
1976:
the strength to assert themselves backed by an army consisting of majority
1964:
1939:
1935:
1846:
1738:
1651:
1576:
1561:
1557:
1538:
1518:
1514:
1510:
1304:
1287:
1270:
842:
675:
532:
445:
413:
265:
215:
197:
193:
183:
165:
149:
134:
15512:
14020:
A History of the Peoples of Siberia: Russia's North Asian Colony 1581–1990
13796:. Routledge Studies in the Early History of Asia. Vol. 3. Routledge.
10157:
Banner Legacy: The Rise of the Fengtian Local Elite at the End of the Qing
8815:
7355:
Chinese) backgrounds into the Manchu banners in 1740 by order of the Qing
2549:
1642:, which he did in 1636, declaring the new Qing dynasty. On 24 April 1644,
17163:
16884:
16605:
16600:
15708:
15243:
13869:
Durrant, Stephen (1979). "Sino-Manchu translations at the Mukden Court".
9620:
8717:
7404:
7344:
7307:
7089:
7074:
7069:
7007:
7002:
6994:
6970:
6966:
6893:
6889:
6785:
6777:
6675:
6600:
6592:
6564:
6471:
6178:
6162:
6124:
chiefs, rose in rebellion on the side of the Yongli Emperor. His city of
6097:
6089:
5976:
5967:
who held the position of Duke of Qianguo. In the early Ming, it was Duke
5818:
5573:
5488:
5477:
5437:
5340:
5270:
5183:
4722:
4673:
4660:
4565:
4477:
4286:
4176:
4161:
4125:
4116:
4052:
3957:, to legitimise them as a Ming loyalist force, and they quickly captured
3698:, and Wu returned to Beijing. Li Zicheng reestablished his power base in
3598:
3511:
3492:
3354:
3130:
3072:
3064:
3058:
in 1631. Mandatory shaving of the front of all male heads was imposed on
3031:
2972:
2887:
2742:
2702:
2646:
2565:
2541:
2510:
2471:
2346:
2292:
2288:
2207:
2203:
2199:
2072:
2056:
1977:
1946:, believing that his tribe was too weak to gain hegemony over the larger
1807:
1722:
1631:
962:
922:
853:
837:
692:
597:
582:
577:
439:
15049:
13853:
12064:
10006:"Managing Hegemony in East Asia: China's Rise in Historical Perspective"
6953:, a descendant of the Ming ruling family, became recluses. Others, like
4349:
campaigns. Many of these became the most capable commanders against the
3169:
then led another raid into the interior of China, reaching the northern
16831:
16675:
16625:
16595:
16438:
15687:
15543:
14493:
International Dictionary of Historic Places: Asia and Oceania, Volume 5
14319:
13687:
Orphan Warriors: Three Manchu Generations and the End of the Qing World
12776:
Darstellungen aus dem Gebiete der nichtchristlichen Religionsgeschichte
7416:
7380:
7262:
7182:
7163:
7144:
6857:
6813:
6765:
6623:
6584:
6536:
6483:
6424:
6419:
6137:
5987:
5928:
5822:
5581:
5577:
5540:
5500:
5290:
5136:
5077:
4836:
4828:
4790:
4290:
4133:
4096:
4060:
4044:
3891:
3834:
3675:
3657:
3543:
3535:
3395:
3382:
3275:
3232:
2992:
2976:
2960:
2936:
2886:
became a minority within the Banners, making up only 16% in 1648, with
2836:
2820:
2752:
2714:
2710:
2658:
2595:
2591:
2506:
2403:
2395:
2330:
2168:
1889:
1647:
1635:
1599:, which enumerated grievances against the Ming. Nurhaci, leader of the
1580:
1568:
1522:
1309:
1218:
1181:
1094:
991:
907:
832:
759:
622:
609:
473:
420:
179:
15832:
15072:
14023:(illustrated, reprint, revised ed.). Cambridge University Press.
13890:
10160:. Center for Chinese Studies, The University of Michigan. p. 24.
9387:
The Manchus: Or The Reigning Dynasty of China; Their Rise and Progress
8502:
Global Crisis: War, Climate and Catastrophe in the Seventeenth Century
6898:
5563:. Finally on 24 November 1650, Qing forces led by Shang Kexi captured
4893:, who pointed him out to be shot by an archer. Hooge then easily took
4540:
turned on the region and with the exception of a few holdouts such as
16620:
16610:
15728:
14842:. Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London: University of California Press.
10119:
7941:
Pamela Kyle Crossley; Helen F. Siu; Donald S. Sutton (January 2006).
7586:
7289:. In 1641, northern China was hit by disease and plague spreading to
7198:
7053:
6958:
6659:
6634:
6576:
6544:
6432:
6332:
6233:
bandit named Qian Ying managed to acquire blank commissions from the
6182:
6129:
6125:
6046:
6011:
5964:
5771:
5743:
5723:
5687:. Heavy casualties were inflicted on the Qing. Defected Ming general
5564:
5548:
5504:
5449:
5445:
5422:
5399:
5395:
5364:
5333:
5329:
5317:
5117:
4984:
4976:
4968:
4963:. Here he began stockpiling resources to prepare for war against the
4908:
4782:
4569:
4481:
4215:
3911:
3862:
The Qing regime passed the Neighbourhood Security Investigation Law (
3841:. A Manchu translation was made of the military themed Chinese novel
3671:
3629:
3457:
3378:
3374:
3348:
3202:
3194:
3162:
3138:
3055:
2984:
2952:
2784:
2764:
2607:
2599:
2219:
2211:
2183:
2068:
1873:
1822:
1730:
1667:
1197:
634:
628:
515:
332:
14311:
13708:
A Translucent Mirror: History and Identity in Qing Imperial Ideology
9131:
8462:(illustrated ed.). Columbia University Press. pp. 99–100.
6520:
6217:
5421:, disappointed at being made a mere regional commander after taking
5244:
4547:
Resistance from marsh bandits, fishermen, gentry-led militia and ex-
478:
17105:
16850:
16797:
16739:
16615:
16590:
13882:
13750:
The Sichuan Frontier and Tibet: Imperial Strategy in the Early Qing
12455:
12443:
10472:
7505:
7412:
7396:
7376:
7332:
7315:
7311:
7230:
7194:
7171:
7061:
7057:
6998:
6986:
6974:
6769:
6715:
6700:
6499:
6475:
6467:
6463:
6363:
6285:
6269:
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6019:
5968:
5949:
5648:
5612:
5524:
5481:
5473:
5469:
5360:
5306:
5285:
remnants in Hunan, which became famous for holding out against the
5230:
5226:
5152:
5121:
5069:
5042:
4851:
4794:
4786:
4766:
4750:
4730:
4692:
4656:
4644:
4613:
4593:
4585:
4552:
4541:
4461:
4441:
4369:
4302:
4282:
for the best and 10 taels at most for those wearing good clothing.
4271:
4240:
4232:
4199:
4187:
4172:
4104:
4100:
4080:
4076:
4068:
4036:
4009:
4001:
3907:
3715:
3699:
3283:
3114:
3083:) and other ethnicities of this region were absorbed into the Qing
3054:, led by their own Nanai Hurka chief Sosoku before surrendering to
2573:
2380:
2375:
2254:
2064:
2044:
2040:
2021:
2012:
1997:
1985:
1885:
1772:
1754:
1670:
shifted his allegiance to the Qing. Li Zicheng was defeated at the
1620:
927:
816:
652:
391:
126:
14561:. Translated by Wylie, Alexander. Shanghae : London Mission Press.
12340:
Statecraft and Political Economy on the Taiwan Frontier, 1600–1800
12282:
11720:
11491:
6531:
5347:(永曆) regime in the same vicinity. The Prince of Gui had fled from
5155:
regime into disarray and proceeded to attack the Longwu regime in
4959:
court for supplies, wandering in desperate search for supplies to
4923:, killed him and took the city, but continued moving southward to
4415:
2690:
1833:
17090:
14475:(illustrated, reprint ed.). University of Washington Press.
14451:
The Last Emperors: A Social History of Qing Imperial Institutions
13732:. Peoples of Asia. Vol. 14 (3rd ed.). Wiley-Blackwell.
13592:(illustrated, reprint ed.). University of California Press.
12781:
Representations from the field of non-Christian religious history
12023:
11744:
11566:
8787:
The Manchu era (1644–1912): arts of China's last imperial dynasty
7996:
7994:
7400:
7388:
7323:
7303:
7278:
7218:
7210:
7206:
7202:
7167:
7160:
7152:
7082:
6837:
6825:
6821:
6820:. His position was Chief Commander of Longmen (a place in modern
6817:
6809:
6707:
6612:
6604:
6596:
6494:
in 1672 on northeastern Taiwan. Only 21 Dutch sailors escaped to
6479:
6387:
6376:
6367:
6324:
6308:
6304:
6289:
6238:
6222:
6202:
6174:
6166:
6027:
6007:
6003:
5991:
5972:
5940:
5932:
5861:
5853:
5837:
5810:
5794:
5763:
5759:
5727:
5684:
5644:
5640:
5608:
5587:
5560:
5556:
5528:
5512:
5496:
5461:
5457:
5453:
5426:
5411:
5407:
5368:
5302:
5258:
5250:
5234:
5195:
5179:
5144:
5140:
5101:
5096:
on 18 August, he depended on the protection of talented seafarer
4992:
4924:
4920:
4894:
4855:
4844:
4840:
4820:
4798:
4706:
4677:
4665:
4521:
4517:
4505:
4377:
4365:
4334:
4314:
4294:
4275:
4260:
4228:
4222:. The Qing arrived at the gates of Nanjing a week later, but the
4219:
4149:
4112:
4032:
4028:
4020:
3950:
3938:
3786:
3754:
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3287:
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3165:
to go on the offense, but he was quickly repelled. Manchu prince
3142:
3126:
3047:
2968:
2940:
2896:
2891:
2878:
So many Han defected to the Qing and swelled up the ranks of the
2738:
2666:
2553:
2530:
2494:
2384:
2334:
2273:
2269:
2261:
2257:
2230:
2152:
2077:
2048:
1931:
1897:
1881:
1877:
1838:
1816:
1776:
Central Asia in 1636. The Ming dynasty previously ruled over the
1659:
1643:
1592:
1567:
and various other rebel powers in China, such as the short-lived
827:
746:
567:
461:
307:
230:
14540:. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. pp. 167–99.
13507:(illustrated ed.). American Heritage Pub. Co. p. 365.
11948:
11663:
Ming China and Vietnam: Negotiating Borders in Early Modern Asia
9925:(illustrated ed.). Stanford University Press. p. 301.
8604:(illustrated ed.). University of Hawaii Press. p. 14.
6666:, since they refused to join Wu Sangui in the revolt, while the
6655:, his example inspired other Liaodong generals to remain loyal.
5135:
from the Lu regime and defeated a ragtag force representing the
5030:
2979:, ennobled as the Qing's Prince Gongshun, joined the attacks on
2617:
allowed Han Chinese civilian men to marry Manchu women from the
2103:) using a term of geographic origin such as a toponym for their
35:
13082:"The Little Ice Age and the Fall of the Ming Dynasty: A Review"
7887:, pp. 60–61, 196–197, 200, 210, 481, 1016–1030, 1036–1039.
7480:
7352:
7328:
7274:
7136:
7124:
6902:
6861:
6812:
to leave the Qing dynasty in March 1682. Yang was a general of
6723:
6572:
6455:
6451:
6447:
6443:
6391:
6356:
6352:
6348:
6265:
6257:
6234:
6198:
6190:
6085:
6031:
5999:
5983:
5956:
5881:
5779:
5707:
5703:
5699:
5532:
5344:
5321:
5274:
5238:
5199:
5187:
5167:
and left northern Fujian undefended against a Qing army led by
5156:
5093:
5050:
4960:
4816:
4762:
4710:
4684:
4669:
4629:
4617:
4597:
4556:
4544:, the loyalists fell quickly and the population was massacred.
4489:
4465:
4429:
4322:
4236:
4092:
3945:. To pacify the rebels, the Qing government quickly despatched
3922:
3838:
3762:
3758:
3695:
3667:
3645:
3641:
3637:
3633:
3621:
3570:
3507:
3399:
3343:, Li Zicheng sent an offer to the powerful Ming general at the
3291:
3262:
enterprise", and his advisors were pondering how to attack the
3254:, whom historians have variously called "the mastermind of the
3251:
3198:
3185:
3166:
3076:
3043:
3027:
3003:
2999:
2948:
2923:
2674:
2650:
2627:
2569:
2557:
2498:
2310:
2284:
2172:
2060:
2036:
1858:
1746:
1675:
572:
562:
542:
495:
435:
322:
243:
130:
15007:. Montreal: Center for East Asian Research, McGill University.
14490:
Ring, Trudy; Salkin, Robert M.; La Boda, Sharon, eds. (1996).
14360:. The Cambridge History of China. Cambridge University Press.
14012:. Montreal: Centre for East Asian Research, McGill University.
13656:. Montreal: Centre for East Asian Research, McGill University.
13589:
The Confusions of Pleasure: Commerce and Culture in Ming China
12052:
11404:
10494:
Journal of the North China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society
9011:
9009:
7991:
7860:
Journal of the North-China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society
6120:, under the promise of being given overall command of all the
5382:
regimes fought each other until 20 January 1647, when a small
4480:
would look like Manchus and the Qing Emperor, and invoked the
4313:
who was later single-handedly responsible for the conquest of
2633:
The "Dolo efu" rank was given to husbands of Qing princesses.
1865:
tribal chieftains rather than the bureaucrats of the capital.
88:
16814:
16373:
15593:
13458:. Vol. 112. Atlantic Monthly Company. 1913. p. 779.
12226:
12177:
12175:
12124:
12042:
12040:
12038:
11446:
9262:
7392:
7337:
7306:
in a massive famine. The massive disease epidemic devastated
7286:
7065:
7049:
6495:
6487:
6415:
6336:
6093:
6023:
5830:
5656:
5652:
5520:
5516:
5356:
5352:
5298:
5266:
5262:
5229:
in November. From there he attempted to raise a rebellion in
4718:
4714:
4699:, during which local residents were seen harassed by troops.
4589:
4361:
4346:
3899:
3739:
3719:
3711:
3586:
3389:(the eastern end of the Great Wall) and were marching toward
3110:
3106:
2956:
2734:
2238:
2187:
2155:
died from his wounds afterwards. Peace negotiations with the
2129:
but suffered a defeat in which Nurhaci was mortally wounded.
2028:
coast were subjugated as tributary tribes from 1599 to 1641.
500:
122:
118:
14942:
Watson, Rubie Sharon; Ebrey, Patricia Buckley, eds. (1991).
13925:(illustrated, reprint ed.). Stanford University Press.
10672:
10643:
10267:
10265:
8884:
The Northern Region of Korea: History, Identity, and Culture
6630:
played the major role with the Bannermen taking a backseat.
5963:
were still in power in many areas. The tusi were led by the
5375:
while the Yongli court consisted of men of other provinces.
4907:
informally took over leadership, and he moved southward. In
4428:
around 1900. The Chinese habit of wearing a queue came from
2926:
to open markets near the borders because its conflicts with
2705:
surrendered, he was given much higher status than under the
2550:
given women from the imperial Aisin-Gioro family in marriage
2159:
after the battle delayed an aggressive Ming response to the
17294:
Wars of succession involving the states and peoples of Asia
16984:
Convention Between Great Britain and China Respecting Tibet
16473:
15507:
14641:
Tsʻao Yin and the Kʻang-hsi Emperor: Bondservant and Master
13810:
12911:
12879:
12863:
11984:
11972:
11936:
11924:
11912:
11900:
11834:
11795:
11771:
11732:
11665:, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 204–210,
11638:
11602:
11515:
11375:
11363:
11351:
11183:
11171:
11123:
10987:
10975:
10947:
10696:
10615:
10603:
10544:
10405:
10393:
10369:
10333:
10218:
10071:
10047:
9738:
9488:
7395:
supported the Qing. The local Hui Muslims (Mohammedans) of
6241:'s forces. The Qing governor-general Han Chinese bannerman
6186:
6149:
6121:
6109:
6070:
5994:
under Zhang Xianzhong (d. 1647) and was now protecting the
5960:
5664:
5010:
4385:
4279:
3879:
3819:
3593:
In addition to Han Chinese Banners, the Qing relied on the
3453:
3323:
3174:
3059:
2268:
in 1626, submitting to his rule for protection against the
2017:
1947:
1943:
1857:, where military service and command became hereditary and
505:
327:
14726:
Voices from the Ming-Qing Cataclysm: China in Tigers' Jaws
13632:(illustrated abridged ed.). Oxford University Press.
13501:
Fitzgerald, Charles Patrick (1969). Kotker, Norman (ed.).
12172:
12035:
11824:
11822:
11761:
11759:
11693:
11590:
11539:
11135:
11016:
11014:
10662:
10660:
10658:
9987:
9985:
9972:
9970:
8694:
8670:
8658:
8646:
8634:
8300:
8032:
8030:
7895:
7893:
7415:. The native Hui Muslims of Gansu province led by general
7213:, were thoroughly devastated and depopulated by the rebel
6726:
in 1683 from the Zheng family. Zheng Chenggong's grandson
4777:(Lianyungang) an insurgency was led by the Ming Prince of
4202:'s small force refused to surrender, but could not resist
3996:
3294:. Seeing the progress of the rebels, on 5 April, the Ming
2610:
in 1632 to promote harmony between the two ethnic groups.
2210:
was stationed, and Mao quickly fled with his men into the
1717:
ascended the throne, and in 1662 his regents launched the
96:, one of the major battles during the Ming–Qing transition
14496:(illustrated, annotated ed.). Taylor & Francis.
13424:
Backhouse, Sir Edmund; Otway, John; Bland, Percy (1914).
13184:
12845:
12294:
12100:
12076:
12013:
12011:
11996:
11807:
11710:
11708:
11578:
11556:
11554:
11284:"The End of the Queue: Hair as Symbol in Chinese History"
10999:
10909:
10907:
10905:
10892:
10890:
10763:
10761:
10759:
10023:
9826:
9824:
7914:
7912:
7359:. It was between 1618 and 1629 when the Han Chinese from
6961:, supported the new regime. Kong wrote a poignant drama,
3624:. The Qing carried out a massive depopulation policy and
3373:
Soon after the emperor had called for help, Ming general
2080:
in 1644. In 1625, the Jurchens captured the port city of
1913:
Conquest of Liaodong and other Jurchen tribes (1601–1626)
14338:
China Marches West: The Qing Conquest of Central Eurasia
14158:
Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period: 1644–1912 (2 vols)
14137:
Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing period: 1644–1912 (2 vols)
12742:
12467:
12238:
12160:
12148:
12088:
10206:
9537:
Thackeray, Frank W.; Findling, John E. Findling (2012).
8406:
8276:
8264:
8252:
7836:
Li, Lillian M.; Dray-Novey, Alison; Kong, Haili (2008).
7005:—who among other things contributed to a revival in the
6355:
where they were defeated in June 1660, and retreated to
5898:
3869:
3223:
Ming Great Wall § The Wall and the fall of the Ming
1188:
Shun dynasty army varies between 60,000 and 100,000 men
11960:
11819:
11783:
11756:
11467:
11416:
11207:
11195:
11159:
11147:
11111:
11011:
10919:
10873:
10871:
10773:
10744:
10720:
10684:
10655:
10381:
10357:
10345:
10321:
10107:
10083:
10059:
10035:
9982:
9967:
9955:
9809:
9750:
9726:
9714:
9702:
9675:
8682:
8423:
8421:
7235:
Great Plague during the last decade of the Ming dynasty
6637:, who had betrayed two dynasties in one lifetime: even
6076:
In late January 1659, a Qing army led by Manchu Prince
5770:
with an army of 10,000 men. The rebels were crushed by
5487:
This resurgence of loyalist hopes was short-lived. New
4979:, he started building a riverine force of his own. The
4691:
had enforced the policy thoroughly on the residents of
3859:). This helped to improve local government operations.
3706:
province), where he had declared the foundation of his
2091:
When the Jurchens were reorganized by Nurhaci into the
1904:
by the Ming governor in an attempt to stop Li Zicheng.
1501:
from 1618 to 1683 saw the transition between two major
14925:
Servants of the Dynasty: Palace Women in World History
14747:
The Military Collapse of China's Ming Dynasty, 1618–44
14062:
Desertion and the Militarization of Qing Legal Culture
13966:
Emperor and Ancestor: State and Lineage in South China
13753:. Seattle and London: University of Washington Press.
13001:
12730:
12706:
The Ethnic Chinese and Economic Development in Vietnam
12543:
12187:
12136:
12112:
12008:
11705:
11626:
11614:
11551:
11527:
11026:
10902:
10887:
10806:
10804:
10756:
10732:
10708:
10460:
9821:
9597:
9569:
9557:
9274:
9111:
9109:
8581:
8579:
8577:
8542:
Mair, Victor H.; Chen, Sanping; Wood, Frances (2013).
8238:
8236:
7909:
7681:
7679:
6018:
in charge of retaking the southwest. Headquartered in
5213:
The Prince-Regent of Lu, with the aid of the sea-lord
5186:(western Fujian) on 6 October 1646. After the fall of
4297:, accusing him of repression. With the arrival of the
2410:
en masse. During the mutiny, they purged thousands of
1934:, is retrospectively identified as the founder of the
1819:'s secretary Dahai may have been one such individual.
1666:. When Li Zicheng moved against him, the Ming general
1509:. It was a decades-long conflict between the emerging
249:
14536:. In Spence, Jonathan D.; Wills, John E. Jr. (eds.).
12635:
Cross-Currents: East Asian History and Culture Review
11428:
11394:
11392:
11390:
11251:
10591:
9394:
8862:
8834:
8758:
Early Manchu Recruitment of Chinese Scholar-officials
8437:
8324:
8288:
8114:
7391:
supported the revolutionaries and the Hui Muslims of
4769:
a scholar led a rebellion of local bandits, and from
4047:
agreed to form a loyalist Ming government around the
3718:
in the summer and autumn of 1644. Qing armies led by
2907:
2641:
and Geng Zhaozhong become court attendants under the
2501:
referred to the Jurchen-inhabited lands north of the
1767:
1725:. He then fought off several rebellions, such as the
14554:
12754:
12709:. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. p. 15.
12337:
10530:. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. p. 94.
10478:
10423:
10095:
9836:
9050:"The Selection of Women for the Qing Imperial Harem"
8136:
East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History
7427:
6718:
with a fleet of 300 ships to take the Ming loyalist
6509:
5793:
With the mutineers defeated, the Qing turned on the
4620:
but were trapped in the city when Qing forces under
3933:(Gansu). He was soon joined by another Muslim named
3651:
3302:. He was the last Ming emperor to reign in Beijing.
3258:
conquest" and "the principal architect of the great
3017:
2995:
also played prominent roles in the Korean invasion.
2709:, and even allowed to keep his troops as retainers.
2194:
to Joseon with 30,000 troops, under the guidance of
16989:
Convention for the Extension of Hong Kong Territory
14355:
13430:(reprint ed.). Houghton Mifflin. p. 209.
13423:
11038:
8765:
8736:
8574:
8562:
6929:posed practical and moral problems, especially for
6852:. Dương Ngạn Địch and Hoàng Tiến were sponsored by
6260:in 1655, also continued to defend the cause of the
5840:, a rural, untamed area, was beset by Ming colonel
3648:was an empty city when the Qing forces entered it.
3573:to take advantage of the violent death of the Ming
1674:by the joint forces of Wu Sangui and Manchu prince
14788:
14555:Shou-p'ing Wu Ko (1855). Ch'eng, Ming-yüan (ed.).
14044:(revised ed.). University Press of Kentucky.
11659:"Conclusion: Dai Viet in the Ming-Qing transition"
11479:
11387:
11061:. In Hiltebeitel, Alf; Miller, Barbara D. (eds.).
10293:
10281:
9797:
9138:Transactions of the American Philosophical Society
7936:
7934:
7407:revolutionaries in slaughtering the entire 20,000
7383:community was divided in its support for the 1911
7298:Cannibalism in Asia § Ming and Qing dynasties
7115:Official map of the Qing Empire published in 1905.
6792:) from her previous status as a heavenly consort (
6288:province and finally cut the cable protecting the
6212:
5959:was still a frontier land where tribal chieftains
5887:
4115:troops from the western provinces made out of non-
2291:. The Qing defeated the armies of the Mongol khan
2222:fell without a fight and the Jin army crossed the
14489:
14038:Graff, David Andrew; Higham, Robin, eds. (2012).
13331:
11859:(3rd ed.). Palgrave Macmillan. p. 139.
11281:
11065:(Illustrated ed.). SUNY Press. p. 125.
9536:
8545:Chinese Lives: The People Who Made a Civilization
8373:Empire and Environment in the Making of Manchuria
5277:court, established the Thirteen Defense Commands
5245:Hunan, Guangdong and Guangxi campaign (1645–1650)
2055:to climb the wall in the night. The Ming general
17245:
14599:The Qing Dynasty and Traditional Chinese Culture
14252:: Vade Mecum for an Iconoclastic Translation of
11308:
11092:, "2 From smuggler-pirates to loyal Confucians".
8312:
8133:Ebrey, Patricia Buckley; Walthall, Anne (2013).
7835:
6587:, the "Three Feudatories", rebelled against the
6402:, expelling them from Taiwan and setting up the
5876:, led an alliance of mountain fortresses around
5825:was blocked to severe all relations between the
4186:Several contingents of Qing forces converged on
4160:, later berated the Southern Ming Prince of Fu,
3189:them in defecting to the Qing, the commander of
2248:
1942:appointed Nurhaci as paramount chieftain of the
14183:Soulstealers: The Chinese Sorcery Scare of 1768
14126:Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing period: 1644–1912
14116:Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period: 1644–1912
13939:
12342:. Stanford University Press. pp. 469–470.
11512:, pp. 39, 141, 190, 194–195, 200–201, 255.
