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1977:
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sediments, or if it'll be able to slide. A soft bed, with high porosity and low pore fluid pressure, allows the glacier to move by sediment sliding: the base of the glacier may even remain frozen to the bed, where the underlying sediment slips underneath it like a tube of toothpaste. A hard bed cannot deform in this way; therefore the only way for hard-based glaciers to move is by basal sliding, where meltwater forms between the ice and the bed itself. Whether a bed is hard or soft depends on the porosity and pore pressure; higher porosity decreases the sediment strength (thus increases the shear stress τ
714:. The equilibrium line separates the ablation zone and the accumulation zone; it is the contour where the amount of new snow gained by accumulation is equal to the amount of ice lost through ablation. In general, the accumulation zone accounts for 60–70% of the glacier's surface area, more if the glacier calves icebergs. Ice in the accumulation zone is deep enough to exert a downward force that erodes underlying rock. After a glacier melts, it often leaves behind a bowl- or amphitheater-shaped depression that ranges in size from large basins like the Great Lakes to smaller mountain depressions known as
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663:(granular snow). Further crushing of the individual snowflakes and squeezing the air from the snow turns it into "glacial ice". This glacial ice will fill the cirque until it "overflows" through a geological weakness or vacancy, such as a gap between two mountains. When the mass of snow and ice reaches sufficient thickness, it begins to move by a combination of surface slope, gravity, and pressure. On steeper slopes, this can occur with as little as 15 m (49 ft) of snow-ice.
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conductance, meaning that the basal temperature is also likely to be higher. Bed temperature tends to vary in a cyclic fashion. A cool bed has a high strength, reducing the speed of the glacier. This increases the rate of accumulation, since newly fallen snow is not transported away. Consequently, the glacier thickens, with three consequences: firstly, the bed is better insulated, allowing greater retention of geothermal heat.
774:
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1692:, a non-sorted mixture of rock, gravel, and boulders within a matrix of fine powdery material. Terminal or end moraines are formed at the foot or terminal end of a glacier. Lateral moraines are formed on the sides of the glacier. Medial moraines are formed when two different glaciers merge and the lateral moraines of each coalesce to form a moraine in the middle of the combined glacier. Less apparent are
1086:; the resulting shape change reorganizes blocks. This reorganizes closely packed blocks (a little like neatly folded, tightly packed clothes in a suitcase) into a messy jumble (just as clothes never fit back in when thrown in in a disordered fashion). This increases the porosity. Unless water is added, this will necessarily reduce the pore pressure (as the pore fluids have more space to occupy).
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glaciers are known to reach velocities of up to a kilometer per year. Eventually, the ice will be surging fast enough that it begins to thin, as accumulation cannot keep up with the transport. This thinning will increase the conductive heat loss, slowing the glacier and causing freezing. This freezing will slow the glacier further, often until it is stationary, whence the cycle can begin again.
786:(98 ft) thick to even start flowing, but once its thickness exceeds about 50 m (160 ft) (160 ft), stress on the layer above will exceeds the inter-layer binding strength, and then it'll move faster than the layer below. This means that small amounts of stress can result in a large amount of strain, causing the deformation to become a
1758:; it is estimated to contain about 10,000 drumlins. Although the process that forms drumlins is not fully understood, their shape implies that they are products of the plastic deformation zone of ancient glaciers. It is believed that many drumlins were formed when glaciers advanced over and altered the deposits of earlier glaciers.
2104:. It occurs where previously compressed rock is allowed to return to its original shape more rapidly than can be maintained without faulting. This leads to an effect similar to what would be seen if the rock were hit by a large hammer. Dilation faulting can be observed in recently de-glaciated parts of Iceland and Cumbria.
670:. Under the pressure of the layers of ice and snow above it, this granular ice fuses into denser firn. Over a period of years, layers of firn undergo further compaction and become glacial ice. Glacier ice is slightly more dense than ice formed from frozen water because glacier ice contains fewer trapped air bubbles.
1871:". These are small lakes formed when large ice blocks that are trapped in alluvium melt and produce water-filled depressions. Kettle diameters range from 5 m to 13 km, with depths of up to 45 meters. Most are circular in shape because the blocks of ice that formed them were rounded as they melted.
1997:
whose progressively deep layers represent respectively earlier times in Earth's climate history. The researchers apply various instruments to the content of bubbles trapped in the cores' layers in order to track changes in the atmosphere's composition. Temperatures are deduced from differing relative
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or "sheepback" rock. Roches moutonnées may be elongated, rounded and asymmetrical in shape. They range in length from less than a meter to several hundred meters long. Roches moutonnées have a gentle slope on their up-glacier sides and a steep to vertical face on their down-glacier sides. The glacier
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As glaciers flow over bedrock, they soften and lift blocks of rock into the ice. This process, called plucking, is caused by subglacial water that penetrates fractures in the bedrock and subsequently freezes and expands. This expansion causes the ice to act as a lever that loosens the rock by lifting
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The flow of water under the glacial surface can have a large effect on the motion of the glacier itself. Subglacial lakes contain significant amounts of water, which can move fast: cubic kilometers can be transported between lakes over the course of a couple of years. This motion is thought to occur
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and the internal deformation of ice. At the molecular level, ice consists of stacked layers of molecules with relatively weak bonds between layers. When the amount of strain (deformation) is proportional to the stress being applied, ice will act as an elastic solid. Ice needs to be at least 30 m
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system, the spacecraft discovered a massive basin covered in a layer of nitrogen ice on Pluto. A large portion of the basin's surface is divided into irregular polygonal features separated by narrow troughs, interpreted as convection cells fueled by internal heat from Pluto's interior. Glacial flows
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In addition to the dry, unglaciated polar regions, some mountains and volcanoes in
Bolivia, Chile and Argentina are high (4,500 to 6,900 m or 14,800 to 22,600 ft) and cold, but the relative lack of precipitation prevents snow from accumulating into glaciers. This is because these peaks are
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Ogives or Forbes bands are alternating wave crests and valleys that appear as dark and light bands of ice on glacier surfaces. They are linked to seasonal motion of glaciers; the width of one dark and one light band generally equals the annual movement of the glacier. Ogives are formed when ice from
962:, which can reach a kilometer in depth as ice is topographically steered into them. The extension of fjords inland increases the rate of ice sheet thinning since they are the principal conduits for draining ice sheets. It also makes the ice sheets more sensitive to changes in climate and the ocean.
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show geologic evidence of glacial deposits. The south polar cap is especially comparable to glaciers on Earth. Topographical features and computer models indicate the existence of more glaciers in Mars' past. At mid-latitudes, between 35° and 65° north or south, Martian glaciers are affected by the
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terms a "slow onset" event. Impacts at least partially attributable to sea level rise include for example encroachment on coastal settlements and infrastructure, existential threats to small islands and low-lying coasts, losses of coastal ecosystems and ecosystem services, groundwater salinization,
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At the start of a classic valley glacier is a bowl-shaped cirque, which have escarped walls on three sides but is open on the side that descends into the valley. Cirques are where ice begins to accumulate in a glacier. Two glacial cirques may form back to back and erode their backwalls until only a
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Crevasses can form in several different ways. Transverse crevasses are transverse to flow and form where steeper slopes cause a glacier to accelerate. Longitudinal crevasses form semi-parallel to flow where a glacier expands laterally. Marginal crevasses form near the edge of the glacier, caused by
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Although evidence in favor of glacial flow was known by the early 19th century, other theories of glacial motion were advanced, such as the idea that meltwater, refreezing inside glaciers, caused the glacier to dilate and extend its length. As it became clear that glaciers behaved to some degree as
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Large masses, such as ice sheets or glaciers, can depress the crust of the Earth into the mantle. The depression usually totals a third of the ice sheet or glacier's thickness. After the ice sheet or glacier melts, the mantle begins to flow back to its original position, pushing the crust back up.
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Mean glacial speed varies greatly but is typically around 1 m (3 ft) per day. There may be no motion in stagnant areas; for example, in parts of Alaska, trees can establish themselves on surface sediment deposits. In other cases, glaciers can move as fast as 20–30 m (70–100 ft)
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in
Greenland peaks every year in July, August, and September and increased rapidly in the 1990s and 2000s. In a study using data from January 1993 through October 2005, more events were detected every year since 2002, and twice as many events were recorded in 2005 as there were in any other year.
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is increased. These factors will combine to accelerate the glacier. As friction increases with the square of velocity, faster motion will greatly increase frictional heating, with ensuing melting – which causes a positive feedback, increasing ice speed to a faster flow rate still: west
Antarctic
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When the bedrock has frequent fractures on the surface, glacial erosion rates tend to increase as plucking is the main erosive force on the surface; when the bedrock has wide gaps between sporadic fractures, however, abrasion tends to be the dominant erosive form and glacial erosion rates become
1207:
The presence of basal meltwater depends on both bed temperature and other factors. For instance, the melting point of water decreases under pressure, meaning that water melts at a lower temperature under thicker glaciers. This acts as a "double whammy", because thicker glaciers have a lower heat
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forces cause them to break apart, opening a crevasse. Crevasses are seldom more than 46 m (150 ft) deep but, in some cases, can be at least 300 m (1,000 ft) deep. Beneath this point, the plasticity of the ice prevents the formation of cracks. Intersecting crevasses can create
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The lowest velocities are near the base of the glacier and along valley sides where friction acts against flow, causing the most deformation. Velocity increases inward toward the center line and upward, as the amount of deformation decreases. The highest flow velocities are found at the surface,
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protrude from their surfaces. The only extant ice sheets are the two that cover most of
Antarctica and Greenland. They contain vast quantities of freshwater, enough that if both melted, global sea levels would rise by over 70 m (230 ft). Portions of an ice sheet or cap that extend into
2055:
have lost ice every year since 1988. A study that investigated the period 1995 to 2022 showed that the flow velocity of glaciers in the Alps accelerates and slows down to a similar extent at the same time, despite large distances. This clearly shows that their speed is controlled by the climate
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Most of the important processes controlling glacial motion occur in the ice-bed contact—even though it is only a few meters thick. The bed's temperature, roughness and softness define basal shear stress, which in turn defines whether movement of the glacier will be accommodated by motion in the
4311:
Kellerer-Pirklbauer, Andreas; Bodin, Xavier; Delaloye, Reynald; Lambiel, Christophe; Gärtner-Roer, Isabelle; Bonnefoy-Demongeot, Mylène; Carturan, Luca; Damm, Bodo; Eulenstein, Julia; Fischer, Andrea; Hartl, Lea; Ikeda, Atsushi; Kaufmann, Viktor; Krainer, Karl; Matsuoka, Norikazu (2024-03-01).
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involves motion of water in a thin layer. A switch between the two flow conditions may be associated with surging behavior. Indeed, the loss of sub-glacial water supply has been linked with the shut-down of ice movement in the Kamb ice stream. The subglacial motion of water is expressed in the
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Bed softness may vary in space or time, and changes dramatically from glacier to glacier. An important factor is the underlying geology; glacial speeds tend to differ more when they change bedrock than when the gradient changes. Further, bed roughness can also act to slow glacial motion. The
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and is made up of rock grains between 0.002 and 0.00625 mm in size. Abrasion leads to steeper valley walls and mountain slopes in alpine settings, which can cause avalanches and rock slides, which add even more material to the glacier. Glacial abrasion is commonly characterized by
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As the water that rises from the ablation zone moves away from the glacier, it carries fine eroded sediments with it. As the speed of the water decreases, so does its capacity to carry objects in suspension. The water thus gradually deposits the sediment as it runs, creating an
1276:. These glaciers exhibit normal movement until suddenly they accelerate, then return to their previous movement state. These surges may be caused by the failure of the underlying bedrock, the pooling of meltwater at the base of the glacier — perhaps delivered from a
953:
Because ice can flow faster where it is thicker, the rate of glacier-induced erosion is directly proportional to the thickness of overlying ice. Consequently, pre-glacial low hollows will be deepened and pre-existing topography will be amplified by glacial action, while
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The overhanging icefront of the advancing Webber
Glacier with waterfalls (Borup Fiord area, Northern Ellesmere Island) on July 20, 1978. Debris rich layers have been sheared and folded into the basal cold glacier ice. The glacier front is 6 km broad and up to 40 m
1280: — or the simple accumulation of mass beyond a critical "tipping point". Temporary rates up to 90 m (300 ft) per day have occurred when increased temperature or overlying pressure caused bottom ice to melt and water to accumulate beneath a glacier.
345:, because water molecules absorb other colors more efficiently than blue. The other reason for the blue color of glaciers is the lack of air bubbles. Air bubbles, which give a white color to ice, are squeezed out by pressure increasing the created ice's density.
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Pressure may cause compaction and consolidation of underlying sediments. Since water is relatively incompressible, this is easier when the pore space is filled with vapor; any water must be removed to permit compression. In soils, this is an irreversible
1915:. Eskers are composed of sand and gravel that was deposited by meltwater streams that flowed through ice tunnels within or beneath a glacier. They remain after the ice melts, with heights exceeding 100 meters and lengths of as long as 100 km.
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slow. Glaciers in lower latitudes tend to be much more erosive than glaciers in higher latitudes, because they have more meltwater reaching the glacial base and facilitate sediment production and transport under the same moving speed and amount of ice.
2051:, rising temperatures increase glacier melt, exposing more of earth's land and sea surface (which is darker than glacier ice), allowing sunlight to warm the surface rather than being reflected back into space. Reference glaciers tracked by the
2386:
Brown, Molly
Elizabeth; Ouyang, Hua; Habib, Shahid; Shrestha, Basanta; Shrestha, Mandira; Panday, Prajjwal; Tzortziou, Maria; Policelli, Frederick; Artan, Guleid; Giriraj, Amarnath; Bajracharya, Sagar R.; Racoviteanu, Adina (November 2010).
1782:
glacial valley or glacial trough, as it is sometimes called. The erosion that creates glacial valleys truncates any spurs of rock or earth that may have earlier extended across the valley, creating broadly triangular-shaped cliffs called
1594:. Glaciers produce these when they contain large boulders that carve long scratches in the bedrock. By mapping the direction of the striations, researchers can determine the direction of the glacier's movement. Similar to striations are
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that is especially important for plants, animals and human uses when other sources may be scant. However, within high-altitude and
Antarctic environments, the seasonal temperature difference is often not sufficient to release meltwater.
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Sediment degradation by abrasion and fracture decreases the size of particles, which tends to decrease pore space. However, the motion of the particles may disorder the sediment, with the opposite effect. These processes also generate
709:
Glaciers are broken into zones based on surface snowpack and melt conditions. The ablation zone is the region where there is a net loss in glacier mass. The upper part of a glacier, where accumulation exceeds ablation, is called the
1664:". They range in size from pebbles to boulders, but as they are often moved great distances, they may be drastically different from the material upon which they are found. Patterns of glacial erratics hint at past glacial motions.
1114:) can affect the friction between the glacier and the bed. High fluid pressure provides a buoyancy force upwards on the glacier, reducing the friction at its base. The fluid pressure is compared to the ice overburden pressure, p
270:
has more glacial ice than any other country outside the polar regions. Glaciers cover about 10% of Earth's land surface. Continental glaciers cover nearly 13 million km (5 million sq mi) or about 98% of
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includes both temperate and polar ice, depending on the depth beneath the surface and position along the length of the glacier. In a similar way, the thermal regime of a glacier is often described by its basal temperature. A
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are asymmetrical, canoe-shaped hills made mainly of till. Their heights vary from 15 to 50 meters, and they can reach a kilometer in length. The steepest side of the hill faces the direction from which the ice advanced
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966:
if the ice were a viscous fluid, it was argued that "regelation", or the melting and refreezing of ice at a temperature lowered by the pressure on the ice inside the glacier, was what allowed the ice to deform and flow.
2775:. A Proceedings Volume of the Fifth Annual Geomorphology Symposia Series, held at Binghamton, New York, September 26–28, 1974. Binghamton, NY, State University of New York, pp. 41–87. (Publications in Geomorphology))
1261:. Friction makes the ice at the bottom of the glacier move more slowly than ice at the top. In alpine glaciers, friction is also generated at the valley's sidewalls, which slows the edges relative to the center.
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1598:, lines of crescent-shape depressions in the rock underlying a glacier. They are formed by abrasion when boulders in the glacier are repeatedly caught and released as they are dragged along the bedrock.
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or observing terminus behavior. Healthy glaciers have large accumulation zones, more than 60% of their area is snow-covered at the end of the melt season, and they have a terminus with a vigorous flow.
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Abrasion occurs when the ice and its load of rock fragments slide over bedrock and function as sandpaper, smoothing and polishing the bedrock below. The pulverized rock this process produces is called
4391:
1982:
Based on current national pledges, global average temperature increase is projected to cause loss of ~half of Earth's glaciers by 2100 and raise sea level by ~115 mm (not counting rise from melting
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the reduction in speed caused by friction of the valley walls. Marginal crevasses are largely transverse to flow. Moving glacier ice can sometimes separate from the stagnant ice above, forming a
4175:
3959:
Koppes, Michéle; Hallet, Bernard; Rignot, Eric; Mouginot, Jérémie; Wellner, Julia Smith; Boldt, Katherine (2015). "Observed latitudinal variations in erosion as a function of glacier dynamics".
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where glaciers cannot form because they receive little snowfall despite the bitter cold. Cold air, unlike warm air, is unable to transport much water vapor. Even during glacial periods of the
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4701:
A less-technical treatment of all aspects, with photographs and firsthand accounts of glaciologists' experiences. All images of this book can be found online (see
Weblinks: Glaciers-online)
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and space for snow accumulation in the winter, which in turn creates a ridge. Sometimes ogives consist only of undulations or color bands and are described as wave ogives or band ogives.
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Below the equilibrium line, glacial meltwater is concentrated in stream channels. Meltwater can pool in proglacial lakes on top of a glacier or descend into the depths of a glacier via
2551:
1461:
The permanent snow cover necessary for glacier formation is affected by factors such as the degree of slope on the land, amount of snowfall and the winds. Glaciers can be found in all
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reach above 6,500 m (21,330 ft). Between 19˚N and 19˚S, however, precipitation is higher, and the mountains above 5,000 m (16,400 ft) usually have permanent snow.
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island territories. Extensive glaciers are found in
Antarctica, Argentina, Chile, Canada, Pakistan, Alaska, Greenland and Iceland. Mountain glaciers are widespread, especially in the
735:
Near the equilibrium line on some glaciers, a superimposed ice zone develops. This zone is where meltwater refreezes as a cold layer in the glacier, forming a continuous mass of ice.
2259:
With 7,253 known glaciers, including 543 in the
Chitral Valley, there is more glacial ice in Pakistan than anywhere on Earth outside the polar regions, according to various studies.
3131:
Davies, Damon; Bingham, Robert G.; King, Edward C.; Smith, Andrew M.; Brisbourne, Alex M.; Spagnolo, Matteo; Graham, Alastair G. C.; Hogg, Anna E.; Vaughan, David G. (4 May 2018).
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roughness of the bed is a measure of how many boulders and obstacles protrude into the overlying ice. Ice flows around these obstacles by melting under the high pressure on their
835:
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Wendleder, Anna; Bramboeck, Jasmin; Izzard, Jamie; Erbertseder, Thilo; d'Angelo, Pablo; Schmitt, Andreas; Quincey, Duncan J.; Mayer, Christoph; Braun, Matthias H. (5 March 2024).
777:
The stress–strain relationship of plastic flow (teal section): a small increase in stress creates an exponentially greater increase in strain, which equates to deformation speed.
758:. A slight cooling led to the advance of many alpine glaciers between 1950 and 1985, but since 1985 glacier retreat and mass loss has become larger and increasingly ubiquitous.
4494:
Holt, J. et al. 2008. Radar Sounding Evidence for Ice within Lobate Debris Aprons near Hellas Basin, Mid-Southern Latitudes of Mars. Lunar and Planetary Science XXXIX. 2441.pdf
1708:. In modern geology, the term is used more broadly and is applied to a series of formations, all of which are composed of till. Moraines can also create moraine-dammed lakes.
2340:
1043:. Bergschrunds resemble crevasses but are singular features at a glacier's margins. Crevasses make travel over glaciers hazardous, especially when they are hidden by fragile
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1650:: material directly deposited from glacial ice. Till includes a mixture of undifferentiated material ranging from clay size to boulders, the usual composition of a moraine.
958:, which protrude above ice sheets, barely erode at all – erosion has been estimated as 5 m per 1.2 million years. This explains, for example, the deep profile of
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is above or at freezing at the interface and is able to slide at this contact. This contrast is thought to a large extent to govern the ability of a glacier to effectively
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279:
also have huge expanses of continental glaciers. The volume of glaciers, not including the ice sheets of Antarctica and Greenland, has been estimated at 170,000 km.
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398:, meaning "ice". The processes and features caused by or related to glaciers are referred to as glacial. The process of glacier establishment, growth and flow is called
1643:
Material that becomes incorporated in a glacier is typically carried as far as the zone of ablation before being deposited. Glacial deposits are of two distinct types:
862:
552:. Most tidewater glaciers calve above sea level, which often results in a tremendous impact as the iceberg strikes the water. Tidewater glaciers undergo centuries-long
1253:
The formation of supraglacial lakes at Baltoro Glacier in April 2018 (top) had substantially accelerated its melting and motion in the following summer months (bottom)
1993:
Glaciers, which can be hundreds of thousands of years old, are used to track climate change over long periods of time. Researchers melt or crush samples from glacier
885:
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1909:
created by meltwater. When the glacial ice occupies a valley, it can form terraces or kames along the sides of the valley. Long, sinuous glacial deposits are called
1269:. Glacial speed is affected by factors such as slope, ice thickness, snowfall, longitudinal confinement, basal temperature, meltwater production, and bed hardness.
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develop in the fracture zone. Crevasses form because of differences in glacier velocity. If two rigid sections of a glacier move at different speeds or directions,
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5555:
1162:. The more variable the amount of melting at surface of the glacier, the faster the ice will flow. Basal sliding is dominant in temperate or warm-based glaciers.
659:) – which collects and compresses through gravity the snow that falls into it. This snow accumulates and the weight of the snow falling above compacts it, forming
931:
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211:, as it slowly flows and deforms under stresses induced by its weight. As it moves, it abrades rock and debris from its substrate to create landforms such as
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abrades the smooth slope on the upstream side as it flows along, but tears rock fragments loose and carries them away from the downstream side via plucking.
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1342:
Glaciers are present on every continent and in approximately fifty countries, excluding those (Australia, South Africa) that have glaciers only on distant
1923:
Very fine glacial sediments or rock flour is often picked up by wind blowing over the bare surface and may be deposited great distances from the original
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4485:
Plaut, J. et al. 2008. Radar Evidence for Ice in Lobate Debris Aprons in the Mid-Northern Latitudes of Mars. Lunar and Planetary Science XXXIX. 2290.pdf
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195:) is a persistent body of dense ice that is constantly moving downhill under its own weight. A glacier forms where the accumulation of snow exceeds its
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When a glacier's size shrinks below a critical point, its flow stops and it becomes stationary. Meanwhile, meltwater within and beneath the ice leaves
4314:"Acceleration and interannual variability of creep rates in mountain permafrost landforms (rock glacier velocities) in the European Alps in 1995–2022"
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Dühnforth, Miriam; Anderson, Robert S.; Ward, Dylan; Stock, Greg M. (2010-05-01). "Bedrock fracture control of glacial erosion processes and rates".
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3102:
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Kessler, Mark A.; Anderson, Robert S.; Briner, Jason P. (2008). "Fjord insertion into continental margins driven by topographic steering of ice".
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are formed by the deposition of material from a glacier and are exposed after the glacier has retreated. They usually appear as linear mounds of
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The percolation zone is an area with some surface melt, causing meltwater to percolate into the snowpack. This zone is often marked by refrozen
3707:
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275:'s 13.2 million km (5.1 million sq mi), with an average thickness of ice 2,100 m (7,000 ft). Greenland and
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Fricker, A.; Scambos, T.; Bindschadler, R.; Padman, L. (Mar 2007). "An Active Subglacial Water System in West Antarctica Mapped from Space".
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1054:. Streams within or beneath a glacier flow in englacial or sub-glacial tunnels. These tunnels sometimes reemerge at the glacier's surface.
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contains more glacial ice than any other country on earth outside the polar regions. At 62 kilometres (39 mi) in length, the pictured
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1704:
is of French origin. It was coined by peasants to describe alluvial embankments and rims found near the margins of glaciers in the French
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of 41°46′09″ N is the southernmost glacial mass in Europe. Mainland Australia currently contains no glaciers, although a small glacier on
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2736:
Lorrain, Reginald D.; Fitzsimons, Sean J. (2011). "Cold-Based Glaciers". In Singh, Vijay P.; Singh, Pratap; Haritashya, Umesh K. (eds.).
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and moves mostly as a single unit over the plastic-flowing lower section. When a glacier moves through irregular terrain, cracks called
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1802:. Therefore, when glaciers recede, the valleys of the tributary glaciers remain above the main glacier's depression and are called
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The wet snow zone is the region where all of the snow deposited since the end of the previous summer has been raised to 0 °C.
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mode of the water molecule. (Liquid water appears blue for the same reason. The blue of glacier ice is sometimes misattributed to
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McKinnon, W. B.; et al. (1 June 2016). "Convection in a volatile nitrogen-ice-rich layer drives Pluto's geological vigour".
4291:. World Glacier Monitoring Service ("under the auspices of: ISC (WDS), IUGG (IACS), UN environment, UNESCO, WMO"). January 2023.
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concentrations of respective gases, confirming that for at least the last million years, global temperatures have been linked to
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it. Thus, sediments of all sizes become part of the glacier's load. If a retreating glacier gains enough debris, it may become a
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rather than elastic. Then, the glacier will begin to deform under its own weight and flow across the landscape. According to the
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1905:. Some kames form when meltwater deposits sediments through openings in the interior of the ice. Others are produced by fans or
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1118:, given by ρgh. Under fast-flowing ice streams, these two pressures will be approximately equal, with an effective pressure (p
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came up with the essentially correct explanation in the 1840s, although it was several decades before it was fully accepted.
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2089:, which proceeds very slowly after the melting of the ice sheet or glacier, is currently occurring in measurable amounts in
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4916:
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Head, J. et al. 2005. Tropical to mid-latitude snow and ice accumulation, flow and glaciation on Mars. Nature: 434. 346–350
498:; they tend to be thin with limited slopes and reduced velocities. Narrow, fast-moving sections of an ice sheet are called
4426:, Third International Conference on Mars Polar Science and Exploration, Alberta, Canada, October 13–17, 2003 (pdf 970 Kb)"
5969:
5747:
5565:
5487:
5477:
5460:
5367:
5174:
5492:
2150:. As on Earth, many glaciers are covered with a layer of rocks which insulates the ice. A radar instrument on board the
6592:
6398:
6259:
6216:
5712:
1126:) of 30 kPa; i.e. all of the weight of the ice is supported by the underlying water, and the glacier is afloat.
6325:
6201:
6018:
5211:
4020:
2713:
2605:
2327:
1976:
7197:
6558:
6196:
6176:
6123:
6075:
5127:
4292:
2052:
17:
2005:
Human activities in the industrial era have increased the concentration of carbon dioxide and other heat-trapping
6315:
6266:
5692:
5654:
5599:
5059:
3518:
1778:, produced by eroding water. During glaciation, these valleys are often widened, deepened and smoothed to form a
2142:
thin Martian atmosphere. Because of the low atmospheric pressure, ablation near the surface is solely caused by
621:
223:. Although a glacier may flow into a body of water, it forms only on land and is distinct from the much thinner
6847:
6383:
5667:
5414:
4912:
3490:"The Brúarjökull Project: Sedimentary environments of a surging glacier. The Brúarjökull Project research idea"
2623:
Bindschadler, R.A.; Scambos, T.A. (1991). "Satellite-image-derived velocity field of an Antarctic ice stream".