10523:
10490:
9791:The Peasant Rebellions of the Late Ming Dynasty
9356:
9132:Karl August Wittfogel; Chia-shêng Fêng (1946).
8761:. University of Wisconsin--Madison. p. 10.
8505:(illustrated ed.). Yale University Press.
8139:(3rd ed.). Cengage Learning. p. 271.
8000:
7971:Naquin, Susan; Rawski, Evelyn Sakakida (1987).
7931:
5484:, and his army absorbed He's remaining troops.
5217:, continued resistance at sea on the island of
4804:
4416:Queue order and Jiangnan resistance (1645–1646)
4274:back to their original husbands and fathers in
3216:
3209:as the last barrier on the Qing armies' way to
2947:Prior to the invasion, Hong Taiji sent princes
2726:, and they became critical assets to the Qing.
2337:, whom he succeeded as the second ruler of the
16389:Dates of establishment of diplomatic relations
14905:Telling Chinese History: A Selection of Essays
14341:(reprint ed.). Harvard University Press.
14079:(Revised ed.). Otto Harrassowitz Verlag.
13985:"Yangzhou: A Central Place in the Qing Empire"
13904:(2nd ed.). New York: Simon and Schuster.
12568:. St. Martin's Publishing Group. p. 108.
12362:
11879:
11852:
10153:
9171:
8887:. University of Washington Press. p. 19.
8790:. Art Gallery of Greater Victoria. p. 5.
8055:
7947:. University of California Press. p. 43.
7838:Beijing: From Imperial Capital to Olympic City
6744:). He and his soldiers were inducted into the
6284:in 1655. In 1658 he attacked the coastline of
6060:
5588:Ming loyalist revolts in the north (1647–1654)
3985:
3129:was besieged by a force of over 30 cannons of
3090:
1721:to defeat the resistance of Ming loyalists in
1213:25,000,000 deaths overall, including civilians
16809:Complete Classics Collection of Ancient China
16780:Imperial Tombs of the Ming and Qing Dynasties
15848:
15693:Imperial Tombs of the Ming and Qing Dynasties
15088:
14690:Struve, Lynn (1988). "The Southern Ming". In
14118:. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.
13946:China: A New History, Second Enlarged Edition
11063:Hair: Its Power and Meaning in Asian Cultures
8548:(illustrated ed.). Thames & Hudson.
8132:
7752:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 9–72.
7719:
7700:
7698:
7340:was hit by the 1641 disease plague epidemic.
7019:and the translation of Chinese classics into
6868:. These settlers named their settlements as "
6749:
6739:
6691:
5511:managed to reconquer the central province of
5049:, who was appointed Governor of Zhejiang and
4729:. Loyalist marines continued fighting in the
3882:appointed by the Ming emperor, supported the
2653:'s granddaughter marrying Geng Zhaozhong and
2450:
2444:
2438:
2430:
2418:
1984:against the Ming and departed his capital of
1234:
14514:The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery
14199:
13525:
10678:
10446:. Chinese University Press. pp. 60–61.
10439:
9687:
9543:. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. p. 200.
9134:"History of Chinese Society: Liao, 907–1125"
8541:
8081:
8079:
8051:
8049:
7970:
7481:Mongolia, Tibet, and Xinjiang (c. 1620–1760)
6799:
4285:During the factional struggles, the warlord
2902:
2685:
2529:because of this. Refusing to mention in the
2311:Hong Taiji and formation of the Qing dynasty
1907:
15005:Hsiang Lectures on Chinese Poetry, Volume 2
14941:
14815:Conflict and Control in Late Imperial China
14358:Volume 9, Part 1: The Ch'ing Empire to 1800
14283:. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
14185:. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
14100:(PhD). University of California, San Diego.
14037:
14010:Hsiang Lectures on Chinese Poetry, Volume 1
13993:. Albany, NY: SUNY Press. pp. 117–50.
13654:Hsiang Lectures on Chinese Poetry, Volume 1
13149:"5 of the 10 Deadliest Wars Began in China"
12681:
12679:
12517:
12501:
12485:
10147:
9772:China: A Cultural and Historical Dictionary
9662:
9340:
9015:
8342:
8036:
8011:
8009:
7923:sfn error: no target: CITEREFFairbank1978 (
7899:
7849:
7847:
6104:. The imperial retinue was disarmed by the
5750:was subject to a massacre. Simultaneously,
5175:. The Qing took control of Fujian in 1645.
5159:. Hoping to gain rewards from Prince Bolo,
5045:province was aided by the collaboration of
4270:Qing soldiers ransomed women captured from
2998:After the Second Manchu invasion of Korea,
2414:, suspecting them to be loyal to the Ming.
2326:Emperor in ceremonial and ordinary uniform.
15855:
15841:
15095:
15081:
14944:Marriage and Inequality in Chinese Society
14382:
14073:Hauer, Erich (2007). Corff, Oliver (ed.).
14068:(PhD Dissertation). Georgetown University.
13500:
13168:The Seventeen Emperors of the Ming Dynasty
13159:
12702:
12661:
12659:
12367:. Taipei: Haidong shufang. pp. 22–49.
12306:
12181:
12046:
11005:
10029:
9918:
9446:(1–2). Society for Qing Studies: 97. 1989.
9424:(1–2). Society for Qing Studies: 70. 1989.
8100:
8098:
7966:
7964:
7695:
6864:, which had been newly conquered from the
5813:communities were disarmed and shifted 150
5567:with 74 of his own cannons and the aid of
3780:
3405:Meanwhile, Wu Sangui's departure from the
3117:and immediately retreated back across the
2283:The Chahar Mongols were fought against by
1241:
1227:
16469:Royal and noble ranks of the Qing dynasty
14981:
14616:
14510:
13990:Cities of Jiangnan in Late Imperial China
13670:(2nd ed.), Oxford University Press,
13553:
13283:
13165:
12851:
12561:
12433:
12417:
12272:
11886:. Harvard University Press. p. 142.
11584:
11572:
11085:
10433:
10311:
9383:
9047:
8754:
8597:
8349:. Stanford University Press. p. 64.
8076:
8046:
7974:Chinese Society in the Eighteenth Century
6883:
6808:(Yang Yandi) (c) and his fleet sailed to
6252:("Koxinga"), who had been adopted by the
6144:attempted to rescue the emperor from the
5551:fell to Shang Kexi in November 1650. The
5472:) repelled the loyalist counterattack at
5452:. Loyalists hoped to move the emperor to
5178:On the pretext of relieving the siege of
4655:Bannermen were often associated with the
4524:, the resistance forces under magistrate
4119:indigenous fierce tribal warriors called
3682:to suicide, but had been defeated by the
1900:which led to the deliberately engineered
1517:, and several smaller factions (like the
639:
520:
488:
466:
16318:Imperial Edict of the Abdication of Puyi
14922:
14878:
14857:
14809:
14783:
14218:United States Government Printing Office
13871:Journal of the American Oriental Society
13789:
13725:
13704:
13683:
13407:
13391:
13209:, Harvard University Press, p. 92,
12676:
12256:
11656:
11447:Kim Hunter Gordon; Jesse Watson (2011).
11241:
11213:
11201:
11153:
11101:
10858:
10842:
10826:
10196:
9633:United States Government Printing Office
9504:
9324:
9292:
9096:
9031:
9000:United States Government Printing Office
8950:
8828:United States Government Printing Office
8730:United States Government Printing Office
8482:
8427:
8396:
8306:
8175:
8120:
8104:
8062:. Harvard University Press. p. 95.
8006:
7918:
7844:
7685:
7110:
7098:
6897:
6836:, he led 3,000 soldiers and 50 ships to
6784:the next year and, honoring the goddess
6695:
6618:However, their disunity destroyed them.
6530:
6519:
6442:against the remaining Ming loyalists in
6438:The Qing agreed to an alliance with the
6216:
6165:was overthrown in a coup by his brother
6064:
5902:
5591:
5029:
5014:
5011:Jiangxi and Fujian campaigns (1646–1650)
4504:, in command of rural militia, besieged
4464:region had been superficially pacified,
4419:
4317:. Other generals were Zuo Liangyu's son
3995:
3556:
3452:
3353:
3157:. The emperor responded by ordering the
3105:armies raided deep into the interior of
2689:
2314:
2132:
2020:1619). The powerful Yehe Jurchens under
1832:
1821:
1771:
1662:tree in the imperial garden outside the
1248:
60:of all important aspects of the article.
16925:Complete Library of the Four Treasuries
15862:
15102:
14901:
14832:
14531:
14297:
14224:
14059:Gregory, Eugene John (31 August 2015).
14058:
14016:
13982:
13918:
13868:
13831:
13375:
13032:
12895:
12656:
12588:
12533:
12473:
12461:
12449:
12288:
12244:
12232:
12166:
12154:
12130:
12094:
12070:
12058:
12029:
11990:
11978:
11966:
11954:
11942:
11930:
11918:
11906:
11840:
11828:
11801:
11789:
11777:
11765:
11750:
11738:
11726:
11644:
11521:
11473:
11422:
11381:
11369:
11357:
11341:
11325:
11225:
11189:
11177:
11165:
11129:
11117:
11020:
10993:
10981:
10965:
10953:
10925:
10877:
10779:
10750:
10726:
10702:
10690:
10666:
10649:
10633:
10621:
10609:
10550:
10466:
10411:
10399:
10387:
10375:
10363:
10351:
10339:
10327:
10271:
10252:
10236:
10224:
10212:
10137:
10125:
10113:
10089:
10077:
10065:
10053:
10041:
9991:
9976:
9961:
9945:
9902:
9870:
9854:
9815:
9788:
9756:
9744:
9732:
9720:
9708:
9693:
9681:
9587:
9456:
9400:
9308:
9280:
9268:
9252:
9236:
9204:
9188:
9115:
8930:. University of Michigan. p. 219.
8923:
8700:
8676:
8664:
8652:
8640:
8624:
8412:
8294:
8282:
8270:
8258:
8242:
8223:
8207:
8191:
8159:
8095:
7961:
7884:
7704:
7558:
6161:forces into leaving. The king of Burma
5639:, they rebelled under the Ming flag in
5289:. Qing forces under the early defector
4915:still held out. Xi dynasty boats under
4580:coordinated to rise up and cut off the
3589:instead of raiding for loot and slaves.
2536:
2299:, bringing an end to his rule over the
2178:In 1627, Hong Taiji dispatched princes
1988:with 20,000 men. The army attacked and
14:
17246:
15644:Collected Statutes of the Ming Dynasty
14722:
14689:
14658:
14637:
14468:
14448:Rawski, Evelyn S. (15 November 1998).
14447:
14413:
14334:
14154:
14133:
14122:
13768:
13660:
13627:
13606:
13484:
13468:
13007:
12991:
12975:
12959:
12943:
12927:
12772:
12736:
12625:
12549:
12363:Huang Dianquan (1957). "Yongli 15.3".
12300:
12142:
12118:
12017:
11714:
11699:
11632:
11620:
11608:
11596:
11560:
11545:
11533:
11141:
11032:
10937:
10913:
10896:
10810:
10791:
10767:
10738:
10714:
10597:
10507:
10180:
9830:
9768:
9615:
9603:
9575:
9563:
9472:
9220:
8982:
8966:
8868:
8840:
8810:
8771:
8742:
8712:
8498:
8455:
8443:
8330:
8085:
7977:. Yale University Press. p. 141.
7853:
7743:
7741:
5931:, his generals retreated southward to
2345:to recruit scholar-officials from the
56:Please consider expanding the lead to
17223:Timeline of late anti-Qing rebellions
16464:Principles of the Constitution (1908)
15836:
15076:
15011:
14764:
14743:
14595:
14581:from the original on 3 September 2014
14200:Larsen, E. S.; Numata, Tomoo (1943).
14161:(reprint ed.). Global Oriental.
14072:
13963:
13897:
13648:
13585:
13532:
13315:
13299:
13267:
13251:
13235:
13190:
13120:
13064:
13048:
12842:, p. 4, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 13, 14.
12807:
12760:
12565:Forbidden Nation: A History of Taiwan
12312:
12106:
12082:
12002:
11813:
11509:
11497:
11410:
11269:
11257:
11056:
9886:
9665:"The annals of the Joseon princesses"
9645:
9520:
8907:
8858:. Augustan Society. 1975. p. 34.
8688:
8585:
8568:
8525:
8369:
7823:
7655:"The British-Zheng trading agreement"
7621:
7613:
6872:", to recall their allegiance to the
6571:and defend against the resistance in
6193:, the same Wu whose surrender to the
5935:province, where they encountered the
5899:Conquest of the southwest (1652–1661)
5305:provinces, and was finally killed at
5163:betrayed the loyalists by contacting
4214:and easily took the garrison city of
4091:, the Qing army took the key city of
3870:Conquest of the northwest (1644–1649)
1737:(Koxinga) drove out and defeated the
1595:commissioned a document entitled the
1587:Leading up to the Qing, in 1618, the
1222:
1192:Zhang Xianzhong's army – 100,000 men
27:Period of Chinese history (1618–1683)
16444:Ministry of Posts and Communications
15020:
14729:. New Haven: Yale University Press.
14273:
14245:
14213:Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period
14177:
14007:
13206:China's Last Empire - The Great Qing
13202:
12839:
12748:
12398:
11282:Michael R. Godley (September 2011).
11044:
10562:
10101:
10003:
9842:
9628:Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period
8995:Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period
8823:Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period
8783:
8725:Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period
7609:
7531:
6957:, who claimed to be a descendant of
6905:(1642–1707), who was related to the
5864:, were able to continue resistance.
5456:where he would lead a reconquest of
5194:surrendered to the Qing and his son
4919:attacked Zeng's command boat on the
3980:
3929:(米喇印) revolted against Qing rule in
3921:Late in 1646, forces assembled by a
3239:in the north, while a mutiny led by
3006:. In 1650 Dorgon married the Korean
2466:was meant to hide the fact that the
1634:officials urged Nurhaci's successor
29:
17192:History of Qing (People's Republic)
14750:(illustrated ed.). Routledge.
13746:
13452:"Secret Annals of the Manchu Court"
12205:
11485:
11434:
11398:
9803:
8880:
7780:
7738:
6759:against Russian Cossacks at Albazin
5602:Hong Kong Museum of Coastal Defence
5444:dynasties after the usurpations of
5080:, a ninth-generation descendant of
5076:on 6 July 1645, the Prince of Tang
4869:was surprised by a Qing army under
4765:the poor peasants revolted, around
4396:garrison commander, bannermen from
4243:. By then the frontier between the
4027:imperial house started arriving in
3925:leader known in Chinese sources as
3437:
2556:married one of his granddaughters (
1560:, the incumbent dynasty led by the
24:
16909:Sacred Edict of the Kangxi Emperor
16278:Chinese expedition to Tibet (1910)
16271:1909 Provincial Assembly elections
16151:Japanese invasion of Taiwan (1874)
15975:Chinese expedition to Tibet (1720)
15002:
14960:
14946:. University of California Press.
14927:. University of California Press.
14908:. University of California Press.
14885:. University of California Press.
14534:"Muslim and Central Asian Revolts"
14454:. University of California Press.
14356:Willard J. Peterson, ed. (2002) .
14093:
14076:Handwörterbuch der Mandschusprache
13901:Chinese Civilization: A Sourcebook
13711:. University of California Press.
12823:
12692:Quyển 2, Tự chủ thời đại, Chương 6
12589:Bergman, Karl (28 December 2009).
12377:
12193:
10299:
10287:
8318:
7747:
7617:
7166:, it was mentioned that while the
7143:, who were then under the rule of
6323:leading to possible starvation in
5003:from 1653. They were known as the
4987:sent his alleged distant relative
4947:. The remaining Ming forces under
4753:by entering negotiations with the
4745:. Wu Yi attempted to link up with
4136:'s houses and they also did it to
4023:in April 1644, descendants of the
4004:, who refused to surrender to the
3678:, the rebel leader who had driven
2908:Second Joseon campaign (1636–1637)
2007:tribes, a powerful confederacy of
1768:Jurchens and the late Ming dynasty
1757:, a former admiral under Koxinga.
25:
17310:
17198:Imperial hunt of the Qing dynasty
17039:Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1881)
16914:Shamanism during the Qing dynasty
16066:Dogra–Tibetan war (Sino-Sikh war)
15014:Hsiang Lectures on Chinese Poetry
13987:. In Cooke Johnson, Linda (ed.).
13101:
11453:. Kim Hunter Gordon. p. 61.
9390:. J. and R. Parlane. p. 198.
7856:"The Financial Capacity of China"
7663:National Museum of Taiwan History
6776:the emperor to convert it into a
6510:The Three Feudatories (1674–1681)
6478:in 1665 during their war against
6339:according to a 1671 account by a
6272:in 1650. With his help, sea lord
6189:and executed by strangulation in
5868:, who called himself the Earl of
5766:, backed by a local outlaw named
5746:. The Ming loyalist-held city of
5523:) in 1649, and the population of
3652:Consolidation in the north (1645)
3274:. In February 1644, rebel leader
3177:and 2,200,000 silver taels. Ming
3018:Campaigns against the Amur tribes
2493:dynasty. In the Ming period, the
2151:the previous year and their khan
2071:did so after Nurhaci gave him an
1692:Ming Empire's military leadership
17009:Sino-Portuguese Treaty of Peking
16325:Articles of Favourable Treatment
16081:Red Turban Rebellion (1854–1856)
13769:Dawson, Raymond Stanley (1972).
13564:10.1111/j.1468-0289.2008.00443.x
13494:
13444:
13417:
13325:
13196:
13141:
13114:
13095:
13074:
13013:
12766:
12696:
12619:
12601:
12582:
12555:
12392:
12371:
12356:
12331:
12317:. M.E. Sharpe. pp. 84–106.
12199:
12073:, pp. 1016–1030, 1036–1039.
11873:
11846:
11657:Baldanza, Kathlene, ed. (2016),
11650:
11450:Chongqing & The Three Gorges
11440:
11302:
11275:
11050:
10556:
10517:
10484:
9997:
9912:
9762:
9656:
9639:
9609:
9530:
7724:. University of Nebraska Press.
7602:
7593:
7573:
7564:
7551:
7538:
7444:
7430:
7121:defeated Dzungar Mongols in 1759
6658:The Qing forces were crushed by
4624:regrouped and closed the gates.
4140:'s daughter-in-law and son. The
3310:. The Shun received the letter.
2890:Bannermen dominating at 75% and
2110:Nurhaci read the Chinese novels
1145:
1056:
1045:
1034:
981:
970:
931:
895:
884:
873:
862:
846:
820:
765:Zhu Shichuan, Prince of Yanchang
726:
685:
662:
401:
390:
378:
349:
337:
317:
301:
259:
248:
238:
220:
87:
34:
17289:Wars involving the Qing dynasty
17284:Wars involving the Ming dynasty
16056:Eight Trigrams uprising of 1813
15942:Revolt of the Three Feudatories
15279:Japanese missions to Ming China
14155:Hummel, Arthur W., ed. (2010).
14134:Hummel, Arthur W., ed. (1991).
14123:Hummel, Arthur W., ed. (1970).
14114:Hummel, Arthur W., ed. (1943).
13607:Cassel, Par Kristoffer (2011).
12626:Antony, Robert J. (June 2014).
10497:, Kelly & Walsh, p. 40
9663:Byun Eun Mi (3 February 2012).
9428:
9406:
9377:
9350:
9165:
9125:
9041:
8976:
8917:
8874:
8846:
8804:
8777:
8748:
8706:
8591:
8535:
8492:
8449:
8363:
8336:
8126:
7318:after it spread there from the
6830:Revolt of the Three Feudatories
6772:'s headquarters in 1683 but he
6641:loyalists ridiculed his cause.
6591:. They were joined by generals
6516:Revolt of the Three Feudatories
6394:in April 1661 and defeated the
6213:Seaborne resistance (1655–1663)
6096:, which was then ruled by King
5990:, who had served as general in
5888:Continued fighting in the south
5627:In March 1648, a bandit chief,
5131:armies seized land west of the
4512:, the local military commander
4231:the following year) and seized
3145:artillery under the command of
3034:federation led by Evenki chief
2771:Han Chinese) serving the Qing.
2741:, and, more importantly, added
2322:missionary illustration of the
2125:In February 1626, the Jurchens
1727:Revolt of the Three Feudatories
1467:Revolt of the Three Feudatories
48:may be too short to adequately
16710:Guest House of Imperial Envoys
16000:Revolt of the Altishahr Khojas
15153:Campaign against the Uriankhai
14988:. Cambridge University Press.
14668:. W. W. Norton & Company.
13790:Di Cosmo, Nicola, ed. (2007).
13726:Crossley, Pamela Kyle (2002).
13705:Crossley, Pamela Kyle (2000).
13690:. Princeton University Press.
13684:Crossley, Pamela Kyle (1990).
13628:——— (2012).
12209:The Poet-historian Qian Qianyi
10563:Chiu, Elena Suet-Ying (2020).
10491:Von Mollendorff, P.G. (1890),
9793:. University of Arizona Press.
9146:American Philosophical Society
9069:10.1080/1547402X.2004.11827204
8343:Schlesinger, Jonathan (2017).
7829:
7774:
7713:
7647:
6069:Remains of the outer walls of
5844:, accompanied by Ming princes
5468:(one of those who defected at
5464:. However, the Qing commander
5206:also caved in to Qing general
5120:, had named himself regent in
5068:had not been eliminated. When
4951:, now promoted to Marquis and
4901:as food shortages grew acute.
4850:The Qing forces advanced from
4592:and the coastal resistance in
3817:followed by the military text
2582:
2214:. Next, the Jurchens attacked
908:Zhu Shugui, Prince of Ningjing
58:provide an accessible overview
13:
1:
17144:Banknotes of the Da Qing Bank
16919:Islam during the Qing dynasty
16775:Zhao Mausoleum (Qing dynasty)
16459:Provincial military commander
16449:Nine Gates Infantry Commander
16434:Imperial Household Department
16261:Preparative Constitutionalism
15965:Sino-Russian border conflicts
15213:Campaigns against the Mongols
14723:Struve, Lynn A., ed. (1993).
14511:Rodriguez, Junius P. (1997).
14469:Rhoads, Edward J. M. (2000).
13968:. Stanford University Press.
12667:Đại Nam liệt truyện tiền biên
12338:John Robert Shepherd (1993).
10524:Claudine Salmon, ed. (2013).
10128:, pp. 442, 445, 446–447.
9919:Des Forges, Roger V. (2003).
9175:Manchuria, Cradle of Conflict
9057:The Chinese Historical Review
7758:10.1017/CHOL9780521243346.003
7635:
7470:Sino-Russian border conflicts
5998:of the Southern Ming, retook
5596:A cannon cast in 1650 by the
5324:by sea, soon founded another
4251:had been pushed south to the
3844:Romance of the Three Kingdoms
2767:" were part of the Han army (
2737:, but they absorbed defeated
2544:generals who defected to the
2489:family had been ruled by the
2458:Hong Taiji's renaming of the
2249:Mongolia campaign (1625–1635)
2113:Romance of the Three Kingdoms
2084:, thus controlling the whole
1654:. The last Ming emperor, the
17299:Transition from Ming to Qing
16903:Researches on Manchu Origins
16308:Mongolian Revolution of 1911
15918:Transition from Ming to Qing
15908:Later Jin invasion of Joseon
15751:Covered jar with carp design
15367:Transition from Ming to Qing
14923:Walthall, Anne, ed. (2008).
14638:Spence, Jonathan D. (1988).
14602:. Rowman & Littlefield.
14414:Spence, Jonathan D. (2002).
14300:The Journal of Asian Studies
13949:. Harvard University Press.
13504:The Horizon history of China
12562:Manthorpe, Jonathan (2008).
11671:10.1017/CBO9781316440551.013
11500:, pp. 52, 138, 140–141.
10004:Wang, Yuan-kang (May 2013).
7640:
7225:such as those caused by the
7026:
6748:. His rattan shield troops (
6678:(non-Banner) instead of the
6084:'s son, took the capital of
5531:fell to another army led by
4805:Sichuan campaign (1646–1658)
4321:who later crushed rebels in
4218:, which protected access to
4107:as the main defender of the
3464:, who later defected to the
3217:Beijing and the north (1644)
2525:were not used to source the
2390:Meanwhile, in the Ming, the
2139:Later Jin invasion of Joseon
2059:who surrendered the city of
1996:about 10 kilometers east of
1794:Late Ming peasant rebellions
1646:fell to a rebel army led by
1491:transition from Ming to Qing
1184:soldiers, and Mongol cavalry
236:Southern and Eastern Mongols
7:
16803:Changzhou School of Thought
16313:1911 Revolution in Xinjiang
16288:Railway Protection Movement
16266:1909 Parliamentary election
16251:British expedition to Tibet
16161:Qing reconquest of Xinjiang
16121:Self-Strengthening Movement
16096:Nepal–Tibet War (1855–1856)
15746:Ming presentation porcelain
15345:Japanese invasions of Korea
14879:Wakeman, Frederic (1985b).
14858:Wakeman, Frederic (1985a).
14665:The Search for Modern China
14041:A Military History of China
13613:. Oxford University Press.
13542:The Economic History Review
12609:"Tainan Grand Matsu Temple"
12591:"Tainan Grand Matsu Temple"
12464:, pp. 1110–1111, 1124.
12452:, pp. 1099, 1107–1109.
12206:Yim, Lawrence C.H. (2009).
8370:Smith, Norman, ed. (2017).