2143:
1951:
1724:, Wisconsin, in an area with one of the highest concentration of drumlins in the world. The curved path of the
755:
323:
4213:
7230:
6493:
6028:
5560:
794:, the relationship between stress and strain, and thus the rate of internal flow, can be modeled as follows:
545:
541:
6476:
6148:
5677:
5672:
5577:
5444:
5001:
4185:
2865:
800:
7280:
4970:
1410:. Oceanic islands with glaciers include Iceland, several of the islands off the coast of Norway including
1034:
impede flow. In this case, the impediment appears to be some distance from the near margin of the glacier.
362:
6827:
5687:
5530:
2684:
2151:
702:
A glacier originates at a location called its glacier head and terminates at its glacier foot, snout, or
311:
1700:, which often blankets the surface underneath the glacier downslope from the equilibrium line. The term
609:
at rock from the surface below. Glaciers which are partly cold-based and partly warm-based are known as
7861:
6766:
6546:
6310:
6113:
6070:
5843:
5765:
5619:
4933:
3110:
1834:
Passage of glacial ice over an area of bedrock may cause the rock to be sculpted into a knoll called a
1465:
except from 20° to 27° north and south of the equator where the presence of the descending limb of the
655:) – a typically armchair-shaped geological feature (such as a depression between mountains enclosed by
3551:
2176:
were also observed near Sputnik Planitia's margins, appearing to flow both into and out of the basin.
1787:. Within glacial valleys, depressions created by plucking and abrasion can be filled by lakes, called
1138:
A cross-section through a glacier. The base of the glacier is more transparent as a result of melting.
7627:
6415:
6090:
6065:
6038:
6000:
5917:
5735:
5582:
5535:
5285:
5054:
5049:
5044:
3841:
3249:
Boulton, Geoffrey S. (2006). "Glaciers and their Coupling with Hydraulic and Sedimentary Processes".
2130:
2014:
725:
The dry snow zone is a region where no melt occurs, even in the summer, and the snowpack remains dry.
5930:
3716:
1287:
occur. These are large scale earthquakes that have seismic magnitudes as high as 6.1. The number of
524:
are glaciers that terminate in the sea, including most glaciers flowing from Greenland, Antarctica,
7906:
6802:
6425:
6420:
6410:
6351:
6191:
5697:
5662:
5545:
5472:
5313:
5142:
5078:
5039:
2835:
2680:
2490:
2302:
1935:
1249:
638:
31:
4094:
Rounce, David R.; Hock, Regine; Maussion, Fabien; Hugonnet, Romain; et al. (5 January 2023).
2515:
1427:
7382:
6852:
6534:
6456:
6366:
6108:
6080:
5760:
5409:
5387:
4994:
4980:
2909:
2536:
2048:
1626:
Shape, abundance and hardness of rock fragments contained in the ice at the bottom of the glacier
1313:
an icefall is severely broken up, increasing ablation surface area during summer. This creates a
1066:
Erosion rates of subglacial sediment caused by the motion of different glaciers across the world
553:
520:
286:
on Earth, holding with ice sheets about 69 percent of the world's freshwater. Many glaciers from
597:
is below freezing at the ice-ground interface and is thus frozen to the underlying substrate. A
7901:
7436:
7112:
6761:
6585:
6133:
5953:
5895:
5812:
5797:
5682:
5318:
5264:
5259:
5254:
5249:
5244:
5239:
4230:
Wunderling, Nico; Willeit, Matteo; Donges, Jonathan F.; Winkelmann, Ricarda (27 October 2020).
2385:
1363:
1051:
846:
331:
38:
4456:
4313:
3880:
3685:
2778:
1030:); such crevasses often form near the edge of a glacier where interactions with underlying or
7135:
6842:
6522:
6168:
6045:
5853:
5303:
5226:
4512:
4457:"Martian glaciers: did they originate from the atmosphere? ESA Mars Express, 20 January 2006"
4012:
3897:
3895:
3709:
Retreat of the Irian Jaya Glaciers from 2000 to 2002 as Measured from IKONOS Satellite Images
2817:
Benson, C.S., 1961, "Stratigraphic studies in the snow and firn of the Greenland Ice Sheet",
2705:
1967:
1716:
1677:
1563:
1062:
869:
791:
678:
630:
606:
2535:
2068:
and compounding damage from tropical cyclones, flooding, storm surges, and land subsidence.
666:
In temperate glaciers, snow repeatedly freezes and thaws, changing into granular ice called
7837:
7718:
7270:
6878:
6361:
6239:
5900:
5465:
5392:
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4552:
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4107:
4061:
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3466:
3410:
3347:
3291:
3228:
3216:
3144:
3074:
3039:
3011:
2989:
Easterbrook, Don J., Surface Processes and Landforms, 2nd Edition, Prentice-Hall Inc., 1999
2874:
2634:
2122:
2086:
1725:
787:
743:
7844:
7275:
4421:
4075:
4027:
3892:
2856:
Paul, Frank; Kääb, Andreas; Maisch, Max; Kellenberger, Tobias; Haeberli, Wilfried (2004).
584:
is always below the freezing threshold from the surface to its base, although the surface
8:
7891:
7723:
7072:
6899:
6817:
6378:
6153:
5377:
5372:
2239:
2155:
1755:
1660:
Larger pieces of rock that are encrusted in till or deposited on the surface are called "
1500:
1391:
1300:
915:
892:
682:
476:. Ice caps have an area less than 50,000 km (19,000 sq mi) by definition.
242:
on every continent other than the Australian mainland, including Oceania's high-latitude
4556:
4329:
4247:
4111:
3974:
3929:
3414:
3351:
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3220:
3148:
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3015:
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2857:
2638:
2028:
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941:
Differential erosion enhances relief, as clear in this incredibly steep-sided Norwegian
7826:
7361:
6904:
6701:
6206:
6138:
6055:
5905:
5870:
5827:
5822:
5817:
5382:
4860:
A comprehensive reference on the physical principles underlying formation and behavior.
4576:
4542:
4424:
Martian Polar Ice Sheets and Mid-Latitude Debris-Rich Glaciers, and Terrestrial Analogs
4264:
4231:
4189:
4168:"Climate at the core: how scientists study ice cores to reveal Earth's climate history"
4141:
3994:
3379:
3315:
2960:
2658:
2420:
2203:
1970:
in Washington photographs from 1928 to 2003 showing the recent rapid glacier retreating
1579:
1567:
1556:
1466:
1407:
1359:
1288:
1284:
967:
424:
338:
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2100:
A geomorphological feature created by the same process on a smaller scale is known as
1836:
580:
is at a melting point throughout the year, from its surface to its base. The ice of a
448:
form on the crests and slopes of mountains. A glacier that fills a valley is called a
7896:
7223:
7187:
7150:
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6691:
6578:
6440:
6103:
5848:
5614:
5397:
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4774:
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4682:
4635:
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4269:
4181:
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4133:
3986:
3941:
3916:
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3363:
3307:
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2650:
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2424:
2405:
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2126:
2044:
1892:
1868:
1591:
1527:, though extraordinarily cold, had such light snowfall that glaciers could not form.
1399:
1277:
1100:
711:
441:
Glaciers are categorized by their morphology, thermal characteristics, and behavior.
434:
287:
4876:
4580:
3383:
2662:
673:
Glacial ice has a distinctive blue tint because it absorbs some red light due to an
7875:
7602:
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6919:
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6660:
6483:
6050:
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4259:
4251:
4123:
4115:
3998:
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3813:
3562:
3533:
3418:
3355:
3319:
3299:
3254:
3224:
3162:
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3047:
3019:
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2882:
2768:
2741:
2642:
2410:
2400:
2185:
2117:
2113:
1928:
1896:
1788:
1387:
1326:
1314:
1236:
involves liquid water moving through pipe-like conduits, like a sub-glacial river;
703:
537:
533:
142:
107:
101:
4096:"Global glacier change in the 21st century: Every increase in temperature matters"
2389:"HIMALA: Climate Impacts on Glaciers, Snow, and Hydrology in the Himalayan Region"
1241:
surface topography of ice sheets, which slump down into vacated subglacial lakes.
990:
The top 50 m (160 ft) of a glacier are rigid because they are under low
7252:
7087:
7062:
6944:
6857:
6746:
6435:
6356:
6320:
6249:
6223:
6211:
6128:
6060:
5935:
5792:
5404:
5355:
5333:
3558:
3525:
3476:
2745:
2740:. Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series. Springer Netherlands. pp. 157–161.
2646:
2197:
1934:
deposits may be very deep, even hundreds of meters, as in areas of China and the
1784:
1779:
1775:
1661:
1524:
1520:
1439:
1355:
1273:
1159:
1003:
729:
602:
303:
298:
store water as ice during the colder seasons and release it later in the form of
136:
87:
3622:
2235:"Pakistan has more glaciers than almost anywhere on Earth. But they are at risk"
7807:
7797:
7607:
7029:
6979:
6964:
6837:
6822:
6751:
6736:
6670:
6655:
6388:
6244:
6186:
6181:
6023:
5912:
5644:
5639:
5634:
5482:
5419:
5157:
5137:
5096:
5017:
4944:
4837:
4789:
4675:
4337:
4255:
3489:
3282:
Schoof, C. (2010). "Ice-sheet acceleration driven by melt supply variability".
2797:
2465:
2191:
2060:
2010:
2006:
1999:
1939:
1867:. Outwash plains and valley trains are usually accompanied by basins known as "
1852:
1819:
1803:
1693:
1535:
1455:
1023:
751:
399:
342:
327:
291:
243:
239:
3258:
3087:
3066:
2946:
2032:
1083:
479:
Glacial bodies larger than 50,000 km (19,000 sq mi) are called
196:
63:
7885:
7622:
7574:
7559:
7427:
7160:
7102:
7082:
7077:
7024:
7019:
7004:
6949:
6832:
6807:
6686:
6461:
6393:
6118:
5940:
5925:
5860:
5755:
4829:
4345:
3945:
3598:
3367:
2248:
2172:
2076:
1815:
1746:
1721:
1601:
1451:
1431:
1419:
1211:
Secondly, the increased pressure can facilitate melting. Most importantly, τ
1143:
1027:
525:
513:
295:
6894:
4899:
4810:
4778:
4751:
4724:
4696:
4357:
4355:
4180:
Reviewed by Erich Osterberg and David Anderson. Applied instruments include
4119:
3537:
3423:
3399:"Velocity variations and hydrological drainage at Baltoro Glacier, Pakistan"
3398:
3359:
3157:
3132:
2415:
7632:
7544:
7539:
7534:
7432:
7402:
7216:
7040:
6969:
6726:
6721:
6665:
6346:
6143:
5787:
5777:
5424:
5308:
5221:
4572:
4407:
4273:
4137:
3990:
3795:
3375:
3311:
2654:
2163:
2024:
1888:
1823:
1595:
1575:
1504:
1496:
1423:
1343:
1305:
1151:
626:
529:
366:
235:
78:
4975:
4949:
4232:"Global warming due to loss of large ice masses and Arctic summer sea ice"
1491:
Even at high latitudes, glacier formation is not inevitable. Areas of the
1103:; the resultant meltwater is then forced into the cavity arising in their
937:
7802:
7708:
7592:
7564:
7554:
7549:
7487:
7472:
7457:
7442:
7366:
7330:
7155:
7034:
7014:
7009:
6994:
6954:
6812:
6696:
6373:
5890:
5882:
5132:
4855:
4352:
3566:
2887:
2094:
2090:
1906:
1403:
1395:
1335:
1224:
1219:
1147:
1044:
1040:
500:
495:
319:
315:
283:
247:
46:
7738:
4564:
4509:"Pluto updates from AGU and DPS: Pretty pictures from a confusing world"
4288:
4128:
3982:
3303:
3103:"Moulin 'Blanc': NASA Expedition Probes Deep Within a Greenland Glacier"
2821:, U.S. Army Snow, Ice and Permafrost Res Establ., Corps of Eng., 120 pp.
1761:
1283:
In glaciated areas where the glacier moves faster than one km per year,
1134:
732:, glands, and layers. The snowpack also never reaches the melting point.
489:. Several kilometers deep, they obscure the underlying topography. Only
7792:
7672:
7657:
7617:
7612:
7492:
7467:
7417:
7392:
7296:
7182:
7165:
7145:
7097:
6731:
6645:
6405:
5782:
4883:
4658:
4310:
3519:"Seasonality and Increasing Frequency of Greenland Glacial Earthquakes"
2018:
1961:
1586:
1508:
1470:
1014:
569:
509:
407:
403:
377:
272:
259:
71:
4630:. Routledge Fundamentals of Physical Geography Series (3rd ed.).
3167:
2858:"Rapid disintegration of Alpine glaciers observed with satellite data"
1899:". Glacial deposits that take the shape of hills or mounds are called
1879:
1818:. If multiple cirques encircle a single mountain, they create pointed
1656:: sediments deposited by water. These deposits are stratified by size.
1616:
The rate of glacier erosion varies. Six factors control erosion rate:
1551:
1186:
is the basal shear stress, a function of bed temperature and softness.
978:
721:
The accumulation zone can be subdivided based on its melt conditions.
693:
564:
7764:
7754:
7733:
7662:
7507:
7482:
7462:
7397:
7387:
7356:
7351:
7316:
6771:
6711:
6640:
6635:
6630:
5350:
4939:
4631:
3937:
1983:
1799:
1672:
1606:
1532:
1512:
1484:
1473:
1443:
1415:
1394:. In New Guinea, small, rapidly diminishing, glaciers are located on
1371:
1351:
1155:
1154:
and allowing the glacier to slide over the terrain on which it sits.
660:
505:
481:
472:
460:. A large body of glacial ice astride a mountain, mountain range, or
299:
276:
251:
231:
51:
4920:
3051:
3023:
2798:"What causes the blue color that sometimes appears in snow and ice?"
1766:
1740:), while a longer slope is left in the ice's direction of movement (
429:
310:
Since glacial mass is affected by long-term climatic changes, e.g.,
302:
as warmer summer temperatures cause the glacier to melt, creating a
30:
This article is about the geological formation. For other uses, see
7774:
7769:
7759:
7728:
7692:
7687:
7677:
7529:
7477:
7452:
7311:
7306:
7125:
7120:
6873:
6797:
6706:
4547:
4205:
3396:
2771:"Processes and patterns of glacial erosion", (In Coates, D.R. ed.,
2568:
1994:
1462:
1447:
1411:
1383:
1379:
1258:
1227:, a prominent subglacial lake beneath the East Antarctic Ice Sheet.
1177:
is the driving stress, and α the ice surface slope in radians.
1104:
1019:
999:
991:
767:
674:
642:
585:
556:
that are much less affected by climate change than other glaciers.
358:
267:
263:
204:
83:
27:
Persistent body of ice that is moving downhill under its own weight
7848:
6934:
3561:
Tsai, V. C. and G. Ekström (2007). J. Geophys. Res., 112, F03S22,
1811:
1791:. If a glacial valley runs into a large body of water, it forms a
1610:
656:
7784:
7682:
7652:
7597:
7587:
7412:
7346:
7341:
7326:
7301:
7067:
7057:
6984:
6756:
6741:
6650:
6625:
5328:
4986:
4229:
3469:
The Evolution of a Glacier Surge Observed with the ERS Satellites
2298:"Millions at risk as melting Pakistan glaciers raise flood fears"
2209:
2147:
2036:
1924:
1864:
1860:
1732:
1685:
1516:
1331:
955:
782:
773:
549:
548:. As the ice reaches the sea, pieces break off or calve, forming
490:
466:
461:
224:
216:
200:
67:
4815:
A textbook for undergraduates avoiding mathematical complexities
4174:. National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA).
3337:
1798:
Typically glaciers deepen their valleys more than their smaller
1479:
950:
representing the sum of the velocities of all the layers below.
7713:
7336:
6939:
6620:
6615:
6341:
4596:"Probing the Mysterious Glacial Flow on Pluto's Frozen 'Heart'"
3030:
Kleman, John (2008). "Geomorphology: Where glaciers cut deep".
1895:
and clusters, remain after the glacier melts and are known as "
1492:
1435:
1082:
Movement of the overlying glacier may cause the bed to undergo
983:
742:
The health of a glacier is usually assessed by determining the
715:
646:
212:
3001:
2059:
Water runoff from melting glaciers causes global sea level to
1418:
to the far north, New Zealand and the subantarctic islands of
250:. Between latitudes 35°N and 35°S, glaciers occur only in the
187:
163:
125:
7667:
7582:
7497:
7422:
7256:
7249:
7130:
6959:
6776:
6255:
Cooperative Mechanisms under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement
5338:
4950:
Photo project tracks changes in Himalayan glaciers since 1921
4825:
A textbook devoted to explaining the geography of our planet.
2168:
1931:
1911:
1792:
1375:
1347:
1272:
A few glaciers have periods of very rapid advancement called
1008:
959:
942:
418:
388:
255:
220:
208:
1945:
1891:
alluvial deposits. These deposits, in the forms of columns,
37:"Ice river" redirects here. For the Chinese ski course, see
7502:
7447:
7407:
7140:
6909:
6716:
6570:
3547:
3545:
3106:
2576:
2154:
found ice under a thin layer of rocks in formations called
2138:
2064:
1901:
1705:
1689:
1367:
1110:
As well as affecting the sediment stress, fluid pressure (p
667:
443:
437:
in Peru is the second-largest glaciated area in the tropics
184:
178:
160:
119:
4372:. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). 2022.
4093:
3958:
3913:
3067:"A short history of scientific investigations on glaciers"
2855:
1855:. When this phenomenon occurs in a valley, it is called a
1774:
Before glaciation, mountain valleys have a characteristic
1257:
The speed of glacial displacement is partly determined by
227:
and lake ice that form on the surface of bodies of water.
122:
7239:
6431:
Illustrative model of greenhouse effect on climate change
3889:, pp. 263–264, Glacial and Glaciofluvial Landscapes.
3741:"Hawaiian Glaciers Reveal Clues to Global Climate Change"
2787:, pp. 260–262, Glacial and Glaciofluvial Landscapes.
1629:
Relative ease of erosion of the surface under the glacier
1158:
may be produced by pressure-induced melting, friction or
172:
154:
148:
113:
4278:
Source mentions ice-albedo and melt-elevation feedbacks.
4161:
4159:
4157:
4155:
3715:. Portland, Maine, USA. pp. 147–157. Archived from
3542:
1562:
Glaciers erode terrain through two principal processes:
910:= a constant between 2–4 (typically 3 for most glaciers)
4873:
Vanishing Ice: Glaciers, Ice Sheets, and Rising Seas
4225:
4223:
3705:
3512:
7208:
3130:
756:
glaciers around the Earth have retreated substantially
326:
are considered among the most sensitive indicators of
230:
On Earth, 99% of glacial ice is contained within vast
7859:
6272:
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
4894:
12 May 2017, Vol. 356, Issue 6338, pp. 580–581,
4152:
4036:, pp. 271, Glacial and Glaciofluvial Landscapes.
1762:
Glacial valleys, cirques, arêtes, and pyramidal peaks
918:
895:
872:
849:
803:
181:
157:
4976:
Mountain glaciers and their role in the Earth system
4665:, which was accessed in the version of 24 July 2005.
4220:
4084:, p. 264, Glacial and Glaciofluvial Landscapes.
3904:, p. 263, Glacial and Glaciofluvial Landscapes.
2936:
2080:
Isostatic pressure by a glacier on the Earth's crust
1728:
is evident in the orientation of the various mounds.
175:
151:
116:
4763:. University of British Columbia Press, UCL Press.
4393:
Global Warming Cycles: Ice Ages and Glacial Retreat
2932:
2930:
2928:
2832:"Glacier change and related hazards in Switzerland"
2622:
2200: – Artificial process used for making glaciers
1635:
Permeability and water pressure at the glacier base
504:. In Antarctica, many ice streams drain into large
258:, and a few high mountains in East Africa, Mexico,
169:
145:
110:
4788:
4674:
4200:
4198:
3064:
2341:"170'000 km cube d'eau dans les glaciers du monde"
2188: – Landform created by the action of glaciers
925:
902:
879:
856:
829:
649:landform (alternatively known as a corrie or as a
559:
508:. Some drain directly into the sea, often with an
406:. Glaciers are important components of the global
3207:Clarke, G. K. C. (2005). "Subglacial processes".
2735:
2514:. American Meteorological Society. Archived from
766:"Ice flow" redirects here. For floating ice, see
7883:
6472:Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
4087:
3528:, Ekström, G., M. Nettles, and V.C. Tsai (2006)
3206:
2925:
2444:(5 ed.). London: Cassell Ltd. p. 883.
2322:National Geographic Almanac of Geography, 2005,
1150:by the presence of liquid water, reducing basal
1078:Porosity may vary through a range of methods.
4195:
337:A large piece of compressed ice, or a glacier,
203:. It acquires distinguishing features, such as
4731:
3333:
3331:
3329:
3244:
3242:
3240:
3238:
3202:
3200:
3198:
2985:
2983:
2539:, Department of Geography and Geology (2015).
2399:(4). International Mountain Society: 401–404.
2270:
348:
266:in Iran. With more than 7,000 known glaciers,
234:(also known as "continental glaciers") in the
90:is one of the world's longest alpine glaciers.
7224:
6586:
5207:History of climate change policy and politics
5002:
4497:
4281:
3867:"On the Zoogeography of the Holarctic Region"
3682:, National Mapping Fab, Geoscience Australia"
3661:
3390:
3209:Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences
3196:
3194:
3192:
3190:
3188:
3186:
3184:
3182:
3180:
3178:
2363:"Ice, Snow, and Glaciers and the Water Cycle"
2013:. Human influence is the principal driver of
4705:Benn, Douglas I.; Evans, David J.A. (1999).
4681:(2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press.
4672:
4526:
3029:
2731:
2729:
2487:"Retreat of Alaskan glacier Juneau icefield"
1469:lowers precipitation so much that with high
1434:. During glacial periods of the Quaternary,
1129:
402:. The corresponding area of study is called
5324:Atlantic meridional overturning circulation
4913:"Global Glacier Changes: Facts and Figures"
4587:
3840:. July 28, 2017. p. 15. Archived from
3706:Kincaid, Joni L.; Klein, Andrew G. (2004).
3592:
3577:
3326:
3235:
2997:
2995:
2980:
2275:. Seattle: University of Washington Press.
2271:Post, Austin; LaChapelle, Edward R (2000).
973:
650:
392:
381:
370:
7231:
7217:
6593:
6579:
6553:
6541:
5998:
5009:
4995:
4503:
4054:
3812:. Beringia.com. 1999-04-12. Archived from
3275:
3175:
3124:
2541:"Morphological Classification of Glaciers"
1845:
1450:also had large alpine glaciers, while the
1195:, the shear stress, is the lower of τ
419:Classification by size, shape and behavior
6293:
6099:Adaptation strategies on the German coast
5232:United Nations Climate Change conferences
4734:Glacial Geology: Ice Sheets and Landforms
4704:
4546:
4263:
4127:
4045:
3743:. Geology.com. 2007-01-26. Archived from
3422:
3166:
3156:
3086:
2886:
2726:
2414:
2404:
1946:Retreat of glaciers due to climate change
1822:; particularly steep examples are called
1338:in New Zealand finishes near a rainforest
922:
899:
876:
853:
826:
5803:Co-benefits of climate change mitigation
4828:
4532:
4363:"IPCC AR6 WGII Summary for Policymakers"
3251:Glacier Science and Environmental Change
2992:
2910:"Recent Global Glacier Retreat Overview"
2264:
2121:
2075:
2023:
1883:Landscape produced by a receding glacier
1878:
1814:is left. This structure may result in a
1765:
1715:
1671:
1605:Glacially plucked granitic bedrock near
1600:
1550:
1478:
1330:
1299:
1248:
1218:
1203:. It controls the rate of plastic flow.
1133:
1061:
1013:
977:
936:
772:
692:
620:
563:
428:
330:and are a major source of variations in
282:Glacial ice is the largest reservoir of
77:
57:
45:
6159:National Adaptation Programme of Action
5948:Land use, land-use change, and forestry
4758:
4625:
4593:
4081:
4033:
3901:
3886:
3684:. Ga.gov.au. 2010-11-18. Archived from
3248:
2784:
2669:
2437:
2228:
2226:
1754:. One of these fields is found east of
1744:). Drumlins are found in groups called
1325:Further information on this topic:
1057:
781:Glaciers move downhill by the force of
14:
7884:
5808:Economics of climate change mitigation
5771:Gold Standard (carbon offset standard)
5284:
5112:Scientific consensus on climate change
4818:
4786:
4673:Hambrey, Michael; Alean, Jürg (2004).
4389:
3766:"French Colonies – Crozet Archipelago"
3680:Australian Landforms and their History
3281:
3229:10.1146/annurev.earth.33.092203.122621
2738:Encyclopedia of Snow, Ice and Glaciers
2212: – Accumulation of ice in a river
1632:Thermal conditions at the glacier base
645:. A glacier usually originates from a
7212:
6574:
6467:Coupled Model Intercomparison Project
6292:
5997:
5733:
5283:
5195:
5076:
5028:
4990:
4983:– Before/After Images by Simon Oberli
4732:Bennett, M.R.; Glasser, N.F. (1996).
4650:
4379:from the original on 22 January 2023.
4295:from the original on 29 January 2023.
4178:from the original on 28 January 2023.
4165:
3644:"10 Countries With The Most Glaciers"
2590:
2295:
2232:
994:. This upper section is known as the
830:{\displaystyle \Sigma =k\tau ^{n},\,}
74:(3.768 m), second highest in Austria.
7833:
6489:Representative Concentration Pathway
5430:Tipping points in the climate system
5106:Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere
4917:United Nations Environment Programme
4046:Benn, Douglas; Evans, David (1998).
3810:"Yukon Beringia Interpretive Center"
2223:
2071:
1829:
6260:Nationally determined contributions
5970:Individual action on climate change
5175:World energy supply and consumption
4050:. London: Arnold. pp. 324–326.
3785:
2939:Dynamics of Ice Sheets and Glaciers
2706:"What types of glaciers are there?"
2107:
1874:
1146:, where the base of the glacier is
588:may experience seasonal melting. A
24:
6399:Fixed anvil temperature hypothesis
5016:
4875:(Columbia University Press, 2019)
4865:
4821:Introduction to Physical Geography
4657:This article draws heavily on the
3133:"How dynamic are ice-stream beds?"
2379:
1942:can be important in this process.
1541:
1007:isolated peaks in the ice, called
933:= a temperature-dependent constant
850:
804:
70:. The mountain to the left is the
25:
7918:
6326:Satellite temperature measurement
5931:forestry for carbon sequestration
5212:History of climate change science
4905:
4021:National Snow and Ice Data Center
3623:"Glossary of Glacier Terminology"
3552:"Analysis of Glacial Earthquakes"
2714:National Snow and Ice Data Center
2606:National Snow and Ice Data Center
2466:"Glossary of Glacier Terminology"
2393:Mountain Research and Development
2206: – Geomorphology of glaciers
1918:
50:Glacier of the Geikie Plateau in
7869:
7843:
7832:
7822:
7821:
7198:Template:Periglacial environment
6552:
6540:
6529:
6528:
6516:
6177:Climate Change Performance Index
5556:Destruction of cultural heritage
4940:Glacial structures – photo atlas
4783:An undergraduate-level textbook.
4216:from the original on 2019-12-21.
3768:. Discoverfrance.net. 2010-12-09
3578:Summerfield, Michael A. (1991).
2898:from the original on 2007-06-04.
2557:from the original on 2017-08-12.
2406:10.1659/MRD-JOURNAL-D-10-00071.1
2053:World Glacier Monitoring Service
1975:
1960:
1555:Diagram of glacial plucking and
1265:per day, such as in Greenland's
141:
106:
6316:Instrumental temperature record
6267:Sustainable Development Goal 13
4618:
4594:Umurhan, O. (January 8, 2016).
4488:
4479:
4470:
4449:
4438:from the original on 2008-02-27
4414:
4383:
4304:
4039:
4005:
3952:
3907:
3859:
3827:
3802:
3779:
3758:
3733:
3699:
3670:
3636:
3615:
3595:Surface Processes and Landforms
3586:
3571:
3503:
3482:
3460:
3431:
3095:
3058:
2977:W.S.B. Paterson, Physics of ice
2971:
2937:Greve, R.; Blatter, H. (2009).