8001:Fairbank & Goldman 2006
7475:Transition from Sui to Tang
7423:
7285:spread all over famine-hit
7243:25 million people died
7123:, they proclaimed that the
6061:Flight to Burma (1659–1662)
5971:who led the Ming armies in
5911:—the last sovereign of the
5836:The southeastern region of
5698:, the military governor in
5297:, continuing resistance in
5116:claimant, the Prince of Lu
5053:. Tong was originally from
4612:'s light craft forces. The
4460:On 21 July 1645, after the
4099:in early May 1645, leaving
3986:Conquest of Jiangnan (1645)
3377:had left his stronghold of
3091:Liaoxi campaign (1638–1642)
2673:. The Manchu Prince Regent
2621:with the permission of the
2476:Qing Taizu Wu Huangdi Shilu
2163:loss, and the Ming general
2031:By summer 1621, the Ming's
1960:the Jurchen-led Jin dynasty
1528:
108:7 May 1618 – 13 August 1683
10:
17315:
17203:Legacy of the Qing dynasty
16091:Miao Rebellion (1854–1873)
16030:Miao Rebellion (1795–1806)
16020:Battle of Ngọc Hồi-Đống Đa
15990:Miao Rebellion (1735–1736)
15608:Compilations and Documents
15239:Luchuan–Pingmian campaigns
15021:Zhao Gang (January 2006).
14902:Wakeman, Frederic (2009).
14791:The Fall of Imperial China
14744:Swope, Kenneth M. (2014).
14706:Cambridge University Press
14596:Smith, Richard J. (2015).
14428:Cambridge University Press
14397:Cambridge University Press
14383:Dennerline, Jerry (2002).
12637:(11): 4–30. Archived from
12386:W. W. Norton & Company
12291:, pp. 86–87, 142–144.
12212:. Routledge. p. 109.
11883:A Concise History of China
11729:, pp. 587, 737, 1103.
9775:. Routledge. p. 379.
8755:Grossnick, Roy A. (1972).
8017:"Summing up Naquin/Rawski"
7502:Qing dynasty in Inner Asia
7366:Qing lists of Manchu clans
7295:
7037:Qing dynasty in Inner Asia
7030:
6991:Three Masters of Jiangdong
6887:
6816:, and swore allegiance to
6730:surrendered Taiwan to the
6692:Surrender of Taiwan (1683)
6567:Banner generals to defeat
6513:
6498:. The ship was going from
6386:Pressured by Qing fleets,
6327:caused such fear that the
6225:'s territory, shown in red
6197:in April 1644 had allowed
5917:People's Republic of China
5891:
5872:, with the aid of general
4808:
4635:The defiant population of
4551:soldiers coalesced around
4259:observed that the city of
4235:'s main cities, including
4079:, which was launched from
3989:
3655:
3227:In their later years, the
3220:
3094:
2911:
2729:There were too few ethnic
2394:broke out in 1631, led by
2136:
1916:
1837:Battle of Ningyuan, where
1787:
1658:, hanged himself from the
870:Zhu Yujian, Prince of Tang
859:Zhu Youlang, Prince of Gui
408:English East India Company
17213:Names of the Qing dynasty
17156:
17124:
17081:
17074:
16943:
16861:Manchu Han Imperial Feast
16788:
16720:
16641:
16546:
16342:
16233:
16191:Dungan Revolt (1895–1896)
16186:Gongche Shangshu movement
16131:Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)
16043:
15980:Chinese Rites controversy
15950:
15880:
15871:
15812:
15779:
15741:Chinese lacquerware table
15701:
15660:
15607:
15564:
15521:
15503:Embroidered Uniform Guard
15431:
15317:
15264:Prince of Anhua rebellion
15226:
15120:
15111:
14366:10.1017/CHOL9780521243346
14335:Perdue, Peter C. (2009).
14105:Hummel, Arthur W. (ed.).
14094:Ho, Dahpon David (2011).
13983:Finnane, Antonia (1993).
13943:; Goldman, Merle (2006).
13919:Elliott, Mark C. (2001).
13846:10.1017/S0362502800006623
13526:General and cited sources
13127:. John Wiley & Sons.
12382:In Search of Modern China
11753:, pp. 539–540, 1103.
11309:Justus Doolittle (1876).
8924:Fryslie, Matthew (2001).
8598:Elverskog, Johan (2006).
8499:Parker, Geoffrey (2013).
8376:. UBC Press. p. 68.
7803:10.1007/s10584-009-9702-3
7492:Qing conquest of Mongolia
7460:Manchuria under Ming rule
7033:Names of the Qing dynasty
6949:. Some, like the painter
6804:The Ming loyalist pirate
6800:Ming loyalists in Vietnam
6750:
6740:
6703:with a party of officials
6555:who rebelled against the
6543:(1655). Shang recaptured
6335:(Tartary) and abandoning
6116:lands, and the chieftain
5923:After the elimination of
5112:In the meantime, another
5005:Kuidong Thirteen Families
4426:San Francisco's Chinatown
3674:and his troops to pursue
3235:rebelled in the 1630s in
2987:("Pidao"). The defectors
2903:Lead-up to the Great Wall
2686:Building a mixed military
2577:
2522:Veritable Records of Ming
2451:
2445:
2439:
2431:
2419:
1908:Initial Jurchen conquests
1790:Manchuria under Ming rule
1442:Manchuria under Ming rule
1260:
1212:
1207:
1156:
978:Zhu Yuyue, Prince of Tang
892:Zhu Youzhen, Prince of Yi
883:(Hongguang Emperor)
881:Zhu Yousong, Prince of Fu
637:(defected in 1644) (
452:
209:
174:Suppression of the rebel
100:
86:
81:
17134:Great Qing Treasure Note
16954:Treaty of Kyakhta (1727)
16664:Administrative divisions
16481:Administrative divisions
16409:Flag of the Qing dynasty
15804:Great Ming Treasure Note
15683:Ming Ancestors Mausoleum
15466:Administrative divisions
15269:Prince of Ning rebellion
15042:10.1177/0097700405282349
14795:. New York: Free Press.
14532:Rossabi, Morris (1979).
14280:Imperial China, 900–1800
14246:Mair, Victor H. (2008).
14203:"Mêng Ch'iao-fang"
14129:. Chʻeng Wen Publishing.
13898:Ebrey, Patricia (1993).
13355:10.1177/0959683615572851
12399:Wong, Young-tsu (2017).
12032:, p. 973, note 194.
11957:, pp. 804, 822–827.
11413:, pp. 132–134, 137.
11288:China Heritage Quarterly
10679:Larsen & Numata 1943
9769:Dillon, Michael (1998).
9363:. ABC-CLIO. p. 30.
9357:Cathal J. Nolan (2008).
9178:. Macmillan. p. 47.
8855:The Augustan, vols 17–20
7840:. MacMillan. p. 35.
7526:Xinjiang under Qing rule
7516:Mongolia under Qing rule
7465:Mongol conquest of China
6440:Dutch East India Company
6331:considered returning to
6256:in 1646 and ennobled by
6133:himself and his family.
5225:, the base was moved to
5143:. In May, they besieged
4819:sent two expeditions to
4789:mobilised rebels in the
4142:Dutch East India Company
4055:, a first cousin of the
3640:fled to the hills or to
3173:and looting 12,000 gold
3046:at first fought against
2939:would complain that the
2295:, who was allied to the
1829:between Ming and Manchus
1499:Manchu conquest of China
612:(defected in 1633)
254:Dutch East India Company
16730:Chengde Mountain Resort
16531:Three Eastern Provinces
16181:First Sino-Japanese War
16156:Northern Chinese Famine
16015:Lin Shuangwen rebellion
15913:Qing invasion of Joseon
15623:The Hundred-word Eulogy
15289:Great Rites Controversy
15143:Ming conquest of Yunnan
14769:. U of Nebraska Press.
14765:Swope, Kenneth (2018).
14017:Forsyth, James (1994).
13586:Brook, Timothy (1999).
13124:China at the Crossroads
12773:Dvořák, Rudolf (1895).
12518:Graff & Higham 2012
12502:Graff & Higham 2012
12486:Graff & Higham 2012
11880:J.A.G. Roberts (1999).
11853:J.A.G. Roberts (2011).
11575:, pp. 64, 104–106.
11315:. Harpers. p. 242.
10154:Yoshiki Enatsu (2004).
9341:Graff & Higham 2012
9172:Owen Lattimore (1932).
9048:Shou Wang (Fall 2004).
9016:Watson & Ebrey 1991
8056:Kimberly Kagan (2010).
8037:Watson & Ebrey 1991
7900:Graff & Higham 2012
7582:Classic of Filial Piety
7257:Immediately before the
6563:The Qing had relied on
6400:Siege of Fort Zeelandia
5939:forces retreating from
5817:(75 km) away from
5706:, felt threatened that
5092:in the coastal city of
4668:"southern barbarians" (
4388:on 15 June 1645, under
3965:, but were repelled at
3781:Administrative policies
3581:as the avengers of the
3133:banner artillery under
2914:Qing invasion of Joseon
1902:1642 Yellow River flood
1753:by Han Chinese admiral
1174:defectors (after 1644)
903:Zhu Yihai, Prince of Lu
17111:Great Qing Copper Coin
16999:Convention of Tientsin
16932:Annotated Bibliography
16880:Qing official headwear
15923:Battle of Shanhai Pass
15661:Palaces and Mausoleums
15651:Ming Veritable Records
15299:Luso-Chinese agreement
13533:Allen, Robert (2009).
13203:Rowe, William (2010),
12061:, pp. 1030, 1033.
11057:Cheng, Weikun (1998).
9789:Parsons, J.B. (1970).
9271:, pp. 60–61, 200.
9148:(published 1949): 10.
8456:Sneath, David (2007).
7720:Kenneth Swope (2018).
7497:Qing conquest of Tibet
7181:The rebellions led by
7157:account of his meeting
7116:
7108:
7088:During the Qing, many
7085:subjects of the Qing.
6931:literati and officials
6922:
6884:Literature and thought
6828:). In 1679, after the
6704:
6560:
6528:
6226:
6073:
5982:Though the Qing under
5920:
5607:A major revolt around
5604:
5417:In May 1648, however,
5198:fled to the island of
5041:The Qing advance into
5038:
5027:
4437:
4293:who was in control at
4015:A few weeks after the
4012:
3688:Battle of Shanhai Pass
3590:
3585:and to conquer all of
3565:(1593–1665), a former
3473:
3451:
3428:Battle of Shanhai Pass
3407:stronghold of Ningyuan
3370:
2698:
2449:), and Zhang Wenheng (
2341:in 1626. He organised
2333:was the eighth son of
2327:
1842:
1830:
1803:was kept in the rear.
1785:
1672:Battle of Shanhai Pass
1605:unified Jurchen tribes
1457:2nd invasion of Joseon
1452:1st invasion of Joseon
1180:Han Chinese soldiers,
980:(Shaowu Emperor)
872:(Longwu Emperor)
861:(Yongli Emperor)
453:Commanders and leaders
94:Battle of Shanhai Pass
17254:17th century in China
17185:Draft History of Qing
17044:Treaty of Shimonoseki
16825:performance criticism
16429:Imperial Commissioner
16419:Great Qing Legal Code
16218:Eight-Nation Alliance
16201:Third plague pandemic
16111:Punti–Hakka Clan Wars
16035:White Lotus Rebellion
15756:Yongning Temple Stele
15493:Imperial Commissioner
15218:Reign of Ren and Xuan
15178:Ming treasure voyages
15168:Dao Ganmeng rebellion
14416:"The K'ang-hsi Reign"
14385:"The Shun-chih Reign"
14208:Hummel, Arthur W. Sr.
13964:Faure, David (2007).
13747:Dai Yingcong (2009).
13581:on 20 September 2010.
13121:Nolan, Peter (2013).
12315:Taiwan: A New History
12235:, pp. 1048–1049.
12133:, pp. 1043–1046.
10479:Shou-p'ing Wu Ko 1855
10440:Sin-wai Chan (2009).
10424:Shou-p'ing Wu Ko 1855
9652:. 梨大史學會. p. 105.
9617:Hummel, Arthur W. Sr.
9436:"Chʻing Shih Wen Tʻi"
9414:"Chʻing Shih Wen Tʻi"
8984:Hummel, Arthur W. Sr.
8881:Kim, Sun Joo (2011).
8812:Hummel, Arthur W. Sr.
8714:Hummel, Arthur W. Sr.
7854:Parker, E.H. (1899).
7521:Tibet under Qing rule
7387:. The Hui Muslims of
7296:Further information:
7114:
7102:
6963:The Peach Blossom Fan
6937:teachings emphasized
6901:
6888:Further information:
6699:
6534:
6523:
6317:Battle of Liaoluo Bay
6220:
6068:
5906:
5595:
5367:, but his retreat to
5033:
5018:
4423:
4289:had mutinied against
4019:committed suicide in
3999:
3680:the last Ming emperor
3616:'s Ming loyalists in
3569:official who advised
3560:
3489:Imperial examinations
3460:was a general of the
3456:
3441:
3357:
2693:
2568:after he surrendered
2343:imperial examinations
2318:
2133:First Joseon campaign
1958:in 1616, named after
1841:was injured in defeat
1836:
1825:
1775:
1541:, established by the
1208:Casualties and losses
356:Northern Yuan dynasty
271:Southern Ming dynasty
170:Southern Ming dynasty
17264:History of Manchuria
17116:Great Qing Gold Coin
17049:Treaty of Tarbagatai
16994:Convention of Peking
16874:Pentaglot Dictionary
16856:Literary inquisition
16566:Ever Victorious Army
16399:Deliberative Council
16303:Xinhai Lhasa turmoil
16256:1905 Batang uprising
16196:Hundred Days' Reform
16086:Small Swords Society
15355:Sino-Dutch conflicts
15254:Rebellion of Cao Qin
15183:Ming–Turpan conflict
15133:Red Turban Rebellion
14708:. pp. 641–725.
14430:. pp. 120–182.
14420:Peterson, Willard J.
14389:Peterson, Willard J.
14263:Sino-Platonic Papers
13456:The Atlantic Monthly
11611:, pp. 670, 673.
10652:, pp. 695, 698.
9161:Another Google entry
8784:Till, Barry (2004).
7548:南征) on 1 April 1645.
6907:Ming imperial family
6506:on a trade mission.
6092:fleeing into nearby
5386:force led by former
5151:sent Prince of Lu's
4883:Gabriel de Magalhães
4368:'s southern bank at
3973:and allied with the
3662:Soon after entering
3514:civilians to vacate
2669:who defected to the
2560:'s daughter) to the
2537:Han–Manchu marriages
2470:were vassals of the
2406:and defected to the
1970:unify Jurchen tribes
1710:and other polities.
1575:and the short-lived
1495:Ming-Qing transition
1252:Ming−Qing transition
1163:Manchu, Mongol, Han
82:Ming-Qing transition
18:Ming–Qing transition
17169:Anti-Qing sentiment
17019:Treaty of the Bogue
16959:Treaty of Nerchinsk
16891:Complete Tang Poems
16571:Green Standard Army
16454:Provincial governor
16424:Imperial Clan Court
16404:Diplomatic missions
16379:Consultative Bureau
16126:Tongzhi Restoration
16005:Afaqi Khoja revolts
15985:Ten Great Campaigns
15893:Jurchen unification
15702:Society and Culture
15637:Yongle Encyclopedia
15476:Imperial Clan Court
15419:Kingdom of Tungning
15372:Jurchen unification
15304:Jiajing wokou raids
15193:Battle of Palembang
15158:Battle of Buir Lake
14660:Spence, Jonathan D.
14399:. pp. 73–119.
13347:2015Holoc..25..900X
12912:Dunnell et al. 2004
12880:Dunnell et al. 2004
12864:Dunnell et al. 2004
12751:, pp. 852–855.
12703:Khánh Trần (1993).
12644:on 15 November 2021
12407:. pp. 111–113.
12379:Spence, Jonathan D.
12196:, pp. 149–150.
12085:, pp. 263–267.
12005:, pp. 171–179.
11993:, pp. 990–991.
11981:, pp. 827–830.
11945:, pp. 838–841.
11933:, pp. 805–821.
11921:, pp. 785–792.
11909:, pp. 699–702.
11843:, pp. 767–768.
11816:, pp. 165–168.
11804:, pp. 764–766.
11780:, pp. 737–728.
11741:, pp. 768–771.
11702:, pp. 675–676.
11647:, pp. 736–737.
11599:, pp. 667–674.
11548:, pp. 666–667.
11524:, pp. 734–736.
11384:, pp. 731–733.
11372:, pp. 724–730.
11360:, pp. 717–723.
11192:, pp. 661–674.
11180:, pp. 651–655.
11144:, pp. 662–663.
11132:, pp. 648–650.
10996:, pp. 634–646.
10984:, pp. 598–601.
10956:, pp. 536–545.
10705:, pp. 802–804.
10624:, pp. 708–712.
10612:, pp. 703–707.
10553:, pp. 654–656.
10414:, pp. 713–716.
10402:, pp. 681–682.
10378:, pp. 501–506.
10342:, pp. 482–483.
10227:, pp. 305–306.
10080:, pp. 311–312.
10056:, pp. 310–311.
9747:, pp. 152–155.
9489:Dunnell et al. 2004
9440:Late Imperial China
9418:Late Imperial China
9086:on 11 January 2014.
8989:"Li Shih-yao"
8703:, pp. 204–208.
8679:, pp. 196–197.
8667:, pp. 179–180.
8655:, pp. 160–167.
8643:, pp. 201–203.
8059:The Imperial Moment
7795:2010ClCh..101..565F
7561:, pp. 523–543.
7343:Selected groups of
7155:'s Manchu language
6987:evidential learning
6720:Kingdom of Tungning
6684:Green Standard Army
6628:Green Standard Army
6404:Kingdom of Tungning
5734:who rose up in the
5722:, top commander in
5316:'s younger brother
4971:in the north under
4911:, the Ming general
4616:resistance stormed
4604:, was destroyed at
4156:Qing Prince of Yu,
3890:revolt and against
3686:in late May at the
3595:Green Standard Army
3434:of the Great Shun.
3205:'s forces near the
3201:collapsed, leaving
3161:garrison commander
2649:women, with Prince
2505:, above the rivers
2206:where Ming general
1919:Jurchen unification
1743:Kingdom of Tungning
1447:Jurchen unification
1172:Green Standard Army
967:Prince of Jingjiang
397:Kingdom of Portugal
344:Kingdom of Tungning
325:(Korea; until 1636)
246:(Korea; after 1636)
188:Kingdom of Tungning
17054:Treaty of Tientsin
16765:Western Qing tombs
16760:Eastern Qing tombs
16586:Peking Field Force
16330:Manchu Restoration
16223:Declaration of war
16176:Jindandao incident
15995:Lhasa riot of 1750
15551:Military conquests
15397:Peasant rebellions
15274:Capture of Malacca
15249:Defense of Beijing
15163:Lin Kuan rebellion
14982:Xing Hang (2016).
14961:Wu Shuhui (1995).
14854:. In two volumes.
14692:Mote, Frederick W.
14617:Song Gang (2018).
14275:Mote, Frederick W.
13166:Mao Peiqi (2006).
13102:Ch’iu, Chung-lin.
12303:, pp. 136–37.
12109:, p. 267–273.
11856:A History of China
9384:John Ross (1880).
8691:, pp. 96–101.
8309:, pp. 62, 64.
7261:was overthrown by
7117:
7109:
6925:The defeat of the
6923:
6782:Grand Matsu Temple
6766:Prince of Ningjing
6705:
6561:
6529:
6524:The revolt of the
6458:(Quemoy) from the
6366:disobeyed orders,
6362:After the admiral
6227:
6136:Loyalist generals
6074:
5921:
5907:The flight of the
5605:
5559:and from there to
5249:After the fall of
5210:by November 1646.
5127:In February 1646,
5106:Tokugawa Shogunate
5039:
5028:
4823:to try to destroy
4568:and the remaining
4562:Songjiang District
4438:
4345:who served in the
4333:who served in the
4208:"brutal slaughter"
4121:"Sichuan" soldiers
4013:
4008:in the defense of
3644:to avoid the war;
3591:
3474:
3371:
3141:, with supporting
3097:Battle of Song-Jin
2699:
2328:
2149:Battle of Ningyuan
2086:Liaodong peninsula
1843:
1831:
1827:Battle of Ningyuan
1786:
1696:the General Crisis
1628:peasant rebellions
1300:Peasant rebellions
1203:Nanai Hurka: 6,000
631:(defected in 1642)
606:(defected in 1633)
600:(defected in 1618)
423:(Zhang Xianzhong)
385:Tokugawa Shogunate
17241:
17240:
17152:
17151:
17064:Treaty of Whampoa
17059:Treaty of Wanghia
17034:Treaty of Nanking
17004:Li–Lobanov Treaty
16979:Chefoo Convention
16974:Burlingame Treaty
16845:Kangxi Dictionary
16750:Old Summer Palace
16581:Firearm Battalion
16384:Cup of Solid Gold
16338:
16337:
16283:Manchurian plague
16246:Late Qing reforms
16237:(1901–1912)
16171:Sikkim expedition
16101:Panthay Rebellion
16071:Taiping Rebellion
16047:(1801–1900)
16025:Sino-Nepalese War
15970:Dzungar–Qing Wars
15956:(1683–1799)
15884:(1616–1683)
15830:
15829:
15539:Gunpowder weapons
15498:Grand coordinator
15461:Grand Secretariat
15427:
15426:
15321:(1572–1683)
15230:(1435–1572)
15198:Battle of Kherlen
15148:Ming–Mong Mao War
15138:Wu Mian rebellion
15124:(1368–1435)
15067:on 25 March 2014.
14953:978-0-520-07124-7
14934:978-0-520-25444-2
14915:978-0-520-25606-4
14892:978-0-520-23519-9
14871:978-0-520-23518-2
14849:978-0-520-04804-1
14834:Wakeman, Frederic
14811:Wakeman, Frederic
14785:Wakeman, Frederic
14715:978-0-521-24332-2
14547:978-0-300-02672-6
14503:978-1-88496-404-6
14461:978-0-520-92679-0
14437:978-0-521-24334-6
14406:978-0-521-24334-6
14348:978-0-674-04202-5
14290:978-0-674-44515-4
14250:Soldierly Methods
14192:978-0-674-82152-1
14147:978-9-5763-8066-2
14107:清代名人傳略: 1644–1912
14051:978-0-8131-3584-7
14000:978-0-7914-1423-1
13975:978-0-8047-5318-0
13941:Fairbank, John K.
13911:978-0-02-908752-7
13824:978-1-134-36222-6
13760:978-0-295-98952-5
13739:978-0-631-23591-0
13718:978-0-520-92884-8
13697:978-0-691-00877-6
13677:978-0-19-921734-2
13650:Chang, Kang-i Sun
13177:978-7-80206-237-5
13155:. 6 October 2014.
12595:Tainan City Guide
11893:978-0-674-00075-9
11866:978-0-230-34411-2
11680:978-1-107-12424-0
11460:978-7-5022-5215-1
11437:, pp. 17–18.
10537:978-981-4414-32-6
10453:978-962-996-355-2
10167:978-0-89264-165-9
9669:The Gachon Herald
9370:978-0-313-35920-0
8415:, pp. 59–64.
8285:, pp. 55–57.
8273:, pp. 51–53.
8261:, pp. 37–39.
8146:978-1-2855-2867-0
8069:978-0-674-05409-7
8021:pages.uoregon.edu
7954:978-0-520-23015-6
7767:978-1-139-05353-2
7608:For example, see
7532:Explanatory notes
7487:Dzungar–Qing Wars
7385:Xinhai Revolution
7373:Xinhai revolution
7223:natural disasters
7191:Yangzhou massacre
7017:Manchu literature
6846:Trần Thượng Xuyên
6664:Three Feudatories
6553:Three Feudatories
6526:Three Feudatories
6381:Three Feudatories
6295:In 1659, just as
6292:estuary in 1659.
5821:communities. The
5694:In January 1649,
5332:, the capital of
4927:. A young son of
4781:. Ming Prince of
4697:Yangzhou Massacre
4446:Hongguang Emperor
4424:A Chinese man in
4358:Hongguang Emperor
4224:Hongguang Emperor
4126:Hongguang Emperor
4057:Chongzhen Emperor
4043:Governor-general
4017:Chongzhen Emperor
3981:Fall of the south
3864:linbao jiancha fa
3785:On the orders of
3748:Jiugong Mountains
3575:Chongzhen Emperor
3478:Chongzhen Emperor
3419:Mandate of Heaven
3319:Chongzhen Emperor
3296:Chongzhen Emperor
3115:Shandong province
2944:Joseon subjects.
2468:Jianzhou Jurchens
2339:Later Jin dynasty
2127:besieged Ningyuan
2069:China's northeast
2065:Liaoning province
2035:fortress cities,
1992:, located on the
1968:. His efforts to
1956:Later Jin dynasty
1708:English Civil War
1656:Chongzhen Emperor
1638:to crown himself
1601:Jianzhou Jurchens
1486:
1485:
1217:
1216:
705:Chongzhen Emperor
205:
204:
192:Consolidation of
75:
74:
16:(Redirected from
17306:
17218:New Qing History
17101:Qianlong Tongbao
17079:
17078:
17024:Treaty of Canton
16964:Unequal treaties
16770:Fuling Mausoleum
16369:Advisory Council
16298:Wuchang Uprising
16238:
16141:Tianjin Massacre
16106:Second Opium War
16048:
16010:Sino-Burmese War
15957:
15935:Battle of Penghu
15903:Seven Grievances
15885:
15878:
15877:
15857:
15850:
15843:
15834:
15833:
15630:Huang-Ming Zuxun
15402:Jiashen Incident
15392:She-An Rebellion
15377:Seven Grievances
15350:Donglin movement
15335:Bozhou rebellion
15322:
15231:
15208:Lam Sơn uprising
15188:Ming–Đại Ngu War
15173:Jingnan campaign
15125:
15118:
15117:
15097:
15090:
15083:
15074:
15073:
15068:
15066:
15060:. Archived from
15027:
15017:
15008:
14999:
14978:
14957:
14938:
14919:
14896:
14875:
14853:
14828:
14806:
14794:
14780:
14761:
14740:
14719:
14696:Twitchett, Denis
14679:
14655:
14634:
14613:
14590:
14588:
14586:
14580:
14573:
14562:
14551:
14528:
14507:
14486:
14465:
14441:
14410:
14379:
14352:
14331:
14294:
14270:
14260:
14242:
14225:Li Ling (1995).
14221:
14205:
14196:
14172:
14151:
14130:
14119:
14110:
14101:
14090:
14069:
14067:
14055:
14034:
14013:
14004:
13979:
13960:
13936:
13915:
13894:
13865:
13828:
13807:
13786:
13764:
13743:
13722:
13701:
13680:
13657:
13643:
13624:
13603:
13582:
13580:
13574:. Archived from
13557:
13539:
13519:
13518:
13498:
13492:
13482:
13476:
13466:
13460:
13459:
13448:
13442:
13441:
13421:
13415:
13405:
13399:
13389:
13383:
13373:
13367:
13366:
13329:
13323:
13313:
13307:
13297:
13291:
13281:
13275:
13265:
13259:
13249:
13243:
13233:
13227:
13226:
13225:
13223:
13200:
13194:
13188:
13182:
13181:
13163:
13157:
13156:
13153:Business Insider
13145:
13139:
13138:
13118:
13112:
13111:
13099:
13093:
13092:
13090:
13088:
13078:
13072:
13062:
13056:
13046:
13040:
13030:
13024:
13017:
13011:
13005:
12999:
12989:
12983:
12973:
12967:
12957:
12951:
12941:
12935:
12925:
12919:
12909:
12903:
12893:
12887:
12877:
12871:
12861:
12855:
12849:
12843:
12837:
12831:
12821:
12815:
12805:
12799:
12798:
12770:
12764:
12758:
12752:
12746:
12740:
12734:
12728:
12727:
12725:
12723:
12700:
12694:
12687:Việt Nam sử lược
12683:
12674:
12663:
12654:
12653:
12651:
12649:
12643:
12632:
12623:
12617:
12616:
12605:
12599:
12598:
12586:
12580:
12579:
12559:
12553:
12547:
12541:
12531:
12525:
12515:
12509:
12499:
12493:
12483:
12477:
12471:
12465:
12459:
12453:
12447:
12441:
12431:
12425:
12415:
12409:
12408:
12396:
12390:
12389:
12375:
12369:
12368:
12360:
12354:
12353:
12335:
12329:
12328:
12310:
12304:
12298:
12292:
12286:
12280:
12270:
12264:
12254:
12248:
12242:
12236:
12230:
12224:
12223:
12203:
12197:
12191:
12185:
12179:
12170:
12164:
12158:
12152:
12146:
12140:
12134:
12128:
12122:
12116:
12110:
12104:
12098:
12092:
12086:
12080:
12074:
12068:
12062:
12056:
12050:
12044:
12033:
12027:
12021:
12015:
12006:
12000:
11994:
11988:
11982:
11976:
11970:
11964:
11958:
11952:
11946:
11940:
11934:
11928:
11922:
11916:
11910:
11904:
11898:
11897:
11877:
11871:
11870:
11850:
11844:
11838:
11832:
11826:
11817:
11811:
11805:
11799:
11793:
11787:
11781:
11775:
11769:
11763:
11754:
11748:
11742:
11736:
11730:
11724:
11718:
11712:
11703:
11697:
11691:
11690:
11689:
11687:
11654:
11648:
11642:
11636:
11630:
11624:
11618:
11612:
11606:
11600:
11594:
11588:
11582:
11576:
11570:
11564:
11558:
11549:
11543:
11537:
11531:
11525:
11519:
11513:
11507:
11501:
11495:
11489:
11483:
11477:
11471:
11465:
11464:
11444:
11438:
11432:
11426:
11420:
11414:
11408:
11402:
11396:
11385:
11379:
11373:
11367:
11361:
11355:
11349:
11339:
11333:
11323:
11317:
11316:
11306:
11300:
11299:
11279:
11273:
11267:
11261:
11255:
11249:
11239:
11233:
11223:
11217:
11211:
11205:
11199:
11193:
11187:
11181:
11175:
11169:
11163:
11157:
11151:
11145:
11139:
11133:
11127:
11121:
11115:
11109:
11099:
11093:
11083:
11077:
11076:
11054:
11048:
11042:
11036:
11030:
11024:
11018:
11009:
11003:
10997:
10991:
10985:
10979:
10973:
10963:
10957:
10951:
10945:
10935:
10929:
10923:
10917:
10911:
10900:
10894:
10885:
10875:
10866:
10856:
10850:
10840:
10834:
10824:
10818:
10808:
10799:
10789:
10783:
10777:
10771:
10765:
10754:
10748:
10742:
10736:
10730:
10724:
10718:
10712:
10706:
10700:
10694:
10688:
10682:
10676:
10670:
10664:
10653:
10647:
10641:
10631:
10625:
10619:
10613:
10607:
10601:
10595:
10589:
10588:
10560:
10554:
10548:
10542:
10541:
10521:
10515:
10505:
10499:
10498:
10488:
10482:
10476:
10470:
10464:
10458:
10457:
10437:
10431:
10421:
10415:
10409:
10403:
10397:
10391:
10385:
10379:
10373:
10367:
10361:
10355:
10349:
10343:
10337:
10331:
10325:
10319:
10309:
10303:
10297:
10291:
10285:
10279:
10269:
10260:
10250:
10244:
10234:
10228:
10222:
10216:
10210:
10204:
10194:
10188:
10178:
10172:
10171:
10151:
10145:
10135:
10129:
10123:
10117:
10111:
10105:
10099:
10093:
10087:
10081:
10075:
10069:
10063:
10057:
10051:
10045:
10039:
10033:
10027:
10021:
10020:
10018:
10016:
10010:
10001:
9995:
9989:
9980:
9974:
9965:
9959:
9953:
9943:
9937:
9936:
9916:
9910:
9900:
9894:
9884:
9878:
9868:
9862:
9852:
9846:
9840:
9834:
9828:
9819:
9813:
9807:
9801:
9795:
9794:
9786:
9766:
9760:
9754:
9748:
9742:
9736:
9730:
9724:
9718:
9712:
9706:
9700:
9691:
9685:
9679:
9673:
9672:
9660:
9654:
9653:
9643:
9637:
9636:
9624:
9613:
9607:
9601:
9595:
9585:
9579:
9573:
9567:
9561:
9555:
9554:
9534:
9528:
9518:
9512:
9502:
9496:
9486:
9480:
9470:
9464:
9454:
9448:
9447:
9432:
9426:
9425:
9410:
9404:
9398:
9392:
9391:
9381:
9375:
9374:
9354:
9348:
9338:
9332:
9322:
9316:
9306:
9300:
9290:
9284:
9278:
9272:
9266:
9260:
9250:
9244:
9234:
9228:
9218:
9212:
9202:
9196:
9186:
9180:
9179:
9169:
9163:
9159:
9129:
9123:
9113:
9104:
9094:
9088:
9087:
9085:
9079:. Archived from
9054:
9045:
9039:
9029:
9023:
9013:
9004:
9003:
8991:
8980:
8974:
8964:
8958:
8948:
8942:
8941:
8921:
8915:
8905:
8899:
8898:
8878:
8872:
8866:
8860:
8859:
8850:
8844:
8838:
8832:
8831:
8819:
8808:
8802:
8801:
8781:
8775:
8769:
8763:
8762:
8752:
8746:
8740:
8734:
8733:
8721:
8710:
8704:
8698:
8692:
8686:
8680:
8674:
8668:
8662:
8656:
8650:
8644:
8638:
8632:
8622:
8616:
8615:
8595:
8589:
8583:
8572:
8566:
8560:
8559:
8539:
8533:
8523:
8517:
8516:
8496:
8490:
8480:
8474:
8473:
8453:
8447:
8441:
8435:
8425:
8416:
8410:
8404:
8394:
8388:
8387:
8367:
8361:
8360:
8340:
8334:
8328:
8322:
8316:
8310:
8304:
8298:
8292:
8286:
8280:
8274:
8268:
8262:
8256:
8250:
8240:
8231:
8221:
8215:
8205:
8199:
8189:
8183:
8173:
8167:
8157:
8151:
8150:
8130:
8124:
8118:
8112:
8102:
8093:
8083:
8074:
8073:
8053:
8044:
8034:
8025:
8024:
8013:
8004:
7998:
7989:
7988:
7968:
7959:
7958:
7938:
7929:
7928:
7916:
7907:
7897:
7888:
7882:
7876:
7875:
7873:
7871:
7851:
7842:
7841:
7833:
7827:
7821:
7815:
7814:
7789:(3–4): 565–573.
7778:
7772:
7771:
7745:
7736:
7735:
7717:
7711:
7702:
7693:
7683:
7674:
7673:
7671:
7669:
7651:
7629:
7606:
7600:
7597:
7591:
7577:
7571:
7568:
7562:
7555:
7549:
7542:
7454:
7449:
7448:
7447:
7440:
7435:
7434:
7433:
7401:Shaanxi province
7357:Qianlong emperor
7170:were unlike the
7011:form of poetry.
6913:. Art historian
6832:was put down by
6753:
6752:
6743:
6742:
6736:Battle of Penghu
6476:Zhoushan Islands
6181:was captured by
6022:(in what is now
5880:, just south of
5576:Banner generals
5402:and sending the
5343:established the
5139:in northeastern
4797:area and around
4703:Chongming Island
4574:Chongming Island
4500:A minor scholar
4455:Donglin movement
4263:was unharmed by
4035:Minister of War
3967:Gongchang, Gansu
3449:
3438:Ethnic situation
3278:had founded the
3171:Jiangsu province
3069:Tungusic peoples
2623:Board of Revenue
2584:
2579:
2503:Korean peninsula
2480:Manzhou Shilu Tu
2454:
2453:
2448:
2447:
2443:), Shen Peirui (
2442:
2441:
2436:
2435:
2424:
2423:
2412:Southern Chinese
2147:had lost at the
1982:Seven Grievances
1896:and a battle in
1870:She-An Rebellion
1778:Aisin Gioro Clan
1751:Battle of Penghu
1741:and founded the
1597:Seven Grievances
1549:in contemporary
1513:, the incumbent
1462:Seven Grievances
1317:She–An Rebellion
1255:
1253:
1243:
1236:
1229:
1220:
1219:
1149:
1118:
1090:
1069:
1063:Gao Yigong
1060:
1049:
1038:
1026:
1010:
985:
974:
952:
935:
899:
888:
877:
866:
850:
824:
812:
799:
786:
773:
755:
742:
730:
718:
689:
684:(defected)
666:
661:(defected)
641:
618:
522:
490:
468:
429:She-An Rebellion
427:Kingdom of Shu (
406:
405:
404:
395:
394:
383:
382:
381:
373:Armament support
354:
353:
352:
342:
341:
340:
321:
306:
305:
304:
264:
263:
262:
252:
242:
227:Aisin-Gioro clan
225:
224:
223:
164:Collapse of the
102:
101:
91:
79:
78:
70:
67:
61:
38:
30:
21:
17314:
17313:
17309:
17308:
17307:
17305:
17304:
17303:
17244:
17243:
17242:
17237:
17233:Willow Palisade
17179:Chuang Guandong
17148:
17120:
17070:
17029:Treaty of Kulja
17014:Treaty of Aigun
16947:
16939:
16838:History of Ming
16790:
16784:
16722:
16716:
16642:Special regions
16637:
16576:Imperial Guards
16542:
16334:
16293:1911 Revolution
16239:
16236:
16229:
16206:Boxer Rebellion
16166:Sino-French War
16116:Amur Annexation
16061:First Opium War
16049:
16046:
16039:
15958:
15955:
15946:
15930:Great Clearance
15886:
15883:
15867:
15861:
15831:
15826:
15821:History of Ming
15808:
15775:
15697:
15673:Chaotian Palace
15656:
15616:History of Yuan
15603:
15560:
15517:
15423:
15323:
15320:
15313:
15309:Single whip law
15284:Ningbo incident
15259:Miao rebellions
15232:
15229:
15222:
15126:
15123:
15107:
15101:
15071:
15064:
15025:
14996:
14975:
14954:
14935:
14916:
14893:
14872:
14850:
14825:
14803:
14777:
14758:
14737:
14716:
14676:
14652:
14631:
14610:
14584:
14582:
14578:
14571:
14565:
14548:
14525:
14504:
14483:
14462:
14438:
14407:
14376:
14349:
14312:10.2307/2941233
14291:
14258:
14239:
14193:
14179:Kuhn, Philip A.
14169:
14148:
14140:. Taipei: SMC.
14113:
14104:
14087:
14065:
14052:
14031:
14001:
13976:
13957:
13933:
13912:
13825:
13804:
13783:
13761:
13740:
13719:
13698:
13678:
13640:
13621:
13600:
13578:
13555:10.1.1.149.5916
13537:
13528:
13523:
13522:
13515:
13499:
13495:
13483:
13479:
13467:
13463:
13450:
13449:
13445:
13438:
13422:
13418:
13406:
13402:
13390:
13386:
13374:
13370:
13330:
13326:
13314:
13310:
13298:
13294:
13282:
13278:
13266:
13262:
13250:
13246:
13234:
13230:
13221:
13219:
13217:
13201:
13197:
13189:
13185:
13178:
13164:
13160:
13147:
13146:
13142:
13135:
13119:
13115:
13100:
13096:
13086:
13084:
13080:
13079:
13075:
13063:
13059:
13047:
13043:
13031:
13027:
13018:
13014:
13006:
13002:
12990:
12986:
12974:
12970:
12958:
12954:
12942:
12938:
12926:
12922:
12910:
12906:
12894:
12890:
12878:
12874:
12862:
12858:
12850:
12846:
12838:
12834:
12822:
12818:
12806:
12802:
12795:
12771:
12767:
12759:
12755:
12747:
12743:
12735:
12731:
12721:
12719:
12717:
12701:
12697:
12684:
12677:
12664:
12657:
12647:
12645:
12641:
12630:
12624:
12620:
12607:
12606:
12602:
12587:
12583:
12576:
12560:
12556:
12548:
12544:
12532:
12528:
12516:
12512:
12500:
12496:
12484:
12480:
12476:, p. 1116.
12472:
12468:
12460:
12456:
12448:
12444:
12432:
12428:
12416:
12412:
12397:
12393:
12376:
12372:
12361:
12357:
12350:
12336:
12332:
12325:
12311:
12307:
12299:
12295:
12287:
12283:
12271:
12267:
12255:
12251:
12247:, p. 1049.
12243:
12239:
12231:
12227:
12220:
12204:
12200:
12192:
12188:
12182:Dennerline 2002
12180:
12173:
12169:, p. 1046.
12165:
12161:
12157:, p. 1003.
12153:
12149:
12141:
12137:
12129:
12125:
12117:
12113:
12105:
12101:
12097:, p. 1035.
12093:
12089:
12081:
12077:
12069:
12065:
12057:
12053:
12047:Dennerline 2002
12045:
12036:
12028:
12024:
12016:
12009:
12001:
11997:
11989:
11985:
11977:
11973:
11965:
11961:
11953:
11949:
11941:
11937:
11929:
11925:
11917:
11913:
11905:
11901:
11894:
11878:
11874:
11867:
11851:
11847:
11839:
11835:
11827:
11820:
11812:
11808:
11800:
11796:
11788:
11784:
11776:
11772:
11764:
11757:
11749:
11745:
11737:
11733:
11725:
11721:
11713:
11706:
11698:
11694:
11685:
11683:
11681:
11655:
11651:
11643:
11639:
11631:
11627:
11619:
11615:
11607:
11603:
11595:
11591:
11587:, pp. 67–.
11583:
11579:
11571:
11567:
11559:
11552:
11544:
11540:
11532:
11528:
11520:
11516:
11508:
11504:
11496:
11492:
11484:
11480:
11472:
11468:
11461:
11445:
11441:
11433:
11429:
11421:
11417:
11409:
11405:
11397:
11388:
11380:
11376:
11368:
11364:
11356:
11352:
11340:
11336:
11324:
11320:
11307:
11303:
11290:. No. 27.
11280:
11276:
11268:
11264:
11256:
11252:
11240:
11236:
11224:
11220:
11212:
11208:
11200:
11196:
11188:
11184:
11176:
11172:
11164:
11160:
11152:
11148:
11140:
11136:
11128:
11124:
11116:
11112:
11100:
11096:
11084:
11080:
11073:
11055:
11051:
11043:
11039:
11031:
11027:
11019:
11012:
11006:Dennerline 2002
11004:
11000:
10992:
10988:
10980:
10976:
10964:
10960:
10952:
10948:
10936:
10932:
10924:
10920:
10912:
10903:
10895:
10888:
10876:
10869:
10857:
10853:
10841:
10837:
10825:
10821:
10809:
10802:
10790:
10786:
10778:
10774:
10766:
10757:
10749:
10745:
10737:
10733:
10725:
10721:
10713:
10709:
10701:
10697:
10689:
10685:
10677:
10673:
10665:
10656:
10648:
10644:
10632:
10628:
10620:
10616:
10608:
10604:
10596:
10592:
10577:
10561:
10557:
10549:
10545:
10538:
10522:
10518:
10506:
10502:
10489:
10485:
10477:
10473:
10465:
10461:
10454:
10438:
10434:
10422:
10418:
10410:
10406:
10398:
10394:
10386:
10382:
10374:
10370:
10362:
10358:
10350:
10346:
10338:
10334:
10326:
10322:
10310:
10306:
10298:
10294:
10286:
10282:
10270:
10263:
10251:
10247:
10235:
10231:
10223:
10219:
10215:, p. 1020.
10211:
10207:
10195:
10191:
10179:
10175:
10168:
10152:
10148:
10136:
10132:
10124:
10120:
10112:
10108:
10100:
10096:
10088:
10084:
10076:
10072:
10064:
10060:
10052:
10048:
10040:
10036:
10030:Dennerline 2002
10028:
10024:
10014:
10012:
10008:
10002:
9998:
9990:
9983:
9975:
9968:
9960:
9956:
9944:
9940:
9933:
9917:
9913:
9901:
9897:
9885:
9881:
9869:
9865:
9853:
9849:
9841:
9837:
9829:
9822:
9814:
9810:
9802:
9798:
9783:
9767:
9763:
9755:
9751:
9743:
9739:
9731:
9727:
9719:
9715:
9707:
9703:
9692:
9688:
9680:
9676:
9661:
9657:
9644:
9640:
9614:
9610:
9602:
9598:
9586:
9582:
9574:
9570:
9562:
9558:
9551:
9535:
9531:
9519:
9515:
9503:
9499:
9487:
9483:
9471:
9467:
9455:
9451:
9434:
9433:
9429:
9412:
9411:
9407:
9399:
9395:
9382:
9378:
9371:
9355:
9351:
9339:
9335:
9323:
9319:
9307:
9303:
9291:
9287:
9279:
9275:
9267:
9263:
9251:
9247:
9235:
9231:
9219:
9215:
9203:
9199:
9187:
9183:
9170:
9166:
9156:
9130:
9126:
9114:
9107:
9095:
9091:
9083:
9052:
9046:
9042:
9030:
9026:
9014:
9007:
8981:
8977:
8965:
8961:
8949:
8945:
8938:
8922:
8918:
8906:
8902:
8895:
8879:
8875:
8867:
8863:
8852:
8851:
8847:
8839:
8835:
8817:"Nurhaci"
8809:
8805:
8798:
8782:
8778:
8770:
8766:
8753:
8749:
8741:
8737:
8711:
8707:
8699:
8695:
8687:
8683:
8675:
8671:
8663:
8659:
8651:
8647:
8639:
8635:
8623:
8619:
8612:
8596:
8592:
8584:
8575:
8567:
8563:
8556:
8540:
8536:
8524:
8520:
8513:
8497:
8493:
8481:
8477:
8470:
8454:
8450:
8442:
8438:
8426:
8419:
8411:
8407:
8395:
8391:
8384:
8368:
8364:
8357:
8341:
8337:
8329:
8325:
8317:
8313:
8305:
8301:
8293:
8289:
8281:
8277:
8269:
8265:
8257:
8253:
8241:
8234:
8222:
8218:
8206:
8202:
8190:
8186:
8174:
8170:
8158:
8154:
8147:
8131:
8127:
8119:
8115:
8103:
8096:
8084:
8077:
8070:
8054:
8047:
8035:
8028:
8015:
8014:
8007:
7999:
7992:
7985:
7969:
7962:
7955:
7939:
7932:
7922:
7917:
7910:
7898:
7891:
7883:
7879:
7869:
7867:
7852:
7845:
7834:
7830:
7822:
7818:
7783:Climatic Change
7779:
7775:
7768:
7746:
7739:
7732:
7718:
7714:
7703:
7696:
7684:
7677:
7667:
7665:
7653:
7652:
7648:
7643:
7638:
7633:
7632:
7607:
7603:
7598:
7594:
7578:
7574:
7569:
7565:
7556:
7552:
7543:
7539:
7534:
7483:
7450:
7445:
7443:
7436:
7431:
7429:
7426:
7300:
7241:. An estimated
7215:Zhang Xianzhong
7187:Zhang Xianzhong
7129:Khalkha Mongols
7039:
7029:
6896:
6886:
6854:Nguyễn Phúc Tần
6806:Dương Ngạn Địch
6802:
6708:Zheng Chenggong
6694:
6518:
6512:
6278:Zhoushan Island
6250:Zheng Chenggong
6215:
6177:. In 1662, the
6155:Irrawaddy River
6102:Toungoo dynasty
6063:
6043:Shunzhi Emperor
5925:Zhang Xianzhong
5901:
5896:
5890:
5736:Helan Mountains
5714:, commander of
5677:Dongming County
5590:
5527:was massacred.
5349:Zhang Xianzhong
5320:, who had fled
5247:
5235:Zheng Chenggong
5190:on 17 October,
5064:Meanwhile, the
5013:
5001:Xingshan County
4933:Fuling District
4929:Zhang Xianzhong
4867:Zhang Xianzhong
4825:Zhang Xianzhong
4813:
4811:Zhang Xianzhong
4807:
4418:
3994:
3988:
3983:
3872:
3783:
3742:and further to
3660:
3654:
3605:Bannermen, and
3577:to present the
3450:
3447:
3440:
3333:Grand Secretary
3241:Zhang Xianzhong
3225:
3219:
3179:Grand Secretary
3099:
3093:
3020:
2916:
2910:
2905:
2765:red coat cannon
2688:
2680:Manchu language
2643:Shunzhi Emperor
2539:
2527:History of Ming
2516:History of Ming
2313:
2251:
2141:
2135:
2063:in what is now
1990:captured Fushun
1921:
1915:
1910:
1894:Zhang Xianzhong
1796:
1788:Main articles:
1770:
1735:Zheng Chenggong
1719:Great Clearance
1573:Zhang Xianzhong
1551:Northeast China
1531:
1507:Chinese history
1493:(or simply the
1487:
1482:
1481:
1477:Great Clearance
1378:
1256:
1251:
1249:
1247:
1202:
1194:
1190:
1176:
1168:
1151:
1139:
1138:
1128:
1127:
1114:
1086:
1082:Zhang Xianzhong
1077:
1076:
1065:
1022:
1006:
976:
960:
959:
948:
912:
808:
795:
782:
769:
751:
738:
714:
698:
614:
593:
592:
511:Shunzhi Emperor
444:
433:
425:
418:
402:
400:
399:
389:
388:
379:
377:
376:
371:
369:
365:
362:Yarkent Khanate
359:
350:
348:
347:
338:
336:
335:
331:
326:
316:
314:Combat support:
312:
302:
300:
289:Guangzhou court
269:
260:
258:
247:
237:
235:
233:
229:
221:
219:
218:
158:
141:
129:, and parts of
92:
71:
65:
62:
55:
43:This article's
39:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
17312:
17302:
17301:
17296:
17291:
17286:
17281:
17276:
17271:
17266:
17261:
17256:
17239:
17238:
17236:
17235:
17230:
17225:
17220:
17215:
17210:
17205:
17200:
17195:
17188:
17181:
17176:
17171:
17166:
17160:
17158:
17154:
17153:
17150:
17149:
17147:
17146:
17141:
17136:
17130:
17128:
17122:
17121:
17119:
17118:
17113:
17108:
17103:
17098:
17096:Kangxi Tongbao
17093:
17087:
17085:
17076:
17072:
17071:
17069:
17068:
17067:
17066:
17061:
17056:
17051:
17046:
17041:
17036:
17031:
17026:
17021:
17016:
17011:
17006:
17001:
16996:
16991:
16986:
16981:
16976:
16971:
16969:Boxer Protocol
16961:
16956:
16950:
16948:
16941:
16940:
16938:
16937:
16936:
16935:
16921:
16916:
16911:
16906:
16899:
16894:
16887:
16882:
16877:
16870:
16863:
16858:
16853:
16848:
16841:
16834:
16829:
16828:
16827:
16817:
16812:
16805:
16800:
16794:
16792:
16786:
16785:
16783:
16782:
16777:
16772:
16767:
16762:
16757:
16752:
16747:
16742:
16737:
16735:Forbidden City
16732:
16726:
16724:
16718:
16717:
16715:
16714:
16713:
16712:
16702:
16701:
16700:
16698:General of Ili
16695:
16685:
16684:
16683:
16681:List of ambans
16678:
16668:
16667:
16666:
16656:
16651:
16645:
16643:
16639:
16638:
16636:
16635:
16630:
16629:
16628:
16623:
16618:
16608:
16603:
16598:
16593:
16588:
16583:
16578:
16573:
16568:
16563:
16558:
16552:
16550:
16544:
16543:
16541:
16540:
16535:
16534:
16533:
16528:
16523:
16518:
16513:
16508:
16503:
16498:
16493:
16483:
16478:
16477:
16476:
16466:
16461:
16456:
16451:
16446:
16441:
16436:
16431:
16426:
16421:
16416:
16411:
16406:
16401:
16396:
16391:
16386:
16381:
16376:
16371:
16366:
16365:
16364:
16359:
16348:
16346:
16340:
16339:
16336:
16335:
16333:
16332:
16327:
16322:
16321:
16320:
16315:
16310:
16305:
16300:
16290:
16285:
16280:
16275:
16274:
16273:
16268:
16258:
16253:
16248:
16242:
16240:
16235:
16231:
16230:
16228:
16227:
16226:
16225:
16215:
16214:
16213:
16203:
16198:
16193:
16188:
16183:
16178:
16173:
16168:
16163:
16158:
16153:
16148:
16146:Margary Affair
16143:
16138:
16136:Mudan incident
16133:
16128:
16123:
16118:
16113:
16108:
16103:
16098:
16093:
16088:
16083:
16078:
16076:Nian Rebellion
16073:
16068:
16063:
16058:
16052:
16050:
16045:
16041:
16040:
16038:
16037:
16032:
16027:
16022:
16017:
16012:
16007:
16002:
15997:
15992:
15987:
15982:
15977:
15972:
15967:
15961:
15959:
15954:
15948:
15947:
15945:
15944:
15939:
15938:
15937:
15927:
15926:
15925:
15915:
15910:
15905:
15900:
15895:
15889:
15887:
15882:
15875:
15869:
15868:
15860:
15859:
15852:
15845:
15837:
15828:
15827:
15825:
15824:
15816:
15814:
15810:
15809:
15807:
15806:
15801:
15800:
15799:
15797:Yongle Tongbao
15794:
15792:Hongwu Tongbao
15783:
15781:
15777:
15776:
15774:
15773:
15768:
15763:
15758:
15753:
15748:
15743:
15738:
15737:
15736:
15731:
15726:
15716:
15711:
15705:
15703:
15699:
15698:
15696:
15695:
15690:
15685:
15680:
15675:
15670:
15668:Forbidden City
15664:
15662:
15658:
15657:
15655:
15654:
15647:
15640:
15633:
15626:
15619:
15611:
15609:
15605:
15604:
15602:
15601:
15596:
15591:
15586:
15585:
15584:
15579:
15568:
15566:
15562:
15561:
15559:
15558:
15556:Nine Garrisons
15553:
15548:
15547:
15546:
15536:
15531:
15525:
15523:
15519:
15518:
15516:
15515:
15510:
15505:
15500:
15495:
15490:
15489:
15488:
15478:
15473:
15468:
15463:
15458:
15457:
15456:
15451:
15446:
15435:
15433:
15429:
15428:
15425:
15424:
15422:
15421:
15416:
15411:
15410:
15409:
15404:
15399:
15394:
15389:
15384:
15379:
15374:
15364:
15363:
15362:
15352:
15347:
15342:
15340:Ordos campaign
15337:
15332:
15326:
15324:
15319:
15315:
15314:
15312:
15311:
15306:
15301:
15296:
15291:
15286:
15281:
15276:
15271:
15266:
15261:
15256:
15251:
15246:
15241:
15235:
15233:
15228:
15224:
15223:
15221:
15220:
15215:
15210:
15205:
15203:Ming–Kotte War
15200:
15195:
15190:
15185:
15180:
15175:
15170:
15165:
15160:
15155:
15150:
15145:
15140:
15135:
15129:
15127:
15122:
15115:
15109:
15108:
15100:
15099:
15092:
15085:
15077:
15070:
15069:
15018:
15009:
15000:
14995:978-1316453841
14994:
14979:
14974:978-3447037563
14973:
14958:
14952:
14939:
14933:
14920:
14914:
14899:
14898:
14897:
14891:
14876:
14870:
14848:
14830:
14824:978-0520025974
14823:
14807:
14802:978-0029336908
14801:
14781:
14776:978-0803249950
14775:
14762:
14757:978-1134462094
14756:
14741:
14736:978-0300075533
14735:
14720:
14714:
14687:
14682:See profile at
14675:978-0393307801
14674:
14656:
14651:978-0300042771
14650:
14635:
14630:978-0429959202
14629:
14614:
14609:978-1442221949
14608:
14593:
14592:
14591:
14552:
14546:
14529:
14523:
14508:
14502:
14487:
14482:978-0295980409
14481:
14466:
14460:
14445:
14444:
14443:
14436:
14411:
14405:
14374:
14353:
14347:
14332:
14306:(3): 387–400.