2902:
2849:
2824:
2811:
2790:
2762:
2698:
2616:
2561:
2548:www.uwsp.edu/Pages/default.aspx
2529:
2504:
2479:
2047:with glaciers. For example, in
2021:of which glaciers are a part.
1859:. When the deposition is in an
1770:Features of a glacial landscape
1170:= ρgh sin α
560:Classification by thermal state
361:from French and goes back, via
238:, but glaciers may be found in
6384:Climate variability and change
5734:
5415:Retreat of glaciers since 1850
4795:. Cheltenham: Nelson Thornes.
4626:Huggett, Richard John (2011).
4318:Environmental Research Letters
4206:"The Causes of Climate Change"
4166:Dusto, Amy (28 January 2023).
2458:
2431:
2355:
2333:
2316:
2289:
1952:Retreat of glaciers since 1850
546:Southern Patagonian Ice Fields
13:
1:
6494:Shared Socioeconomic Pathways
6029:Climate emergency declaration
4628:Fundamentals Of Geomorphology
4186:scanning electron microscopes
2489:. Nichols.edu. Archived from
2347:. Aug 6, 2015. Archived from
2216:
2194: – Geological phenomenon
1863:, the sediments are known as
1654:Fluvial and outwash sediments
1503:in Antarctica are considered
572:is an advancing polar glacier
554:cycles of advance and retreat
6600:
6477:IPCC Sixth Assessment Report
5703:Middle East and North Africa
5029:
4919:(UNEP). 2008. Archived from
3109:. 2006-12-11. Archived from
2866:Geophysical Research Letters
2746:10.1007/978-90-481-2642-2_72
2677:"Description of Ice Streams"
2647:10.1126/science.252.5003.242
2009:in the air, causing current
1620:Velocity of glacial movement
1320:
688:
616:
7:
5551:Depopulation of settlements
5196:
4962:The Mountains of California
4390:Casper, Julie Kerr (2010).
4013:"Glacial Landforms: Trough"
3625:. Pubs.usgs.gov. 2012-06-20
3073:. Special issue (S1): 4–5.
3065:Clarke, Garry K.C. (1987).
2179:
2152:Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter
1711:
1667:
1458:were completely glaciated.
349:Etymology and related terms
82:With 7,253 known glaciers,
10:
7923:
6311:Global surface temperature
6202:Popular culture depictions
6114:Ecosystem-based adaptation
5844:Carbon capture and storage
5766:Carbon offsets and credits
5077:
4934:Global Environment Outlook
4888:Saying goodbye to glaciers
4823:. Wm. C. Brown Publishers.
4663:Spanish-language Knowledge
4256:10.1038/s41467-020-18934-3
3597:(2 ed.). New Jersey:
3593:Easterbrook, D.J. (1999).
2441:Cassell's Latin Dictionary
2111:
1949:
1546:
1324:
1142:Glaciers may also move by
864:= shear strain (flow) rate
765:
605:, as sliding ice promotes
422:
62:The Taschachferner in the
36:
29:
7816:
7783:
7747:
7701:
7645:
7628:Short-track speed skating
7573:
7525:
7516:
7375:
7289:
7263:
7246:
7178:
7111:
7050:
6927:
6918:
6887:
6866:
6790:
6679:
6608:
6523:Climate change portal
6510:
6449:
6416:Extreme event attribution
6334:
6303:
6299:
6288:
6232:
6167:
6089:
6039:School Strike for Climate
6011:
6007:
5993:
5962:
5918:Climate-smart agriculture
5879:
5836:
5746:
5742:
5729:
5653:
5506:
5453:
5296:
5292:
5279:
5202:
5191:
5120:
5089:
5085:
5072:
5055:Climate change adaptation
5050:Climate change mitigation
5045:Effects of climate change
5035:
5024:
4966:California Legacy Project
4787:Knight, Peter G. (1999).
4759:Hambrey, Michael (1994).
4736:. John Wiley & Sons.
4048:Glaciers & Glaciation
3259:10.1002/9780470750636.ch2
3088:10.3189/S0022143000215785
2947:10.1007/978-3-642-03415-2
2512:"Glossary of Meteorology"
2233:Craig, Tim (2016-08-12).
2131:Ismenius Lacus quadrangle
2097:region of North America.
1398:. Africa has glaciers on
1295:
1130:Basal melting and sliding
857:{\displaystyle \Sigma \,}
761:
651:
341:, as large quantities of
6426:Global warming potential
6233:International agreements
5880:Preserving and enhancing
5314:Arctic methane emissions
5236:Years in climate change
5143:Greenhouse gas emissions
5040:Causes of climate change
4945:NOW on PBS "On Thin Ice"
4338:10.1088/1748-9326/ad25a4
3532:, 311, 5768, 1756–1758,
2681:British Antarctic Survey
1936:Midwestern United States
1810:narrow ridge, called an
1428:Grande Terre (Kerguelen)
1244:
1223:Location and diagram of
974:Fracture zone and cracks
685:of bubbles in the ice.)
641:of snow and ice exceeds
637:Glaciers form where the
413:
32:Glacier (disambiguation)
7238:
6457:Climate change scenario
6109:Disaster risk reduction
5761:Carbon emission trading
5571:U.S. insurance industry
5541:Civilizational collapse
5388:sea surface temperature
4900:10.1126/science.aam9625
4819:Walley, Robert (1992).
4707:Glaciers and Glaciation
4396:. Infobase Publishing.
4120:10.1126/science.abo1324
3538:10.1126/science.1122112
3509:Meier & Post (1969)
3443:www.geo.hunter.cuny.edu
3424:10.5194/tc-18-1085-2024
3360:10.1126/science.1136897
3158:10.5194/tc-12-1615-2018
3028:Non-technical summary:
2569:"Sea Level and Climate"
2537:University of Wisconsin
2045:positive feedback loops
2043:Global warming creates
1927:deposition site. These
1846:Alluvial stratification
1676:Glacial moraines above
1531:located near or in the
1483:Black ice glacier near
1107:, where it re-freezes.
880:{\displaystyle \tau \,}
452:, or alternatively, an
199:over many years, often
6450:Research and modelling
6134:Nature-based solutions
5954:Nature-based solutions
5896:Carbon dioxide removal
5813:Fossil fuel divestment
5798:Climate risk insurance
5708:Small island countries
5319:Arctic sea ice decline
4981:GletscherVergleiche.ch
4289:"Global Glacier State"
2834:. UNEP. Archived from
2438:Simpson, D.P. (1979).
2296:Staff (June 9, 2020).
2137:The polar ice caps of
2134:
2081:
2040:
2029:Ice lagoon Jökulsárlón
1884:
1771:
1729:
1681:
1613:
1559:
1488:
1364:Scandinavian Mountains
1339:
1309:
1254:
1228:
1139:
1067:
1035:
1018:Shear or herring-bone
987:
946:
927:
904:
881:
858:
831:
778:
699:
634:
573:
438:
393:
382:
371:
91:
75:
55:
39:Ice River (ski course)
7136:Giant current ripples
6411:Earth's energy budget
6294:Background and theory
6182:Climate crisis (term)
5854:Fossil fuel phase-out
5748:Economics and finance
5713:by individual country
5655:By country and region
5630:Security and conflict
5625:Psychological impacts
5304:Abrupt climate change
5227:Charles David Keeling
5060:By country and region
4659:corresponding article
4513:The Planetary Society
4459:. Esa.int. 2006-01-20
4422:"Kargel, J.S. et al.:
4236:Nature Communications
3786:Collins, Henry Hill.
3071:Journal of Glaciology
2773:Glacial Geomorphology
2125:
2079:
2027:
1968:South Cascade Glacier
1950:Further information:
1882:
1769:
1719:
1675:
1604:
1554:
1482:
1334:
1303:
1252:
1222:
1137:
1065:
1017:
981:
940:
928:
905:
882:
859:
832:
776:
696:
631:Perito Moreno Glacier
624:
567:
432:
423:Further information:
81:
61:
49:
6240:Glasgow Climate Pact
5901:Carbon sequestration
5466:Mass mortality event
4971:Dynamics of Glaciers
4964:by John Muir, 1894.
4954:Short radio episode
4761:Glacial Environments
4507:(21 December 2015).
3835:"Earth History 2001"
3601:, Inc. p. 546.
3580:Global Geomorphology
3567:10.1029/2006JF000596
2888:10.1029/2004GL020816
2156:lobate debris aprons
2087:post-glacial rebound
1726:Laurentide Ice Sheet
1623:Thickness of the ice
1304:Forbes bands on the
1058:Subglacial processes
916:
893:
870:
847:
801:
754:'s end around 1850,
744:glacier mass balance
487:continental glaciers
324:glacial mass changes
7724:Iceman (occupation)
7073:Moraine-dammed lake
6900:Subglacial eruption
6379:Climate sensitivity
6154:The Adaptation Fund
5610:Infectious diseases
5507:Social and economic
4957:California Glaciers
4834:Physics of Glaciers
4565:10.1038/nature18289
4557:2016Natur.534...82M
4330:2024ERL....19c4022K
4248:2020NatCo..11.5177W
4112:2023Sci...379...78R
4064:. Britannica Online
3983:10.1038/nature15385
3975:2015Natur.526..100K
3930:2010Geo....38..423D
3788:Europe and the USSR
3467:T. Strozzi et al.:
3415:2024TCry...18.1085W
3352:2007Sci...315.1544F
3346:(5818): 1544–1548.
3304:10.1038/nature09618
3296:2010Natur.468..803S
3221:2005AREPS..33..247C
3149:2018TCry...12.1615D
3079:1987JGlac..33S...4C
3044:2008NatGe...1..343K
3016:2008NatGe...1..365K
2879:2004GeoRL..3121402P
2639:1991Sci...252..242B
2598:"Types of Glaciers"
2351:on August 17, 2017.
2240:The Washington Post
2063:, a phenomenon the
2049:ice–albedo feedback
2033:Vatnajökull Glacier
2031:at the foot of the
1756:Rochester, New York
1501:McMurdo Dry Valleys
1392:last glacial period
1390:was present in the
1289:glacial earthquakes
1285:glacial earthquakes
1232:in two main modes:
926:{\displaystyle k\,}
903:{\displaystyle n\,}
683:Rayleigh scattering
376:, derived from the
7276:Crystalline phases
6905:Subglacial volcano
6888:Volcanic relations
5950:(LULUCF and AFOLU)
5922:Forest management
5906:Direct air capture
5871:Sustainable energy
5828:Net zero emissions
5823:Low-carbon economy
5818:Green Climate Fund
5605:Indigenous peoples
5498:Plant biodiversity
5286:Effects and issues
4932:, a report in the
4651:General references
4299:chart on Wikimedia
4190:gas chromatographs
4182:mass spectrometers
3667:Grunewald, p. 129.
3557:2008-10-07 at the
3524:2008-10-07 at the
3475:2014-11-11 at the
2204:Glacier morphology
2135:
2082:
2041:
1885:
1772:
1730:
1682:
1614:
1592:glacial striations
1580:Timpanogos Glacier
1560:
1489:
1467:Hadley circulation
1408:Rwenzori Mountains
1340:
1310:
1255:
1229:
1140:
1068:
1036:
988:
982:Ice cracks in the
947:
923:
900:
877:
854:
827:
779:
700:
635:
599:warm-based glacier
595:cold-based glacier
574:
568:Webber Glacier on
521:Tidewater glaciers
439:
425:Glacier morphology
246:countries such as
92:
76:
56:
7857:
7856:
7838:Wikimedia Commons
7641:
7640:
7206:
7205:
7174:
7173:
6692:Accumulation zone
6568:
6567:
6506:
6505:
6502:
6501:
6441:Radiative forcing
6284:
6283:
6280:
6279:
6104:Adaptive capacity
5989:
5988:
5985:
5984:
5849:Energy transition
5725:
5724:
5721:
5720:
5435:Tropical cyclones
5361:Urban heat island
5275:
5274:
5187:
5186:
5183:
5182:
5148:Carbon accounting
5102:Greenhouse effect
5068:
5067:
4871:Gornitz, Vivien.
4847:978-0-08-013972-2
4802:978-0-7487-4000-0
4770:978-0-7748-0510-0
4743:978-0-471-96344-8
4716:978-0-470-23651-2
4688:978-0-521-82808-6
4641:978-0-203-86008-3
4505:Lakdawalla, Emily
4403:978-0-8160-7262-0
3969:(7571): 100–103.
3608:978-0-13-860958-0
3290:(7325): 803–806.
3268:978-0-470-75063-6
3253:. pp. 2–22.
3032:Nature Geoscience
3004:Nature Geoscience
2956:978-3-642-03414-5
2800:. Webexhibits.org
2755:978-90-481-2641-5
2451:978-0-304-52257-6
2282:978-0-295-97910-6
2127:Protonilus Mensae
2102:dilation-faulting
2072:Isostatic rebound
1830:Roches moutonnées
1789:paternoster lakes
1680:, Alberta, Canada
1400:Mount Kilimanjaro
1308:glacier in France
1278:supraglacial lake
792:Glen–Nye flow law
712:accumulation zone
578:temperate glacier
534:Ellesmere Islands
494:water are called
435:Quelccaya Ice Cap
387:, and ultimately
343:water appear blue
16:(Redirected from
7914:
7874:
7873:
7872:
7865:
7847:
7836:
7835:
7825:
7824:
7523:
7522:
7233:
7226:
7219:
7210:
7209:
7093:Terminal moraine
6925:
6924:
6661:Piedmont glacier
6595:
6588:
6581:
6572:
6571:
6556:
6555:
6544:
6543:
6532:
6531:
6521:
6520:
6519:
6484:Paleoclimatology
6301:
6300:
6290:
6289:
6051:Ecological grief
6034:Climate movement
6009:
6008:
5995:
5994:
5975:Plant-based diet
5866:Renewable energy
5744:
5743:
5731:
5730:
5566:Economic impacts
5488:Invasive species
5344:Coastal flooding
5294:
5293:
5281:
5280:
5217:Svante Arrhenius
5193:
5192:
5163:from agriculture
5153:Carbon footprint
5138:Greenhouse gases
5087:
5086:
5074:
5073:
5026:
5025:
5011:
5004:
4997:
4988:
4987:
4931:
4929:
4928:
4859:
4836:(3rd ed.).