14295:
14289:
14271:
14243:
14237:
14222:
14197:
14191:
14175:
14174:
14173:
14168:978-9004218017
14167:
14152:
14146:
14131:
14120:
14102:
14091:
14086:978-3447055284
14085:
14070:
14056:
14050:
14035:
14030:978-0521477710
14029:
14014:
14005:
13999:
13980:
13974:
13961:
13956:978-0674036659
13955:
13937:
13932:978-0804746847
13931:
13916:
13910:
13895:
13883:10.2307/601450
13877:(4): 653–661.
13866:
13829:
13823:
13808:
13803:978-1135789558
13802:
13787:
13781:
13775:. Hutchinson.
13772:Imperial China
13766:
13759:
13744:
13738:
13723:
13717:
13702:
13696:
13681:
13676:
13658:
13646:
13645:
13644:
13639:978-0199792122
13638:
13620:978-0199792122
13619:
13604:
13599:978-0520221543
13598:
13583:
13548:(3): 525–550.
13529:
13527:
13524:
13521:
13520:
13513:
13493:
13477:
13461:
13443:
13436:
13416:
13400:
13384:
13368:
13341:(6): 900–910.
13324:
13308:
13292:
13284:Xing Hang 2016
13276:
13260:
13244:
13228:
13215:
13195:
13183:
13176:
13158:
13140:
13134:978-0745657615
13133:
13113:
13108:中央研究院歷史語言研究所集刊
13094:
13073:
13057:
13041:
13025:
13012:
13010:, p. 269.
13000:
12984:
12968:
12952:
12936:
12920:
12904:
12888:
12872:
12856:
12854:, p. 146.
12852:Rodriguez 1997
12844:
12832:
12816:
12800:
12794:978-0199792054
12793:
12765:
12753:
12741:
12739:, p. 163.
12729:
12715:
12695:
12675:
12655:
12618:
12613:Chinatownology
12600:
12581:
12575:978-0230614246
12574:
12554:
12552:, p. 146.
12542:
12526:
12510:
12494:
12478:
12466:
12454:
12442:
12434:Xing Hang 2016
12426:
12418:Xing Hang 2016
12410:
12391:
12370:
12355:
12348:
12330:
12323:
12305:
12293:
12281:
12273:Xing Hang 2016
12265:
12249:
12237:
12225:
12219:978-1134006069
12218:
12198:
12186:
12184:, p. 118.
12171:
12159:
12147:
12145:, p. 136.
12135:
12123:
12121:, p. 710.
12111:
12099:
12087:
12075:
12063:
12051:
12049:, p. 117.
12034:
12022:
12020:, p. 704.
12007:
11995:
11983:
11971:
11969:, p. 192.
11959:
11947:
11935:
11923:
11911:
11899:
11892:
11872:
11865:
11845:
11833:
11831:, p. 767.
11818:
11806:
11794:
11792:, p. 738.
11782:
11770:
11768:, p. 737.
11755:
11743:
11731:
11719:
11717:, p. 676.
11704:
11692:
11679:
11649:
11637:
11635:, p. 675.
11625:
11623:, p. 674.
11613:
11601:
11589:
11585:Xing Hang 2016
11577:
11573:Xing Hang 2016
11565:
11563:, p. 667.
11550:
11538:
11536:, p. 665.
11526:
11514:
11502:
11490:
11478:
11476:, p. 399.
11466:
11459:
11439:
11427:
11425:, p. 544.
11415:
11403:
11386:
11374:
11362:
11350:
11334:
11318:
11301:
11274:
11262:
11260:, p. 164.
11250:
11234:
11218:
11206:
11194:
11182:
11170:
11168:, p. 650.
11158:
11146:
11134:
11122:
11120:, p. 868.
11110:
11094:
11086:Xing Hang 2016
11078:
11072:978-0791437414
11071:
11049:
11037:
11035:, p. 662.
11025:
11023:, p. 647.
11010:
10998:
10986:
10974:
10958:
10946:
10930:
10928:, p. 580.
10918:
10916:, p. 660.
10901:
10899:, p. 658.
10886:
10867:
10851:
10835:
10819:
10800:
10784:
10782:, p. 522.
10772:
10770:, p. 657.
10755:
10753:, p. 521.
10743:
10741:, p. 644.
10731:
10729:, p. 346.
10719:
10717:, p. 642.
10707:
10695:
10693:, p. 800.
10683:
10681:, p. 572.
10671:
10669:, p. 191.
10654:
10642:
10626:
10614:
10602:
10590:
10576:978-1684170890
10575:
10555:
10543:
10536:
10516:
10500:
10483:
10471:
10459:
10452:
10432:
10416:
10404:
10392:
10390:, p. 507.
10380:
10368:
10366:, p. 501.
10356:
10354:, p. 483.
10344:
10332:
10330:, p. 317.
10320:
10312:Song Gang 2018
10304:
10302:, p. 198.
10292:
10290:, p. 135.
10280:
10261:
10245:
10229:
10217:
10205:
10189:
10173:
10166:
10146:
10130:
10118:
10116:, p. 257.
10106:
10104:, p. 817.
10094:
10092:, p. 313.
10082:
10070:
10068:, p. 311.
10058:
10046:
10044:, p. 308.
10034:
10022:
9996:
9994:, p. 304.
9981:
9979:, p. 296.
9966:
9964:, p. 290.
9954:
9938:
9932:978-0804740449
9931:
9911:
9895:
9879:
9863:
9847:
9845:, p. 809.
9835:
9833:, p. 641.
9820:
9818:, p. 893.
9808:
9796:
9782:978-0700704392
9781:
9761:
9759:, p. 221.
9749:
9737:
9735:, p. 215.
9725:
9723:, p. 212.
9713:
9711:, p. 142.
9701:
9686:
9684:, p. 217.
9674:
9655:
9649:梨大史苑, Volume 7
9646:梨大史學會 (1968).
9638:
9622:"Dorgon"
9619:, ed. (1943).
9608:
9606:, p. 275.
9596:
9580:
9578:, p. 217.
9568:
9566:, p. 217.
9556:
9550:978-1598849011
9549:
9529:
9513:
9497:
9481:
9465:
9449:
9427:
9405:
9393:
9376:
9369:
9349:
9333:
9317:
9301:
9285:
9283:, p. 210.
9273:
9261:
9245:
9229:
9213:
9197:
9181:
9164:
9154:
9124:
9105:
9089:
9063:(2): 212–222.
9040:
9024:
9005:
8986:, ed. (1943).
8975:
8959:
8943:
8936:
8916:
8900:
8894:978-0295802176
8893:
8873:
8871:, p. 598.
8861:
8845:
8843:, p. 598.
8833:
8814:, ed. (1943).
8803:
8796:
8776:
8764:
8747:
8735:
8719:"Abahai"
8716:, ed. (1943).
8705:
8693:
8681:
8669:
8657:
8645:
8633:
8617:
8611:978-0824830212
8610:
8590:
8573:
8561:
8555:978-0500771471
8554:
8534:
8518:
8512:978-0300189193
8511:
8491:
8475:
8469:978-0231511674
8468:
8448:
8446:, p. 597.
8436:
8417:
8405:
8389:
8383:978-0774832922
8382:
8362:
8356:978-1503600683
8355:
8335:
8333:, p. 269.
8323:
8311:
8299:
8287:
8275:
8263:
8251:
8232:
8216:
8200:
8184:
8168:
8152:
8145:
8125:
8113:
8094:
8075:
8068:
8045:
8026:
8005:
8003:, p. 146.
7990:
7984:978-0300046021
7983:
7960:
7953:
7930:
7908:
7889:
7877:
7843:
7828:
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7499:
7494:
7489:
7482:
7479:
7478:
7477:
7472:
7467:
7462:
7456:
7455:
7452:History portal
7441:
7425:
7422:
7411:population of
7239:Koxinga regime
7227:Little Ice Age
7161:Torghut leader
7149:Russian Empire
7145:Oirat Khanates
7119:When the Qing
7042:Dulimbai Gurun
7028:
7025:
6885:
6882:
6840:together with
6801:
6798:
6732:Kangxi Emperor
6728:Zheng Keshuang
6712:Kangxi Emperor
6693:
6690:
6589:Kangxi Emperor
6514:Main article:
6511:
6508:
6274:Zhang Mingzhen
6268:, he captured
6254:Longwu Emperor
6214:
6211:
6205:and contacted
6179:Yongli Emperor
6090:Yongli Emperor
6088:, sending the
6062:
6059:
6016:Hong Chengchou
5996:Yongli Emperor
5909:Yongli Emperor
5900:
5897:
5889:
5886:
5878:Mount Banchang
5842:Tang Zhongheng
5720:Wang Yongqiang
5716:Yulin, Shaanxi
5673:Chengwu County
5669:Dingtao County
5633:Tianqi Emperor
5589:
5586:
5553:Yongli Emperor
5545:Geng Zhongming
5404:Yongli Emperor
5400:Shaowu Emperor
5398:, killing the
5314:Longwu Emperor
5295:Yongli Emperor
5246:
5243:
5215:Zhang Mingzhen
5165:Hong Chengchou
5137:Longwu Emperor
5133:Qiantang River
5090:Longwu Emperor
5059:inward-looking
5012:
5009:
4981:Yongli Emperor
4937:Yunyang County
4815:In early 1646
4806:
4803:
4785:and Prince of
4749:resistance in
4689:Hong Chengchou
4472:just like the
4417:
4414:
4253:Qiantang River
4148:observed that
4146:Johann Nieuhof
3990:Main article:
3987:
3984:
3982:
3979:
3949:, governor of
3871:
3868:
3826:The Art of War
3782:
3779:
3767:millenarianist
3666:in June 1644,
3653:
3650:
3563:Hong Chengchou
3561:A portrait of
3540:Geng Zhongming
3470:Kangxi Emperor
3445:
3439:
3436:
3411:Hong Chengchou
3358:The battle at
3308:Central Plains
3300:Forbidden City
3218:
3215:
3095:Main article:
3092:
3089:
3019:
3016:
3008:Princess Uisun
2989:Geng Zhongming
2912:Main article:
2909:
2906:
2904:
2901:
2817:Hong Chengchou
2809:Deng Changchun
2793:Geng Zhongming
2757:Hong Chengchou
2719:Geng Zhongming
2687:
2684:
2639:Geng Jingzhong
2635:Geng Zhongming
2583:sān děng zǐjué
2538:
2535:
2400:Geng Zhongming
2312:
2309:
2250:
2247:
2243:Ganghwa Island
2165:Yuan Chonghuan
2137:Main article:
2134:
2131:
1938:. In 1589 the
1917:Main article:
1914:
1911:
1909:
1906:
1769:
1766:
1715:Kangxi Emperor
1700:Spanish Empire
1698:affecting the
1684:Little Ice Age
1664:Forbidden City
1585:
1584:
1565:
1554:
1530:
1527:
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851:
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835:
830:
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814:
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762:
757:
744:
731:
723:Yuan Chonghuan
720:
707:
701:
699:
697:
696:
690:
679:
673:
667:
656:
650:
647:Hong Chengchou
644:
632:
626:
620:
607:
604:Geng Zhongming
601:
594:
591:
590:
588:Kangxi Emperor
585:
580:
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560:
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550:
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450:
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370:Turpan Khanate
311:
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286:
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256:
234:Ming defectors
212:
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202:
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176:Kingdom of Shu
172:
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153:
147:
143:
142:
139:Southeast Asia
116:
114:
110:
109:
106:
98:
97:
84:
83:
73:
72:
52:the key points
42:
40:
33:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
17311:
17300:
17297:
17295:
17292:
17290:
17287:
17285:
17282:
17280:
17279:Southern Ming
17277:
17275:
17272:
17270:
17267:
17265:
17262:
17260:
17259:Eight Banners
17257:
17255:
17252:
17251:
17249:
17234:
17231:
17229:
17226:
17224:
17221:
17219:
17216:
17214:
17211:
17209:
17208:Manchu people
17206:
17204:
17201:
17199:
17196:
17194:
17193:
17189:
17187:
17186:
17182:
17180:
17177:
17175:
17174:Canton System
17172:
17170:
17167:
17165:
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17161:
17159:
17155:
17145:
17142:
17140:
17139:Hubu Guanpiao
17137:
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16822:
16821:
16818:
16816:
16813:
16811:
16810:
16806:
16804:
16801:
16799:
16796:
16795:
16793:
16789:Society &
16787:
16781:
16778:
16776:
16773:
16771:
16768:
16766:
16763:
16761:
16758:
16756:
16755:Summer Palace
16753:
16751:
16748:
16746:
16745:Mukden Palace
16743:
16741:
16738:
16736:
16733:
16731:
16728:
16727:
16725:
16721:Palaces &
16719:
16711:
16708:
16707:
16706:
16703:
16699:
16696:
16694:
16691:
16690:
16689:
16686:
16682:
16679:
16677:
16674:
16673:
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16661:
16660:
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16655:
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16647:
16646:
16644:
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16631:
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16624:
16622:
16619:
16617:
16614:
16613:
16612:
16609:
16607:
16604:
16602:
16599:
16597:
16594:
16592:
16589:
16587:
16584:
16582:
16579:
16577:
16574:
16572:
16569:
16567:
16564:
16562:
16561:Eight Banners
16559:
16557:
16554:
16553:
16551:
16549:
16545:
16539:
16536:
16532:
16529:
16527:
16524:
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16509:
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16504:
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16499:
16497:
16494:
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16489:
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16487:
16484:
16482:
16479:
16475:
16472:
16471:
16470:
16467:
16465:
16462:
16460:
16457:
16455:
16452:
16450:
16447:
16445:
16442:
16440:
16437:
16435:
16432:
16430:
16427:
16425:
16422:
16420:
16417:
16415:
16414:Grand Council
16412:
16410:
16407:
16405:
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16400:
16397:
16395:
16392:
16390:
16387:
16385:
16382:
16380:
16377:
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16363:
16360:
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16355:
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16331:
16328:
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16319:
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16311:
16309:
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16299:
16296:
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16294:
16291:
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16284:
16281:
16279:
16276:
16272:
16269:
16267:
16264:
16263:
16262:
16259:
16257:
16254:
16252:
16249:
16247:
16244:
16243:
16241:
16234:20th century
16232:
16224:
16221:
16220:
16219:
16216:
16212:
16209:
16208:
16207:
16204:
16202:
16199:
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16174:
16172:
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16107:
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16102:
16099:
16097:
16094:
16092:
16089:
16087:
16084:
16082:
16079:
16077:
16074:
16072:
16069:
16067:
16064:
16062:
16059:
16057:
16054:
16053:
16051:
16044:19th century
16042:
16036:
16033:
16031:
16028:
16026:
16023:
16021:
16018:
16016:
16013:
16011:
16008:
16006:
16003:
16001:
15998:
15996:
15993:
15991:
15988:
15986:
15983:
15981:
15978:
15976:
15973:
15971:
15968:
15966:
15963:
15962:
15960:
15953:
15949:
15943:
15940:
15936:
15933:
15932:
15931:
15928:
15924:
15921:
15920:
15919:
15916:
15914:
15911:
15909:
15906:
15904:
15901:
15899:
15896:
15894:
15891:
15890:
15888:
15879:
15876:
15874:
15870:
15865:
15858:
15853:
15851:
15846:
15844:
15839:
15838:
15835:
15823:
15822:
15818:
15817:
15815:
15811:
15805:
15802:
15798:
15795:
15793:
15790:
15789:
15788:
15785:
15784:
15782:
15778:
15772:
15769:
15767:
15764:
15762:
15759:
15757:
15754:
15752:
15749:
15747:
15744:
15742:
15739:
15735:
15732:
15730:
15727:
15725:
15722:
15721:
15720:
15717:
15715:
15712:
15710:
15707:
15706:
15704:
15700:
15694:
15691:
15689:
15686:
15684:
15681:
15679:
15678:Ming Xiaoling
15676:
15674:
15671:
15669:
15666:
15665:
15663:
15659:
15653:
15652:
15648:
15646:
15645:
15641:
15639:
15638:
15634:
15632:
15631:
15627:
15625:
15624:
15620:
15618:
15617:
15613:
15612:
15610:
15606:
15600:
15597:
15595:
15592:
15590:
15587:
15583:
15580:
15578:
15575:
15574:
15573:
15570:
15569:
15567:
15563:
15557:
15554:
15552:
15549:
15545:
15542:
15541:
15540:
15537:
15535:
15532:
15530:
15527:
15526:
15524:
15520:
15514:
15511:
15509:
15506:
15504:
15501:
15499:
15496:
15494:
15491:
15487:
15486:Vassal prince
15484:
15483:
15482:
15479:
15477:
15474:
15472:
15471:Eastern Depot
15469:
15467:
15464:
15462:
15459:
15455:
15452:
15450:
15447:
15445:
15442:
15441:
15440:
15437:
15436:
15434:
15430:
15420:
15417:
15415:
15414:Southern Ming
15412:
15408:
15405:
15403:
15400:
15398:
15395:
15393:
15390:
15388:
15385:
15383:
15380:
15378:
15375:
15373:
15370:
15369:
15368:
15365:
15361:
15358:
15357:
15356:
15353:
15351:
15348:
15346:
15343:
15341:
15338:
15336:
15333:
15331:
15328:
15327:
15325:
15316:
15310:
15307:
15305:
15302:
15300:
15297:
15295:
15292:
15290:
15287:
15285:
15282:
15280:
15277:
15275:
15272:
15270:
15267:
15265:
15262:
15260:
15257:
15255:
15252:
15250:
15247:
15245:
15242:
15240:
15237:
15236:
15234:
15225:
15219:
15216:
15214:
15211:
15209:
15206:
15204:
15201:
15199:
15196:
15194:
15191:
15189:
15186:
15184:
15181:
15179:
15176:
15174:
15171:
15169:
15166:
15164:
15161:
15159:
15156:
15154:
15151:
15149:
15146:
15144:
15141:
15139:
15136:
15134:
15131:
15130:
15128:
15119:
15116:
15114:
15110:
15105:
15098:
15093:
15091:
15086:
15084:
15079:
15078:
15075:
15063:
15059:
15055:
15051:
15047:
15043:
15039:
15035:
15031:
15024:
15019:
15015:
15010:
15006:
15001:
14997:
14991:
14987:
14986:
14980:
14976:
14970:
14966:
14965:
14959:
14955:
14949:
14945:
14940:
14936:
14930:
14926:
14921:
14917:
14911:
14907:
14906:
14900:
14894:
14888:
14884:
14883:
14877:
14873:
14867:
14863:
14862:
14856:
14855:
14851:
14845:
14841:
14840:
14835:
14831:
14826:
14820:
14816:
14812:
14808:
14804:
14798:
14793:
14792:
14786:
14782:
14778:
14772:
14768:
14763:
14759:
14753:
14749:
14748:
14742:
14738:
14732:
14728:
14727:
14721:
14717:
14711:
14707:
14704:. Cambridge:
14703:
14702:
14697:
14693:
14688:
14686:
14683:
14677:
14671:
14667:
14666:
14661:
14657:
14653:
14647:
14643:
14642:
14636:
14632:
14626:
14623:. Routledge.
14622:
14621:
14615:
14611:
14605:
14601:
14600:
14594:
14577:
14570:
14569:
14564:
14563:
14560:
14559:
14553:
14549:
14543:
14539:
14535:
14530:
14526:
14524:9780874368857
14520:
14516:
14515:
14509:
14505:
14499:
14495:
14494:
14488:
14484:
14478:
14474:
14473:
14467:
14463:
14457:
14453:
14452:
14446:
14439:
14433:
14429:
14426:. Cambridge:
14425:
14421:
14417:
14412:
14408:
14402:
14398:
14395:. Cambridge:
14394:
14390:
14386:
14381:
14380:
14377:
14375:9781139053532
14371:
14367:
14363:
14359:
14354:
14350:
14344:
14340:
14339:
14333:
14329:
14325:
14321:
14317:
14313:
14309:
14305:
14301:
14296:
14292:
14286:
14282:
14281:
14276:
14272:
14268:
14264:
14257:
14255:
14254:Sun Zi bingfa
14251:
14244:
14240:
14238:9787507102888
14234:
14230:
14229:
14228:Son of Heaven
14223:
14219:
14215:
14214:
14209:
14204:
14198:
14194:
14188:
14184:
14180:
14176:
14170:
14164:
14160:
14159:
14153:
14149:
14143:
14139:
14138:
14132:
14128:
14127:
14121:
14117:
14112:
14111:
14108:
14103:
14099:
14098:
14092:
14088:
14082:
14078:
14077:
14071:
14064:
14063:
14057:
14053:
14047:
14043:
14042:
14036:
14032:
14026:
14022:
14021:
14015:
14011:
14006:
14002:
13996:
13992:
13991:
13986:
13981:
13977:
13971:
13967:
13962:
13958:
13952:
13948:
13947:
13942:
13938:
13934:
13928:
13924:
13923:
13917:
13913:
13907:
13903:
13902:
13896:
13892:
13888:
13884:
13880:
13876:
13872:
13867:
13863:
13859:
13855:
13851:
13847:
13843:
13839:
13835:
13830:
13826:
13820:
13817:. Routledge.