4830:Paterson, W.S.B.
4824:
4814:
4794:
4782:
4755:
4728:
4700:
4680:
4645:
4612:
4611:
4609:
4607:
4591:
4585:
4584:
4550:
4530:
4524:
4523:
4521:
4519:
4501:
4495:
4492:
4486:
4483:
4477:
4474:
4468:
4467:
4465:
4464:
4453:
4447:
4446:
4444:
4443:
4437:
4430:
4418:
4412:
4411:
4387:
4381:
4380:
4378:
4367:
4359:
4350:
4349:
4308:
4302:
4296:
4285:
4279:
4277:
4267:
4227:
4218:
4217:
4210:climate.nasa.gov
4202:
4193:
4179:
4163:
4150:
4149:
4131:
4091:
4085:
4079:
4073:
4072:
4070:
4069:
4062:"Kettle geology"
4058:
4052:
4051:
4043:
4037:
4031:
4025:
4024:
4009:
4003:
4002:
3956:
3950:
3949:
3938:10.1130/G30576.1
3911:
3905:
3899:
3890:
3884:
3878:
3877:
3875:
3874:
3863:
3857:
3856:
3854:
3852:
3847:on March 3, 2016
3846:
3839:
3831:
3825:
3824:
3822:
3821:
3806:
3800:
3799:
3783:
3777:
3776:
3774:
3773:
3762:
3756:
3755:
3753:
3752:
3737:
3731:
3730:
3728:
3727:
3721:
3714:
3703:
3697:
3696:
3694:
3693:
3674:
3668:
3665:
3659:
3658:
3656:
3655:
3640:
3634:
3633:
3631:
3630:
3619:
3613:
3612:
3590:
3584:
3583:
3575:
3569:
3549:
3540:
3516:
3510:
3507:
3501:
3500:
3498:
3497:
3486:
3480:
3464:
3458:
3457:
3455:
3454:
3445:. Archived from
3435:
3429:
3428:
3426:
3409:(3): 1085–1103.
3394:
3388:
3387:
3335:
3324:
3323:
3279:
3273:
3272:
3246:
3233:
3232:
3204:
3173:
3172:
3170:
3160:
3143:(5): 1615–1628.
3128:
3122:
3121:
3119:
3118:
3099:
3093:
3092:
3090:
3062:
3056:
3055:
3027:
2999:
2990:
2987:
2978:
2975:
2969:
2968:
2934:
2923:
2922:
2920:
2919:
2914:
2906:
2900:
2899:
2897:
2890:
2862:
2853:
2847:
2846:
2844:
2843:
2828:
2822:
2815:
2809:
2808:
2806:
2805:
2794:
2788:
2782:
2776:
2766:
2760:
2759:
2733:
2724:
2723:
2721:
2720:
2702:
2696:
2695:
2693:
2692:
2683:. Archived from
2673:
2667:
2666:
2633:(5003): 242–46.
2620:
2614:
2613:
2608:. Archived from
2594:
2588:
2587:
2585:
2584:
2565:
2559:
2558:
2556:
2545:
2533:
2527:
2526:
2524:
2523:
2508:
2502:
2501:
2499:
2498:
2483:
2477:
2476:
2474:
2473:
2462:
2456:
2455:
2435:
2429:
2428:
2418:
2416:2060/20110015312
2408:
2383:
2377:
2376:
2374:
2373:
2359:
2353:
2352:
2337:
2331:
2320:
2314:
2313:
2311:
2310:
2293:
2287:
2286:
2268:
2262:
2261:
2256:
2255:
2230:
2186:Glacial landform
2118:Sputnik Planitia
2114:Glaciers on Mars
2108:On other planets
2007:greenhouse gases
2002:concentrations.
1979:
1964:
1897:glacial deposits
1875:Glacial deposits
1720:Drumlins around
1662:glacial erratics
1402:in Tanzania, on
1388:Mount Kosciuszko
1327:List of glaciers
1267:Jakobshavn Isbræ
932:
930:
929:
924:
909:
907:
906:
901:
886:
884:
883:
878:
863:
861:
860:
855:
836:
834:
833:
828:
822:
821:
677:of the infrared
654:
653:
590:subpolar glacier
538:Southeast Alaska
458:mountain glacier
396:
385:
374:
363:Franco-Provençal
316:mean temperature
194:
193:
190:
189:
186:
183:
180:
177:
174:
171:
166:
165:
162:
159:
156:
153:
150:
147:
140:
132:
131:
128:
127:
124:
121:
118:
115:
112:
105:
21:
18:Mountain glacier
7922:
7921:
7917:
7916:
7915:
7913:
7912:
7911:
7907:Montane ecology
7882:
7881:
7880:
7870:
7868:
7860:
7858:
7853:
7812:
7779:
7743:
7697:
7637:
7569:
7518:
7512:
7383:Albedo feedback
7371:
7285:
7271:Amorphous solid
7259:
7242:
7237:
7207:
7202:
7170:
7107:
7088:Sevetti moraine
7046:
7000:Roche moutonnée
6945:Cirque stairway
6914:
6883:
6862:
6786:
6747:Lateral moraine
6675:
6604:
6599:
6569:
6564:
6517:
6515:
6498:
6445:
6436:Orbital forcing
6330:
6295:
6276:
6250:Paris Agreement
6228:
6224:Warming stripes
6163:
6129:Managed retreat
6124:Loss and damage
6085:
6019:Business action
6003:
5981:
5958:
5881:
5875:
5832:
5793:Climate finance
5738:
5717:
5649:
5502:
5478:Extinction risk
5454:Flora and fauna
5449:
5410:Permafrost thaw
5405:Ozone depletion
5334:Extreme weather
5288:
5271:
5198:
5179:
5116:
5081:
5064:
5031:
5020:
5015:
4926:
4924:
4911:
4908:
4868:
4866:Further reading
4863:
4848:
4803:
4771:
4744:
4717:
4689:
4653:
4648:
4642:
4621:
4616:
4615:
4605:
4603:
4592:
4588:
4541:(7605): 82–85.
4531:
4527:
4517:
4515:
4502:
4498:
4493:
4489:
4484:
4480:
4475:
4471:
4462:
4460:
4455:
4454:
4450:
4441:
4439:
4435:
4428:
4420:
4419:
4415:
4404:
4388:
4384:
4376:
4365:
4361:
4360:
4353:
4309:
4305:
4287:
4286:
4282:
4228:
4221:
4204:
4203:
4196:
4164:
4153:
4106:(6627): 78–83.
4092:
4088:
4080:
4076:
4067:
4065:
4060:
4059:
4055:
4044:
4040:
4032:
4028:
4011:
4010:
4006:
3957:
3953:
3912:
3908:
3900:
3893:
3885:
3881:
3872:
3870:
3865:
3864:
3860:
3850:
3848:
3844:
3837:
3833:
3832:
3828:
3819:
3817:
3808:
3807:
3803:
3790:. p. 263.
3784:
3780:
3771:
3769:
3764:
3763:
3759:
3750:
3748:
3739:
3738:
3734:
3725:
3723:
3719:
3712:
3704:
3700:
3691:
3689:
3676:
3675:
3671:
3666:
3662:
3653:
3651:
3642:
3641:
3637:
3628:
3626:
3621:
3620:
3616:
3609:
3591:
3587:
3576:
3572:
3559:Wayback Machine
3550:
3543:
3526:Wayback Machine
3517:
3513:
3508:
3504:
3495:
3493:
3488:
3487:
3483:
3477:Wayback Machine
3465:
3461:
3452:
3450:
3437:
3436:
3432:
3395:
3391:
3336:
3327:
3280:
3276:
3269:
3247:
3236:
3205:
3176:
3129:
3125:
3116:
3114:
3101:
3100:
3096:
3063:
3059:
3052:10.1038/ngeo210
3024:10.1038/ngeo201
3000:
2993:
2988:
2981:
2976:
2972:
2957:
2935:
2926:
2917:
2915:
2912:
2908:
2907:
2903:
2895:
2860:
2854:
2850:
2841:
2839:
2830:
2829:
2825:
2816:
2812:
2803:
2801:
2796:
2795:
2791:
2783:
2779:
2767:
2763:
2756:
2734:
2727:
2718:
2716:
2704:
2703:
2699:
2690:
2688:
2675:
2674:
2670:
2621:
2617:
2596:
2595:
2591:
2582:
2580:
2567:
2566:
2562:
2554:
2543:
2534:
2530:
2521:
2519:
2510:
2509:
2505:
2496:
2494:
2485:
2484:
2480:
2471:
2469:
2464:
2463:
2459:
2452:
2436:
2432:
2384:
2380:
2371:
2369:
2361:
2360:
2356:
2339:
2338:
2334:
2321:
2317:
2308:
2306:
2294:
2290:
2283:
2269:
2265:
2253:
2251:
2231:
2224:
2219:
2198:Glacier growing
2182:
2120:
2112:Main articles:
2110:
2074:
1991:
1990:
1989:
1988:
1987:
1980:
1972:
1971:
1965:
1954:
1948:
1940:Katabatic winds
1921:
1877:
1848:
1837:roche moutonnée
1832:
1820:pyramidal peaks
1804:hanging valleys
1785:truncated spurs
1764:
1714:
1694:ground moraines
1670:
1549:
1544:
1542:Glacial geology
1525:northern Alaska
1356:Rocky Mountains
1329:
1323:
1298:
1247:
1214:
1202:
1198:
1194:
1185:
1176:
1169:
1160:geothermal heat
1132:
1125:
1121:
1117:
1113:
1074:
1060:
976:
917:
914:
913:
894:
891:
890:
871:
868:
867:
848:
845:
844:
817:
813:
802:
799:
798:
771:
764:
691:
629:located on the
619:
562:
427:
421:
416:
351:
240:mountain ranges
168:
144:
135:
134:
109:
100:
99:
88:Baltoro Glacier
42:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
7920:
7910:
7909:
7904:
7899:
7894:
7879:
7878:
7855:
7854:
7852:
7851:
7840:
7829:
7817:
7814:
7813:
7811:
7810:
7808:Snowball Earth
7805:
7800:
7798:Little Ice Age
7795:
7789:
7787:
7781:
7780:
7778:
7777:
7772:
7767:
7762:
7757:
7751:
7749:
7745:
7744:
7742:
7741:
7736:
7731:
7726:
7721:
7716:
7711:
7705:
7703:
7699:
7698:
7696:
7695:
7690:
7685:
7680:
7675:
7670:
7665:
7660:
7655:
7649:
7647:
7643:
7642:
7639:
7638:
7636:
7635:
7630:
7625:
7620:
7615:
7610:
7608:Figure skating
7605:
7600:
7595:
7590:
7585:
7579:
7577:
7571:
7570:
7568:
7567:
7562:
7557:
7552:
7547:
7542:
7537:
7532:
7526:
7520:
7514:
7513:
7511:
7510:
7505:
7500:
7495:
7490:
7485:
7480:
7475:
7470:
7465:
7460:
7455:
7450:
7445:
7440:
7430:
7425:
7420:
7415:
7410:
7405:
7400:
7395:
7393:Circle or disc
7390:
7385:
7379:
7377:
7373:
7372:
7370:
7369:
7364:
7359:
7354:
7349:
7344:
7339:
7334:
7324:
7319:
7314:
7309:
7304:
7299:
7293:
7291:
7287:
7286:
7284:
7283:
7278:
7273:
7267:
7265:
7261:
7260:
7247:
7244:
7243:
7236:
7235:
7228:
7221:
7213:
7204:
7203:
7201:
7200:
7195:
7190:
7185:
7179:
7176:
7175:
7172:
7171:
7169:
7168:
7163:
7158:
7153:
7148:
7143:
7138:
7133:
7128:
7123:
7117:
7115:
7109:
7108:
7106:
7105:
7100:
7095:
7090:
7085:
7080:
7075:
7070:
7065:
7060:
7054:
7052:
7048:
7047:
7045:
7044:
7037:
7032:
7027:
7022:
7017:
7012:
7007:
7002:
6997:
6992:
6987:
6982:
6980:Hanging valley
6977:
6975:Glacial striae
6972:
6967:
6962:
6957:
6952:
6947:
6942:
6937:
6931:
6929:
6922:
6916:
6915:
6913:
6912:
6907:
6902:
6897:
6891:
6889:
6885:
6884:
6882:
6881:
6876:
6870:
6868:
6864:
6863:
6861:
6860:
6855:
6850:
6845:
6840:
6838:Periglaciation
6835:
6830:
6828:Outburst flood
6825:
6820:
6815:
6810:
6805:
6800:
6794:
6792:
6788:
6787:
6785:
6784:
6779:
6774:
6769:
6764:
6759:
6754:
6752:Medial moraine
6749:
6744:
6739:
6737:Glacier tongue
6734:
6729:
6724:
6719:
6714:
6709:
6704:
6699:
6694:
6689:
6683:
6681:
6677:
6676:
6674:
6673:
6671:Valley glacier
6668:
6663:
6658:
6656:Outlet glacier
6653:
6648:
6643:
6638:
6633:
6628:
6623:
6618:
6612:
6610:
6606:
6605:
6598:
6597:
6590:
6583:
6575:
6566:
6565:
6563:
6562:
6550:
6538:
6526:
6511:
6508:
6507:
6504:
6503:
6500:
6499:
6497:
6496:
6491:
6486:
6481:
6480:
6479:
6469:
6464:
6459:
6453:
6451:
6447:
6446:
6444:
6443:
6438:
6433:
6428:
6423:
6418:
6413:
6408:
6403:
6402:
6401:
6391:
6389:Cloud feedback
6386:
6381:
6376:
6371:
6370:
6369:
6364:
6359:
6354:
6344:
6338:
6336:
6332:
6331:
6329:
6328:
6323:
6318:
6313:
6307:
6305:
6297:
6296:
6286:
6285:
6282:
6281:
6278:
6277:
6275:
6274:
6269:
6264:
6263:
6262:
6257:
6247:
6245:Kyoto Protocol
6242:
6236:
6234:
6230:
6229:
6227:
6226:
6221:
6220:
6219:
6214:
6209:
6199:
6197:Media coverage
6194:
6189:
6187:Climate spiral
6184:
6179:
6173:
6171:
6165:
6164:
6162:
6161:
6156:
6151:
6146:
6141:
6136:
6131:
6126:
6121:
6116:
6111:
6106:
6101:
6095:
6093:
6087:
6086:
6084:
6083:
6078:
6076:Public opinion
6073:
6068:
6063:
6058:
6053:
6048:
6043:
6042:
6041:
6031:
6026:
6024:Climate action
6021:
6015:
6013:
6005:
6004:
5991:
5990:
5987:
5986:
5983:
5982:
5980:
5979:
5978:
5977:
5966:
5964:
5960:
5959:
5957:
5956:
5951:
5945:
5944:
5943:
5938:
5936:REDD and REDD+
5933:
5928:
5920:
5915:
5913:Carbon farming
5910:
5909:
5908:
5903:
5893:
5887:
5885:
5877:
5876:
5874:
5873:
5868:
5863:
5858:
5857:
5856:
5846:
5840:
5838:
5834:
5833:
5831:
5830:
5825:
5820:
5815:
5810:
5805:
5800:
5795:
5790:
5785:
5780:
5775:
5774:
5773:
5763:
5758:
5752:
5750:
5740:
5739:
5727:
5726:
5723:
5722:
5719:
5718:
5716:
5715:
5710:
5705:
5700:
5695:
5690:
5685:
5680:
5675:
5670:
5665:
5659:
5657:
5651:
5650:
5648:
5647:
5645:Water security
5642:
5640:Water scarcity
5637:
5635:Urban flooding
5632:
5627:
5622:
5617:
5612:
5607:
5602:
5597:
5596:
5595:
5585:
5580:
5575:
5574:
5573:
5563:
5558:
5553:
5548:
5543:
5538:
5533:
5528:
5527:
5526:
5521:
5510:
5508:
5504:
5503:
5501:
5500:
5495:
5490:
5485:
5483:Forest dieback
5480:
5475:
5470:
5469:
5468:
5457:
5455:
5451:
5450:
5448:
5447:
5442:
5437:
5432:
5427:
5422:
5420:Sea level rise
5417:
5412:
5407:
5402:
5401:
5400:
5395:
5393:stratification
5390:
5385:
5380:
5375:
5365:
5364:
5363:
5358:
5348:
5347:
5346:
5336:
5331:
5326:
5321:
5316:
5311:
5306:
5300:
5298:
5290:
5289:
5277:
5276:
5273:
5272:
5270:
5269:
5268:
5267:
5262:
5257:
5252:
5247:
5242:
5234:
5229:
5224:
5219:
5214:
5209:
5203:
5200:
5199:
5189:
5188:
5185:
5184:
5181:
5180:
5178:
5177:
5172:
5171:
5170:
5165:
5160:
5158:Carbon leakage
5155:
5150:
5140:
5135:
5130:
5124:
5122:
5118:
5117:
5115:
5114:
5109:
5099:
5097:Climate system
5093:
5091:
5083:
5082:
5070:
5069:
5066:
5065:
5063:
5062:
5057:
5052:
5047:
5042:
5036:
5033:
5032:
5022:
5021:
5018:Climate change
5014:
5013:
5006:
4999:
4991:
4985:
4984:
4978:
4973:
4968:
4952:
4947:
4942:
4937:
4907:
4906:External links
4904:
4903:
4902:
4880:
4879:
4867:
4864:
4862:
4861:
4846:
4838:Pergamon Press
4826:
4816:
4801:
4784:
4769:
4756:
4742:
4729:
4715:
4702:
4687:
4669:
4668:
4667:
4652:
4649:
4647:
4646:
4640:
4622:
4620:
4617:
4614:
4613:
4600:blogs.nasa.gov
4586:
4525:
4496:
4487:
4478:
4469:
4448:
4413:
4402:
4382:
4351:
4303:
4280:
4219:
4212:. NASA. 2019.
4194:
4151:
4086:
4074:
4053:
4038:
4026:
4004:
3951:
3924:(5): 423–426.
3906:
3891:
3879:
3858:
3826:
3801:
3778:
3757:
3732:
3698:
3678:"C.D. Ollier:
3669:
3660:
3635:
3614:
3607:
3585:
3582:. p. 269.
3570:
3541:
3511:
3502:
3481:
3459:
3430:
3403:The Cryosphere
3389:
3325:
3274:
3267:
3234:
3215:(1): 247–276.
3174:
3137:The Cryosphere
3123:
3094:
3057:
2991:
2979:
2970:
2955:
2924:
2901:
2873:(21): L21402.
2848:
2823:
2810:
2789:
2777:
2761:
2754:
2725:
2697:
2668:
2615:
2612:on 2010-04-17.
2589:
2573:USGS FS 002-00
2560:
2528:
2503:
2478:
2457:
2450:
2430:
2378:
2354:
2332:
2315:
2288:
2281:
2263:
2221:
2220:
2218:
2215:
2214:
2213:
2207:
2201:
2195:
2192:Glacial motion
2189:
2181:
2178:
2109:
2106:
2073:
2070:
2011:global warming
2000:carbon dioxide
1981:
1974:
1973:
1966:
1959:
1958:
1957:
1956:
1955:
1947:
1944:
1920:
1919:Loess deposits
1917:
1876:
1873:
1853:alluvial plain
1847:
1844:
1831:
1828:
1763:
1760:
1747:drumlin fields
1713:
1710:
1696:, also called
1669:
1666:
1658:
1657:
1651:
1637:
1636:
1633:
1630:
1627:
1624:
1621:
1548:
1545:
1543:
1540:
1536:Atacama Desert
1456:Crozet Islands
1322:
1319:
1297:
1294:
1246:
1243:
1212:
1205:
1204:
1200:
1196:
1192:
1188:
1187:
1183:
1179:
1178:
1174:
1171:
1167:
1131:
1128:
1123:
1119:
1115:
1111:
1096:
1095:
1091:
1087:
1072:
1059:
1056:
1024:Emmons Glacier
975:
972:
935:
934:
921:
911:
898:
888:
875:
865:
852:
838:
837:
825:
820:
816:
812:
809:
806:
763:
760:
752:Little Ice Age
750:Following the
740:
739:
736:
733:
726:
690:
687:
618:
615:
561:
558:
454:alpine glacier
450:valley glacier
420:
417:
415:
412:
350:
347:
328:climate change
296:polar climates
244:oceanic island
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
7919:
7908:
7905:
7903:
7902:Bodies of ice
7900:
7898:
7895:
7893:
7890:
7889:
7887:
7877:
7867:
7866:
7863:
7850:
7846:
7841:
7839:
7830:
7828:
7819:
7818:
7815:
7809:
7806:
7804:
7801:
7799:
7796:
7794:
7791:
7790:
7788:
7786:
7782:
7776:
7773:
7771:
7768:
7766:
7763:
7761:
7758:
7756:
7753:
7752:
7750:
7746:
7740:
7737:
7735:
7732:
7730:
7727:
7725:
7722:
7720:
7717:
7715:
7712:
7710:
7707:
7706:
7704:
7700:
7694:
7691:
7689:
7686:
7684:
7681:
7679:
7676:
7674:
7671:
7669:
7666:
7664:
7661:
7659:
7656:
7654:
7651:
7650:
7648:
7646:Constructions
7644:
7634:
7631:
7629:
7626:
7624:
7623:Speed skating
7621:
7619:
7616:
7614:
7611:
7609:
7606:
7604:
7601:
7599:
7596:
7594:
7591:
7589:
7586:
7584:
7581:
7580:
7578:
7576:
7572:
7566:
7563:
7561:
7558:
7556:
7553:
7551:
7548:
7546:
7543:
7541:
7538:
7536:
7533:
7531:
7528:
7527:
7524:
7521:
7515:
7509:
7506:
7504:
7501:
7499:
7496:
7494:
7491:
7489:
7486:
7484:
7481:
7479:
7476:
7474:
7471:
7469:
7466:
7464:
7461:
7459:
7456:
7454:
7451:
7449:
7446:
7444:
7441:
7438:
7434:
7431:
7429:
7426:
7424:
7421:
7419:
7416:
7414:
7411:
7409:
7406:
7404:
7401:
7399:
7396:
7394:
7391:
7389:
7386:
7384:
7381:
7380:
7378:
7374:
7368:
7365:
7363:
7360:
7358:
7355:
7353:
7350:
7348:
7345:
7343:
7340:
7338:
7335:
7332:
7328:
7325:
7323:
7320:
7318:
7315:
7313:
7310:
7308:
7305:
7303:
7300:
7298:
7295:
7294:
7292:
7288:
7282:
7279:
7277:
7274:
7272:
7269:
7268:
7266:
7262:
7258:
7254:
7251:
7245:
7241:
7234:
7229:
7227:
7222:
7220:
7215:
7214:
7211:
7199:
7196:
7194:
7191:
7189:
7186:
7184:
7181:
7180:
7177:
7167:
7164:
7162:
7159:
7157:
7154:
7152:
7149:
7147:
7144:
7142:
7139:
7137:
7134:
7132:
7129:
7127:
7124:
7122:
7119:
7118:
7116:
7114:
7113:Glaciofluvial
7110:
7104:
7103:Veiki moraine
7101:
7099:
7096:
7094:
7091:
7089:
7086:
7084:
7083:Rogen moraine
7081:
7079:
7078:Pulju moraine
7076:
7074:
7071:
7069:
7066:
7064:
7063:Erratic block
7061:
7059:
7056:
7055:
7053:
7049:
7043:
7042:
7038:
7036:
7033:
7031:
7028:
7026:
7025:Tunnel valley
7023:
7021:
7020:Trough valley
7018:
7016:
7013:
7011:
7008:
7006:
7003:
7001:
6998:
6996:
6993:
6991:
6988:
6986:
6983:
6981:
6978:
6976:
6973:
6971:
6968:
6966:
6963:
6961:
6958:
6956:
6953:
6951:
6950:Crag and tail
6948:
6946:
6943:
6941:
6938:
6936:
6933:
6932:
6930:
6926:
6923:
6921:
6917:
6911:
6908:
6906:
6903:
6901:
6898:
6896:
6893:
6892:
6890:
6886:
6880:
6877:
6875:
6872:
6871:
6869:
6865:
6859:
6856:
6854:
6851:
6849:
6846:
6844:
6841:
6839:
6836:
6834:
6833:Overdeepening
6831:
6829:
6826:
6824:
6821:
6819:
6816:
6814:
6811:
6809:
6808:Basal sliding
6806:
6804:
6801:
6799:
6796:
6795:
6793:
6789:
6783:
6780:
6778:
6775:
6773:
6770:
6768:
6765:
6763:
6760:
6758:
6755:
6753:
6750:
6748:
6745:
6743:
6740:
6738:
6735:
6733:
6730:
6728:
6725:
6723:
6720:
6718:
6715:
6713:
6710:
6708:
6705:
6703:
6700:
6698:
6695:
6693:
6690:
6688:
6687:Ablation zone
6685:
6684:
6682:
6678:
6672:
6669:
6667:
6664:
6662:
6659:
6657:
6654:
6652:
6649:
6647:
6644:
6642:
6639:
6637:
6634:
6632:
6629:
6627:
6624:
6622:
6619:
6617:
6614:
6613:
6611:
6607:
6603:
6596:
6591:
6589:
6584:
6582:
6577:
6576:
6573:
6561:
6560:
6551:
6549:
6548:
6539:
6537:
6536:
6527:
6525:
6524:
6513:
6512:
6509:
6495:
6492:
6490:
6487:
6485:
6482:
6478:
6475:
6474:
6473:
6470:
6468:
6465:
6463:
6462:Climate model
6460:
6458:
6455:
6454:
6452:
6448:
6442:
6439:
6437:
6434:
6432:
6429:
6427:
6424:
6422:
6419:
6417:
6414:
6412:
6409:
6407:
6404:
6400:
6397:
6396:
6395:
6394:Cloud forcing
6392:
6390:
6387:
6385:
6382:
6380:
6377:
6375:
6372:
6368:
6365:
6363:
6360:
6358:
6355:
6353:
6350:
6349:
6348:
6345:
6343:
6340:
6339:
6337:
6333:
6327:
6324:
6322:
6319:
6317:
6314:
6312:
6309:
6308:
6306:
6302:
6298:
6291:
6287:
6273:
6270:
6268:
6265:
6261:
6258:
6256:
6253:
6252:
6251:
6248:
6246:
6243:
6241:
6238:
6237:
6235:
6231:
6225:
6222:
6218:
6215:
6213:
6210:
6208:
6205:
6204:
6203:
6200:
6198:
6195:
6193:
6190:
6188:
6185:
6183:
6180:
6178:
6175:
6174:
6172:
6170:
6169:Communication
6166:
6160:
6157:
6155:
6152:
6150:
6149:Vulnerability
6147:
6145:
6142:
6140:
6137:
6135:
6132:
6130:
6127:
6125:
6122:
6120:
6119:Flood control
6117:
6115:
6112:
6110:
6107:
6105:
6102:
6100:
6097:
6096:
6094:
6092:
6088:
6082:
6079:
6077:
6074:
6072:
6069:
6067:
6064:
6062:
6059:
6057:
6054:
6052:
6049:
6047:
6044:
6040:
6037:
6036:
6035:
6032:
6030:
6027:
6025:
6022:
6020:
6017:
6016:
6014:
6010:
6006:
6002:
5996:
5992:
5976:
5973:
5972:
5971:
5968:
5967:
5965:
5961:
5955:
5952:
5949:
5946:
5942:
5941:reforestation
5939:
5937:
5934:
5932:
5929:
5927:
5926:afforestation
5924:
5923:
5921:
5919:
5916:
5914:
5911:
5907:
5904:
5902:
5899:
5898:
5897:
5894:
5892:
5889:
5888:
5886:
5884:
5878:
5872:
5869:
5867:
5864:
5862:
5861:Nuclear power
5859:
5855:
5852:
5851:
5850:
5847:
5845:
5842:
5841:
5839:
5835:
5829:
5826:
5824:
5821:
5819:
5816:
5814:
5811:
5809:
5806:
5804:
5801:
5799:
5796:
5794:
5791:
5789:
5786:
5784:
5781:
5779:
5776:
5772:
5769:
5768:
5767:
5764:
5762:
5759:
5757:
5756:Carbon budget
5754:
5753:
5751:
5749:
5745:
5741:
5737:
5732:
5728:
5714:
5711:
5709:
5706:
5704:
5701:
5699:
5696:
5694:
5691:
5689:
5686:
5684:
5681:
5679:
5676:
5674:
5671:
5669:
5666:
5664:
5661:
5660:
5658:
5656:
5652:
5646:
5643:
5641:
5638:
5636:
5633:
5631:
5628:
5626:
5623:
5621:
5618:
5616:
5613:
5611:
5608:
5606:
5603:
5601:
5598:
5594:
5593:Mental health
5591:
5590:
5589:
5586:
5584:
5581:
5579:
5576:
5572:
5569:
5568:
5567:
5564:
5562:
5559:
5557:
5554:
5552:
5549:
5547:
5544:
5542:
5539:
5537:
5534:
5532:
5529:
5525:
5524:United States
5522:
5520:
5517:
5516:
5515:
5512:
5511:
5509:
5505:
5499:
5496:
5494:
5491:
5489:
5486:
5484:
5481:
5479:
5476:
5474:
5471:
5467:
5464:
5463:
5462:
5459:
5458:
5456:
5452:
5446:
5443:
5441:
5438:
5436:
5433:
5431:
5428:
5426:
5423:
5421:
5418:
5416:
5413:
5411:
5408:
5406:
5403:
5399:
5396:
5394:
5391:
5389:
5386:
5384:
5381:
5379:
5378:deoxygenation
5376:
5374:
5373:acidification
5371:
5370:
5369:
5366:
5362:
5359:
5357:
5354:
5353:
5352:
5349:
5345:
5342:
5341:
5340:
5337:
5335:
5332:
5330:
5327:
5325:
5322:
5320:
5317:
5315:
5312:
5310:
5307:
5305:
5302:
5301:
5299:
5295:
5291:
5287:
5282:
5278:
5266:
5263:
5261:
5258:
5256:
5253:
5251:
5248:
5246:
5243:
5241:
5238:
5237:
5235:
5233:
5230:
5228:
5225:
5223:
5220:
5218:
5215:
5213:
5210:
5208:
5205:
5204:
5201:
5194:
5190:
5176:
5173:
5169:
5168:from wetlands
5166:
5164:
5161:
5159:
5156:
5154:
5151:
5149:
5146:
5145:
5144:
5141:
5139:
5136:
5134:
5131:
5129:
5128:Deforestation
5126:
5125:
5123:
5119:
5113:
5110:
5107:
5103:
5100:
5098:
5095:
5094:
5092:
5088:
5084:
5080:
5075:
5071:
5061:
5058:
5056:
5053:
5051:
5048:
5046:
5043:
5041:
5038:
5037:
5034:
5027:
5023:
5019:
5012:
5007:
5005:
5000:
4998:
4993:
4992:
4989:
4982:
4979:
4977:
4974:
4972:
4969:
4967:
4963:
4959:
4958:
4953:
4951:
4948:
4946:
4943:
4941:
4938:
4936:(GEO) series.