13816:
13815:
13809:
13805:
13799:
13795:
13794:
13788:
13784:
13782:9780091084806
13778:
13774:
13773:
13767:
13762:
13756:
13752:
13751:
13745:
13741:
13735:
13731:
13730:
13724:
13720:
13714:
13710:
13709:
13703:
13699:
13693:
13689:
13688:
13682:
13679:
13673:
13669:
13668:
13663:
13662:Clunas, Craig
13659:
13655:
13651:
13647:
13641:
13635:
13631:
13626:
13625:
13622:
13616:
13612:
13611:
13605:
13601:
13595:
13591:
13590:
13584:
13577:
13573:
13569:
13565:
13561:
13556:
13551:
13547:
13543:
13536:
13531:
13530:
13516:
13514:9780828100052
13510:
13506:
13505:
13497:
13490:
13486:
13481:
13474:
13470:
13465:
13457:
13453:
13447:
13439:
13437:9780404004385
13433:
13429:
13428:
13420:
13413:
13409:
13408:Crossley 2000
13404:
13397:
13393:
13392:Crossley 2000
13388:
13381:
13377:
13372:
13364:
13360:
13356:
13352:
13348:
13344:
13340:
13336:
13328:
13321:
13317:
13312:
13305:
13301:
13296:
13289:
13285:
13280:
13273:
13269:
13264:
13257:
13253:
13248:
13241:
13237:
13232:
13218:
13216:9780674054554
13212:
13208:
13207:
13199:
13192:
13187:
13179:
13173:
13169:
13162:
13154:
13150:
13144:
13136:
13130:
13126:
13125:
13117:
13109:
13105:
13098:
13083:
13077:
13070:
13066:
13061:
13054:
13050:
13045:
13038:
13034:
13029:
13022:
13016:
13009:
13004:
12997:
12993:
12988:
12981:
12977:
12972:
12965:
12961:
12956:
12949:
12945:
12940:
12933:
12929:
12924:
12917:
12913:
12908:
12901:
12897:
12892:
12885:
12881:
12876:
12869:
12865:
12860:
12853:
12848:
12841:
12836:
12829:
12825:
12820:
12813:
12809:
12804:
12796:
12790:
12786:
12782:
12778:
12777:
12769:
12763:, p. 71.
12762:
12757:
12750:
12745:
12738:
12733:
12718:
12716:9789813016675
12712:
12708:
12707:
12699:
12693:
12689:
12688:
12682:
12680:
12673:
12669:
12668:
12662:
12660:
12640:
12636:
12629:
12622:
12614:
12610:
12604:
12596:
12592:
12585:
12577:
12571:
12567:
12566:
12558:
12551:
12546:
12539:
12535:
12530:
12523:
12519:
12514:
12507:
12503:
12498:
12491:
12487:
12482:
12475:
12470:
12463:
12458:
12451:
12446:
12439:
12435:
12430:
12423:
12419:
12414:
12406:
12402:
12395:
12388:. p. 44.
12387:
12383:
12380:
12374:
12366:
12359:
12351:
12345:
12341:
12334:
12326:
12324:9780765614957
12320:
12316:
12309:
12302:
12297:
12290:
12285:
12278:
12274:
12269:
12262:
12258:
12257:Wakeman 1985a
12253:
12246:
12241:
12234:
12229:
12221:
12215:
12211:
12210:
12202:
12195:
12190:
12183:
12178:
12176:
12168:
12163:
12156:
12151:
12144:
12139:
12132:
12127:
12120:
12115:
12108:
12103:
12096:
12091:
12084:
12079:
12072:
12067:
12060:
12055:
12048:
12043:
12041:
12039:
12031:
12026:
12019:
12014:
12012:
12004:
11999:
11992:
11987:
11980:
11975:
11968:
11963:
11956:
11951:
11944:
11939:
11932:
11927:
11920:
11915:
11908:
11903:
11895:
11889:
11885:
11884:
11876:
11868:
11862:
11858:
11857:
11849:
11842:
11837:
11830:
11825:
11823:
11815:
11810:
11803:
11798:
11791:
11786:
11779:
11774:
11767:
11762:
11760:
11752:
11747:
11740:
11735:
11728:
11723:
11716:
11711:
11709:
11701:
11696:
11682:
11676:
11672:
11668:
11664:
11660:
11653:
11646:
11641:
11634:
11629:
11622:
11617:
11610:
11605:
11598:
11593:
11586:
11581:
11574:
11569:
11562:
11557:
11555:
11547:
11542:
11535:
11530:
11523:
11518:
11511:
11506:
11499:
11494:
11488:, p. 18.
11487:
11482:
11475:
11470:
11462:
11456:
11452:
11451:
11443:
11436:
11431:
11424:
11419:
11412:
11407:
11401:, p. 17.
11400:
11395:
11393:
11391:
11383:
11378:
11371:
11366:
11359:
11354:
11347:
11343:
11338:
11331:
11327:
11322:
11314:
11313:
11305:
11297:
11293:
11289:
11285:
11278:
11271:
11266:
11259:
11254:
11247:
11243:
11242:Wakeman 1985a
11238:
11231:
11227:
11222:
11216:, p. 83.
11215:
11214:Wakeman 1975b
11210:
11204:, p. 78.
11203:
11202:Wakeman 1975b
11198:
11191:
11186:
11179:
11174:
11167:
11162:
11156:, p. 56.
11155:
11154:Wakeman 1975b
11150:
11143:
11138:
11131:
11126:
11119:
11114:
11107:
11103:
11102:Wakeman 1985a
11098:
11091:
11087:
11082:
11074:
11068:
11064:
11060:
11053:
11047:, p. 12.
11046:
11041:
11034:
11029:
11022:
11017:
11015:
11008:, p. 87.
11007:
11002:
10995:
10990:
10983:
10978:
10971:
10967:
10962:
10955:
10950:
10943:
10939:
10934:
10927:
10922:
10915:
10910:
10908:
10906:
10898:
10893:
10891:
10883:
10879:
10874:
10872:
10864:
10860:
10859:Crossley 1990
10855:
10848:
10844:
10843:Wakeman 1985a
10839:
10832:
10828:
10827:Wakeman 1985a
10823:
10816:
10812:
10807:
10805:
10797:
10793:
10788:
10781:
10776:
10769:
10764:
10762:
10760:
10752:
10747:
10740:
10735:
10728:
10723:
10716:
10711:
10704:
10699:
10692:
10687:
10680:
10675:
10668:
10663:
10661:
10659:
10651:
10646:
10639:
10635:
10630:
10623:
10618:
10611:
10606:
10600:, p. vi.
10599:
10594:
10586:
10582:
10578:
10572:
10568:
10567:
10559:
10552:
10547:
10539:
10533:
10529:
10528:
10520:
10513:
10509:
10504:
10496:
10495:
10487:
10481:, p. 39.
10480:
10475:
10469:, p. 53.
10468:
10463:
10455:
10449:
10445:
10444:
10436:
10429:
10425:
10420:
10413:
10408:
10401:
10396:
10389:
10384:
10377:
10372:
10365:
10360:
10353:
10348:
10341:
10336:
10329:
10324:
10317:
10313:
10308:
10301:
10296:
10289:
10284:
10277:
10273:
10268:
10266:
10258:
10254:
10249:
10242:
10238:
10233:
10226:
10221:
10214:
10209:
10202:
10198:
10197:Di Cosmo 2007
10193:
10186:
10182:
10177:
10169:
10163:
10159:
10158:
10150:
10143:
10139:
10134:
10127:
10122:
10115:
10110:
10103:
10098:
10091:
10086:
10079:
10074:
10067:
10062:
10055:
10050:
10043:
10038:
10032:, p. 81.
10031:
10026:
10007:
10000:
9993:
9988:
9986:
9978:
9973:
9971:
9963:
9958:
9951:
9947:
9942:
9934:
9928:
9924:
9923:
9915:
9908:
9904:
9899:
9892:
9888:
9883:
9876:
9872:
9867:
9860:
9856:
9851:
9844:
9839:
9832:
9827:
9825:
9817:
9812:
9806:, p. 15.
9805:
9800:
9792:
9784:
9778:
9774:
9773:
9765:
9758:
9753:
9746:
9741:
9734:
9729:
9722:
9717:
9710:
9705:
9699:
9695:
9690:
9683:
9678:
9670:
9666:
9659:
9651:
9650:
9642:
9634:
9630:
9629:
9623:
9618:
9612:
9605:
9600:
9593:
9589:
9584:
9577:
9572:
9565:
9560:
9552:
9546:
9542:
9541:
9533:
9526:
9522:
9517:
9510:
9506:
9505:Crossley 2000
9501:
9494:
9490:
9485:
9478:
9474:
9469:
9462:
9458:
9453:
9445:
9441:
9437:
9431:
9423:
9419:
9415:
9409:
9403:, p. 84.
9402:
9397:
9389:
9388:
9380:
9372:
9366:
9362:
9361:
9353:
9346:
9342:
9337:
9330:
9326:
9325:Di Cosmo 2007
9321:
9314:
9310:
9305:
9298:
9294:
9293:Di Cosmo 2007
9289:
9282:
9277:
9270:
9265:
9258:
9254:
9249:
9242:
9238:
9233:
9226:
9222:
9217:
9210:
9206:
9201:
9194:
9190:
9185:
9177:
9176:
9168:
9162:
9157:
9155:9781422377192
9151:
9147:
9143:
9139:
9135:
9128:
9121:
9117:
9112:
9110:
9102:
9098:
9097:Walthall 2008
9093:
9082:
9078:
9074:
9070:
9066:
9062:
9058:
9051:
9044:
9037:
9033:
9032:Walthall 2008
9028:
9021:
9017:
9012:
9010:
9001:
8997:
8996:
8990:
8985:
8979:
8972:
8968:
8963:
8956:
8952:
8951:Walthall 2008
8947:
8939:
8937:9780493415963
8933:
8929:
8928:
8920:
8913:
8909:
8904:
8896:
8890:
8886:
8885:
8877:
8870:
8865:
8857:
8856:
8849:
8842:
8837:
8829:
8825:
8824:
8818:
8813:
8807:
8799:
8797:9780888852168
8793:
8789:
8788:
8780:
8773:
8768:
8760:
8759:
8751:
8744:
8739:
8731:
8727:
8726:
8720:
8715:
8709:
8702:
8697:
8690:
8685:
8678:
8673:
8666:
8661:
8654:
8649:
8642:
8637:
8630:
8626:
8621:
8613:
8607:
8603:
8602:
8594:
8588:, p. 65.
8587:
8582:
8580:
8578:
8571:, p. 64.
8570:
8565:
8557:
8551:
8547:
8546:
8538:
8531:
8527:
8522:
8514:
8508:
8504:
8503:
8495:
8488:
8484:
8483:Crossley 1990
8479:
8471:
8465:
8461:
8460:
8452:
8445:
8440:
8433:
8429:
8428:Wakeman 1975a
8424:
8422:
8414:
8409:
8402:
8398:
8397:Crossley 2000
8393:
8385:
8379:
8375:
8374:
8366:
8358:
8352:
8348:
8347:
8339:
8332:
8327:
8321:, p. 30.
8320:
8315:
8308:
8307:Crossley 2002
8303:
8297:, p. 58.
8296:
8291:
8284:
8279:
8272:
8267:
8260:
8255:
8248:
8244:
8239:
8237:
8229:
8225:
8220:
8213:
8209:
8204:
8197:
8193:
8188:
8181:
8177:
8176:Wakeman 1975a
8172:
8165:
8161:
8156:
8148:
8142:
8138:
8137:
8129:
8122:
8121:Crossley 2002
8117:
8110:
8106:
8105:Di Cosmo 2007
8101:
8099:
8091:
8087:
8082:
8080:
8071:
8065:
8061:
8060:
8052:
8050:
8042:
8038:
8033:
8031:
8022:
8018:
8012:
8010:
8002:
7997:
7995:
7986:
7980:
7976:
7975:
7967:
7965:
7956:
7950:
7946:
7945:
7937:
7935:
7926:
7921:, p. 65.
7920:
7919:Fairbank 1978
7915:
7913:
7905:
7901:
7896:
7894:
7886:
7881:
7865:
7861:
7857:
7850:
7848:
7839:
7832:
7825:
7820:
7812:
7808:
7804:
7800:
7796:
7792:
7788:
7784:
7777:
7769:
7763:
7759:
7755:
7751:
7744:
7742:
7733:
7731:9781496206244
7727:
7723:
7716:
7710:
7706:
7701:
7699:
7691:
7687:
7686:Crossley 2000
7682:
7680:
7664:
7660:
7656:
7650:
7646:
7627:
7623:
7619:
7615:
7611:
7605:
7596:
7588:
7584:
7583:
7576:
7567:
7560:
7554:
7547:
7541:
7537:
7527:
7524:
7522:
7519:
7517:
7514:
7511:
7508:and parts of
7507:
7503:
7500:
7498:
7495:
7493:
7490:
7488:
7485:
7484:
7476:
7473:
7471:
7468:
7466:
7463:
7461:
7458:
7457:
7453:
7442:
7439:
7428:
7421:
7418:
7414:
7410:
7406:
7403:) joined the
7402:
7398:
7394:
7390:
7386:
7382:
7378:
7374:
7369:
7367:
7362:
7358:
7354:
7350:
7346:
7341:
7339:
7334:
7330:
7325:
7321:
7317:
7313:
7309:
7305:
7299:
7294:
7292:
7288:
7284:
7280:
7276:
7272:
7268:
7264:
7260:
7255:
7253:
7249:
7248:Yangtze delta
7244:
7240:
7236:
7232:
7228:
7224:
7220:
7216:
7212:
7208:
7204:
7200:
7196:
7192:
7188:
7184:
7179:
7177:
7173:
7169:
7165:
7162:
7158:
7154:
7150:
7146:
7142:
7138:
7134:
7133:Inner Mongols
7130:
7126:
7122:
7113:
7106:
7101:
7097:
7095:
7091:
7086:
7084:
7080:
7076:
7071:
7067:
7063:
7059:
7055:
7051:
7047:
7043:
7038:
7034:
7024:
7022:
7018:
7012:
7010:
7009:
7004:
7000:
6996:
6992:
6988:
6984:
6980:
6976:
6972:
6968:
6964:
6960:
6956:
6955:Kong Shangren
6952:
6948:
6944:
6940:
6936:
6932:
6928:
6920:
6916:
6912:
6908:
6904:
6900:
6895:
6891:
6881:
6879:
6875:
6871:
6867:
6863:
6859:
6855:
6851:
6847:
6843:
6839:
6835:
6831:
6827:
6823:
6819:
6815:
6811:
6807:
6797:
6795:
6791:
6787:
6783:
6779:
6775:
6771:
6767:
6762:
6760:
6756:
6747:
6746:Eight Banners
6737:
6733:
6729:
6725:
6721:
6717:
6713:
6709:
6702:
6698:
6689:
6687:
6685:
6681:
6680:Eight Banners
6677:
6673:
6669:
6668:Eight Banners
6665:
6661:
6656:
6654:
6650:
6646:
6642:
6640:
6636:
6631:
6629:
6625:
6621:
6616:
6614:
6610:
6606:
6602:
6598:
6594:
6590:
6586:
6582:
6578:
6574:
6570:
6566:
6558:
6554:
6550:
6549:Southern Ming
6546:
6542:
6541:Johan Nieuhof
6538:
6533:
6527:
6522:
6517:
6507:
6505:
6501:
6497:
6493:
6489:
6485:
6481:
6477:
6473:
6469:
6465:
6461:
6460:Southern Ming
6457:
6453:
6449:
6445:
6441:
6436:
6434:
6430:
6426:
6421:
6417:
6413:
6409:
6405:
6401:
6397:
6393:
6389:
6384:
6382:
6378:
6374:
6373:Southern Ming
6369:
6365:
6360:
6358:
6354:
6350:
6344:
6342:
6338:
6334:
6330:
6326:
6322:
6318:
6314:
6310:
6306:
6302:
6301:Yangtze River
6298:
6293:
6291:
6287:
6283:
6279:
6276:had captured
6275:
6271:
6267:
6263:
6262:Southern Ming
6259:
6255:
6251:
6247:
6244:
6240:
6236:
6232:
6224:
6219:
6210:
6208:
6204:
6200:
6196:
6192:
6188:
6184:
6180:
6176:
6172:
6168:
6164:
6160:
6156:
6151:
6148:and attacked
6147:
6143:
6139:
6134:
6131:
6128:was taken by
6127:
6123:
6119:
6115:
6111:
6107:
6103:
6099:
6095:
6091:
6087:
6083:
6080:(1636–1661),
6079:
6072:
6067:
6058:
6056:
6052:
6048:
6044:
6040:
6035:
6033:
6029:
6025:
6021:
6017:
6013:
6009:
6005:
6001:
5997:
5993:
5989:
5985:
5980:
5978:
5974:
5970:
5966:
5962:
5958:
5954:
5952:
5951:
5946:
5942:
5938:
5937:Southern Ming
5934:
5930:
5926:
5918:
5914:
5913:Southern Ming
5910:
5905:
5895:
5894:Southern Ming
5885:
5883:
5879:
5875:
5871:
5867:
5863:
5859:
5855:
5851:
5847:
5846:Zhu Changying
5843:
5839:
5834:
5832:
5828:
5827:Kumul Khanate
5824:
5820:
5816:
5812:
5808:
5804:
5803:Suzhou, Gansu
5800:
5796:
5791:
5789:
5785:
5781:
5777:
5773:
5769:
5765:
5761:
5757:
5753:
5749:
5745:
5741:
5737:
5733:
5729:
5725:
5721:
5717:
5713:
5709:
5705:
5701:
5697:
5692:
5690:
5686:
5682:
5678:
5674:
5670:
5666:
5662:
5658:
5654:
5650:
5646:
5642:
5638:
5637:Zhang Tianbao
5634:
5630:
5625:
5622:
5618:
5614:
5610:
5603:
5599:
5598:Southern Ming
5594:
5585:
5583:
5579:
5575:
5570:
5566:
5562:
5558:
5554:
5550:
5546:
5542:
5538:
5534:
5530:
5526:
5522:
5518:
5515:(present-day
5514:
5510:
5506:
5502:
5499:armies under
5498:
5494:
5490:
5485:
5483:
5479:
5475:
5471:
5467:
5463:
5459:
5455:
5451:
5447:
5443:
5439:
5434:
5432:
5431:Jin Shenghuan
5428:
5424:
5420:
5415:
5413:
5409:
5405:
5401:
5397:
5393:
5389:
5388:Southern Ming
5385:
5381:
5376:
5374:
5370:
5366:
5362:
5358:
5354:
5351:'s attack on
5350:
5346:
5342:
5339:
5338:Prince of Gui
5335:
5331:
5327:
5323:
5319:
5315:
5310:
5308:
5304:
5300:
5296:
5292:
5288:
5284:
5280:
5276:
5272:
5268:
5264:
5260:
5256:
5252:
5242:
5240:
5236:
5232:
5228:
5224:
5223:Huang Binqing
5220:
5216:
5211:
5209:
5208:Jin Shenghuan
5205:
5201:
5197:
5193:
5192:Zheng Zhilong
5189:
5185:
5181:
5176:
5174:
5170:
5166:
5162:
5161:Zheng Zhilong
5158:
5154:
5150:
5146:
5142:
5138:
5134:
5130:
5125:
5123:
5119:
5115:
5110:
5107:
5103:
5099:
5098:Zheng Zhilong
5095:
5091:
5087:
5086:Zhu Yuanzhang
5083:
5079:
5075:
5071:
5067:
5066:Southern Ming
5062:
5060:
5056:
5052:
5048:
5044:
5037:
5036:Southern Ming
5034:Situation of
5032:
5025:
5024:Southern Ming
5021:
5017:
5008:
5006:
5002:
4996:
4994:
4990:
4986:
4982:
4978:
4974:
4970:
4966:
4962:
4958:
4957:Southern Ming
4954:
4950:
4946:
4942:
4938:
4934:
4930:
4926:
4922:
4921:Yangtzi River
4918:
4914:
4910:
4906:
4902:
4900:
4896:
4892:
4888:
4884:
4880:
4876:
4872:
4868:
4863:
4861:
4857:
4853:
4848:
4846:
4842:
4838:
4834:
4830:
4826:
4822:
4818:
4812:
4802:
4800:
4796:
4792:
4788:
4784:
4780:
4776:
4772:
4768:
4764:
4760:
4756:
4752:
4748:
4747:Southern Ming
4744:
4740:
4736:
4732:
4728:
4724:
4720:
4716:
4712:
4708:
4704:
4700:
4698:
4694:
4690:
4686:
4681:
4679:
4675:
4671:
4667:
4662:
4658:
4654:
4650:
4646:
4642:
4638:
4633:
4631:
4627:
4623:
4619:
4615:
4611:
4607:
4603:
4599:
4595:
4591:
4587:
4583:
4579:
4575:
4571:
4567:
4563:
4558:
4554:
4550:
4545:
4543:
4539:
4535:
4531:
4527:
4523:
4519:
4515:
4511:
4507:
4503:
4498:
4495:
4491:
4486:
4483:
4479:
4475:
4471:
4467:
4463:
4458:
4456:
4451:
4450:Southern Ming
4447:
4443:
4435:
4431:
4427:
4422:
4413:
4411:
4407:
4403:
4399:
4395:
4391:
4387:
4383:
4379:
4375:
4371:
4367:
4363:
4359:
4354:
4352:
4351:Southern Ming
4348:
4344:
4343:Hao Xiaozhong
4340:
4336:
4332:
4328:
4324:
4320:
4316:
4312:
4311:Jin Shenghuan
4308:
4304:
4300:
4296:
4292:
4288:
4283:
4281:
4277:
4273:
4268:
4266:
4262:
4258:
4254:
4250:
4249:Southern Ming
4246:
4242:
4238:
4234:
4230:
4225:
4221:
4217:
4213:
4209:
4205:
4201:
4197:
4193:
4189:
4184:
4182:
4178:
4174:
4169:
4167:
4163:
4159:
4154:
4151:
4147:
4143:
4139:
4135:
4131:
4127:
4122:
4118:
4114:
4110:
4109:Southern Ming
4106:
4102:
4098:
4095:north of the
4094:
4090:
4086:
4082:
4078:
4074:
4070:
4066:
4062:
4058:
4054:
4050:
4046:
4042:
4038:
4034:
4030:
4026:
4022:
4018:
4011:
4007:
4003:
3998:
3993:
3992:Southern Ming
3978:
3976:
3975:Kumul Khanate
3972:
3968:
3964:
3960:
3956:
3952:
3948:
3947:Meng Qiaofang
3944:
3943:Islamic state
3940:
3936:
3932:
3928:
3924:
3919:
3917:
3913:
3909:
3905:
3904:Meng Qiaofang
3901:
3898:forces under
3897:
3893:
3889:
3885:
3881:
3877:
3867:
3865:
3860:
3858:
3852:
3850:
3846:
3845:
3840:
3836:
3830:
3828:
3827:
3822:
3821:
3816:
3815:
3810:
3806:
3802:
3801:
3796:
3792:
3788:
3778:
3776:
3771:
3768:
3764:
3760:
3756:
3751:
3749:
3745:
3741:
3737:
3733:
3729:
3725:
3721:
3717:
3713:
3709:
3705:
3701:
3697:
3693:
3689:
3685:
3681:
3677:
3673:
3669:
3665:
3659:
3649:
3647:
3643:
3639:
3635:
3631:
3627:
3623:
3619:
3615:
3610:
3608:
3604:
3600:
3596:
3588:
3584:
3580:
3576:
3572:
3568:
3564:
3559:
3555:
3553:
3549:
3545:
3541:
3537:
3533:
3529:
3525:
3519:
3517:
3513:
3509:
3504:
3502:
3498:
3494:
3490:
3486:
3483:
3482:Southern Ming
3479:
3471:
3467:
3463:
3459:
3455:
3444:
3435:
3433:
3429:
3423:
3420:
3416:
3412:
3408:
3403:
3401:
3397:
3392:
3388:
3384:
3381:north of the
3380:
3376:
3369:
3365:
3362:that allowed
3361:
3356:
3352:
3350:
3346:
3342:
3338:
3334:
3330:
3325:
3320:
3316:
3311:
3309:
3303:
3301:
3297:
3293:
3289:
3285:
3281:
3277:
3273:
3269:
3265:
3261:
3257:
3253:
3248:
3246:
3243:broke out in
3242:
3238:
3234:
3230:
3224:
3214:
3212:
3208:
3204:
3200:
3196:
3192:
3187:
3183:
3180:
3176:
3172:
3168:
3164:
3160:
3156:
3152:
3148:
3144:
3140:
3136:
3132:
3128:
3124:
3120:
3116:
3112:
3108:
3104:
3098:
3088:
3086:
3085:Eight Banners
3082:
3078:
3074:
3070:
3066:
3061:
3057:
3053:
3049:
3045:
3041:
3037:
3033:
3029:
3026:defeated the
3025:
3015:
3013:
3009:
3005:
3001:
2996:
2994:
2990:
2986:
2982:
2978:
2974:
2970:
2966:
2962:
2958:
2954:
2950:
2945:
2942:
2938:
2934:
2929:
2925:
2921:
2915:
2900:
2898:
2893:
2889:
2885:
2881:
2880:Eight Banners
2876:
2874:
2870:
2866:
2862:
2858:
2857:Liu Liangchen
2854:
2850:
2846:
2842:
2838:
2834:
2833:Meng Qiaofang
2830:
2826:
2822:
2818:
2814:
2810:
2806:
2802:
2798:
2794:
2790:
2786:
2782:
2778:
2772:
2770:
2766:
2762:
2758:
2754:
2750:
2748:
2747:Eight Banners
2744:
2740:
2736:
2732:
2727:
2725:
2720:
2716:
2712:
2708:
2704:
2696:
2692:
2683:
2681:
2676:
2672:
2668:
2664:
2660:
2657:'s (a son of
2656:
2652:
2648:
2644:
2640:
2636:
2631:
2629:
2624:
2620:
2616:
2611:
2609:
2605:
2601:
2597:
2593:
2589:
2585:
2575:
2571:
2567:
2563:
2559:
2555:
2551:
2547:
2543:
2534:
2532:
2528:
2524:
2523:
2518:
2517:
2512:
2508:
2504:
2500:
2496:
2492:
2488:
2485:
2481:
2477:
2473:
2469:
2465:
2461:
2456:
2434:
2429:, Ma Guozhu (
2428:
2422:
2415:
2413:
2409:
2405:
2401:
2397:
2393:
2392:Wuqiao mutiny
2388:
2386:
2382:
2377:
2372:
2368:
2364:
2360:
2356:
2352:
2348:
2344:
2340:
2336:
2332:
2325:
2321:
2317:
2308:
2306:
2302:
2301:Northern Yuan
2298:
2294:
2290:
2286:
2281:
2279:
2275:
2271:
2267:
2263:
2259:
2256:
2246:
2244:
2240:
2236:
2232:
2227:
2225:
2224:Taedong River
2221:
2217:
2213:
2209:
2205:
2201:
2197:
2196:Gang Hong-rip
2193:
2189:
2185:
2181:
2176:
2174:
2170:
2166:
2162:
2158:
2154:
2150:
2146:
2140:
2130:
2128:
2123:
2121:
2120:
2115:
2114:
2108:
2106:
2102:
2098:
2094:
2093:Eight Banners
2089:
2087:
2083:
2079:
2074:
2070:
2066:
2062:
2058:
2054:
2050:
2046:
2042:
2038:
2034:
2029:
2027:
2023:
2019:
2014:
2010:
2006:
2001:
1999:
1995:
1991:
1987:
1983:
1979:
1975:
1971:
1967:
1966:
1961:
1957:
1951:
1949:
1945:
1941:
1937:
1933:
1929:
1926:
1920:
1905:
1903:
1899:
1895:
1891:
1887:
1883:
1879:
1876:broke out in
1875:
1871:
1866:
1864:
1860:
1856:
1852:
1848:
1840:
1835:
1828:
1824:
1820:
1818:
1813:
1809:
1804:
1801:
1795:
1791:
1783:
1779:
1774:
1765:
1763:
1758:
1756:
1752:
1748:
1744:
1740:
1736:
1732:
1728:
1724:
1720:
1716:
1711:
1709:
1705:
1701:
1697:
1693:
1689:
1688:Kenneth Swope
1685:
1679:
1677:
1673:
1669:
1665:
1661:
1657:
1653:
1649:
1645:
1641:
1637:
1633:
1629:
1624:
1622:
1618:
1614:
1610:
1606:
1602:
1598:
1594:
1590:
1582:
1578:
1574:
1570:
1566:
1563:
1559:
1555:
1552:
1548:
1544:
1540:
1536:
1535:
1534:
1526:
1524:
1520:
1516:
1512:
1508:
1504:
1500:
1496:
1492:
1478:
1475:
1473:
1470:
1468:
1465:
1463:
1460:
1458:
1455:
1453:
1450:
1448:
1445:
1443:
1440:
1439:
1435:
1434:
1431:
1428:
1426:
1423:
1421:
1418:
1416:
1413:
1411:
1408:
1406:
1403:
1401:
1398:
1396:
1393:
1391:
1388:
1386:
1383:
1381:
1377:
1375:
1372:
1370:
1367:
1365:
1362:
1360:
1357:
1355:
1352:
1350:
1347:
1345:
1342:
1340:
1337:
1335:
1332:
1330:
1327:
1326:
1322:
1321:
1318:
1315:
1311:
1308:
1306:
1303:
1302:
1301:
1298:
1294:
1291:
1290:
1289:
1286:
1282:
1279:
1277:
1276:Southern Ming
1274:
1273:
1272:
1269:
1268:
1264:
1263:
1259:
1254:
1244:
1239:
1237:
1232:
1230:
1225:
1224:
1221:
1211:
1206:
1201:
1199:
1193:
1189:
1186:
1183:
1179:
1175:
1173:
1167:
1166:
1161:
1160:
1155:
1150:
1148:
1143:
1134:
1132:She Chongming
1131:
1130:
1124:
1121:
1119:
1117:
1111:
1108:
1106:
1103:
1101:
1098:
1096:
1093:
1091:
1089:
1083:
1080:
1079:
1072:
1070:
1068:
1062:
1059:
1054:
1051:
1048:
1043:
1040:
1037:
1032:
1029:
1027:
1025:
1019:
1016:
1013:
1011:
1009:
1003:
1000:
998:
995:
993:
990:
989:
987:
984:
979:
975:
973:
968:
964:
955:
953:
951:
945:
942:
940:
937:
934:
929:
926:
924:
921:
920:
918:
916:
909:
906:
904:
901:
898:
893:
890:
887:
882:
879:
876:
871:
868:
865:
860:
857:
855:
852:
849:
844:
841:
839:
836:
834:
831:
829:
826:
823:
818:
815:
813:
811:
805:
804:Sun Chuanting
802:
800:
798:
792:
789:
787:
785:
779:
776:
774:
772:
766:
763:
761:
758:
756:
754:
748:
745:
743:
741:
735:
734:Lu Xiangsheng
732:
729:
724:
721:
719:
717:
711:
710:Sun Chengzong
708:
706:
703:
702:
700:
694:
691:
688:
683:
680:
677:
674:
671:
670:Meng Qiaofang
668:
665:
660:
659:Zheng Zhilong
657:
654:
651:
648:
645:
642:
636:
633:
630:
627:
624:
621:
619:
617:
611:
608:
605:
602:
599:
596:
595:
589:
586:
584:
581:
579:
576:
574:
571:
569:
566:
564:
561:
559:
556:
554:
551:
549:
546:
544:
541:
539:
536:
534:
531:
529:
526:
523:
517:
514:
512:
509:
507:
504:
502:
499:
497:
494:
491:
485:
482:
480:
477:
475:
472:
469:
463:
460:
459:
457:
456:
451:
447:
443:
441:
437:
432:
430:
424:
422:
417:
416:(Li Zicheng)
415:
411:
409:
398:
393:
386:
374:
368:
367:Kumul Khanate
363:
357:
345:
334:
329:
324:
320:
315:
309:
299:
296:
295:Nanning court
293:
290:
287:
284:
281:
278:
277:Nanjing court
275:
274:
273:(1644–1662):
272:
267:
257:
255:
251:
245:
241:
232:
228:
217:
214:
213:
208:
199:
195:
191:
189:
185:
181:
177:
173:
171:
167:
163:
162:
161:
156:
155:
151:
148:
145:
144:
140:
136:
132:
128:
124:
120:
115:
112:
111:
107:
104:
103:
99:
95:
90:
85:
80:
77:
69:
59:
53:
51:
46:
41:
37:
32:
31:
19:
17274:Qing dynasty
17269:Ming dynasty
17228:Treaty ports
17190:
17183:
17157:Other topics
16930:
16923:
16901:
16889:
16872:
16867:Peiwen Yunfu
16865:
16843:
16836:
16807:
16556:Beiyang Army
16538:Zongli Yamen
16394:Da-Qing Bank
16211:Red Lanterns
15917:
15864:Qing dynasty
15819:
15813:Other topics
15724:Four Masters
15649:
15642:
15635:
15628:
15621:
15614:
15454:House of Zhu
15407:Shanhai Pass
15387:Great Plague
15366:
15330:Jianzhou war
15104:Ming dynasty
15062:the original
15033:
15030:Modern China
15029:
15013:
15004:
14984:
14963:
14943:
14924:
14904:
14881:
14860:
14838:
14814:
14790:
14766:
14746:
14725:
14700:
14685:Google Books
14663:
14640:
14619:
14598:
14583:. Retrieved
14567:
14557:
14537:
14517:. ABC-CLIO.
14513:
14492:
14471:
14450:
14423:
14392:
14357:
14337:
14303:
14299:
14279:
14266:
14262:
14253:
14249:
14227:
14211:
14182:
14157:
14136:
14125:
14115:
14106:
14096:
14075:
14061:
14040:
14019:
14009:
13989:
13965:
13945:
13921:
13900:
13874:
13870:
13837:
13833:
13813:
13792:
13771:
13749:
13728:
13707:
13686:
13667:Art in China
13666:
13653:
13629:
13609:
13588:
13576:the original
13545:
13541:
13503:
13496:
13480:
13464:
13455:
13446:
13426:
13419:
13403:
13387:
13376:Elliott 2001
13371:
13338:
13335:The Holocene
13334:
13327:
13311:
13295:
13279:
13263:
13247:
13231:
13220:, retrieved
13205:
13198:
13186:
13167:
13161:
13152:
13143:
13123:
13116:
13107:
13097:
13085:. Retrieved
13076:
13060:
13044:
13033:Wakeman 1985
13028:
13015:
13003:
12987:
12971:
12955:
12939:
12923:
12907:
12896:Elliott 2001
12891:
12875:
12859:
12847:
12835:
12819:
12803:
12780:
12775:
12768:
12756:
12744:
12732:
12720:. Retrieved
12705:
12698:
12685:
12665:
12646:. Retrieved
12639:the original
12634:
12621:
12612:
12603:
12594:
12584:
12564:
12557:
12545:
12534:Wakeman 2009
12529:
12513:
12497:
12481:
12474:Wakeman 1985
12469:
12462:Wakeman 1985
12457:
12450:Wakeman 1985
12445:
12429:
12413:
12400:
12394:
12381:
12373:
12364:
12358:
12339:
12333:
12314:
12308:
12296:
12289:Gregory 2015
12284:
12268:
12252:
12245:Wakeman 1985
12240:
12233:Wakeman 1985
12228:
12208:
12201:
12189:
12167:Wakeman 1985
12162:
12155:Wakeman 1985
12150:
12138:
12131:Wakeman 1985
12126:
12114:
12102:
12095:Wakeman 1985
12090:
12078:
12071:Wakeman 1985
12066:
12059:Wakeman 1985
12054:
12030:Wakeman 1985
12025:
11998:
11991:Wakeman 1985
11986:
11979:Wakeman 1985
11974:
11967:Rossabi 1979
11962:
11955:Wakeman 1985
11950:
11943:Wakeman 1985
11938:
11931:Wakeman 1985
11926:
11919:Wakeman 1985
11914:
11907:Wakeman 1985
11902:
11882:
11875:
11855:
11848:
11841:Wakeman 1985
11836:
11829:Wakeman 1985
11809:
11802:Wakeman 1985
11797:
11790:Wakeman 1985
11785:
11778:Wakeman 1985
11773:
11766:Wakeman 1985
11751:Wakeman 1985
11746:
11739:Wakeman 1985
11734:
11727:Wakeman 1985
11722:
11695:
11684:, retrieved
11662:
11652:
11645:Wakeman 1985
11640:
11628:
11616:
11604:
11592:
11580:
11568:
11541:
11529:
11522:Wakeman 1985
11517:
11505:
11493:
11481:
11474:Parsons 1957
11469:
11449:
11442:
11430:
11423:Wakeman 1985
11418:
11406:
11382:Wakeman 1985
11377:
11370:Wakeman 1985
11365:
11358:Wakeman 1985
11353:
11342:Elliott 2001
11337:
11326:Elliott 2001
11321:
11311:
11304:
11287:
11277:
11265:
11253:
11237:
11226:Wakeman 2009
11221:
11209:
11197:
11190:Wakeman 1985
11185:
11178:Wakeman 1985
11173:
11166:Wakeman 1985
11161:
11149:
11137:
11130:Wakeman 1985
11125:
11118:Wakeman 1985
11113:
11097:
11081:
11062:
11052:
11040:
11028:
11021:Wakeman 1985
11001:
10994:Wakeman 1985
10989:
10982:Wakeman 1985
10977:
10966:Wakeman 1985
10961:
10954:Wakeman 1985
10949:
10933:
10926:Wakeman 1985
10921:
10878:Finnane 1993
10854:
10838:
10822:
10787:
10780:Wakeman 1985
10775:
10751:Wakeman 1985
10746:
10734:
10727:Wakeman 1985
10722:
10710:
10703:Wakeman 1985
10698:
10691:Wakeman 1985
10686:
10674:
10667:Rossabi 1979
10650:Wakeman 1985
10645:
10634:Wakeman 1985
10629:
10622:Wakeman 1985
10617:
10610:Wakeman 1985
10605:
10593:
10565:
10558:
10551:Durrant 1979
10546:
10526:
10519:
10503:
10493:
10486:
10474:
10467:Durrant 1977
10462:
10442:
10435:
10419:
10412:Wakeman 1985
10407:
10400:Wakeman 1985
10395:
10388:Wakeman 1985
10383:
10376:Wakeman 1985
10371:
10364:Wakeman 1985
10359:
10352:Wakeman 1985
10347:
10340:Wakeman 1985
10335:
10328:Wakeman 1985
10323:
10307:
10295:
10283:
10272:Wakeman 1985
10253:Wakeman 1985
10248:
10237:Wakeman 1985
10232:
10225:Wakeman 1985
10220:
10213:Wakeman 1985
10208:
10192:
10176:
10156:
10149:
10138:Wakeman 1985
10133:
10126:Wakeman 1985
10121:
10114:Wakeman 1985
10109:
10097:
10090:Wakeman 1985
10085:
10078:Wakeman 1985
10073:
10066:Wakeman 1985
10061:
10054:Wakeman 1985
10049:
10042:Wakeman 1985
10037:
10025:
10013:. Retrieved
9999:
9992:Wakeman 1985
9977:Wakeman 1985
9962:Wakeman 1985
9957:
9946:Wakeman 1985
9941:
9921:
9914:
9903:Wakeman 1985
9898:
9882:
9871:Wakeman 2009
9866:
9855:Wakeman 2009
9850:
9838:
9816:Wakeman 1985
9811:
9799:
9790:
9771:
9764:
9757:Wakeman 1985
9752:
9745:Wakeman 1985
9740:
9733:Wakeman 1985
9728:
9721:Wakeman 1985
9716:
9709:Wakeman 1985
9704:
9694:Forsyth 1994
9689:
9682:Li Ling 1995
9677:
9668:
9658:
9648:
9641:
9626:
9611:
9599:
9588:Wakeman 1985
9583:
9571:
9559:
9539:
9532:
9516:
9500:
9484:
9468:
9457:Wakeman 1985
9452:
9443:
9439:
9430:
9421:
9417:
9408:
9401:Gregory 2015
9396:
9386:
9379:
9359:
9352:
9336:
9320:
9309:Wakeman 2009
9304:
9288:
9281:Wakeman 1985
9276:
9269:Wakeman 1985
9264:
9253:Wakeman 1985
9248:
9237:Wakeman 1985
9232:
9216:
9205:Wakeman 1985
9200:
9189:Wakeman 1985
9184:
9174:
9167:
9141:
9137:
9127:
9116:Wakeman 1985
9092:
9081:the original
9060:
9056:
9043:
9027:
8993:
8978:
8962:
8946:
8926:
8919:
8903:
8883:
8876:
8864:
8854:
8848:
8836:
8821:
8806:
8786:
8779:
8774:, p. 2.
8767:
8757:
8750:
8745:, p. 2.
8738:
8723:
8708:
8701:Wakeman 1985
8696:
8684:
8677:Wakeman 1985
8672:
8665:Wakeman 1985
8660:
8653:Wakeman 1985
8648:
8641:Wakeman 1985
8636:
8625:Wakeman 1985
8620:
8600:
8593:
8564:
8544:
8537:
8521:
8501:
8494:
8478:
8458:
8451:
8439:
8413:Wakeman 1985
8408:
8392:
8372:
8365:
8345:
8338:
8326:
8314:
8302:
8295:Wakeman 1985
8290:
8283:Wakeman 1985
8278:
8271:Wakeman 1985
8266:
8259:Wakeman 1985
8254:
8243:Wakeman 1985
8224:Wakeman 1985
8219:
8208:Wakeman 1985
8203:
8192:Wakeman 1985
8187:
8171:
8160:Wakeman 1985
8155:
8135:
8128:
8123:, p. 3.
8116:
8058:
8020:
7973:
7943:
7885:Wakeman 1985
7880:
7868:. Retrieved
7863:
7859:
7837:
7831:
7819:
7786:
7782:
7776:
7749:
7721:
7715:
7705:Forsyth 1994
7666:. Retrieved
7658:
7649:
7625:
7604:
7595:
7580:
7575:
7566:
7559:Wakeman 1985
7553:
7545:
7540:
7510:Central Asia
7438:China portal
7370:
7342:
7301:
7271:Shanhai Pass
7259:Ming dynasty
7256:
7180:
7118:
7105:Qing dynasty
7087:
7041:
7040:
7013:
7006:
6979:Huang Zongxi
6951:Bada Shanren
6942:
6927:Ming dynasty
6924:
6919:Ming dynasty
6915:Craig Clunas
6874:Ming dynasty
6850:Trần An Bình
6834:Qing dynasty
6803:
6793:
6789:
6774:memorialized
6763:
6754:
6706:
6688:
6657:
6649:Fan Wencheng
6643:
6632:
6620:Shang Zhixin
6617:
6609:Wang Pingfan
6581:Shang Zhixin
6569:Li Chengdong
6562:
6535:Portrait of
6491:
6437:
6429:Zhu Honghuan
6411:
6407:
6385:
6361:
6345:
6343:missionary.
6294:
6248:
6243:Lang Tingzuo
6228:
6135:
6075:
6036:
5981:
5955:
5948:
5922:
5835:
5814:
5799:Ding Guodong
5792:
5768:Zhao Ronggui
5693:
5626:
5606:
5486:
5435:
5419:Li Chengdong
5416:
5392:Li Chengdong
5377:
5311:
5278:
5273:, under the
5257:governor of
5248:
5212:
5204:Yang Tinglin
5177:
5173:Tong Yangjia
5169:Li Chengdong
5126:
5111:
5072:fell to the
5063:
5040:
5022:conquest of
5004:
4997:
4903:
4891:Liu Jinzhong
4864:
4860:Liu Jinzhong
4849:
4835:(the son of
4814:
4771:Mount Yuntai
4757:official of
4733:area, under
4727:Ruan Dacheng
4701:
4682:
4649:Liu Liangzuo
4634:
4610:Li Chengdong
4546:
4532:and scholar
4526:Yang Yongyan
4499:
4487:
4459:
4439:
4402:Liu Liangzuo
4400:and general
4390:Zhang Tianlu
4374:Huang Degong
4355:
4319:Zuo Menggeng
4284:
4269:
4212:Yangzi River
4185:
4170:
4166:Yellow River
4155:
4130:Ruan Dacheng
4089:Liu Liangzuo
4085:Li Chengdong
4075:conquest of
4049:Prince of Fu
4014:
4000:Portrait of
3935:Ding Guodong
3920:
3873:
3863:
3861:
3856:
3853:
3842:
3831:
3824:
3818:
3813:
3804:
3799:
3784:
3775:Zheng Dengqi
3772:
3752:
3708:Shun dynasty
3661:
3611:
3592:
3520:
3505:
3497:Board of War
3487:
3475:
3466:Qing dynasty
3462:Ming dynasty
3442:
3424:
3415:Fan Wencheng
3404:
3387:Shanhai Pass
3372:
3368:China proper
3360:Shanhai Pass
3337:Shun dynasty
3331:, the Chief
3312:
3304:
3280:Shun dynasty
3249:
3226:
3207:Shanhai Pass
3100:
3060:Amur peoples
3021:
3000:Joseon Korea
2997:
2946:
2917:
2882:that ethnic
2877:
2849:Sun Dingliao
2845:Zhang Cunren
2841:Sun Dingliao
2829:Zhang Cunren
2813:Wang Shixian
2777:Ma Guangyuan
2773:
2751:
2728:
2700:
2663:Geng Juzhong
2645:and married
2632:
2612:
2581:
2540:
2526:
2520:
2514:
2479:
2475:
2457:
2437:), Zu Kefa (
2427:Fan Wencheng
2416:
2389:
2329:
2305:Yuan dynasty
2282:
2272:Mongols and
2260:allied with
2252:
2228:
2177:
2142:
2124:
2119:Water Margin
2117:
2111:
2109:
2104:
2100:
2090:
2030:
2002:
1963:
1952:
1940:Ming dynasty
1936:Qing dynasty
1922:
1867:
1851:Zongdu Junwu
1850:
1847:Ming dynasty
1845:In the late
1844:
1805:
1797:
1759:
1712:
1686:. Historian
1680:
1652:Shun dynasty
1625:
1611:clan of the
1586:
1577:Shun dynasty
1558:Ming dynasty
1539:Qing dynasty
1532:
1519:Shun dynasty
1515:Ming dynasty
1511:Qing dynasty
1498:
1494:
1490:
1488:
1472:Great Plague
1425:Shanhai Pass
1265:Belligerents
1250:
1195:
1191:
1187:
1169:
1162:
1140:
1115:
1087:
1066:
1023:
1007:
961:
949:
915:Supported by
914:
913:
843:Ou Guangchen
809:
796:
793:(丁國棟)
791:Ding Guodong
783:
770:
752:
739:
715:
676:Zhang Cunren
615:
533:Fan Wencheng
434:
426:
419:
414:Shun dynasty
412:
372:
313:
283:Fuzhou court
266:Ming dynasty
216:Qing dynasty
210:Belligerents
198:China proper
194:Qing dynasty
184:Shun dynasty
166:Ming dynasty
135:Central Asia
76:
63:
47:
45:lead section
17164:Aisin Gioro
17126:Paper money
16885:Qing poetry
16606:Wuwei Corps
16601:Shuishiying
16362:Family tree
15766:Tai history
15449:Family tree
15360:Liaoluo Bay
15294:Renyin plot
15244:Tumu Crisis
15036:(1): 3–30.
14585:29 February
13834:Early China
13729:The Manchus
13485:Rhoads 2000
13469:Rhoads 2000
13410:, pp.
13286:, pp.
13222:3 September
13170:. 光明日报出版社.
13087:3 September
13067:, pp.
13035:, pp.
13008:Struve 1993
12992:Perdue 2009
12976:Cassel 2012
12960:Cassel 2011
12944:Cassel 2012
12928:Cassel 2011
12914:, pp.
12749:Mote (1999)
12737:Clunas 2009
12550:Spence 2002
12520:, pp.
12365:Haiji jiyao
12301:Spence 2002
12143:Spence 2002
12119:Struve 1988
12018:Struve 1988
11715:Struve 1988
11700:Struve 1988
11633:Struve 1988
11621:Struve 1988
11609:Struve 1988
11597:Struve 1988
11561:Struve 1988
11546:Struve 1988
11534:Struve 1988
11272:, p. .
11142:Struve 1988
11104:, pp.
11033:Struve 1988
10968:, pp.
10940:, pp.
10938:Struve 1993
10914:Struve 1988
10897:Struve 1988
10845:, pp.
10813:, pp.
10811:Struve 1993
10792:Struve 1993
10768:Struve 1988
10739:Struve 1988
10715:Struve 1988
10636:, pp.
10598:Hummel 1991
10508:Perdue 2009
10426:, pp.
10274:, pp.
10183:, pp.
10181:Spence 1988
9948:, pp.
9905:, pp.
9889:, pp.
9873:, pp.
9857:, pp.
9831:Struve 1988
9604:Dawson 1972
9576:Hummel 1970
9564:Hummel 1991
9473:Rawski 1998
9459:, pp.
9223:, pp.
9221:Rawski 1998
9018:, pp.
8967:Rawski 1998
8869:Hummel 1991
8841:Hummel 2010
8772:Hummel 1991
8743:Hummel 2010
8444:Hummel 1970
8331:Hummel 2010
8086:Spence 1990
7826:, p. .
7659:nmth.gov.tw
7405:Han Chinese
7345:Han Chinese
7320:Grand Canal
7308:South Zhili
7283:cannibalism
7139:(including
7090:Han Chinese
7075:Han Chinese
7070:Han Chinese
7003:Qian Qianyi
6995:Gong Dingzi
6971:Qing poetry
6967:Ming poetry
6894:Qing poetry
6890:Ming poetry
6778:Mazu temple
6755:tengpaiying
6714:dispatched
6676:Han Chinese
6645:Fan Chengmo
6601:Wang Fuchen
6593:Sun Yanling
6565:Han Chinese
6470:complex at
6427:and Prince
6410:instead of
6321:Grand Canal
6163:Pindale Min
6142:Bai Wenxuan
6098:Pindale Min
6047:janissaries
5977:Ming-Ho War
5975:during the
5866:Sun Shoujin
5856:commander,
5852:and a Ming
5819:Han Chinese
5778:rose up in
5776:Zhang Wugui
5712:Liu Denglou
5696:Jiang Xiang
5643:, south of
5600:, from the
5574:Han Chinese
5478:He Tengjiao
5406:fleeing to
5341:Zhu Youlang
5271:He Tengjiao
5149:Prince Bolo
5026:territories
4989:Zhu Rongfan
4941:Li Zhanchun
4899:cannibalism
4881:missionary
4723:Qian Qianyi
4674:Queue Order
4661:Han Chinese
4622:Wang Guocai
4608:by general
4566:Chen Zilong
4538:Prince Dodo
4534:Zhu Jihuang
4530:Wang Zuocai
4478:Han Chinese
4353:loyalists.
4287:Zuo Liangyu
4177:Han Chinese
4162:Zhu Yousong
4117:Han Chinese
4053:Zhu Yousong
3878:, who were
3728:Shi Tingzhu
3670:despatched
3601:Bannermen,
3599:Han Chinese
3512:Han Chinese
3493:North China
3155:Xia Chengde
3131:Han Chinese
3073:Amur region
2973:Han Chinese
2922:had forced
2888:Han Chinese
2827:, Zu Kefa,
2743:Han Chinese
2703:Li Yongfang
2647:Aisin-Gioro
2566:Li Yongfang
2548:were often
2542:Han Chinese
2487:Aisin-Gioro
2472:Han Chinese
2359:Prince Amin
2347:Han Chinese
2289:Zhangjiakou
2208:Mao Wenlong
2200:Li Yongfang
2073:Aisin Gioro
2057:Li Yongfang
1978:Han Chinese
1944:Yalu Region
1808:Han Chinese
1723:South China
1632:Han Chinese
1547:Aisin Gioro
1123:Bai Wenxuan
1042:Yuan Zongdi
1002:Liu Zongmin
997:Ma Shouying
963:Zhu Hengjia
956:Sultan Khan
923:Ligdan Khan
854:Zuo Liangyu
838:Qin Liangyu
780:(米喇印)
693:Wang Fuchen
598:Li Yongfang
583:Yao Qisheng
578:Li Shuaitai
442:federation
364:(1646–1650)
358:(1618–1635)
346:(1661–1683)
297:(1646–1662)
291:(1646–1647)
285:(1645–1646)
279:(1644–1645)
268:(1618–1644)
157:Territorial
117:Modern-day
17248:Categories
16832:Four Wangs
16723:mausoleums
16676:Golden Urn
16649:Inner Asia
16626:Xiang Army
16596:Hushenying
16521:Liangguang
16501:Liangjiang
16439:Lifan Yuan
16344:Government
15734:Zhe School
15688:Ming tombs
15572:Inner Asia
15544:Shenjiying
15534:Great Wall
15432:Government
13487:, p.