4935:
4923:on 2018-12-25
4922:
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3816:on 2012-10-31
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3747:on 2013-01-27
3746:
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3722:on 2017-05-17
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3711:
3710:
3702:
3688:on 2008-08-08
3687:
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3648:www.dailyo.in
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3479:(pdf, 1.3 Mb)
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3449:on 2014-02-22
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3113:on 2012-11-04
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2769:Boulton, G.S.
2765:
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2687:on 2009-02-11
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2518:on 2012-06-23
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2493:on 2017-10-23
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2012:
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1996:
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1816:mountain pass
1813:
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1752:drumlin camps
1749:
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1727:
1723:
1722:Horicon Marsh
1718:
1709:
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1698:glacial drift
1695:
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1596:chatter marks
1593:
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1505:polar deserts
1502:
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1144:basal sliding
1136:
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1033:
1032:marginal rock
1029:
1028:Mount Rainier
1025:
1021:
1016:
1012:
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1005:
1001:
997:
996:fracture zone
993:
985:
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707:
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695:
686:
684:
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679:OH stretching
676:
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664:
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648:
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632:
628:
623:
614:
612:
608:
604:
603:erode its bed
600:
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591:
587:
583:
582:polar glacier
579:
576:Thermally, a
571:
566:
557:
555:
551:
547:
543:
539:
535:
531:
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523:
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517:
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514:Mertz Glacier
511:
507:
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502:
497:
492:
488:
484:
483:
477:
475:
474:
469:
468:
464:is termed an
463:
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321:
317:
313:
312:precipitation
308:
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294:and seasonal
293:
289:
285:
280:
278:
274:
269:
265:
261:
257:
253:
249:
245:
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237:
236:polar regions
233:
228:
226:
222:
218:
214:
210:
206:
202:
198:
192:
138:
130:
103:
97:
89:
85:
80:
73:
69:
65:
60:
53:
48:
44:
40:
33:
19:
7633:Tour skating
7433:Frost flower
7321:
7264:Major phases
7051:Depositional
7041:Zungenbecken
7039:
6970:Glacial lake
6965:Glacial horn
6879:Mass balance
6867:Measurements
6803:Accumulation
6727:Glacier head
6722:Glacier cave
6666:Rock glacier
6601:
6557:
6545:
6533:
6514:
6347:Carbon cycle
6304:Measurements
5999:Society and
5883:carbon sinks
5788:Climate debt
5778:Carbon price
5600:Human rights
5425:Season creep
5383:heat content
5309:Anoxic event
5222:James Hansen
4961:
4955:
4925:. Retrieved
4921:the original
4891:
4872:
4833:
4820:
4790:
4760:
4733:
4706:
4676:
4656:
4627:
4619:Bibliography
4604:. Retrieved
4599:
4589:
4538:
4534:
4528:
4516:. Retrieved
4499:
4490:
4481:
4472:
4461:. Retrieved
4451:
4440:. Retrieved
4423:
4416:
4408:Google Books
4406:– via
4392:
4385:
4369:
4321:
4317:
4306:
4283:
4239:
4235:
4209:
4171:
4129:10852/108771
4103:
4099:
4089:
4082:Huggett 2011
4077:
4066:. Retrieved
4056:
4047:
4041:
4034:Huggett 2011
4029:
4016:
4007:
3966:
3960:
3954:
3921:
3915:
3909:
3902:Huggett 2011
3887:Huggett 2011
3882:
3871:. Retrieved
3861:
3849:. Retrieved
3842:the original
3829:
3818:. Retrieved
3814:the original
3804:
3787:
3781:
3770:. Retrieved
3760:
3749:. Retrieved
3745:the original
3735:
3724:. Retrieved
3717:the original
3708:
3701:
3690:. Retrieved
3686:the original
3679:
3672:
3663:
3652:. Retrieved
3650:. 2023-07-11
3647:
3638:
3627:. Retrieved
3617:
3594:
3588:
3579:
3573:
3529:
3514:
3505:
3494:. Retrieved
3484:
3468:
3462:
3451:. Retrieved
3447:the original
3442:
3433:
3406:
3402:
3392:
3343:
3339:
3287:
3283:
3277:
3250:
3212:
3208:
3140:
3136:
3126:
3115:. Retrieved
3111:the original
3097:
3070:
3060:
3035:
3031:
3007:
3003:
2973:
2941:. Springer.
2938:
2916:. Retrieved
2904:
2870:
2864:
2851:
2840:. Retrieved
2836:the original
2826:
2819:Res. Rep. 70
2818:
2813:
2802:. Retrieved
2792:
2785:Huggett 2011
2780:
2772:
2764:
2737:
2717:. Retrieved
2709:
2700:
2689:. Retrieved
2685:the original
2671:
2630:
2624:
2618:
2610:the original
2601:
2592:
2581:. Retrieved
2579:. 2000-01-31
2572:
2563:
2547:
2531:
2520:. Retrieved
2516:the original
2506:
2495:. Retrieved
2491:the original
2481:
2470:. Retrieved
2460:
2440:
2433:
2396:
2392:
2381:
2370:. Retrieved
2367:www.usgs.gov
2366:
2357:
2349:the original
2344:
2335:
2318:
2307:. Retrieved
2301:
2291:
2272:
2266:
2258:
2252:. Retrieved
2238:
2167:flew by the
2164:New Horizons
2162:
2161:In 2015, as
2160:
2136:
2101:
2099:
2083:
2058:
2042:
2004:
1992:
1922:
1910:
1900:
1886:
1857:valley train
1856:
1849:
1835:
1833:
1808:
1797:
1773:
1751:
1745:
1741:
1737:
1731:
1701:
1697:
1683:
1659:
1653:
1648:Glacial till
1647:
1642:
1638:
1615:
1584:
1576:rock glacier
1572:
1561:
1529:
1497:Banks Island
1490:
1460:
1344:subantarctic
1341:
1311:
1306:Mer de Glace
1282:
1271:
1263:
1256:
1237:
1233:
1230:
1210:
1206:
1173:where τ
1152:shear stress
1141:
1109:
1097:
1077:
1069:
1049:
1045:snow bridges
1037:
995:
989:
968:James Forbes
964:
952:
948:
839:
788:plastic flow
780:
749:
741:
720:
708:
701:
672:
665:
639:accumulation
636:
633:in Argentina
627:glacier cave
610:
598:
594:
589:
581:
577:
575:
519:
518:
499:
486:
480:
478:
471:
465:
457:
453:
449:
442:
440:
391:
380:
369:
367:Vulgar Latin
354:
352:
339:appears blue
336:
309:
304:water source
281:
229:
95:
93:
43:
7803:Pleistocene
7517:Ice-related
7428:Frost heave
7362:Stalactites
7156:Outwash fan
7151:Kettle hole
7035:Valley step
7015:Trough lake
6995:Ribbon lake
6955:Finger lake
6697:Bergschrund
6374:Carbon sink
6352:atmospheric
6217:video games
5891:Blue carbon
5514:Agriculture
5493:Marine life
5440:Water cycle
5398:temperature
5133:Fossil fuel
4884:Moon, Twila
4606:January 24,
4242:(1): 5177.
4172:climate.gov
2273:Glacier ice
2144:sublimation
2095:Great Lakes
2091:Scandinavia
1800:tributaries
1678:Lake Louise
1578:, like the
1487:, Argentina
1404:Mount Kenya
1396:Puncak Jaya
1374:glacier in
1336:Fox Glacier
1225:Lake Vostok
1041:bergschrund
611:polythermal
536:in Canada,
506:ice shelves
501:ice streams
496:ice shelves
320:cloud cover
284:fresh water
248:New Zealand
64:Ötztal Alps
7892:Glaciology
7886:Categories
7849:Wiktionary
7793:Glaciology
7748:Other uses
7618:Ice racing
7613:Ice hockey
7588:Iceboating
7519:activities
7290:Formations
7281:Superionic
7183:Glaciology
7166:Urstromtal
7146:Kame delta
7098:Till plain
6895:Jökulhlaup
6853:Starvation
6732:Ice divide
6646:Ice stream
6406:Cryosphere
6367:permafrost
6139:Resilience
6091:Adaptation
6066:Litigation
6056:Governance
6001:adaptation
5783:Carbon tax
5736:Mitigation
5673:Antarctica
5561:Disability
4927:2014-11-10
4709:. Arnold.
4548:1903.05571
4518:24 January
4463:2013-01-04
4442:2013-01-04
4068:2009-03-12
3873:2013-01-04
3820:2013-01-04
3772:2013-01-04
3751:2013-01-04
3726:2009-01-05
3692:2013-01-04
3654:2024-07-03
3629:2013-01-04
3496:2013-01-04
3453:2014-02-06
3439:"Glaciers"
3168:2164/10495
3117:2009-01-05
3038:(6): 343.
3010:(6): 365.
2918:2013-01-04
2842:2009-01-05
2804:2013-01-04
2719:2017-08-12
2691:2009-01-26
2583:2009-01-05
2522:2013-01-04
2497:2009-01-05
2472:2017-03-13
2372:2021-05-25
2309:2020-06-09
2303:Al Jazeera
2254:2020-09-04
2217:References
2019:cryosphere
1984:ice sheets
1889:stratified
1587:rock flour
1515:, lowland
1509:Quaternary
1499:, and the
1495:, such as
1474:snow lines
1471:insolation
1378:Mountain,
1366:, and the
1238:sheet flow
1199:and τ
1148:lubricated
1101:stoss side
730:ice lenses
570:Grant Land
540:, and the
510:ice tongue
482:ice sheets
408:cryosphere
404:glaciology
400:glaciation
378:Late Latin
372:glaciārium
273:Antarctica
260:New Guinea
232:ice sheets
72:Wildspitze
7876:Mountains
7560:Sculpture
7376:Phenomena
6928:Erosional
6920:Landforms
6791:Processes
6772:Randkluft
6767:Penitente
6712:Dirt cone
6641:Ice shelf
6636:Ice sheet
6631:Ice field
6421:Feedbacks
6192:Education
5693:Caribbean
5688:Australia
5615:Migration
5578:Fisheries
5519:Livestock
5445:Wildfires
5351:Heat wave
4632:Routledge
4346:1748-9326
4146:255441012
4017:nsidc.org
3946:0091-7613
3869:. Wku.edu
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1533:hyperarid
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1463:latitudes
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1321:Geography
1234:pipe flow
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1020:crevasses
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365:, to the
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288:temperate
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201:centuries
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7897:Glaciers
7827:Category
7785:Ice ages
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7719:Icehouse
7545:Climbing
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7535:Blasting
7453:Hair ice
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7188:Category
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7030:U-valley
6874:Ice core
6843:Plucking
6798:Ablation
6782:Terminus
6707:Crevasse
6702:Blue ice
6602:Glaciers
6547:Glossary
6535:Category
6357:biologic
6071:Politics
5963:Personal
5668:Americas
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6680:Anatomy
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