13471:, p.
13394:, p.
13378:, p.
13318:, p.
13316:Brook 1999
13302:, p.
13300:Brook 1999
13270:, p.
13268:Brook 1999
13254:, p.
13252:Brook 1999
13238:, p.
13236:Smith 2015
13193:, table 7.
13191:Allen 2009
13110:: 331–388.
13065:Smith 2015
13051:, p.
13049:Swope 2014
12994:, p.
12978:, p.
12962:, p.
12946:, p.
12930:, p.
12898:, p.
12882:, p.
12866:, p.
12826:, p.
12810:, p.
12808:Hauer 2007
12761:Zhang 2002
12648:5 November
12536:, p.
12504:, p.
12488:, p.
12436:, p.
12420:, p.
12349:0804720665
12275:, p.
12259:, p.
12107:Swope 2018
12083:Swope 2018
12003:Swope 2018
11814:Swope 2018
11510:Swope 2018
11498:Swope 2018
11411:Swope 2018
11344:, p.
11328:, p.
11270:Ebrey 1993
11258:Faure 2007
11244:, p.
11228:, p.
11088:, p.
10880:, p.
10861:, p.
10829:, p.
10794:, p.
10585:1048096749
10510:, p.
10314:, p.
10255:, p.
10239:, p.
10199:, p.
10140:, p.
9887:Swope 2014
9696:, p.
9590:, p.
9523:, p.
9521:Swope 2014
9507:, p.
9491:, p.
9475:, p.
9343:, p.
9327:, p.
9311:, p.
9295:, p.
9255:, p.
9239:, p.
9207:, p.
9191:, p.
9144:(Part 1).
9118:, p.
9099:, p.
9034:, p.
8969:, p.
8953:, p.
8910:, p.
8908:Smith 2015
8689:Swope 2014
8627:, p.
8586:Swope 2014
8569:Swope 2014
8528:, p.
8526:Swope 2014
8485:, p.
8430:, p.
8399:, p.
8245:, p.
8226:, p.
8210:, p.
8194:, p.
8178:, p.
8164:24, note 1
8162:, p.
8107:, p.
8088:, p.
8039:, p.
7902:, p.
7824:Swope 2014
7707:, p.
7688:, p.
7636:References
7622:Zhang 2002
7614:Chang 2001
7417:Ma Anliang
7381:Hui Muslim
7263:Li Zicheng
7183:Li Zicheng
7164:Ayuka Khan
7031:See also:
6983:Fang Yizhi
6870:Minh Huong
6856:to settle
6842:Hoàng Tiến
6814:Ming China
6734:after the
6624:Geng Jimao
6585:Geng Jimao
6537:Shang Kexi
6492:Cuylenburg
6484:Zheng Jing
6425:Zhu Shugui
6420:Zheng Jing
6379:, and the
6229:In 1656 a
6221:Extent of
6138:Li Dingguo
6051:Lu Guangxu
5988:Li Dingguo
5945:Sun Kewang
5929:Xi dynasty
5892:See also:
5823:Jiayu Pass
5797:rebels of
5661:Li Huajing
5629:Yang Sihai
5582:Geng Jimao
5578:Shang Kexi
5541:Shang Kexi
5501:Kong Youde
5390:commander
5328:regime in
5291:Kong Youde
5253:, the old
5078:Zhu Yujian
5047:Tong Guoqi
4973:Li Guoying
4917:Liu Wenxiu
4905:Sun Kewang
4875:Li Guoying
4837:Hong Taiji
4829:Xi dynasty
4809:See also:
4584:forces in
4528:, general
4406:Tian Xiong
4360:fled into
4337:campaign,
4331:Li Guoying
4327:Lu Guangzu
4301:forces in
4291:Ma Shiying
4267:soldiers.
4144:secretary
4134:Ma Shiying
4097:Huai River
4045:Ma Shiying
3892:Li Zicheng
3886:against a
3835:Hong Taiji
3676:Li Zicheng
3658:Li Zicheng
3656:See also:
3626:clearances
3544:Kong Youde
3536:Shang Kexi
3396:Li Zicheng
3383:Great Wall
3345:Great Wall
3276:Li Zicheng
3233:Li Zicheng
3221:See also:
3182:Zhou Yanru
3119:Great Wall
3109:as far as
3056:Hong Taiji
2993:Shang Kexi
2977:Kong Youde
2961:Hong Taiji
2937:Hong Taiji
2837:Kong Youde
2825:Liu Wuyuan
2821:Shang Kexi
2753:Hong Taiji
2715:Shang Kexi
2711:Kong Youde
2659:Hong Taiji
2608:Hong Taiji
2596:Shang Kexi
2592:Geng Jimao
2404:Bohai Gulf
2396:Kong Youde
2331:Hong Taiji
2245:in panic.
2169:Hong Taiji
1890:Li Zicheng
1872:among the
1648:Li Zicheng
1636:Hong Taiji
1581:Li Zicheng
1569:Xi dynasty
1523:Xi dynasty
1182:Hui Muslim
1135:An Bangyan
1105:Liu Wenxiu
1100:Sun Kewang
1095:Li Dingguo
1073:Liu Tichun
1053:Wang Deren
1018:Li Laiheng
992:Li Zicheng
939:Sa'id Baba
833:Li Dingguo
760:Ma Shilong
695:(defected)
682:Sun Kewang
678:(defected)
672:(defected)
655:(defected)
649:(defected)
625:(defected)
623:Shang Kexi
610:Kong Youde
538:Manggūltai
474:Hong Taiji
421:Xi dynasty
180:Xi dynasty
16654:Manchuria
16621:Huai Army
16611:Yong Ying
16496:Shaan-Gan
15952:High Qing
15898:Later Jin
15729:Wu School
15714:Musicians
15577:Manchuria
15565:Frontiers
15058:144587815
14787:(1975a).
14328:162377335
13862:191822020
13840:: 52–54.
13572:153993424
13550:CiteSeerX
13363:129183241
12840:Zhao 2006
11296:1833-8461
11045:Kuhn 1990
10102:Mote 1999
9843:Mote 1999
9077:151328254
7811:153997845
7641:Citations
7610:Fong 2001
7590:top-knot.
7587:Confucius
7546:nan zheng
7233:like the
7231:epidemics
7199:Guangzhou
7159:with the
7107:in 1820 .
7054:Manchuria
7048:name for
7027:Aftermath
6959:Confucius
6935:Confucian
6757:) served
6660:Wu Sangui
6647:, son of
6635:Wu Sangui
6577:Wu Sangui
6545:Guangzhou
6472:Putuoshan
6433:Zhu Yihai
6431:, son of
6333:Manchuria
6183:Wu Sangui
6130:Wu Sangui
6126:Yuanjiang
6055:Bannermen
6012:Guangdong
5965:Mu family
5850:Zhu Youdu
5772:Wu Sangui
5752:Zhu Senfu
5744:Wu Sangui
5565:Guangzhou
5549:Guangdong
5509:Lekedehun
5505:Jirgalang
5450:An Lushan
5446:Wang Mang
5423:Guangdong
5396:Guangzhou
5394:captured
5373:Cantonese
5365:Guangdong
5334:Guangdong
5330:Guangzhou
5318:Zhu Yuyue
5309:in 1649.
5118:Zhu Yihai
4985:Guangdong
4977:Zhangzhou
4949:Yang Zhan
4913:Zeng Ying
4909:Chongqing
4865:En route
4827:'s Great
4743:Tu Guobao
4641:Songjiang
4626:Songjiang
4606:Chushenpu
4578:Wu Zhikui
4570:Ming navy
4502:Wang Zhan
4494:Confucian
4482:Confucian
4216:Zhenjiang
4196:Bannermen
3963:Liangzhou
3912:Fengxiang
3857:kao cheng
3765:province
3744:Tongcheng
3732:Han River
3672:Wu Sangui
3630:Guangdong
3458:Wu Sangui
3375:Wu Sangui
3366:to enter
3349:Wu Sangui
3329:Wei Zaode
3203:Wu Sangui
3195:Zu Dashou
3163:Wu Sangui
3139:Jirgalang
3101:In 1638,
2953:Jirgalang
2933:King Injo
2920:Later Jin
2861:Zu Zehong
2797:Zu Zehong
2785:Zu Dashou
2606:and Khan
2600:Wu Sangui
2371:Confucian
2307:as well.
2235:King Injo
2220:Pyongyang
2212:Bohai Sea
2184:Jirgalang
2145:Later Jin
1994:Hun River
1972:gave the
1874:Yi people
1859:vassalage
1731:Wu Sangui
1704:Philip IV
1668:Wu Sangui
1617:Ming rule
1589:Later Jin
1503:dynasties
1497:) or the
1374:Guangning
1369:Zhenjiang
1364:Shen-Liao
1293:Later Jin
1200:fighters
1165:Bannermen
1110:Ai Nengqi
1031:Hao Yaoqi
635:Wu Sangui
629:Zu Dashou
516:Jirgalang
360:Chagatai
333:Tiandihui
66:June 2024
50:summarize
17106:Hongqian
17075:Currency
16945:Treaties
16851:Kaozheng
16798:Booi Aha
16740:Hetu Ala
16693:Timeline
16688:Xinjiang
16659:Mongolia
16616:Chu Army
16591:New Army
16548:Military
16486:Viceroys
15780:Currency
15719:Painting
15529:Military
15522:Military
15050:20062627
14882:Volume 2
14861:Volume 1
14836:(1985).
14698:(eds.).
14662:(1990).
14576:Archived
14277:(1999).
14181:(1990).
13854:23351361
13664:(2009),
12722:26 April
12405:Springer
11486:Dai 2009
11435:Dai 2009
11399:Dai 2009
9804:Dai 2009
7506:Xinjiang
7424:See also
7361:Liaodong
7333:Hangzhou
7316:Zhejiang
7312:Jiangnan
7269:entered
7265:and the
7195:Yangzhou
7172:Russians
7168:Torghuts
7141:Tibetans
7062:Mongolia
7058:Xinjiang
6999:Wu Weiye
6975:Gu Yanwu
6878:Biên Hòa
6770:Shi Lang
6716:Shi Lang
6701:Shi Lang
6653:Liaodong
6559:in 1673.
6500:Nagasaki
6468:Buddhist
6464:Shi Lang
6390:fled to
6364:Shi Lang
6286:Zhejiang
6270:Chaozhou
6231:Lake Mao
6020:Changsha
5969:Mu Sheng
5950:de facto
5858:Shibulai
5829:and the
5649:Shandong
5613:Shandong
5555:fled to
5525:Xiangtan
5482:Xiangtan
5474:Changsha
5470:Jiangnan
5378:The two
5361:Zhaoqing
5307:Xiangtan
5231:Jiangnan
5227:Zhoushan
5219:Shacheng
5184:Tingzhou
5153:Zhejiang
5122:Zhejiang
5084:founder
5070:Hangzhou
5055:Liaodong
5043:Zhejiang
4945:Yu Dahai
4795:Yangzhou
4787:Ruichang
4779:Xinchang
4767:Tangshan
4751:Zhejiang
4739:Zhou Rui
4731:Lake Tai
4693:Jiangnan
4657:Jiangyin
4645:Jiangyin
4614:Lake Tai
4602:Lake Mao
4594:Zhejiang
4586:Zhejiang
4553:Lake Tai
4542:Jiangyin
4462:Jiangnan
4442:Jiangnan
4410:Ma Deong
4370:Tongling
4307:Liaodong
4303:Jiujiang
4272:Yangzhou
4247:and the
4241:Hangzhou
4233:Jiangnan
4200:Shi Kefa
4188:Yangzhou
4173:Jiangnan
4138:Wang Duo
4105:Yangzhou
4101:Shi Kefa
4077:Jiangnan
4069:era name
4041:Fengyang
4039:and the
4037:Shi Kefa
4010:Yangzhou
4002:Shi Kefa
3955:Yanchang
3916:Ren Zhen
3876:Monguors
3753:Between
3746:and the
3716:Shandong
3532:Liaodong
3510:ordered
3501:Liaodong
3446:—
3379:Ningyuan
3270:capital
3250:Just as
3159:Ningyuan
3151:Songshan
3087:system.
3050:and the
3036:Bombogor
3012:Lianshan
2873:Zu Zerun
2805:Zu Zerun
2789:Quan Jie
2781:Wu Rujie
2769:Liaodong
2733:to rule
2697:firearms
2574:Liaoning
2564:general
2478:and the
2460:Jurchens
2408:Jurchens
2379:between
2376:Dalinghe
2367:Yongping
2266:Jurchens
2264:and the
2255:Khorchin
2239:Hanseong
2053:Jurchens
2045:Liaoyang
2041:Shenyang
2033:Liaodong
2022:Gintaisi
2013:Bujantai
1998:Shenyang
1986:Hetu Ala
1925:Jianzhou
1886:Fengyang
1855:Liaodong
1812:Liaodong
1782:Jurchens
1762:Liaodong
1755:Shi Lang
1621:Liaoning
1613:Jurchens
1562:Zhu clan
1529:Overview
1415:Song-Jin
1395:Dalinghe
1385:Ning-Jin
1380:Ningyuan
1281:Tungning
1196:300,000
1157:Strength
1142:Bombogor
944:Turumtay
928:Gintaisi
817:Shi Kefa
653:Shi Lang
330:Jurchens
196:rule in
127:Mongolia
113:Location
17091:Zhiqian
17083:Coinage
16820:Economy
16791:culture
16526:Yun-Gui
16516:Min-Zhe
16511:Sichuan
16506:Huguang
16352:Emperor
15873:History
15787:Coinage
15761:Economy
15589:Vietnam
15481:Princes
15439:Emperor
15227:Middle
15113:History
14422:(ed.).
14391:(ed.).
14320:2941233
14210:(ed.).
14109:. 經文書局.
13343:Bibcode
12824:Wu 1995
12194:Ho 2011
10970:572–573
10300:Ho 2011
10288:Ho 2011
10015:11 July
9461:194–196
8319:Li 2002
7870:1 April
7791:Bibcode
7618:Yu 2002
7579:In the
7389:Shaanxi
7324:Yangtze
7304:Jiangxi
7291:Huangpi
7279:Huguang
7252:Britain
7219:Shaanxi
7211:Sichuan
7207:Nanjing
7203:Beijing
7176:Manchus
7153:Tulisen
7044:is the
6939:loyalty
6838:Da Nang
6826:Guangxi
6822:Qinzhou
6818:Koxinga
6810:Vietnam
6794:tianfei
6790:Tianhou
6613:Sichuan
6605:Shaanxi
6597:Guangxi
6504:Batavia
6482:'s son
6480:Koxinga
6474:on the
6398:in the
6388:Koxinga
6377:Koxinga
6368:Koxinga
6329:Manchus
6325:Beijing
6315:at the
6309:Nanjing
6305:Nanjing
6297:Shunzhi
6290:Yangtze
6282:Taizhou
6264:. From
6239:Koxinga
6223:Koxinga
6203:Vietnam
6195:Manchus
6167:Pye Min
6146:Burmese
6106:Burmese
6100:of the
6039:Manchus
6028:Guizhou
6008:Huguang
6004:Guangxi
5992:Sichuan
5973:Vietnam
5941:Guangxi
5933:Guizhou
5870:Xing'an
5862:Sichuan
5838:Shaanxi
5790:scout.
5764:Sichuan
5762:, near
5760:Shaanxi
5756:Jiezhou
5732:Zhamasu
5730:leader
5685:Fengqiu
5681:Lanyang
5665:Caozhou
5645:Tianjin
5641:Qingyun
5609:Zouping
5561:Guizhou
5557:Nanning
5529:Jiangxi
5513:Huguang
5466:Xu Yong
5462:Kaifeng
5458:Nanjing
5454:Wuchang
5427:Jiangxi
5412:Guangxi
5408:Nanning
5369:Guangxi
5303:Guizhou
5259:Huguang
5251:Nanjing
5196:Koxinga
5180:Ganzhou
5145:Ganzhou
5141:Jiangxi
5102:Koxinga
4993:Kuizhou
4969:Baoning
4961:Jiading
4925:Guizhou
4895:Chengdu
4887:Xichong
4856:Sichuan
4845:Chengdu
4841:Shaanxi
4821:Sichuan
4799:Nanjing
4791:Huai'an
4775:Haizhou
4759:Jiashan
4707:Yangtzi
4705:in the
4678:Jiading
4666:Jiading
4637:Jiading
4522:Kunshan
4518:Jiaxing
4514:Chen Wu
4510:Xiushui
4506:Taicang
4474:Manchus
4434:Manchus
4394:Guazhou
4378:Nanjing
4364:on the
4339:Xu Yong
4335:Sichuan
4315:Jiangxi
4295:Nanjing
4276:Nanjing
4261:Nanjing
4257:Nieuhof
4229:Beijing
4220:Nanjing
4192:Manchus
4150:Nanjing
4113:Nanjing
4065:emperor
4061:crowned
4033:Nanjing
4029:Nanjing
4021:Beijing
3959:Ganzhou
3951:Shaanxi
3939:Lanzhou
3931:Ganzhou
3927:Milayin
3888:Tibetan
3811:), and
3787:Nurhaci
3761:and in
3755:Beijing
3736:Wuchang
3704:Shaanxi
3692:Gu Pass
3664:Beijing
3618:Nanjing
3614:Koxinga
3552:Mongols
3548:Manchus
3524:Shunzhi
3516:Beijing
3432:Emperor
3391:Beijing
3364:Manchus
3341:Beijing
3317:to the
3288:Taiyuan
3272:Beijing
3245:Sichuan
3237:Shaanxi
3211:Beijing
3191:Jinzhou
3137:prince
3127:Jinzhou
3071:of the
3052:Manchus
3048:Nurhaci
3040:Banners
2981:Ganghwa
2941:Koreans
2897:Nurhaci
2884:Manchus
2869:Zu Kufa
2865:Zu Zepu
2801:Zu Zepu
2761:Banners
2745:to the
2739:Mongols
2731:Manchus
2671:Manchus
2667:Mongols
2619:Banners
2615:Shunzhi
2554:Nurhaci
2546:Manchus
2531:Mingshi
2495:Koreans
2464:Manchus
2385:Beijing
2363:Qian'an
2351:Manchus
2335:Nurhaci
2270:Khalkha
2262:Nurhaci
2258:Mongols
2231:Hwangju
2161:Jurchen
2153:Nurhaci
2095:, many
2078:Beijing
2026:Pacific
2009:Jurchen
1974:Jurchen
1932:Nurhaci
1930:chief,
1928:Jurchen
1898:Kaifeng
1882:Shaanxi
1878:Sichuan
1863:Jurchen
1839:Nurhaci
1817:Nurhaci
1800:Manchus
1729:led by
1660:Zuihuai
1644:Beijing
1640:emperor
1593:Nurhaci
1579:led by
1571:led by
1436:Related
1420:Beijing
1354:Xicheng
1349:Tieling
1344:Kaiyuan
1323:Battles
1116:†
1088:†
1067:†
1024:†
1008:†
950:†
828:Koxinga
810:†
797:†
784:†
778:Milayin
771:†
753:†
747:Man Gui
740:†
716:†
616:†
568:Suksaha
518: (
486: (
464: (
462:Nurhaci
387:(Japan)
308:Koxinga
231:Manchus
159:changes
152:victory
16705:Taiwan
15881:Early
15866:topics
15709:Poetry
15599:Yunnan
15121:Early
15106:topics
15056:
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14931:
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12572:
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7083:Mongol
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7046:Manchu
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6903:Shitao
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6724:Taiwan
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6573:Taiwan
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6452:Xiamen
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6266:Xiamen
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6235:Yongli
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6191:Yunnan
6086:Yunnan
6032:Yunnan
6000:Guilin
5984:Dorgon
5957:Yunnan
5882:Ziyang
5874:Tan Qi
5854:Mongol
5811:Muslim
5795:Muslim
5788:Manchu
5780:Shanxi
5748:Puzhou
5728:Mongol
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5493:Manchu
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5239:Xiamen
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4618:Suzhou
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4466:Dorgon
4430:Dorgon
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4323:Datong
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4093:Xuzhou
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3696:Shanxi
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3646:Fuzhou
3642:Taiwan
3638:Fujian
3634:Fujian
3622:Fujian
3607:Manchu
3603:Mongol
3571:Dorgon
3542:, and
3528:Kangxi
3508:Dorgon
3400:Dorgon
3315:Du Xun
3292:Shanxi
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3252:Dorgon
3199:Liaoxi
3186:Dorgon
3167:Abatai
3143:Korean
3135:Manchu
3121:. The
3081:Nanais
3077:Evenks
3044:Nanais
3042:. The
3004:Dorgon
2971:, and
2969:Mongol
2965:Manchu
2955:, and
2949:Abatai
2924:Joseon
2892:Mongol
2853:Liu Wu
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2651:Abatai
2628:Dorgon
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2588:Kangxi
2570:Fushun
2558:Abatai
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2381:Mukden
2320:Jesuit
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2285:Dorgon
2274:Chahar
2190:, and
2173:Joseon
2097:Manchu
2082:Lüshun
2061:Fushun
2049:Mongol
2043:, and
2037:Fushun
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1706:, the
1702:under
1676:Dorgon
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1430:Penghu
1405:Lüshun
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1329:Fushun
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563:Ebilun
543:Abatai
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323:Joseon
244:Joseon
186:, and
146:Result
131:Russia
16897:Queue
16815:Dibao
16671:Tibet
16491:Zhili
16374:Amban
15771:Islam
15594:Wokou
15582:Tibet
15513:Fotou
15382:Sarhū
15318:Late
15065:(PDF)
15054:S2CID
15046:JSTOR
15026:(PDF)
14579:(PDF)
14572:(PDF)
14418:. In
14387:. In
14324:S2CID
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14259:(PDF)
14206:. In
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13568:S2CID
13538:(PDF)
13414:–105.
13359:S2CID
13288:64–65
13069:49–50
13039:–586.
13021:揚州十日記
12916:76–77
12779:[
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12631:(PDF)
12524:–122.
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10009:(PDF)
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7413:Xi'an
7397:Xi'an
7393:Gansu
7377:Xi'an
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7287:Henan
7066:Tibet
7050:China
6943:zhōng
6547:from
6496:Japan
6490:ship
6488:fluyt
6416:China
6396:Dutch
6337:China
6313:Dutch
6185:near
6175:Burma
6118:Nayan
6114:Hmong
6094:Burma
6024:Hunan
5831:Gansu
5807:He Bi
5784:Wutai
5657:Henan
5653:Hebei
5569:Dutch
5521:Hunan
5517:Hubei
5357:Hunan
5353:Hubei
5299:Hunan
5281:with
5267:Hunan
5263:Hubei
4871:Hooge
4854:into
4852:Xi'an
4833:Hooge
4735:Wu Yi
4719:Hunan
4715:Hubei
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4590:Hunan
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4508:. In
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3700:Xi'an
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3111:Jinan
3107:China
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3028:Evenk
2957:Ajige
2735:China
2701:When
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2511:Tumen
2188:Ajige
2101:mukun
2005:Hulun
1739:Dutch
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1545:clan
1339:Sarhū
553:Sonin
528:Hooge
501:Ajige
448:Hurka
446:Nanai
436:Evenk
123:Korea
119:China
16633:Navy
16474:Ejen
16357:List
15508:Tusi
15444:List
14990:ISBN
14969:ISBN
14948:ISBN
14929:ISBN
14910:ISBN
14887:ISBN
14866:ISBN
14844:ISBN
14819:ISBN
14797:ISBN
14771:ISBN
14752:ISBN
14731:ISBN
14710:ISBN
14670:ISBN
14646:ISBN
14625:ISBN
14604:ISBN
14587:2016
14542:ISBN
14519:ISBN
14498:ISBN
14477:ISBN
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14432:ISBN
14401:ISBN
14370:ISBN
14343:ISBN
14285:ISBN
14233:ISBN
14187:ISBN
14163:ISBN
14142:ISBN
14081:ISBN
14046:ISBN
14025:ISBN
13995:ISBN
13970:ISBN
13951:ISBN
13927:ISBN
13906:ISBN
13819:ISBN
13798:ISBN
13777:ISBN
13755:ISBN
13734:ISBN
13713:ISBN
13692:ISBN
13672:ISBN
13634:ISBN
13615:ISBN
13594:ISBN
13509:ISBN
13432:ISBN
13224:2023
13211:ISBN
13172:ISBN
13129:ISBN
13089:2023
12789:ISBN
12724:2012
12711:ISBN
12650:2021
12570:ISBN
12344:ISBN
12319:ISBN
12214:ISBN
11888:ISBN
11861:ISBN
11688:2022
11675:ISBN
11455:ISBN
11292:ISSN
11067:ISBN
10581:OCLC
10571:ISBN
10532:ISBN
10448:ISBN
10316:120?
10276:1047
10162:ISBN
10142:1038
10017:2016
9927:ISBN
9877:–70.
9777:ISBN
9545:ISBN
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9209:1018
9193:1017
9150:ISBN
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8792:ISBN
8606:ISBN
8550:ISBN
8507:ISBN
8464:ISBN
8378:ISBN
8351:ISBN
8141:ISBN
8064:ISBN
7979:ISBN
7949:ISBN
7925:help
7872:2013
7866:: 75
7762:ISBN
7726:ISBN
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